World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology

International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences

Vol:5, No:8, 2011

The Concept of Place and Sense of Place In

Architectural Studies
Mina Najafi, Mustafa Kamal Bin Mohd Shariff

Abstract—Place is a where dimension formed by people’s It is also an important aspect in integrating user and place. It
relationship with physical settings, individual and group activities, contributes to better use, satisfaction and attachment to places.
and meanings. ‘Place Attachment’, ‘Place Identity’ and ‘Sense of Reviewed seminal literature reveal that in contemporary
Place’ are some concepts that could describe the quality of people’s
societies due to the growth of human societies, changes in
relationships with a place. The concept of Sense of place is used in
studying human-place bonding, attachment and place meaning. Sense people’s lifestyles and also development of technological
of Place usually is defined as an overarching impression advances places convey no meanings anymore and people
encompassing the general ways in which people feel about places, suffer from a sense of ‘placelessness’. Relph [26] explained
senses it, and assign concepts and values to it. Sense of place is that ‘placelessness’ refers to the settings which do not have
highlighted in this article as one of the prevailing concepts among any distinctive personality or sense of place. Relph [26]
place-based researches. Considering dimensions of sense of place has claimed that when places cannot be culturally recognized, they
always been beneficial for investigating public place attachment and
pro-environmental attitudes towards these places. The creation or suffer from lacking a sense of place; in this case people are
preservation of Sense of place is important in maintaining the quality faced with placelessness. Therefore, Placelessness can be
of the environment as well as the integrity of human life within it. explained as the physical characteristics of nonplace, which is
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While many scholars argued that sense of place is a vague concept, culturally unidentifiable environments that are similar
this paper will summarize and analyze the existing seminal literature. anywhere [31]. In this regard, Relph argued that designers
Therefore, in this paper first the concept of Sense of place and its
who are ignoring the meanings that places bring to people’s
characteristics will be examined afterward the scales of Sense of
place will be reviewed and the factors that contribute to form Sense mind, they try to destroy authentic places and make
of place will be evaluated and finally Place Attachment as an inauthentic ones [8]. In the meantime, scholars discuss that
objective dimension for measuring the sense of place will be since one of the main goals of urban design is creating a sense
described. of place; architects, designers and planners should pay more
attention to the quality of places and built environments.
Keywords—Place, Place Attachment, Sense of place Therefore, nowadays the role of design as a tool to answer
human needs and expectations is more significant. However,
I. INTRODUCTION this paper aims to discuss about the concept of Sense of place

M ANY definitions have been stated for place, but

generally the term ‘place’, as opposed to space,
expresses a strong affective bond between a person and a
and its importance in planning and designing urban spaces.

II. THE PHENOMENOLOGY OF PLACE AND SENSE OF PLACE

particular setting [31]. In other words, place is mixed with The phenomenological literature is the earliest stage for
human values and principles. As a result, place is a particular exploring the nature of people’s relationships with places. In
space which is covered with meanings and values by the users. this realm, phenomenological discussions are an important
Places play an essential and vital role in human life. Each starting since provide a rich theoretical base for study [15]. In
place has its own unique character that is an important issue in contrast to abstractions and mental construction,
social science [8]. The reviewed studies reveal that places not phenomenology is defined as a return to things [10]. In
only are important elements in developing and maintaining architectural studies, Manzo [15] argued that using a
self and group identity but they play a significant role in descriptive and qualitative discovery phenomenology focuses
human behavior and their mental health. Rapoport [24] argued on the meanings and experiences of place. Afterwards, Manzo
that places in addition to physical features include messages [15] explained that in phenomenology of place experience is
and meanings that people perceive and decode based on their the most important element in perception. In this regard, Allen
roles, experiences, expectation and motivations. Therefore, Gussow also asserted that experience is a factor that can
Sense of place is referred to the particular experience of a change every environment to a place. Phenomenology in
person in a particular setting. It is a general way someone feels architecture explores ontological character of humankind and
about a place. Sense of place is an important factor in considers ‘being-in-the-world’ as an indispensable part of
maintaining the quality of the environment. continuation [15]. At this point, the setting is an integral
ontological structure essential for human psychological
M.Najafi. PhD candidate in Department of Landscape, Faculty of Design existence and well-being [40]. Therefore, phenomenologists
and Architecture, University Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor argue that the concept of ‘existential space’ is of central
D.E, Malaysia (phone: +447784266492; e-mail: [email protected]).
M.KAMAL B.M. SHARIFF in Department of Landscape, Faculty of
importance to architecture [31]. In parallel, Norberg-Schulz
Design and Architecture, University Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, [20] defined a place as a result of space in addition to
Selangor D.E, Malaysia (e-mail: [email protected]). character; he explained that changing a space to place is the

