Philosophical Perspectives in Education

Educational Philosophies
Within the epistemological frame that focuses on the nature of knowledge and how we come to
know, there are four major educational philosophies, each related to one or more of the general or
world philosophies just discussed. These educational philosophical approaches are currently used in
classrooms the world over. These educational philosophies focus heavily on WHAT we should
teach, the curriculum aspect.

Idealism

Idealism is a philosophical approach that has as its central tenet that ideas are the only true reality,
the only thing worth knowing. In a search for truth, beauty, and justice that is enduring and
everlasting, the focus is on conscious reasoning in the mind. Plato, father of Idealism, espoused this
view about 400 years BC, in his famous book, The Republic. Plato believed that there are two
worlds. The first is the spiritual or mental world, which is eternal, permanent, orderly, regular, and
universal. There is also the world of appearance, the world experienced through sight, touch, smell,
taste, and sound, that is changing, imperfect, and disorderly. This division is often referred to as the
duality of mind and body. Reacting against what he perceived as too much of a focus on the
immediacy of the physical and sensory world, Plato described a utopian society in which "education
to body and soul all the beauty and perfection of which they are capable" as an ideal. In his allegory
of the cave, the shadows of the sensory world must be overcome with the light of reason or
universal truth. To understand truth, one must pursue knowledge and identify with the Absolute
Mind. Plato also believed that the soul is fully formed prior to birth and is perfect and at one with
the Universal Being. The birth process checks this perfection, so education requires bringing latent
ideas (fully formed concepts) to consciousness.

In idealism, the aim of education is to discover and develop each individual's abilities and full moral
excellence in order to better serve society. The curricular emphasis is subject matter of mind:
literature, history, philosophy, and religion. Teaching methods focus on handling ideas through
lecture, discussion, and Socratic dialogue (a method of teaching that uses questioning to help
students discover and clarify knowledge). Introspection, intuition, insight, and whole-part logic are
used to bring to consciousness the forms or concepts which are latent in the mind. Character is
developed through imitating examples and heroes.

Realism

Realists believe that reality exists independent of the human mind. The ultimate reality is the world
of physical objects. The focus is on the body/objects. Truth is objective-what can be observed.
Aristotle, a student of Plato who broke with his mentor's idealist philosophy, is called the father of
both Realism and the scientific method. In this metaphysical view, the aim is to understand
objective reality through "the diligent and unsparing scrutiny of all observable data." Aristotle
believed that to understand an object, its ultimate form had to be understood, which does not
change. For example, a rose exists whether or not a person is aware of it. A rose can exist in the
mind without being physically present, but ultimately, the rose shares properties with all other roses
and flowers (its form), although one rose may be red and another peach colored. Aristotle also was
the first to teach logic as a formal discipline in order to be able to reason about physical events and
aspects. The exercise of rational thought is viewed as the ultimate purpose for humankind. The
Realist curriculum emphasizes the subject matter of the physical world, particularly science and
mathematics. The teacher organizes and presents content systematically within a discipline,
demonstrating use of criteria in making decisions. Teaching methods focus on mastery of facts and
basic skills through demonstration and recitation. Students must also demonstrate the ability to think
critically and scientifically, using observation and experimentation. Curriculum should be
scientifically approached, standardized, and distinct-discipline based. Character is developed
through training in the rules of conduct.

Pragmatism (Experientialism)
For pragmatists, only those things that are experienced or observed are real. In this late 19th century
American philosophy, the focus is on the reality of experience. Unlike the Realists and Rationalists,
Pragmatists believe that reality is constantly changing and that we learn best through applying our
experiences and thoughts to problems, as they arise. The universe is dynamic and evolving, a
"becoming" view of the world. There is no absolute and unchanging truth, but rather, truth is what
works. Pragmatism is derived from the teaching of Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914), who
believed that thought must produce action, rather than linger in the mind and lead to indecisiveness.

John Dewey (1859-1952) applied pragmatist philosophy in his progressive approaches. He believed
that learners must adapt to each other and to their environment. Schools should emphasize the
subject matter of social experience. All learning is dependent on the context of place, time, and
circumstance. Different cultural and ethnic groups learn to work cooperatively and contribute to a
democratic society. The ultimate purpose is the creation of a new social order. Character
development is based on making group decisions in light of consequences.

For Pragmatists, teaching methods focus on hands-on problem solving, experimenting, and projects,
often having students work in groups. Curriculum should bring the disciplines together to focus on
solving problems in an interdisciplinary way. Rather than passing down organized bodies of
knowledge to new learners, Pragmatists believe that learners should apply their knowledge to real
situations through experimental inquiry. This prepares students for citizenship, daily living, and
future careers.

Existentialism

The nature of reality for Existentialists is subjective, and lies within the individual. The physical
world has no inherent meaning outside of human existence. Individual choice and individual
standards rather than external standards are central. Existence comes before any definition of what
we are. We define ourselves in relationship to that existence by the choices we make. We should
not accept anyone else's predetermined philosophical system; rather, we must take responsibility for
deciding who we are. The focus is on freedom, the development of authentic individuals, as we
make meaning of our lives.

