ENGINEERING FLUID MECHANICS

Course Code: MENG 1011

Course Title: Engineering Fluid Mechanics
Course Level: One (1)
Semester: Two
Course Status: Core
Credits: 2
Course Description
This course is a core/compulsory Level-1 subject of the BSc Programme in Mechanical
Engineering. In the course you will cover: definition of a fluid, properties of fluids,
fundamental fluid-related concepts, fluid statics, manometers, forces on plane and curved
surfaces submerged in static fluid. Fluid flow: Classifications, Bernoulli’s equation, flow
measurement. Momentum theorem: forces on stationary and moving vanes. Open channel
flow, Frictional losses in pipes, orifices, and pipe fittings, Dimensional Analysis and Pump
analysis.
Purpose of the Course
Understanding Fluid Mechanics is an integral part of the education of all Mechanical
engineers. It is a foundation course, essential to the understanding of many other courses
such as Advanced Thermodynamics, Heat Transfer, Power Plant Engineering, Air-
conditioning, and Energy Engineering.

Instructor information
Examiner: Dr. Adeyanju Anthony Ademola
Office Hours
Monday: 8.00am - 12.00 noon
Tuesday: 8.00am - 12.00 noon
Wednesday: 8.00am - 12.00 noon
Thursday: 8.00am - 12.00 noon

Office – Block 1, Rm 231 Mechanical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering.

E-mail: [email protected]
myeLearning Course Website: http://myelearning.sta.uwi.edu
Course Assessment
If and only if students attend at least 75% of lectures, the following assessment
system will be applied:

Weight
Course LO CLO1 CLO2 CLO3 CLO4

Lab-based Coursework  10%

In-course Test  10%
Final Examination   80%

Resources
1. Recommended Text(s):
(i) Essential Text:
Munson, Bruce Roy, Donald F. Young, Theodore H. Okiishi, Wade W.
Huebsch “Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics”, Wiley, 2009.
(i) Class Notes: The lecture note used in class can be downloaded from:
Myelearning: (http://myelearning.sta.uwi.edu/login/index.php)
Additional Resources: can be obtained from myelearning website above.

Grading System
A+ (90 - 100) = 4.3
A (80 - 89) = 4.0
A- (75 - 79) = 3.7
B+ (70 - 74) = 3.3
B (65 - 69) = 3.0
B- (60-64) = 2.7
C+ (55-59) = 2.3
C (50-54) = 2.0
F1 (40 - 49) = 1.7
F2 (30 - 39) = 1.3
F3 (0 - 29) = 0.0
 CHAPTER 1

FLUIDS MECHANICS AND FLUID PROPERTIES

What is fluid mechanics?

 Fluid Mechanics is the branch of applied mechanics concerned with the statics
and dynamics of fluids (i.e. liquids and gases).

 The analysis of the behaviour of fluids is based on the fundamental laws

of mechanics which relate continuity of mass and energy with force and
momentum together with the familiar solid mechanics properties.

Objectives of this section

 (i) Define the nature of a fluid
- e.g. fluid flows under the action of force, fluid cannot resist deformation

 (ii) Show where fluid mechanics concepts are common with those of solid
mechanics and indicate some fundamental areas of difference.

 (iii) Introduce viscosity and show what are Newtonian and non-Newtonian
fluids
- Newtonians fluid obeys the law of viscosity
- Examples of Newtonians fluid – air, water

 (iv) Define the appropriate physical properties and show how these allow
differentiation between solids and fluids as well as between liquids and
gases.
- e.g density, viscosity
SOME APPLICATIONS OF FLUID MECHANICS
Some applications are:
(1) studying the motion of air in order to improve vehicle performance,
particularly when air interacts with solid objects, such as airplane, high speed
bullet trains, racing cars etc.

(2) Designing and analyzing cooling system of engines and other prime movers
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FLUIDS AND SOLIDS

There are two aspects of fluid mechanics which make it different to solid
mechanics:

1. The nature of a fluid is much different to that of a solid

2. In fluids we usually deal with continuous streams of fluid without a beginning

or end. In solids we only consider individual elements.

There are 3 states of matter: solid; liquid and gas.

 However, liquid and gas are both fluids: in contrast to solids.
 Fluid lack the ability to resist deformation.

 Because a fluid cannot resist the deformation force, it moves, it flows under
the action of the force. Its shape will change continuously as long as the
force is applied.