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International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences
Vol:5, No:8, 2011

existential purpose of architecture. Therefore, there should be of meanings, symbols, and qualities that a person or group
a conscious effort to discover the meanings that present in the consciously and unconsciously associates with a particular
environment. Norberg-Schulz [20] also hinted to the locality or region” [30]. Shamai [29] argued that sense of
significant role of the architecture as providing physical place can be much more than one’s own personal experience.
attributes to space which facilitate habitation of the users as Most likely it is developed among different generational
well as their mental and physical well being. Therefore, groups. It means that the long-term relationship between place
architecture not only should note to the meanings but it should and people establishes identities and meanings with physical
pay close attention to the physical attributes of the setting [31]. environments that create sense of place. While some scholars
Relph [26] as a phenomenologist defined place as ‘fusions of (e.g. Relph, Pred) argued that long term interaction with place
human and natural order’ he explained that ‘places are the contributes to create sense of place, Tuan [41] explained that it
significant centers of our immediate experiences of the world’. is also possible to create meaning quickly, kind of like love at
Sime [31] argued that for Relph, the important role of place is first sight. Gussow in Relph [26] argued that sense of place
its power to order and to focus on human intentions, has different stages. Gussow explained that the first level of
experience, and behavior spatially. Relph [26] described that sense of place is familiarity with place. This includes being in
place is an interaction of three components i.e. ‘physical the place without realizing its meanings. Many people
setting’, ‘activity’ and ‘meaning’. Relph [26] also explained experience places at this level and their relationships with
that place has different sizes; it can be a small room or a big some places are only via activities. These people do not pay
continent. In dealing with the concept of sense of place, particular attention to the place itself and their experience of
phenomenologists attempted to emphasize the difficulties of place is only superficial. Furthermore, they do not feel that
this phenomenon. In this regard, Relph [26] argued that the they belong to the place and make no attempt at developing
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concept of sense of place is not very clear; he explained that the attachment to place. The second level of sense of place is
we can describe our personal understandings about this described as an ordinary familiarity with place. This level of
concept but we cannot give a precise definition for it. In experience is perceived unconsciously. It is more collective
parallel, Barker [2] defined the sense of place as one of the and cultural rather than personal. In this level of sense of
most intangible concepts and explained that discovering what place, people have deep and strong participation with place.
makes a factual sense of place is a multifaceted study. They will contribute to social activities but pay close attention
Reviewed seminal literature revealed that sense of place for to symbols of place. This level of familiarity is usually
phenomenologists is an emotional connection with place via experienced in familiar and sacred places. The third level of
understanding its symbols and meanings. They explained that sense of place is profound familiarity with place. It involves
one place is a part of an environment that has been the ‘existential insideness’ of a person and is unconsciously
experienced via our senses. Phenomenologists used some experienced. In this level a person is integrated with place.
similar concepts such as ‘Topophilia’, ‘character of place’ and
‘spirit of place’ to explain the concept of sense of place. The III. SENSE OF PLACE IN ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
term of Topophilia which means ‘love of place’ for the first Environmental psychology appeared as a distinctive
time was used by Tuan [39] to describe the existing research area during the last decades [37]. Environmental
remarkable bounds between people and the physical settings. psychologists argue that physical settings play a significant
Tuan [41] defined Topophilia as a strong and impressive role in facilitating the goals and aspirations of their users [37].
relationship between people and places. Spirit of place relates They claim that physical environment have very real,
to the exclusive aspects of a place. Relph [26] explained that immediate or long term impacts on human behavior and their
sense of place, which is the ability to recognize places and mental and physical health [17]. According to environmental
their identities can be created and develop through long-time psychologists, architects and designers should consider both
connections between users and places. Sense of place is an emotional and functional qualities of places. In this regard,
important issue that can strengthen the relationship between they elaborated that the purpose of designing places not only
human and place. It can be influenced by personal and is facilitating of everyday activities but providing symbolic
collective’s values, beliefs, and behaviors. Canter [3] argued and affective qualities are very important to attract more
that in fact people’s willingness to contribute to social people to places. The overall quality of environments is
activities have been attributed to the strength of the sense of measured in terms of the richness of their psychological and
place. In parallel, Steele [35] advocated the significant role of socio-cultural meaning as well as in relation to physical
sense of place in people’s relationships with place and asserted comfort, safety, and performance criteria [38]. Environmental
that it endows to place the feeling of security and pleasure and psychologists also argue that the experience of place is one of
causes the attachment to place. Reviewed literature reveal that the most important factors in sense of place. In this case, Steel
people are interested to care those places which have strong [35] defines sense of place as a particular experience of a
sense of place for them. Relph [26] asserted that symbols, person in a particular setting. He argued that feelings like
traditions, myths, and ritual assist in reinforcement the sense stimulated, excited, joyous and expansive are examples of this
of place. Peterson and Saarinen [21] also claimed that local experience. Steel [35] asserted that the spirit of a place or
symbols reflect and enhance Sense of place. In parallel, Datel personality of place make up the sense of place. A place is not
and Dingemans defined Sense of place as “the complex bundle just an object, but part of a larger whole that is being felt

