Dr. Vahab Toufigh PhD., P.E.

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 Load Types
The following is a brief definition for reach load type along with a short discussion
about the natures of the loads. Understanding the natures of the loads will help you
to understand the choice of load factors. You are strongly encouraged to study the
definitions more fully in ASCE 7 and other relevant references:
 Dead Load, D
 The dead load on a structure includes the weight of all items that are attached to the
structure and are likely to remain in the as-built location throughout the life of the
structure. Beams, columns, floor slabs, exterior walls, roofs, mechanical equipment, and
the like are all considered to be dead load on a structure. Inanimate objects that are not
physically connected to the structure and/or may be moved around during the life of the
structure are not considered to be dead loads. For example: tables, chairs, desks, file
cabinets, shelves, and the like are not normally included in dead load estimates. Dead
loads can be computed accurately with a relatively high degree of confidence.
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 Live Load, L
 Live load includes anything that can possibly be moved in or out of the structure over the
course of its life. This includes people, furniture, equipment, and other similar
items. Predicting the live load that a structure will see is highly dependent on the use, or
that the structure will be put to.
 Roof Live Load, Lr
 Roof live load is generally associated with the loads that the roof structure will see during
construction and later during maintenance (i.e. during reroofing). These loads are of
short duration and generally much smaller than normal live loads since it is not expected
that roofs will see the types of loads that floors see.

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 Snow Load, S
 Snow loads occur in colder climates and are of varying duration. Snow, unlike live load,
is considered to everywhere present at a given time. The magnitude of snow load is
highly dependent on local weather patterns, terrain, and latitude. Snow drifting must
also be considered when snow loads are present.
 The nature of snow load it is as predictable as mother nature! Where there are extensive
records, the design snow load can be statistically determined, however, it is not
uncommon to have unusual snow events in cold regions that may exceed the design
values.
 In cold regions, snow load values may be in excess of roof live loads, making roof live
loads irrelevant as a design consideration.

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 Rain and Ice, R
 Rain and/or ice loads are similar to snow loads in their predictability. As noted in ASCE 7
and the SCM, R is exclusive of ponding. Ponding loads are more predictable and are
treated separately.
 Wind Load, W
 Wind load is a very dynamic event for which static approximations can be made. The
approximate methods for determining wind load ASCE 7 are generally considered to be
conservative for a given predicted wind speed, however wind speed is a difficult thing to
predict. The probability of exceedance is relatively high.

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 Earthquake (or Seismic) Load, E
 Earthquake forces are generated by very dynamic events. For certain types of structures
a static equivalent method may be used to estimate the forces applied to the
structure. For more complex structures numerical methods that solve the dynamic
problem must be used.
 Earthquake loads are unique in that they are the only load that we compute at ultimate
strength levels. All others are computed as service (or actual) strength levels. The actual
forces generated in structures by earthquakes are so large that it is not normally
financially feasible to design building structures to elastically withstand them. As a
result, there are detailed requirements to ensure structures are ductile enough that they
are not likely to collapse during an earthquake, thus allowing the occupants to
escape. Since ductile behavior is expected, the loads computed are computed at the
strength level of the structure

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 Because various loads may act on a structure simultaneously, load
combinations should be evaluated to determine the most severe
conditions for design. These load combinations vary from one
document to another, depending upon the jurisdiction. There are a
set of combinations for the allowable stress design and another set
that incorporates load factors for strength design. Paragraphs below
provide these load combinations.
 Load Combinations are a critical aspect of design. It is important to
ensure you are correctly applying the relevant design load
combinations to ensure the minimum design requirements of your
local design code are being met.
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 The goal of allowable stress design is to proportion the structure so
that it can resist the loads that are expected to occur during the life
of the structure while maintaining a factor of safety against inelastic
behavior. For reinforced masonry, cracking of the masonry under
tension is allowed because the masonry is not relied upon to resist
tension. While each one of the loads may be expected to occur
during the life of the structure, it is less likely that these loads will
occur simultaneously. The load combinations below have been
determined to account for the likelihood of the various loads
occurring simultaneously.