 A solid can resist a deformation force while at rest, this force may cause some
displacement but the solid does not continue to move indefinitely.

 The deformation is caused by shearing forces which act tangentially to a

surface.

FLUID DEFINITION:
• A Fluid is a substance which deforms continuously, or flows, when
subjected to shearing forces.

This definition implies that:

• If a fluid is at rest there are no shearing forces acting.

• All forces must be perpendicular to the planes which they are acting.
 When a fluid is in motion shear stresses are developed if the particles of the fluid move
relative to one another. When this happens adjacent particles have different velocities.

 If fluid velocity is the same at every point then there is no shear stress produced: the
particles have zero relative velocity.

Consider the flow in a pipe in which water is flowing shown in the Figure 1 below:
 At the pipe wall the velocity of the water will be zero.

 The velocity will increase as we move toward the centre of the pipe

 This change in velocity across the direction of flow is known as velocity profile and
shown graphically in Figure 1:

Pipe

Velocity
Profile

Figure 1: Velocity profile in a pipe.

 Because particles of fluid next to each other are moving with different
velocities there are shear forces in the moving fluid i.e. shear forces are
normally present in a moving fluid.

 If a fluid is a long way from the boundary and all the particles are travelling with
the same velocity, the velocity profile would look something like Figure 2 and
there will be no shear forces present as all particles have zero relative velocity.

velocity profile (uniform flow)

Figure 2: Velocity profile in uniform flow

• In practice we are concerned with flow that interacts with solid

boundaries e.g. aircrafts, cars, pipe walls, river channels e.t.c. and shear
forces will be present in such cases.
 1.1 Newton's Law of Viscosity

Consider a 3 dimensional rectangular element of fluid (Figure 3.0).

Deformation (x)

Original
Length
(y) ϕ

Shear strain (ϕ) = deformation

original length

Figure 3: Fluid element under a shear force

The shearing force F acts on the area on the top of the element. This area is given by

A = δz x δx

shear stress which is equal to force per unit area i.e.

The deformation which this shear stress causes is measured by the size of the angle  and is
known as shear strain.

 In a solid, shear strain, , is constant for a fixed shear stress .

 In a fluid,  increases for as long as  is applied - the fluid flows.

 It has been found experimentally that the rate of shear stress (shear stress per unit
time, /time) is directly proportional to the shear strain.
 If the particle at point E (Figure 3) moves under the shear stress to point E' and it takes time
t to get there, it has moved the distance x.
Shear strain = deformation
original length
 For small deformations we can write shear strain:

Where is the velocity of the particle at E

Using the experimental result that shear stress is proportional to rate of shear strain then

The term is the change in velocity with y, or the velocity gradient, and may be written in

the differential form

The constant of proportionality is known as the dynamic viscosity, , of the fluid, giving:

This is known as Newton's law of viscosity.

 1.1.2 Effects of Stress/Strain on Fluids and Solids

 For a solid the strain is a function of the applied stress (providing that the elastic
limit has not been reached). For a fluid, the rate of strain is proportional to
the applied stress.

 The strain in a solid is independent of the time over which the force is applied
and (if the elastic limit is not reached) the deformation disappears when the
force is removed e.g. ice is solid, but when the elastic limit is reached ice will
melt and flows.

 A fluid continues to flow for as long as the force is applied and will not recover
its original form when the force is removed.

 It is usually quite simple to classify substances as either solid or liquid.

 Some substances, however, (e.g. pitch or glass) appear solid under their own
weight.
 Pitch (e.g tar, asphalt, bitumen) will, although appearing solid at room
temperature, deform and spread out over days - rather than the fraction of a
second it would take water.

 when the elastic limit of a solid is reached they seem to flow. They become
plastic.

 They still do not meet the definition of true fluids as they will only flow after a
certain minimum shear stress is attained.
 1.1.3 Newtonian / Non-Newtonian Fluids

 Fluids that obeys Newton's law where the value of  does not change (constant)
are known as Newtonian fluids.
- e.g. air, water, kerosene. petrol, etc.

 If  is constant the shear stress is linearly dependent on velocity gradient.

This is true for most common fluids (τ = du/dy).

 Fluids in which the value of  changes (not constant) are known as

non-Newtonian fluids.
-e.g. ketchup, blood, toothpaste, etc.