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through the actual experience of meaningful events. The are respected.

experience is felt through all the senses (sight, hearing, smell, 3. Attachment to a place: people have a strong emotional
taste, and touch), and the place experience is in fact a total relationship with the place. The place is meaningful and
sensual experience [29]. Thus, a relationship is formed significant to people. In this regard, the place has unique
between person and place that is messages interact between identity and character to the users via its beloved symbols.
person and place inside a particular locality. In parallel, Lynch 4. Identifying with the place goals: in this level, people are
[14] suggested that sense of place makes a good relationship integrated with the place; moreover the goals of the place are
between human and place. He reasoned that a place must recognizable by the people. The users also are very satisfied
recognizable and should have an identity to create the sense of with these goals; hence they have a deep attachment to the
place leading to place attachment [14]. Sense of place also is places.
defined as a combination of three elements i.e. location, 5. Involvement in a place: in this level people have an
landscape, and personal involvement [30]. To create a sense of active role in the place. They would like to invest their own
place all three components should interact together. He noted resources such as money, time, or talent in the activities of the
that the sameness of our buildings and the digital age place. Therefore, as opposed to previous levels that were
diminishes a sense of place. Rogan et al. [28] defined sense of mostly based on attitude, this stage is probed mainly through
place as a factor that makes an environment psychologically the real manners of the people.
comfortable. They determined the three variables of Sense of 6. Sacrifice for a place: this level is the last and also the
place as legibility, the perception of and preference for the highest point of Sense of place. Deepest commitment to a
visual environment and the compatibility of the setting with place is the main aspect of this phase. People would like to
human purposes. Shamai [29] argued that Sense of place sacrifice of important attributes and values such as prosperity,
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comprised of three levels. Belonging to a place is the first freedom, or, life itself.
level, the second stage is attachment to a place, and the third is
commitment to a place which also is the highest phase.
Shamai [29] also express that for having a better life V. THE FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO FORM THE SENSE OF
individuals need to be connected emotionally and spiritually to PLACE
their living places. They satisfy their needs through emotional According to the above discussions, sense of place is
relationships and identification with their living place. This people’s subjective perception of their environments and their
remarkable emotional connection is called sense of place. more or less conscious feelings about those places. Therefore,
sense of place is both interpretive and emotional aspects of
IV. THE DIFFERENT SCALES OF SENSE OF PLACE environmental experience. It means the concept of sense of
Stedman [33] described sense of place as a collection of place is psychological or interactional and physical. The
symbolic meanings, attachment, and satisfaction with a spatial combination of physical and social attributes creates an
setting help by a group or individual. Reviewed literature environment; in this regard, the relationship between people
reveal that sense of place has different levels. Hummon [9] and environment is transactional: people take something
differentiated between a numbers of different types of senses (positive or negative) from a place and give or do things to the
of place in a study on community sentiment. These included environment. Steel [35] explained that the Sense of place is an
rootedness, alienation, relativity, and placelessness. Hummon experience created by the setting combined with what a person
[9] noted people’s satisfaction, identification, and attachment brings to it. There are certain settings that have such a strong
to communities cause different kinds of sense of place which ‘spirit of place’ that they will tend to have a similar impact on
