2.

PHASE DIAGRAM
 The diagrammatic representation of the different phases in a soil mass is called the phase diagram.
 The diagram which shows only two components of soil i.e., solids and air or solids and water is called two-
phase diagram (dry or fully saturated soil)
 The diagram which represents all the three components of soil i.e., solids, air and water is called three phase
diagram ( Partially saturated soil).

Fig: Partially saturated soil Fig: Dry soil ( Two phase)

2.1 Basic Definitions
(i) Void Ratio (e):-
 It is the ratio of volume of void to volume of solids in the given mass of soil.
𝑉𝑣 𝑉𝑤+𝑉𝑎
e= =
𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠
 The range of void ratio is may be greater than 1 and less than 1.
 The void ratio of fine grained soil is grater than coarse grained soil.
 For comparision of two soil we prefere void ratio.

(ii) Porosity (𝜂):-

 It is the ratio pf volume of void to total volume of soil. It is expressed in percentage.
𝑉 𝑉𝑤+𝑉𝑎+𝑉𝑠
η = 𝑣×100% =
𝑉 𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
 The porosity of soil cannot exceed 100%.
 Porosity is always less than void ratio.

(iii) Degree of Saturation (S):-

 It is defined as the ratio of volume of water to the volume of voids (How much voids are filled with water)
 It is normally expressed in percentage.
 Its value is zero when soil is completely dry and 100% when soil is fully saturated(Never be greater than 1)
𝑉𝑤
S = x100%
𝑉𝑣
(iv) Water content (w):-
It is the ratio of weight of water to weight of soil solid in given soil.
𝑊𝑤 𝑀𝑤
w= =
𝑊𝑠 𝑀𝑠
 For dry soil water content is zero and 100 % for fully saturated soil.
The value of water content may be grater than 100 % ( If Ww is gater than Ws).
Water content of fine grained soil is more than that of coarse grained soil.

Water content of can be determined by:

(i) Oven drying method
Most accurete method of determination of water content of soil
 Take a clean container (or pan) and find the pan weight.
 Take nearly 100gm of wet sample (whose water content is to be determined) in the pan and weight the pan
again.
 Keep the soil with pan in oven for 24 hour maintaining temperature 110±50c.
 After drying, cool the pan and find the weight of the pan + dry soil.
Calculation
 Weight of the empty pan = W1
 Weight of empty pan + Wet soil = W2
 Weight of the empty pan + Dry soil = W3
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
 Then, Water content (w) = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 x 100%
W2−W3
= W3−W1x 100%
(ii) Calcium carbide method
 Quick and approximate method.
 Water content can be determined by measuring amount of acetylent gas formed adding calcium carbide on soil
container.

(iii) Sand bath method

 Approxiamte method of determination of water content.

(iv) Pychnometer method

 Qucick and less accurate than oven drying method
 Used when soil is coarse grained and specific gravity is khonw

(W –W ) (G−1)
W=((W 2 −W1 )) ( )-1)
2 4
(𝐺)

(v) Air content ac

It is defined as the ratio of volume of air to volume of void.
𝑉𝑎
ac =
𝑉𝑣
If ac=0, it means saturated soil and ac=1, the soil is dry soil.
S=1-ac
 (vi) Percentage air void (na)
 Ratio of volume of air to to volume of void
na= Va/Vsoil

 if Va=0, that means na= 0, soil is saturated

Unit weight of soil

It is the ratio of weight per unit volume of soil

(i) Bulk unight weight (𝛾𝑡 )

 It is defined as the ratio of total weight of soil mass to the total volume of soil.
𝑊 𝑊𝑠 +𝑊𝑤
𝛾𝑡 = 𝑉 = 𝑉 +𝑉
𝑠 +𝑉
𝑎 𝑤

(ii) Dry unit weight (𝛾𝑑 ): It is the ratio of the weight of the solid to the volume of soil.
𝑊
𝛾𝑑 = 𝑉𝑠

(iii) Saturated unit weight (𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 ):

It is the ratio of total weight of a fully saturated soil sample to its volume.
𝑊
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡
(iv) Submerged unit weight (𝛾𝑠𝑢𝑏 ):
It is the ratio of submerged weight of solid to the volume of soil.
𝑊
𝛾𝑠𝑢𝑏 = 𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑏 = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 - 𝛾𝑤 where, 𝛾𝑤 = unit weight of water ( At 40c 𝛾𝑤 = 9.81KN/m3, 1000kg/m3, 1 gm/cc)

(v) Unit weight of solid (𝛾𝑠 ):

It is the ratio of the weight of solid to the volume of solid.
𝑊
𝛾𝑠 = 𝑉𝑠
𝑠

(vi) Specific gravity of soil solid (G)

It is defined as the ratio of mass of a given volume of solids to the mass of an equivalent volume of water at 40c.
𝑀 𝜌 𝛾
G = 𝑀𝑠 = 𝜌 𝑠 = 𝛾𝑠
𝑤 𝑤 𝑤
Values of specific gravity lies between 2.4 to 2.8 for most of the soil

Methods of determining specific gravity of soil

(i) Density bottle method
(ii) Pychnometer method
(iii) Hydrometer method
(iv) Gas jar method ( coarse grain)
(v) Measurung flask method (fine soil)
vii) Density Index (ID) or Relative Density (DR)
It is the ratio of difference between maximum void ratio and natural void ratio to the difference between
maximum void ratio and minimum void ratio.
𝑒max −𝑒
ID =
𝑒max−𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑛

Where, 𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 = Void ratio in loosest state

𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛 = void ratio in densest state
𝑒 = Natural void ratio
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛, e = 𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥
ID = 0, soil is in loosests form
When, e = 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛
ID = 1 or 100%, soil is in densists or compacted form