 FLUIDS AT HIGH VISCOSITY SUCH AS KETCUP DEFORMS MORE SLOWLY

THAN FLUID AT LOW VISCOSITY SUCH AS WATER

 There are several categories of these, and they are outlined briefly in the next
slide.
Newtonian Fluid
 For Newtonian fluid e.g water, fluid τ
viscosity depend on temperature. As a Newtonian fluid
result, if we look at a plot of shear stress
versus shear rate we can see a linear
increase in shear stress with increasing
shear rates.
du/dy
 This mean that viscosity will remain
constant no matter how fast water is
forced to flow through a pipe or channel
(i.e viscosity is independent of rate of
shear).

 An exception to the rule is Bingham

plastics which are fluids that require a
minimum stress to be applied before they
flow. These are strictly non Newtonian but
once the flow starts they behave
essentially as Newtonian fluids e.g. sewage
sludge.

Shear thickening
Non-Newtonian Fluid e.g mixture
 Most fluids are non-Newtonian which viscosity cornstarch +
means that their viscosity is dependent on water
shear rate (shear thinning or thickening).
Newtonian fluid
 A fluid is shear thickening if the viscosity
of the fluid increases as the shear rate Shear thinning
increases e.g. mixture of corn starch and e.g ketchup
water.

 A fluid is shear thinning if the viscosity Rate of shear (du/dy)

decreases as the shear rate increases e.g.
blood, ketchup, paints.

 Shear thinning fluids are also known as

pseudo plastics
 These categories are based on the relationship between shear stress and the
velocity gradient (rate of shear strain) in the fluid.

Each of these lines can be represented by the equation

where A, B and n are constants. For Newtonian fluids A = 0, B =  and n = 1.

Below are brief description of the physical properties of the several categories:

 Plastic: Shear stress must reach a certain minimum before flow commences.

 Bingham plastic: As with the plastic above a minimum shear stress must be achieved. With
this classification n = 1. An example is sewage sludge.
 Pseudo-plastic: No minimum shear stress necessary and the viscosity decreases with
rate of shear, e.g. colloidial substances like clay, milk and cement.
 Dilatant substances; Viscosity increases with rate of shear e.g. quicksand.

 Thixotropic substances: Viscosity decreases with length of time shear force is applied
e.g. thixotropic jelly paints.
 Rheopectic substances: Viscosity increases with length of time shear force is applied

 Viscoelastic materials: Similar to Newtonian but if there is a sudden large change in shear
they behave like plastic.
 There is also one more - which is not real, it does not exist - known as the ideal fluid.
 Ideal fluid is assumed to have no viscosity.
Example 1:

A 60-cm-wide belt moves as shown.

Calculate the horsepower requirement assuming a linear velocity profile in
the 10oC water.

Solution:
Belt width = 60 cm = 0.6m
Belt length = 4m
Velocity of water = 10m/s
dy = 2mm

du/dy = 10*1000/2 = 5000 s-1

 for 10oC water = 1.308 x 10-3 N.s/m2

 = . du/dy = 5000*1.308 x 10-3 N/m2

F = .A = 5000*1.308 x 10-3 *4*0.6N

Power = F.U
= 5000*1.308 x 10-3 *4*0.6*10 Nm/s
= 0.21 Hp
Example 2:
A 1.2 m long, 2 cm diameter shaft rotates inside an equally long cylinder
that is 2.06 cm in diameter. Calculate the torque required to rotate the
inner shaft at 2000 rpm if SAE-30 oil at 20oC fills the gap. Also,
calculate the horsepower required. Assume symmetric motion.

Solultion:

r = 1cm = 0.01m
N = 2000 rpm

 = 2πN/60 = 2(3.142)2000/60 = 209.5 rad/s

du = r - 0 = 209.5 * 0.01 = 2.095 m/s

dr = 0.06/2 = 0.03 cm
= 0.03 x 10-2 m (since motion is symmetric)

du/dr = 2.095/0.03x10-2 = 6982.22 s-1

 for SAE-30 oil at 20oC = 0.4 N.s/m2

 = . du/dr = 0.4* 6982.22 = 2792.89 N/m2

F = .A = 2πrL = πdL = 2792.89 *3.142*2 x 10-2 *1.2 = 210.61 N

T = r . F = 0.01* 210.61 = 2.1061 Nm

Power = T.  = 2.1061 * 209.5 Nm/s = 441.15 watt = 0.6 Hp

Example 3:
A 25-cm-diameter horizontal disk rotates a distance of 2 mm above a solid
surface. Water at 10oC fills the gap. Estimate the torque required to
rotate the disk at 400 rpm.