vary among people. In other study Cross [4] defined sense of many different people [35]. Therefore, the reviewed literature
place as a combination of relationship with place and social revealed that the contributed factors to form the sense of place
activities. Cross [4] clustered the relationships with place in can be broadly divided into two groups; the cognitive and
biographical, spiritual, ideological, narrative, commoditized perceptual factors and the physical characteristics of a
and dependent. Shamai [29] determined three major - physical setting.
belonging to a place, place attachment and commitment In this regard, the cognitive factors refer to the meanings
toward a place stages. Shamai [29] further categorized it into and concepts that are understood by people in a place.
seven levels: Therefore, sense of place not only is a sense of affection with
Not having any Sense of place a place, but also it has a cognitive structure where an
1. Knowledge of being located in a place: in this level individual attach himself/herself to concepts and meanings of
people are familiar with the place; they identify the symbols of a place. In this case, sense of place as an emotional bonding
the place but they do not have any particular emotional between people and places is created after cognition. As a
connection to the place and its symbols. Therefore, they do not result, there are varied senses between different people and
integrate themselves with the place. their experiences, motivations, their backgrounds, and also the
2. Belonging to a place: in this phase, people not only are characteristics of physical setting influence the sense of place.
familiar with the place but they have an emotional connection The reviewed seminal literature revealed that the physical
with the place. In this stage, people distinguish the symbols of characteristics and attributes of an environment not only
the place and in contrast to the previous stage those symbols define the kind of a setting but also they contribute to the

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perceived meanings. Steel [35] mentioned the significant Proshansky et al. [22] talk about the interplay of affective,
elements of a setting that contribute to the sense of place as cognitive and conative clusters in their work with place
the size of setting, scale, proportion, diversity, distance, identity. Place attachment also is defined as a state of
texture, ornaments, color, smell, sound, temperature and visual psychological well-being resulting from accessibility to a
variety. He also argued that identity, history, fantasy, mystery, place or a state of distress upon separation or remoteness from
pleasure, surprise, safety, vitality, live ability and memory a place [7].
influence people’s relationships with place. Therefore Some scholars argue that long term interaction with place
reviewed seminal literature revealed that the physical features and memories that occur through could create attachment.
of place with creating meanings, conceptions and also While Tuan [41] explains that it is also possible to form
safeguard of their function contribute to make Sense of place. attachments quickly i.e. kind of love at first sight. Manzo [16]
In this regard, the legibility of place and people‘s satisfaction also found that places can be assigned meaning quickly
with environmental characteristics are the main influencing through linking the memory of an important event occurring in
factors. With understanding meanings, concepts, symbols and a specific place. Manzo [16] called these pivotal or flashpoint
identity of place cognitive and affective relationships with moments, and these meanings connected to a particular place
place is created. form the foundation for place attachment.
Stedman [32] argued that since the concept of sense of Farnum et al. [5] asserted that people-place interactions are
place is vague and its definition is very difficult to define and often formed through psychological procedures rather than
also to measure, he recognized place attachment as an physical contacts. It means people do not have to have
objective dimension for measuring the sense of place. physical interactions with places for making strong emotional
bonds with these places. They might also integrate strong
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affections with mental representative places that they have

