TOPIC 2 –

TRAFFIC ENGINEERING STUDIES

EAT 360-
HIGHWAY AND TRANSPORTATION
ENGINEERING
INTRODUCTION
 Highway transportation has provided several advantages that contribute to a high
standard of living
 Several problems related to the highway mode of transportation exist
 Highway-related crashes,
 Parking difficulties,
 Congestion
 Delay
 To reduce the negative impact of highways, it is necessary to adequately collect
information that describes the extent of the problems and identifies their locations
INTRODUCTION

 This chapter introduces the different traffic engineering studies that are conducted to
collect traffic data
 Traffic studies may be grouped into three main categories:
❖ (1) INVENTORIES,
 Inventories provide a list or graphic display of existing information, such as
street widths, parking spaces, transit routes, traffic regulations, and so forth
 Available parking spaces and traffic regulations is change frequently, therefore
require periodic updating
INTRODUCTION
❖ (2) ADMINISTRATIVE STUDIES
 Use existing engineering records, available in government agencies and
departments
 Administrative studies include the results of surveys, which may involve field
measurements and/or aerial photography
❖ (3) DYNAMIC STUDIES
 Collection of data under operational conditions and include studies of speed,
traffic volume, travel time and delay, parking, and crashes
 Carried out by the traffic engineer to evaluate current conditions and develop
solutions, they will be describe in detail in this chapter
 TRAFFIC STUDIES
1. Volume studies
❖ Number of vehicles and/or pedestrians that pass a point on a highway facility during a
specified time period
❖ Conducted when certain volume characteristics are needed (AADT, ADT)
2. Spot speed studies
❖ Estimate the distribution of speeds of vehicles in a stream of traffic at a particular
location on a highway
❖ Establish parameters for traffic operation and control, such as speed zones and speed
limits
 TRAFFIC STUDIES

3. Travel time and delay studies

❖ Determines the amount of time required to travel from one point to another on a given route
❖ Information may also be collected on the locations, durations, and causes of delays
❖ Purpose: To improve the overall flow of traffic on the route
4. Parking studies
❖ Determine the demand and the supply of parking facilities in an area, and the projection of the
demand
❖ To provide adequate parking space and solve the parking problem.
VOLUME STUDIES
VOLUME STUDIES

 Collect data on the number of vehicles that pass a point on a highway facility during a
specified time period
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

 This time period varies from as little as 15 minutes to as much as a year depending
on the anticipated use of the data
 The data collected also may be put into subclasses which may include directional
movement, occupancy rates, vehicle classification
VOLUME STUDIES
 Traffic volume studies are usually conducted when certain volume characteristics are
needed, some of which follow:
1. Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT)
2. Average Daily Traffic (ADT)
3. Peak Hour Volume (PHV)
4.Vehicle Classification (VC)
5.Vehicle Miles of Travel (VMT)
 VOLUME STUDIES
1.Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT)
 Average of 24-hour counts collected every day of the year
 Used to analyse:
a. Estimation of highway user revenues
b. Computation of crash rates in terms of number of crashes per 100 million
vehicle miles
c. Establishment of traffic volume trends
d. Evaluation of the economic feasibility of highway projects
e. Development of improvement and maintenance programs
VOLUME STUDIES
 2. Average Daily Traffic (ADT)
 Average of 24-hour counts collected over a number of days greater than one but
less than a year
 Used for
a. Planning of highway activities
b. Measurement of current demand
c. Evaluation of existing traffic flow
VOLUME STUDIES

 3. Peak Hour Volume (PHV)

 Maximum number of vehicles that pass a point on a highway during a period of 60
consecutive minutes. It used for:
a. Functional classification of highways
b. Design of the geometric characteristics of a highway, for example, number of
lanes,
c. Capacity analysis
d.Development of parking regulations
VOLUME STUDIES
 4.Vehicle Classification (VC)
 Records volume with respect to the type of vehicles, for example, passenger cars, two-
axle trucks, or three-axle trucks.VC is used in:
a. Design of geometric characteristics, with particular reference to turning-radii
requirements, maximum grades, lane widths, and so forth
b. Capacity analyses, with respect to passenger-car equivalents of trucks (PCU)
c. Structural design of highway pavements, bridges, and so forth
VOLUME STUDIES

 5.Vehicle Miles of Travel (VMT)

 Measure of travel along a section of road.
 It is the product of the traffic volume (that is, average weekday volume or ADT)
and the length of roadway to which the volume is applicable.
 VMTs are used mainly as a base for allocating resources for maintenance and
improvement of highways.
VOLUME STUDIES (VOLUME COUNT METHOD)

