Ministry of higher education and scientific

research
Erbil polytechnic university
Erbil health technical college
physiotherapy department
first stage
Second semester
Subject: biochemistry
Student’s Gmail: [email protected]
study year 2019-2020

Title of the Scientific Report

biochemistry of hormones

Prepared by:

Shakar Mudrik Omer

 CONTENT

ABSTRACT………………………………………...……………………… 2
INTRODUCTION……………………………...…….……………………. 3
CLASSIFICATION OF HORMONES………………………………….4-5
HORMONE MECHANISM OF ACTION……………………...…...… 5-6
TYPES OF HORMONES……………………………………………..…6-7
HORMONE RECEPTOR……………………………………….………8-9

TYPES OF ENDOCRINE DISORDERS………………………….9-10-11

GROWTH HORMONE DEFICIENCY……………………………11-12

WHAT IS A HORMONAL IMBALANCE……………………………12

SYMPTOM OF A HORMON IMBALANCE………………………12-13

SUMMURY……………………………………………………………… 14
REFERENCES…………………………………………………………… 15

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BSTRACT
Hormones-biologically active substances, which released in to the blood by the endocrine glands and
humoral way (through blood, lymph, saliva, cerebrospinal fluid) the regulate metabolism and
physiological processes. hormones, as universal regulators of the body functioning, play an important
role in the maintenance of homeostasis. They influence on all essential life process, such as: growth,
metabolism, development immune defense, reproduction, behavior and adaptation to the conditions of
existence.

the hormonal effects on metabolic processes of target cell are realized through interaction with specific
receptors. depending on the localization of these receptors’ different mechanisms of action of hormones
are presented.

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INTRODUCTION
Hormone, organic substance secreted by plants and animals that functions in the regulation of
physiological activities and in maintaining homeostasis. Hormones carry out their functions by evoking
responses from specific organs or tissues that are adapted to react to minute quantities of them. The
classical view of hormones is that they are transmitted to their targets in the bloodstream after discharge
from the glands that secrete them. This mode of discharge (directly into the bloodstream) is
called endocrine secretion. The meaning of the term hormone has been extended beyond the original
definition of a blood-borne secretion, however, to include similar regulatory substances that are
distributed by diffusion across cell membranes instead of by a blood system.

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 ❖ Classification of hormones: Hormones are classified according to:

1. their site of synthesis / their site of action,

2. their chemical structure,

3. their degree of solubility in aqueous medium

1. Classification of hormones according to the proximity of site of synthesis to site of

action Hormones can be classified into 5 groups:

•Autocrine Hormones: which act on the same cells that synthesized from;

•Paracrine Hormones: those which are synthesized very close to their site of action

•Endocrine Hormones: hormones are synthesized by endocrine glands and moved via the blood to the
target cells that contain the appropriate receptors for this type of hormones;

• Exocrine hormones: secreted into a duct MMor tube not the blood;

• Merocrine Hormones: hormones secreted from neurons into the blood

2. Classification of hormones according to their chemical structure

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3-Classification of hormones according to solubility in aqueous medium

❖ hormone mechanism of action

The glands of the endocrine system secrete hormones directly into the extracellular environment. The
hormones then diffuse to the bloodstream via capillaries and are transported to the target cells through
the circulatory system. This allows hormones to affect tissues and organs far from the site of production
or to apply systemic effects to the whole body. Hormone-producing cells are typically specialized and
reside within a particular endocrine gland, such as thyrocytes in the thyroid gland. Hormones exit their
cell of origin through the process of exocytosis or by other means of membrane transport. Cellular
recipients of a particular hormonal signal may be one of several cell types that reside within a number of
different tissues. This is so in the case of insulin, which triggers a diverse range of systemic physiological
effects. Different tissue types may also respond differently to the same hormonal signal. As a result,
hormonal signaling is elaborate and hard to dissect. Hormones activate target cells by diffusing through
the plasma membrane of the target cells (lipid-soluble hormones) to bind a receptor protein within the
cytoplasm of the cell, or by binding a specific receptor protein in the cell membrane of the target cell
(water-soluble proteins). In both cases, the hormone complex will activate a chain of molecular events
within the cell that will result in the activation of gene expression in the nucleus. The reaction of the

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target cells may then be recognized by the
original hormone-producing cells,
leading to a down-regulation in hormone
production. This is an example of a
homeostatic negative feedback loop.