VI. THE CONCEPT OF PLACE ATTACHMENT never been there. In this case, they may associate strong
People have the need to form attachment to many things. feelings towards some environmental components and convey
They not only form attachments to others but they also form the same feelings to the other places with the similar elements.
attachment to the environment and places around them [13], In other word, they make a mental representation of the places
[18]. Just as attachments to others are important parts of being with strong emotional impacts, and judge the new places in
human, so are the attachments that people form to places. In accordance to how these places fit in their expectations of
this regard, studies on place attachment present insight on the places. Consequently, the appearance of places may elicit
diversity of meanings humans associate with the physical some levels of emotion, no matter one has previously
environment [12], [18], [25]. The source of place attachment experienced it or not. However, this may not assure that
is examined a mixed-use area in order to learn what draws outlook of places can always shape the emotional attachments
individuals to a place, and to better predict how users and to these places and it highly depends on the existing bonds
visitors may react to place. Stedman [34] knows it an formed through previous environmental experiences.
evaluative dimension of place; in other words, it describes Altman and Low [1] illustrate how place attachments
how much place means to us. involve culturally shared affective meanings and activities
Commencing by 1970th, phenomenological studies are the associated with place that derive from sociopolitical, historic,
earliest sorts of literature introducing place attachment. Yet, and cultural sources. The six processes of culturally based
they matured in 1992 when Altman and Low published their place attachment [1] are as below:
comprehensive discussions regarding place attachment. This 1. Genealogical bonding through history or family:
formed the theoretical foundation for supporting subsequent genealogical place attachment refers to the linkage of people
studies in this field. Low & Altman [1] defined place and land through the historical identification of place and
attachment as an emotional connection between people and family or community. This type of place attachment
their surroundings. They asserted that place attachment commonly occurs in traditional peasant communities where
comprises of interactions between affect and emotions, the relationship of the inhabitants and their village has been
knowledge and beliefs and behaviors and actions regarding a established for centuries. For instance, in village cultures of
place. Hummon [9] argued that whilst place focuses on the Spanish, the identification of place and community is clearly
environmental setting, the focal point of attachment is affect. revealed in the language. The word for town or village is el
The seminal literatures revealed that affect, emotion, and pueblo and this word means both the place and also the people
feeling are the most frequently reported central ideas of place who belong to the place.
attachment, and the questions constructed by researchers who 2. Linkage through loss of land or destruction: The
studying place attachment demonstrated it. In addition to breakdown of genealogical bonding creates another kind of
affective aspects, attachment includes cognitive and place attachment based on the loss or destruction of place.
behavioral aspects. In other words, besides the feelings people 3. Economic bonding through spiritual or mythological
have about a place, they hold certain beliefs or memories relationship: economic place attachment while retaining
about it, and act certain ways in places, Tuan [41] hints to this temporally based aspects of attachment generally refers to a
relationship when he discusses about attachment as the more utilitarian relationship between people and land, such as
accumulation of memories and experience in place, and the kind of attachment produced by ownership of or working

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in a particular place. perceptions. In this regard, literatures have emphasized the

4. Cosmological bonding through spiritual or mythological force of culture on people’s relationship with places. Tuan
relationship: cosmological place attachment refers to a [39] used a new term “topophilia” to describe “an affective
culture’s religious and mythological conceptions of the world bond between people and place”. In his theory people’s
and the structural correspondence of these ideas with the feelings for places are not strong emotions unless the place has
landscape. been the site of significant personal or cultural event [39]. In
5. Linkage through religious and secular pilgrimage, and this way, places can act as symbols for more abstract ideas.
participation in celebratory cultural events: pilgrimage to a • Place satisfaction; One of the significant reasons that
place, the desire to visit a place, and participation in a have an important role in formation of place attachment is
celebratory event such as a parade or festival is a special kind satisfaction with a place. Reviewed literatures reveal that the
of place attachment, in that the experience of the place, level of people’s place satisfaction also can affect on place
although intense, is usually transient, but the idea of the place attachment [32], [33], and [42]. Stedman [32] asserted that one
and its religious, spiritual, or sociopolitical importance lingers of the constructs of sense of place and place attachment is
on for years. satisfaction with a spatial setting held by an individual or
6. Narrative ties through storytelling and place naming: group. In this case, he defines it as satisfaction with place
narrative, the telling of stories, usually origin myths, but also elements and overall satisfaction with place [32]. Other
family histories and political accounts, can function as a type scenario argues that if people are satisfied with a place they
of cultural place attachment in that people’s linkage to the will likely come back to that place. Therefore, repeated visits
land is through the vehicle of the story and identified through build meanings and values associated with the place.
place naming and language. However, people can also be attached to a place and not be
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satisfied with it.