MANUAL
 Manual counting involves one or more persons recording observed vehicles passing a
road
 The main disadvantages of the manual count method are that
(1) it is labour intensive and therefore can be expensive,
(2) it is subject to the limitations of human factors,
(3) it cannot be used for long periods of counting
VOLUME STUDIES (VOLUME COUNT METHOD)

AUTOMATIC
 Can be classified into two general categories: those that
require the laying of detectors (surface or subsurface),
and those that do not require the laying of detectors.
 Automatic counters that require the laying of surface
detectors (such as pneumatic road tubes) or subsurface
detectors (non invasive, such as magnetic or electric
contact devices) on the road
 Detect the passing vehicle and transmit the information
to a recorder, which is connected to the detector at the
side of the road.
VOLUME STUDIES (VOLUME COUNT METHOD)

AUTOMATIC
 Automatic counters that do not require the laying of detectors use one of many
technologies including electronics: Doppler principles, laser scanning, and infrared
 The Autoscope and the (Remote Traffic Microwave Sensor) RTMS meter described
under speed data collection are examples of this category of equipment.
 The Autoscope uses electronic principles and the RTMS capable of obtaining vehicle
counts while obtaining speed data.
 The general principle of the laser technology in traffic count equipment uses laser
beams to scan the roadway and the vehicles that pass through the field of the laser
beams
VOLUME STUDIES (VOLUME COUNT METHOD)
VOLUME STUDIES (VOLUME COUNT TYPES)

 Different types of traffic counts are carried out, depending on the anticipated use of
the data to be collected. These different types will now be briefly discussed.
1. Cordon Counts
2. Screen Line Counts
3. Intersection Counts
4. Pedestrian Volume Counts
5. Periodic Volume Counts
VOLUME STUDIES (VOLUME COUNT TYPES)
CORDON COUNTS
 Uses when information is required on vehicle accumulation within an area such as
the central business district (CBD) of a city, particularly during a specific time
 The area for which the data are required is cordoned off by an imaginary closed loop;
the area enclosed within this loop is defined as the cordon area
 The intersection of each street crossing the cordon line is taken as a count station;
volume counts of vehicles and/or persons entering and leaving the cordon area are
taken
 The information obtained from such a count is useful for planning parking facilities,
updating and evaluating traffic operational techniques, and making long-range plans
for freeway and arterial street systems.
VOLUME STUDIES (VOLUME COUNT TYPES)

CORDON COUNTS
& SCREEN LINE COUNTS
VOLUME STUDIES (VOLUME COUNT TYPES)

SCREEN LINE COUNTS

 In screen line counts, the study area is divided into large sections by running
imaginary lines, known as screen lines, across it.
 In some cases, natural and manmade barriers, such as rivers or railway tracks, are
used as screen lines.
 Traffic counts are then taken at each point where a road crosses the screen line.
 To determine the volume by changes in the land-use pattern of the area.
VOLUME STUDIES (VOLUME COUNT TYPES)

INTERSECTION COUNTS
 Intersection counts are taken to
determine vehicle classifications, through
movements, and turning movements at
intersections.
 These data are used mainly in
determining phase lengths and cycle
times to design the traffic light at
intersection
VOLUME STUDIES (VOLUME COUNT TYPES)
 VOLUME STUDIES (VOLUME COUNT TYPES)

PEDESTRIAN VOLUME COUNTS

 Volume counts of pedestrians are made at locations such as subway stations, and
crosswalks.
 The counts are usually taken at these locations when the evaluation of existing or
proposed pedestrian facilities is to be undertaken.
 Such facilities may include pedestrian overpasses or underpasses.
 VOLUME STUDIES (VOLUME COUNT TYPES)

PERIODIC VOLUME COUNTS

 In order to obtain certain traffic volume data, such as AADT, it is necessary to obtain
data continuously.
 However, it is not feasible to collect continuous data on all roads because of the cost
involved.
 To make reasonable estimates of annual traffic volume characteristics, different types of
periodic counts, with count durations ranging from 15 minutes to continuous, are
conducted
VOLUME STUDIES (VOLUME COUNT TYPES)
PERIODIC VOLUME COUNTS
 For example, for AADT, traffic counting per day can be done twice per year, one
consecutive week each time, with the gap of 6 month of each survey (eg: Mac and
September)

𝑉𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 7 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑎𝑐 + 𝑉𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 7 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑒𝑝𝑡

𝐴𝐴𝐷𝑇 =
14

σ 𝑉𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠

𝐴𝐷𝑇 =
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠
VOLUME STUDIES (VOLUME COUNT TYPES)
PERIODIC VOLUME COUNTS (EXAMPLE 1)

Mac September
Day Number of vehicle Day Number of vehicle
1 10000 1 9800
2 9800 2 10200
3 10500 3 9700
4 10030 4 11500
5 9950 5 8900
6 11000 6 10500
7 9700 7 9350

What are the value of AADT & ADT?