There are several different orientations within the existentialist philosophy. Soren Kierkegaard
(1813-1855), a Danish minister and philosopher, is considered to be the founder of existentialism.
His was a Christian orientation. Another group of existentialists, largely European, believes that we
must recognize the finiteness of our lives on this small and fragile planet, rather than believing in
salvation through God. Our existence is not guaranteed in an after life, so there is tension about life
and the certainty of death, of hope or despair. Unlike the more austere European approaches where
the universe is seen as meaningless when faced with the certainty of the end of existence, American
existentialists have focused more on human potential and the quest for personal meaning. Values
clarification is an outgrowth of this movement. Following the bleak period of World War II, the
French philosopher, Jean Paul Sartre, suggested that for youth, the existential moment arises when
young persons realize for the first time that choice is theirs, that they are responsible for themselves.
Their question becomes "Who am I and what should I do?

Related to education, the subject matter of existentialist classrooms should be a matter of personal
choice. Teachers view the individual as an entity within a social context in which the learner must
confront others' views to clarify his or her own. Character development emphasizes individual
responsibility for decisions. Real answers come from within the individual, not from outside
authority. Examining life through authentic thinking involves students in genuine learning
experiences. Existentialists are opposed to thinking about students as objects to be measured,
tracked, or standardized. Such educators want the educational experience to focus on creating
opportunities for self-direction and self actualization. They start with the student, rather than on
curriculum content.

Perennialism

For Perennialists, the aim of education is to ensure that students acquire understandings about the
great ideas of Western civilization. These ideas have the potential for solving problems in any era.
The focus is to teach ideas that are everlasting, to seek enduring truths which are constant, not
changing, as the natural and human worlds at their most essential level, do not change. Teaching
these unchanging principles is critical. Humans are rational beings, and their minds need to be
developed. Thus, cultivation of the intellect is the highest priority in a worthwhile education. The
demanding curriculum focuses on attaining cultural literacy, stressing students' growth in enduring
disciplines. The loftiest accomplishments of humankind are emphasized– the great works of
literature and art, the laws or principles of science. Advocates of this educational philosophy are
Robert Maynard Hutchins who developed a Great Books program in 1963 and Mortimer Adler, who
further developed this curriculum based on 100 great books of western civilization.

Essentialism

Essentialists believe that there is a common core of knowledge that needs to be transmitted to
students in a systematic, disciplined way. The emphasis in this conservative perspective is on
intellectual and moral standards that schools should teach. The core of the curriculum is essential
knowledge and skills and academic rigor. Although this educational philosophy is similar in some
ways to Perennialism, Essentialists accept the idea that this core curriculum may change. Schooling
should be practical, preparing students to become valuable members of society. It should focus on
facts-the objective reality out there--and "the basics," training students to read, write, speak, and
compute clearly and logically. Schools should not try to set or influence policies. Students should be
taught hard work, respect for authority, and discipline. Teachers are to help students keep their
nonproductive instincts in check, such as aggression or mindlessness. This approach was in reaction
to progressivist approaches prevalent in the 1920s and 30s. William Bagley, took progressivist
approaches to task in the journal he formed in 1934. Other proponents of Essentialism are: James D.
Koerner (1959), H. G. Rickover (1959), Paul Copperman (1978), and Theodore Sizer (1985).

Progressivism

Progressivists believe that education should focus on the whole child, rather than on the content or
the teacher. This educational philosophy stresses that students should test ideas by active
experimentation. Learning is rooted in the questions of learners that arise through experiencing the
world. It is active, not passive. The learner is a problem solver and thinker who makes meaning
through his or her individual experience in the physical and cultural context. Effective teachers
provide experiences so that students can learn by doing. Curriculum content is derived from student
interests and questions. The scientific method is used by progressivist educators so that students can
study matter and events systematically and first hand. The emphasis is on process-how one comes to
know. The Progressive education philosophy was established in America from the mid 1920s
through the mid 1950s. John Dewey was its foremost proponent. One of his tenets was that the
school should improve the way of life of our citizens through experiencing freedom and democracy
in schools. Shared decision making, planning of teachers with students, student-selected topics are
all aspects. Books are tools, rather than authority.

Reconstructionism/Critical Theory

Social reconstructionism is a philosophy that emphasizes the addressing of social questions and a
quest to create a better society and worldwide democracy. Reconstructionist educators focus on a
curriculum that highlights social reform as the aim of education. Theodore Brameld (1904-1987)
was the founder of social reconstructionism, in reaction against the realities of World War II. He
recognized the potential for either human annihilation through technology and human cruelty or the
capacity to create a beneficent society using technology and human compassion. George Counts
(1889-1974) recognized that education was the means of preparing people for creating this new
social order.

Critical theorists, like social reconstructionists, believe that systems must be changed to overcome
oppression and improve human conditions. Paulo Freire (1921-1997) was a Brazilian whose
experiences living in poverty led him to champion education and literacy as the vehicle for social
change. In his view, humans must learn to resist oppression and not become its victims, nor oppress
others. To do so requires dialog and critical consciousness, the development of awareness to
overcome domination and oppression. Rather than "teaching as banking," in which the educator
deposits information into students' heads, Freire saw teaching and learning as a process of inquiry in
which the child must invent and reinvent the world.

For social reconstructionists and critical theorists, curriculum focuses on student experience and
taking social action on real problems, such as violence, hunger, international terrorism, inflation,
and inequality. Strategies for dealing with controversial issues (particularly in social studies and
literature), inquiry, dialogue, and multiple perspectives are the focus. Community-based learning
and bringing the world into the classroom are also strategies.

© 1999 LeoNora M. Cohen, OSU - School of Education