• Preference and attachment; Reviewed literature expose
VII. FACTORS INFLUENCING PLACE ATTACHMENT that there are other factors beyond personal experience or
Place attachment describes the emotion and feeling that cultural influences that affect attachment. In this case, they
people have for a place. In this regard, reviewed literatures argue that people’s preferences may influence they develop an
explained that place attachment is affected by several factors attachment for a place. In this regard, Kaplan and Kaplan [11]
as follows: in the field of landscape studies demonstrated that landscape
preference is strongly related to landscape configuration and
Place attachment describes the emotion and feeling that features. In parallel Riley [27] defines preference as the degree
people have for a place. In this regard, reviewed literatures to which one like a particular type of scene, while attachment
explained that place attachment is affected by several factors is a deeper emotional connection Therefore, it seems
as follows: reasonable to consider whether some factors that influence
• Socio-demographic characteristics [1], [8], [13], and [43] preference may also influence attachment.
• Environmental experiences including: • Activity; as discussed earlier, activity is one of the major
- People’s type of involvement with place [43] components of place. Places are associated with people's
- Degree of familiarity with a place [6]: Fried described works, actions or leisure activities. Therefore, activities
that familiarity plays an important role in attachment. connect human to places but may or may not influence
He shows that through more frequent and intensive people’s attachment. An interesting study [1] Pellow focused
encounters, attachment is expected to develop and on the compound in a neighborhood of the West African city
deepen [6]. But the findings from other researchers of Accra and showed that ongoing activities could contribute
show that familiarity does not always predict place to the feelings of attachment to the places.
attachment [38]. Familiarity may contribute to • Place itself; Physical setting is one of the main elements
attachment, but may not be sufficient alone to produce of a place. Historically the focus for most of the research
it. Furthermore familiarity is not limited to familiarity associated with place has been on its social dimension, and the
with a place; it includes learning more about a literature is replete with references to the importance of this
particular place and recognizing it and also includes aspect of place attachment. Some scholars have gone so far as
familiarity with a body of knowledge about the type of to declare that all place attachment is based on social
place. A familiar environment usually means it is relationships. For instance, Proshansky et al. declared, there is
similar to some place in our memory (typicality), so no physical environmental that is not also a social
typicality is discussed with familiarity in some studies environment [22]. In this regard, the role of physical features
[19], [23]. that inspire meaning to the place is ignored. People often
- People’s expertise or knowledge about place: having judge physical features and attributes of a place before
expertise or knowledge about environment and place anything else. Therefore, physical setting with its
causes people to look at it differently. characteristics and attributes may influence whether people
• Culture; the phenomenon of culture is a key to develop an attachment for it or not. Steadman [32] claimed
understand the nature of human interactions with built that the physical environment and its characteristics contribute
environments. Culture feeds a society’s worldview and to the construction of sense of place. He has found that the

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physical characteristics strengthen both place attachment and setting into account would provide some insight into what
satisfaction [32]. about place matters to people. Therefore, as Stedman [34]
explained place attachment is an evaluative dimension of
VIII. CONCLUSION place, it describes how much place means to people. Place
Sense of place can be defined as an emotional relationship attachment plays a positive role in human lives and also in
between people and places. Previous studies indicated that their care of the place. It is expected that there is difference in
physical attributes, activities and meanings associated with environmental attitudes between those who feel an attachment
places contribute to make sense of place. Physical elements to a particular place and those who do not.
could refer to the attributes and characteristics of a setting;
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