VOLUME STUDIES (VOLUME COUNT TYPES)
PERIODIC VOLUME COUNTS (EXAMPLE 1-SOLUTION)

What are the value of AADT & ADT?

70980 + 69950
𝐴𝐴𝐷𝑇 = = 10066.42 = 10066 𝑣𝑒ℎ/𝑑𝑎𝑦
14

70980
𝐴𝐷𝑇 = = 10140 veh/day
7
VOLUME STUDIES (VOLUME COUNT TYPES)
PERIODIC VOLUME COUNTS (EXAMPLE 2)
Time at evening peak hour Number of vehicle/ 15 minutes

4:00 – 4:15 385 What are the

4:15 – 4:30 400 a) Average traffic per hour?
4:30 – 4:45 360 b) 15 minutes maximum flow?
4:45 – 5:00 400 c) Hourly peak flow?
5:00 – 5:15 396
5:15 – 5:30 428
5:30 – 5:45 522
5:45 – 6:00 460
6:00 – 6:15 425
6:15 – 6:30 398
6:30 – 6:45 310
6:45 – 7:00 250
 VOLUME STUDIES (VOLUME COUNT TYPES)
PERIODIC VOLUME COUNTS (EXAMPLE 2- SOLUTION)

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 4𝑝𝑚 𝑡𝑜 7𝑝𝑚

a) Average traffic per peak hour =
3 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟
4734
= = 1578 veh/hour
3

b) 15 minutes maximum flow happen from 5.30 to 5.45 pm which is 522 veh/15min

c) Hourly peak flow happen from 5.00 to 6.00 pm which is 1806 veh/hour
VOLUME STUDIES (SURVEY TIME & DURATION)

SURVEY PERIOD
 24 hour count
 16 hour count (6.00 am – 10.00 pm)
 12 hour count (7.00 am – 7.00 pm)
 Peak hour count typically 7.00-9.00 am & 4.00-7.00 pm
 Weekend count
*duration of survey is based on the objective of the study and the cost provided
VOLUME STUDIES (PASSENGER CAR UNIT- PCU )

 Vehicle in the traffic flow come in different size (bus, car, truck)
 For the highway design purpose, the vehicle unit is been adjusted with passenger car
unit (PCU)
 The purpose of PCU is to adjust the interpretation of traffic congestion
 The length of the road occupied by 10 buses is not same as the length of the
road occupied by 10 cars
 Level of congestion of 1 km road by N number of car is not same as the
congestion by N number of buses
 PCU is based on the private car or taxi which is equal to1 unit
VOLUME STUDIES (PASSENGER CAR UNIT- PCU )

• The PCU value of the other type of vehicle is converted based on the equivalent value
of car

Vehicle group Rural Urban

Car, taxi 1.0 1.0
Pick up & small van 2.0 2.0
Medium size vehicle & medium size truck 2.5 2.5
Heavy vehicle & Huge truck 3.0 3.0
Bus 3.0 3.0
Motorcycle 1.0 0.75
VOLUME STUDIES (PASSENGER CAR UNIT- PCU )

• The PCU value of the other type of vehicle is converted based on the equivalent value
of car (Arahan Teknik Jalan, 2000)
VOLUME STUDIES (PASSENGER CAR UNIT- PCU )

EXAMPLE 3
Traffic volume for 1 stretch of road in rural area is 350 veh/hour. Determine the traffic
volume in PCU/hour if there are 200 cars, 50 medium trucks, 50 buses, and 50
motorcycle are on the road.
 VOLUME STUDIES (PASSENGER CAR UNIT- PCU )

SOLUTION

Car 200 x 1.0 200

Medium truck 50 x 2.5 125
Bus 50 x 3.0 150
Motorcycle 50 x 1.0 50
Total 525 PCU/hour
SPOT SPEED STUDIES
SPOT SPEED STUDIES