❖ Types of hormones

The three types of hormones are

1. steroid hormones,
2. peptide hormones and
3. amino acid derivatives

1-Steroid hormones are well known both physiologically and clinically as regulators of diverse
biological responses, including profound effects on cellular metabolism, development, and physiology.
The steroid hormones are the estrogens (female sex steroids), androgens (male sex
steroids), progestins, mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and vitamin D with its daughter metabolites.
All these different steroid hormones are synthesized from the common precursor, cholesterol, and
structurally differ only in the pattern of chemical bonds within the rings and modifications on the side
chain. The exquisite specificity of physiological
effects that these steroid hormones evoke is
mediated by high-affinity intracellular receptor
proteins that are exclusively localized in the specific
target tissues for each steroid hormone. Specific
interaction of the hormone–receptor
complex with DNA sequences of the hormone-
responsive gene(s) results in the tissue-specific
expression of proteins which either directly or
indirectly generate the biological responses
attributable to the steroid hormones.

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2-Peptide Hormones

Peptide hormones consist of short chains of

amino acids, such as vasopressin, that are
secreted by the pituitary gland and regulate
osmotic balance; or long chains, such as
insulin, that are secreted by the pancreas,
which regulates glucose metabolism. Some
peptide hormones contain carbohydrate side
chains and are termed glycol -proteins, such
as the follicle-stimulating hormone. All
peptide hormones are hydrophilic and are
therefore unable to cross the plasma
membrane alone.

3-Amino Acid-Derived
Hormones

The amino acid-derived hormones are

relatively small molecules that are
derived from the amino acid’s tyrosine
and tryptophan, shown in. If a hormone
is amino acid-derived, its chemical name
will end in “-ine”. Examples of amino
acid-derived hormones include
epinephrine and norepinephrine, which
are synthesized in the medulla of the
adrenal glands, and thyroxine, which is
produced by the thyroid gland. The pineal gland in the brain makes and secretes melatonin which
regulates sleep cycles.

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 ❖ Hormone receptor

A hormone receptor is a molecule that binds to a specific hormone. Receptors for peptide hormones tend
to be found on the plasma membrane of cells, whereas receptors for lipid-soluble hormones are usually
found within the cytoplasm. Upon hormone binding, the receptor can initiate multiple signaling pathways
that ultimately lead to changes in the behavior of the target cells. The hormone activity within a target
cell is dependent on the effective concentration of hormone-receptor complexes that are formed. The
number of these complexes is in turn regulated by the number of hormone or receptor molecules
available, and the binding affinity between hormone and receptor.

➢ Lipophobic Hormones

Many hormones are composed of polypeptides—such as thyroid -stimulating hormones, follicle-

stimulating hormones, luteinizing hormones, and insulin. These molecules are not lipid-soluble and
therefore cannot diffuse through cell membranes. The receptors for these hormones need to be localized
to the cells’ plasma membranes. Following an interaction with the hormones, a cascade of secondary
effects within the cytoplasm of the cell is triggered, often involving the addition or removal of phosphate
groups to cytoplasmic proteins, changes in ion channel permeability, or an increase in the concentrations
of intracellular molecules that may act as secondary messengers, such as cyclic AMP.

Lipophilic Hormones

Lipophilic hormones—such as steroid or thyroid hormones—are able to pass through the cell and nuclear
membrane; therefore, receptors for these hormones do not need to be, although they sometimes are,
located in the cell membrane. The majority of lipophilic hormone receptors are transcription factors that
are either located in the cytosol and move to the cell nucleus upon activation, or remain in the nucleus
waiting for the steroid hormone to enter and activate them.
Upon binding by the hormone the receptor undergoes a conformational change, and the receptor together
with the bound hormone influence transcription, either alone or in association with other transcription
factors.

Example hormone receptor: The thyroid hormone receptor (TR) heterodimerized to the RXR. In
the absence of a ligand, the TR is bound to a corepressor protein. Ligand binding to the TR causes a
dissociation of co-repressor and recruitment of co-activator proteins, which in turn recruit additional

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 proteins
(such as
RNA

polymerase) that are responsible for the transcription of downstream DNA into RNA, and eventually into
protein that results in a change in cell function.