Solution:

N = 400 rpm, h = 0.002 m


 = 2*3.142*400/60 = 41.9 rad/s
dA

 for 10oC water = 1.308 x 10-3 N.s/m2

r
du = r - 0 = r; du/dy = r /h

 = . du/dy = r /h
R
dF = .dA = (r /h)2rdr = 2r2dr/h
dT = rdF = 2r3dr/h

 
R
R
2 3 2 r 4
 4
T  r dr   R
0
h h 4 0 2h

= 3.142*1.308x 10-3 *41.9* 0.1254 /(2*2 x 10-3) = 0.0105 Nm

Power = T.  = 0.0105x41.9 = 0.44 watt

 TUTORIALS - VISCOSITY

 Tutorial #2

 Tutorial #5

 Tutorial #7

 Tutorial #6
 1.2 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

The properties outlines below are general properties of fluids which are
of interest in engineering.
The symbol usually used to represent the property is specified together
with some typical values in SI units for common fluids.

Values under specific conditions (temperature, pressure etc.) can be

readily found in many reference books.

The dimension of each unit is also give in the MLT system (see later in
the section on dimensional analysis for more details about dimensions.)

1. Density
The density of a substance is the quantity of matter contained in a unit
volume of the substance. It can be expressed in 3 different ways.

(i) Mass Density

Mass Density (ρ) is defined as the mass of substance per unit volume.

Units: Kilograms per cubic meter, kg/m3

Dimensions: ML-3

Typical values
Water = 1000 kg/m3 .
Mercury = 13546 kg/m3
Paraffin Oil = 800 kg/m3
Air = 1.23 kg/m3
(at pressure =1.013 X 10-5N/m2 and Temperature = 288.15 K)
(ii) Specific Weight
Specific Weight (specific gravity) is defined as the weight per unit
volume.

or

The force exerted by gravity, g, upon a unit volume of the substance.

The Relationship between g and can be determined by Newton's

2nd Law,

since Weight per unit volume = mass per unit volume x g

Units: Newton's per cubic meter, N/m3

Dimensions:

Typical values:
.
Water = 9814 N/m3

Mercury = 132943 N/m3

Air = 12.07 N/m3

Paraffin Oil = 7851 N/m3

(iii) Relative Density
Relative Density , σ , is defined as the ratio of mass density of a substance
to some standard mass density.
For solids and liquids this standard mass density is the maximum mass
density for water (which occurs at 4oC at atmospheric pressure

Units: None, since a ratio is a pure number.

Dimensions: 1.
Typical values: Water = 1, Mercury = 13.5, Paraffin Oil =0.8.

2. Viscosity
 Viscosity, , is the property of a fluid, due to cohesion and interaction
between molecules, which offers resistance to shear deformation.
 Different fluids deform at different rates under the same shear stress.
 Fluid with a high viscosity such as syrup deforms more slowly than fluid with
a low viscosity such as water.

 All fluids are viscous; "Newtonian Fluids" obey the linear relationship given by
Newton's law of viscosity
 Where τ is the shear stress,

Units = N/m2 or kg/ms2

Dimensions = ML-1T-2

is the velocity gradient or rate of shear strain

µ is the "coefficient of dynamic viscosity"

(i) Coefficient of Dynamic Viscosity

The Coefficient of Dynamic Viscosity, µ, is defined as the shear force per unit
area, or shear stress required to drag one layer of fluid with unit velocity past
another layer a unit distance away.

Units: Newton seconds per square metre, Ns/m2

or Kilograms per meter per second, kg/ms

µ is often expressed in Poise, P, where 10 P = 1 kg/ms = 1 Pascal. seconds

Typical values:
Water =1.14 x 10-3 kg/ms .
Air =1.78 x 10-5 kg/ms
Mercury =1.552 kg/ms
Paraffin Oil =1.9 kg/ms

(ii) Kinematic Viscosity

Kinematic Viscosity, ν , is defined as the ratio of dynamic viscosity to mass density.