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 "Basic load combinations" for allowable stress design (working
stress design) are given in ASCE 7-16 as follows:
1. Dead load plus lateral fluid pressures, [D + F],
2. Dead load plus hydrostatic lateral soil plus lateral fluid pressures plus
live load, [D + H + F + L],
3. Dead load plus hydrostatic lateral soil plus lateral fluid pressures plus
either roof live load, or snow load, or rain load, [D + H + F + (Lr or S or
R)],
4. Dead load plus hydrostatic lateral soil plus lateral fluid pressures plus
0.75 times live load plus 0.75 times either roof live load, or snow load,
or rain load [D + H + F + 0.75(L) + 0.75(Lr or S or R)],
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5. Dead load plus hydrostatic lateral soil plus lateral fluid pressures plus
(0.6 times wind load or 0.7 times earthquake load) [D + H + F + (0.6W
or 0.7E)],
6. Dead load plus hydrostatic lateral soil plus lateral fluid pressures plus
0.75 times (0.6 times wind load or 0.7 times earthquake load) plus 0.75
times live load plus 0.75 times (either roof live load or snow load, or
rain load) [D + H + F + 0.75(0.6W or 0.7E) + 0.75L + 0.75(Lr or S or R)],
7. 0.6 times dead load plus 0.6 times wind load plus hydrostatic lateral
soil [0.6D + 0.6W + H], (applicable for overturning and sliding check),
8. 0.6 times (dead load plus lateral fluid pressures) plus 0.7 times
earthquake load plus hydrostatic lateral soil [0.6(D + F) + 0.7E + H],
(applicable for overturning and sliding check).
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 The goal of strength design is to proportion the structure so that it
can resist rarely occurring loads without reaching a limit or failure
state. “Rarely occurring” is understood to be a load that has about a
10% chance of occurring within the 50 year life of a typical structure.
 Since most of the loads prescribed by the building code are
expected to occur during the life of the structure, these actual or
specified code loads are increased by prescribed load factors to
determine the rarely occurring, ultimate load for which failure is to
be avoided.

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 The load factors used in the strength design load combinations have been
determined to account for the following: Deviations of the actual loads from
the prescribed loads. Uncertainties in the analysis and distribution of
forces that create the load effects. The probability that more than one
extreme load effect will occur simultaneously:

1. 1.4 times (dead load plus lateral fluid pressures), [1.4(D + F)],
2. 1.2 times (dead load plus lateral fluid pressures) plus 1.6 times (live load
plus hydrostatic lateral soil) plus 0.5 times either roof live load, or snow
load, or rain load, [1.2(D + F) +1.6(L + H) + 0.5(Lr or S or R)],

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3. 1.2 times (dead load plus lateral fluid pressures) plus 1.6 times either
roof live load, or snow load, or rain load plus 1.6 times the hydrostatic
soil load plus either factor 1.0 times the live load or 0.5 times the wind
load, [1.2(D + F) + 1.6(Lr or S or R) + 1.6H + (1.0L or 0.5W],
4. 1.2 times (dead load plus lateral fluid pressures) plus wind load plus
factor 1.0 times the live load plus 1.6 times the hydrostatic soil load plus
0.5 times either roof live load, or snow load, or rain load, [1.2(D + F) +
1.0W + 1.0L + 1.6H + 0.5(Lr or S or R)],
 The load factor on L in combinations 3 and 4 is permitted to equal 0.5 for all occupancies
in which Lo is less than or equal to 100 psf (4.78 kN/sq m), with the exception of garages
or areas occupied as places of public assembly.

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5. 1.2 times (dead load plus lateral fluid pressures) plus earthquake
load plus factor 1.0 times the live load plus 1.6 times the
hydrostatic soil load plus 0.2 times the snow load, [1.2(D + F) +
1.0E + 1.0L + 1.6H + 0.2S],
6. 0.9 times (dead load plus lateral fluid pressure) plus wind load
plus 1.6 times hydrostatic lateral soil [0.9(D + F) + 1.0W + 1.6H],
(applicable for overturning and sliding check),
7. 0.9 times (dead load plus lateral fluid pressures) plus earthquake
load plus 1.6 times hydrostat, [0.9(D + F) + 1.0E + 1.6H],
(applicable for overturning and sliding check).
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