Method of determining insitu density (𝛾𝑏 )

(i) Core cutter method (ii) Sand replacement method
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝛾𝑏 =𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟  Widely used in highway pavement
𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝛾𝑑 )=
𝛾𝑏  Used for gravel and sand
1+𝑤  Standard sand used is Burchard sand
Where,
𝛾𝑏 = bulk or insitu density of soil
𝛾d= dry density after 24hr of oven drying of soil sample and w= water or moisture content of soil
Interrelationship between different parameters
(i) S e = w G
𝑒
(ii) η = 1+𝑒
1+𝑤
(iii) 𝛾b = G 𝛾𝑤 X 1+𝑒
𝐺+𝑆𝑒
(iv) 𝛾b = 1+𝑒
X 𝛾𝑤
𝐺+𝑒
if soil is fully saturated, then S = 1 and hence 𝛾 = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 Thus, 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = X 𝛾𝑤
1+𝑒
𝐺𝛾𝑤
If soil is dry, then S = 0 and hence 𝛾 = 𝛾𝑑 Thus, 𝛾𝑑 = 1+𝑒
𝛾
𝑣 𝛾𝑑 = 1+𝑤
1 − ηa 𝐺 𝛾𝑤 𝐺𝛾𝑤
𝑣𝑖 𝛾𝑑 = if ηa=0 then 𝑣𝑖 𝛾𝑑 = 1+𝑤𝐺
1+𝑤𝐺
1. If the pores of soil are completely full of air only, the soil is called
(a) wet soil (b) dry soil (c) fully saturated soil (d) partially saturated soil

2. The ratio of unit weight of soil solid to that of water is called

(a) void ratio (b) porosity (c) specific gravity (d) degree of saturation

3. The degree of saturation of fully saturated soil is

(a) 0.25 (b) 0.5 (c) 0.75 (d) 1

4. The water content of of soils can accurately determined by

(a) sand bath method (b) calcium carbid method
(c) oven drying method (d) pycnometer method

5. The degree of saturation of soil is

𝑉𝑤 𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑎 +𝑉𝑤
(a) 𝑉 +𝑉 (b) 𝑉 +𝑉 (c) 𝑉 (d)
𝑎 𝑤 𝑎 𝑤 𝑎 +𝑉𝑣 𝑉𝑠

6. The moist soil is …....saturated soil

(a) fully (b) partially (c) semi (d) none

7. Saturated soil is concerned with

(a) two phase system (b) three phase system
(c) one phase system (d) none of the above
Particle size distribution
 The percentage of various size of particle in a soil sample can be found conducting grain size analysis.
 Grain size analysis is also known as mechanical analysis and be conducted in two stages

Sieve analysis
 Used for coarsed grained soil.
 If all the particles are retained on sieve no 75 micron.
 The sieving is performed by arranging the various sieve one over other according to mesh opening.

(ii) Coarse sieve analysis

 Soil retained on sieve 4.75 micron
 Coarse sieve are 40 mm, 20 mm, 10 mm IS sieves

(ii) Fine sieve analysis

 Soil passing from 4.75 mm and retained on 75 micron
 Fine consists of 2 mm, 1 mm, 600 𝜇 , 300 𝜇, 212 𝜇, 150 𝜇 and 75 𝜇 sieves.
 In 2 mm sieve each opening is of square of side 2 mm

Fig: different sieves

Sedimentation analysis
 Applicable for fine grained soil ( particle size less than 75micron)
 Based on Stoke’s law
 It cab be done with the help of either Pippete or Hydrometer.
 It can holds good result for particles of size upto 0.0002 mm and below this stok’s law is not valid.

Application of particle size distribution

Based on particle size distribution soil may be described as well graded, poorly graded and uniformly graded.

(i) Well graded soil

Good representation of all size of particles

(ii) Poorly graded soil

It has an excess of certain particles and deficiency of other
More of particles of same size

(iii) Uniformly graded soil

Contains particles of same size

(iv) Skip or gap graded

Some of the size of particles are missing
 In case of coarse grained soils three particle sizes D10, D30 and D60 are obtained from particle size distribution curve.

D10
 Referred to as effective size, corresponding to 10 % finer
 Particles size with respect to which 10 % particles are smaller in size
A measure of particle size range is given by coefficient of uniformity Cu which is defined as
Cu = D60/D10
The shape of the particle size curve can be represented by coefficient of curvature Cc defined as:
(𝐷30)2
Cc = 𝐷10 𝑋 𝐷60

Soil Type Gradation Cu Cc

Well graded >4 1<Cc<3
Not possessing the above value
Gravel Poorly graded

Sand Well graded >6 1<Cc<3

Not possessing the above value
Poorly graded
1. The effective size of particle is
(a) D10 (b) D20 (c) D40 (d) D60

2. The uniformity coefficient of the soil is defined as the ratio of

(a) D40 to D10 (b) D40 to D20 (c) D50 to D10 (d) D60 to D10

3. A soil having uniformity co-efficient more than 10, is called

(a) uniform soil (b) poor soil (c) well graded soil (d) coarse soil

4. Stoke’s law is applicable to particles upto……effective diameter

(a) 0.0002 mm (b) 0.002 mm (c) 0.02 mm (d) 0.2 mm

5. According to indian standards, in a 2mm sieve

(a) there are two holes
(b) each sieve is circular and its diameter is 2 mm
(c) each sieve is square and its side is 2 mm
(c) there are two holes per cm length of the mesh

6. Sieving is not applicable for grain sizes smaller than about

(a) 0.075 mm (b) 0.095 mm (c) 0.15 mm (d) 0.2 mm

7. The relation between the air content (ac) and the degree of saturation (S) is
(a) ac=S (b) ac=1-S (c) ac=1+S (d) ac=1/S