Units: square metres per second, m2/s

 is often expressed in Stokes, St, where 104 St = 1 m2/s

Dimensions: L2T-1

Typical values:
Water =1.14 x 10-6 m2/s
Paraffin Oil =2.375 x 10-3 m2/s
Air =1.46 x 10-5 m2/s
Mercury =1.145 x 10-4 m2/s
 Fluid Properties Examples

1. Explain why the viscosity of a liquid decreases while that of a gas increases
with a temperature rise. The following is a table of measurement for a fluid at
constant temperature.
Determine the dynamic viscosity of the fluid.
[4.98 N/m2]
du/dy (rad s-1) 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80
 (N m-2) 0.00 0.01 1.90 3.10 4.00

2. The density of an oil is 850 kg/m3. Find its -3

relative density and Kinematic
viscosity if the dynamic viscosity is 5 x 10 kg/ms.
[0.85, 1.47 x10-6 m2/s]
3. The velocity
2
distribution of a viscous liquid (dynamic viscosity
2
 = 0.9
Ns/m ) flowing over a fixed plate is given by u = 0.68y - y (u is velocity in
m/s and y is the distance from the plate in m)
What are the shear stresses at the plate surface and at y=0.34m?
[0.612 N/m2, 0]
4. 5.6m3 of oil weighs 46 800 N. Find its mass density,  and relative
density, .
[852 kg/m3, 0.852]
4. From table of fluid properties the viscosity 2of water is given as
0.01008 poises. What is this value in Ns/m and Pa s units?
[0.001008 Ns/m2]
6. In a fluid the velocity measured at a distance of 75mm from the boundary is
1.125m/s. The fluid has absolute viscosity 0.048 Pa s and relative density
0.913.
What is the velocity gradient and shear stress at the boundary assuming a linear
velocity distribution?
[15 s-1, 0.720 Pa]
 Fluid Properties Examples - SOLUTION

1. Explain why the viscosity of a liquid decreases while that of a gas increases with a
temperature rise.
The following is a table of measurement for a fluid at constant temperature.
Determine the dynamic viscosity of the fluid.
du/dy (s-1) 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

 (N m-2) 0.0 1.0 1.9 3.1 4.0

Using Newton's law of viscosity

where  is the viscosity. So viscosity is the gradient of a graph of shear stress

against velocity gradient of the above data, or
Calculate the gradient for each section of the line

du/dy (s-1) 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

 (N m-2) 0.0 1.0 1.9 3.1 4.0

Gradient - 5.0 4.75 5.17 5.0

Thus the mean gradient = viscosity = 4.98 N s / m2

2. The density of an oil is 850 kg/m3. Find its relative density and Kinematic
viscosity if the dynamic viscosity is 5  10-3 kg/ms.

oil = 850 kg/m3

water = 1000 kg/m3
oil = 850 / 1000 = 0.85
Dynamic viscosity =  = 5 10-3 kg/ms
Kinematic viscosity =  =  / 

5.88 x 10-6 m2/s

850
3. The velocity distribution of a viscous liquid (dynamic viscosity  = 0.9 Ns/m2)
flowing over a fixed plate is given by u = 0.68y - y2 (u is velocity in m/s and y is
the distance from the plate in m).
What are the shear stresses at the plate surface and at y=0.34m?

At the plate face y = 0m,

Calculate the shear stress at the plate face

At y = 0.34m,

As the velocity gradient is zero at y = 0.34 then the shear stress must also be zero.

4.
5.6m3 of oil weighs 46 800 N. Find its mass density,  and relative density, .

Weight = mg = 46 800
Mass = m = 46 800 / 9.81 = 4770.6 kg

Mass density  = Mass / volume = 4770.6 / 5.6 = 852 kg/m3

Relative density:
5. From table of fluid properties the viscosity of water is given as 0.01008
poises.
What is this value in Ns/m2 and Pa s units?
 = 0.01008 poise

1 poise = 0.1 Pa s = 0.1 Ns/m2

 = 0.001008 Pa s = 0.001008 Ns/m2

6. In a fluid the velocity measured at a distance of 75mm from the boundary is

1.125m/s. The fluid has absolute viscosity 0.048 Pa s and relative density 0.913.
What is the velocity gradient and shear stress at the boundary assuming a
linear velocity distribution?

 = 0.048 Pa s

 = 0.913