❖ TYPES OF ENDOCRINE DISORDERS

Endocrinology is the branch of medicine that focuses on endocrine glands and hormones in the body.
Hormones regulate many bodily functions; however, when a hormone imbalance occurs, it can have a
variety of effects on the body. The Diabetes Center & Endocrinology Clinic at UI Health offers
comprehensive services and treatments for patients that suffer from hormonal imbalances and endocrine
disorders, we provide treatment options for many types of metabolic and endocrine disorders, including.

➢ Adrenal Insufficiency
Adrenal glands, located on top of the kidneys, produce various hormones. Adrenal insufficiency occurs
when the adrenal glands do not produce sufficient amounts of steroid hormones — primarily cortisol,
which regulates sodium conservation, potassium secretion, and water retention

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 ➢ Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH)
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is a group of inherited genetic disorders that affect the adrenal
glands. A person with CAH lacks one of the enzymes the adrenal glands use to produce hormones that
help regulate metabolism, the immune system, blood pressure, and other essential functions.

➢ Hyperaldosteronism
Hyperaldosteronism is a disease where the adrenal glands make too much aldosterone, a hormone that
stimulates absorption of sodium by the kidneys and helps to regulate water and salt balance in the body.
When too much aldosterone is produced, this leads to hypertension (high blood pressure) and low blood
potassium levels.

➢ Osteoporosis
Osteoporosis is the deterioration of bone tissue and reduction of bone strength, making bones fragile.
Osteoporosis makes the wrist, hip, spine and other parts of the skeleton vulnerable to fractures. Falls in
people with osteoporosis can lead to serious health consequences.

➢ Pituitary Disorders
Pituitary tumors are abnormal growths that develop in your pituitary gland. Some pituitary tumors result
in too many of the hormones that regulate important functions of the body; others can cause the pituitary
gland to produce lower levels of hormones. Most pituitary tumors are noncancerous (benign) growths
(adenomas). Adenomas remain in your pituitary gland or surrounding tissues and don't spread to other
parts of your body.

➢ Thyroid Disorders
The thyroid gland is an endocrine gland that is located in the front of the neck. This gland produces
thyroid hormones that primarily influence the body's metabolism and protein synthesis. Abnormal cell
growth in the thyroid gland can lead to thyroid cancer. The thyroid also can be affected by a variety of
diseases, including:

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 • Hypothyroidism: Hypothyroidism is an underactive thyroid gland, and the thyroid gland
can't make enough thyroid hormone to keep the body running normally. Individuals are
hypothyroid if they have too little thyroid hormone in the blood. Common causes are
autoimmune disease, surgical removal of the thyroid, and radiation treatment.

• Hyperthyroidism: Hyperthyroidism is a condition in which the thyroid gland is overactive

and makes excessive amounts of thyroid hormone. When the thyroid gland is overactive,
the body's processes speed up, and individuals may experience nervousness, anxiety, rapid
heartbeat, hand tremors, excessive sweating, weight loss, and sleep problems, among other
symptoms.

❖ Growth Hormone Deficiency

Human height is regulated by interactions among different factors such as genetic predisposition,
nutritional status, hormonal secretion and environmental factors. Traditionally, short stature has been
defined as a height of two standard deviations (SD) below the mean of sex age and ethnic-matched
healthy controls, and is a frequent reason for referral to pediatric endocrinologists Growth hormone
deficiency (GHD) is a rare but important cause of short stature with a prevalence of approximately of
one in 4000 during childhood Although it is a rare condition; it is important to make a correct diagnosis
in order to promptly start substitutive recombinant human (rh) GH therapy and obtain a normalization of
child growth. In fact, missing a diagnosis will result in poor growth and short stature adults. On the other
hand, a false positive diagnosis will lead to many years of daily subcutaneous injections and significant
unnecessary expenditure

❖ Growth hormone deficiency

Growth hormone deficiency is classically defined as insufficient GH secretion that results in a
decrease in the production of GH-dependent hormones and growth factors, such as insulin-
like growth factor-I (IGF-I), IGF-II and their binding proteins (IGFBPs)
Growth hormone deficiency may be isolated or combined with another pituitary hormone
deficiencies (CPHD, combined pituitary hormone deficiency) and may be congenital or
acquired Acquired GHD may be secondary to hypothalamic-pituitary damage at birth or
intracranial neoplasm (i.e. craniopharyngioma), infiltrative diseases (i.e. Langerhans cell
histiocytosis), infections (i.e. tuberculosis, HIV), trauma, cranial or total body irradiation (TBI)
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and chemotherapy.
In most cases, GHD is idiopathic and only in 20% of patients an organic cause is identified.
Among idiopathic cases, abnormalities in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of hypothalamic-
pituitary region are frequent (pituitary hypoplasia, lack of pituitary stalk, ectopic posterior
pituitary) In some cases of GHD, an autoimmune origin may be hypothesized based on
the detection of circulating anti-pituitary antibodies directed against GH-secreting cells. Anti-
pituitary antibodies have also been detected in some patients with idiopathic short stature,
who subsequently showed impaired GH secretion suggestive of a particular type of acquired?
GHD
What is a hormonal imbalance?

When you have a hormonal imbalance, you have too much or too little of a certain hormone. Even tiny
changes can have serious effects throughout your whole body. Think of hormones like a cake recipe. Too
much or too little of any one ingredient affects the final product. While some hormone levels fluctuate
throughout your lifetime and may just be the result of natural aging, other changes occur when your
endocrine glands get the recipe wrong.

❖ Symptoms of a hormonal imbalance

Your hormones play an integral role in your overall health. Because of that, there’s a broad range of
symptoms that could signal a hormonal imbalance. Your symptoms will depend on which hormones or
glands aren’t working properly.

Common hormonal conditions affecting both men and women could cause any of the following
symptoms:

• weight gain

• fatigue

• increased sensitivity to cold or heat

• constipation or more frequent bowel movements

• dry skin

• puffy face
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• unexplained weight loss (sometimes sudden)

• increased or decreased heart rate

• muscle weakness

• frequent urination

• increased thirst

• muscle aches, tenderness, and stiffness

• pain, stiffness, or swelling in your joints

• thinning hair or fine, brittle hair

• increased hunger
• depression
• decreased sex drive
• nervousness, anxiety, or irritability
• blurred vision
• sweating
• infertility
• a fatty hump between the shoulders
• rounded face

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SUMMURY

Hormone: A chemical substance produced in the body that controls and regulates the activity of certain
cells or organs. Many hormones are secreted by special glands, such as thyroid hormone produced by
the thyroid gland. Hormones are essential for every activity of life, including the processes of digestion,
metabolism, growth, reproduction, and mood control. Many hormones, such as neurotransmitters, are
active in more than one physical process.

Hormones can be grouped into three main types:

1. amines, these are simple molecules

2. proteins and peptides which are made from chains of amino acids
3. steroids which are derived from cholesterol.

The endocrine system is a network of glands that produce and release hormones that help control many
important body functions, including the body's ability to change calories into energy that powers cells
and organs. The endocrine system influences how your heart beats, how your bones and tissues grow,
even your ability to make a baby. It plays a vital role in whether or not you develop diabetes, thyroid
disease, growth disorders, sexual dysfunction, and a host of other hormone-related disorders. When you
have a hormonal imbalance, you have too much or too little of a certain hormone. Even tiny changes can
have serious effects throughout your whole body. Think of hormones like a cake recipe. Too much or
too little of any one ingredient affects the final product. While some hormone levels fluctuate throughout
your lifetime and may just be the result of natural aging, other changes occur when your endocrine glands
get the recipe wrong

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REFERENCES

1. https://www.britannica.com/science/hormone

2. https://uomustansiriyah.edu.iq/media/lectures/6/6_2019_05_12!12_02_33_AM.pdf

3. https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Anatomy_and_Physiology/Book%3A_Anatomy_and_Physiolog

y_(Boundless)/15%3A_Endocrine_System/15.2%3A_Hormones/15.2A%3A_Mechanisms_of_Hormone_

Action

4. https://ib.bioninja.com.au/standard-level/topic-6-human-physiology/66-hormones-homeostasis-

and/types-of-hormones.html

5. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/steroid-hormones

6. https://opentextbc.ca/biology/wp-content/uploads/sites/96/2015/03/Figure_37_01_02ab.jpg

7. https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Anatomy_and_Physiology/Book%3A_Anatomy_and_Physiolog

y_(Boundless)/15%3A_Endocrine_System/15.2%3A_Hormones/15.2B%3A_Hormone_Receptors

8. https://hospital.uillinois.edu/primary-and-specialty-care/diabetes-and-endocrinology/endocrine-

disorders

9. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309012382_Growth_Hormone_Deficiency_Diagnosis_and_

Therapy_in_Children

10. https://www.healthline.com/health/hormonal-imbalance#symptoms

11. https://www.webmd.com/diabetes/endocrine-system-disorders

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