 Conducted to estimate the distribution of speeds of vehicles in a stream of traffic at

a particular location on a highway
 The speed of a vehicle is defined as the rate of movement of the vehicle; it is usually
expressed in miles per hour (mi/h) or kilometers per hour (km/h)
 A spot speed study is carried out by recording the speeds of a sample of vehicles at a
specified location
 SPOT SPEED STUDIES
 Speed characteristics determined from a spot speed study may be used to:
o Establish parameters for traffic operation and control, such as speed zones, and
speed limits
o Evaluate the effectiveness of traffic control devices, such as variable message signs
at work zones.
o Monitor the effectiveness of speed enforcement programs
o Evaluate and or determine the adequacy of highway geometric characteristics,
such as radii of horizontal curves and lengths of vertical curves.
o Evaluate the effect of speed on highway to the crash rate for different speed
characteristics.
o Determine speed trends.
SPOT SPEED (LOCATION OF STUDIES)

 Any location may be used for the solution of a specific traffic engineering problem
 it is important that unbiased data be obtained.
 This requires that drivers be unaware that such a study is being conducted.
 Equipment used therefore, should be concealed (hide) from the driver, and observers
conducting the study should be inconspicuous (invisible)
 Adequate number of sample is recorded for the statistical analysis
 SPOT SPEED (TIME AND DURATION)

 Depends on the purpose of the study:

 To observe speed trends, or to collect basic data, it is recommended that the
study be conducted when traffic is free-flowing, usually during off-peak hours
 To response to citizen complaints, it is useful if the time period selected for the
study reflects the nature of the complaints.
 The duration of the study should be such that the minimum number of vehicle speeds
required for statistical analysis is recorded.
 Typically, the duration is at least 1 hour and the sample size is at least 30 vehicles.
 SPOT SPEED (SAMPLE SIZE OF STUDIES)

 The calculated mean (or average) speed is used to represent the true mean value of all
vehicle speeds at that location.
 The accuracy of this assumption depends on the number of vehicles in the sample.
 The larger the sample size, the greater the probability that the estimated mean is
about the same as the true mean.
 It is therefore necessary to select the adequate sample size
 Statistical procedures are used to determine this minimum sample size
 SPOT SPEED (SAMPLE SIZE OF STUDIES)
 The minimum sample size depends on the precision level desired.
 The confidence level is commonly given in terms of the level of significance (α), where
α = (100 - confidence level).
 The commonly used confidence level for speed counts is 95 % and level of significance
(α) = 5%
 The properties of the normal distribution are then used to determine the minimum
sample size for an acceptable error ( d ) of the estimated speed.
SPOT SPEED (SAMPLE SIZE OF STUDIES)

Standard deviation, σ is the difference of

members value to the mean value of 1 set
data.
(km/hr)
(km/hr) There is no limit of the acceptance error, d.
Usually set by the demand of client.
SPOT SPEED (SAMPLE SIZE OF STUDIES)

EXAMPLE 4
A group of students collected a total of 120 spot speed samples at federal road. the
standard variation of the speeds determined from this data set was 9.6 km/hr. If the
project required that the confidence level be 95% and the limit of acceptable error was
2.5 km/hr , determine whether these students satisfied the project requirement.
SPOT SPEED (SAMPLE SIZE OF STUDIES)

SOLUTION

1.96 𝑥 9.6 2
𝑁= = 56.64 < 120 , so 120 is acceptable
2.5
SPOT SPEED (METHOD OF CONDUCTING)

 The methods used for conducting spot speed studies can generally be divided into
two main categories: manual and automatic
 These automatic devices can be grouped into three main categories:
(1) those that use road detectors
(2) those that are radar-based
(3) those that use the principles of electronics.
 SPOT SPEED (METHOD OF CONDUCTING)
ROAD DETECTORS
 Two general categories: pneumatic road tubes and induction loops.
 These devices can be used to collect data on speeds at the same time as volume data are
being collected
 The advantage of the detector meters is that human errors are considerably reduced.
 The disadvantages are that
(1) these devices tend to be rather expensive and
(2) when pneumatic tubes are used, they are rather visible and may affect driver
behaviour, resulting in a distortion of the speed distribution
SPOT SPEED (METHOD OF CONDUCTING)
ROAD DETECTORS
SPOT SPEED (METHOD OF CONDUCTING)

RADAR-BASED TRAFFIC SENSORS

 Radar-based traffic sensors work on the principle that when a signal is transmitted onto
a moving vehicle, the change in frequency between the transmitted signal and the
reflected signal is proportional to the speed of the moving vehicle
 The advantage of this method is the influence on driver behaviour is considerably
reduced because the equipment can be located at an inconspicuous (invisible) position,
SPOT SPEED (METHOD OF CONDUCTING)

RADAR-BASED
TRAFFIC
SENSORS
SPOT SPEED (METHOD OF CONDUCTING)

ELECTRONIC-PRINCIPLE DETECTORS
 Detected through electronic means, and information on these vehicles obtained are,
such as speed, volume, queues, and headways
 The great advantage of this method is no need to use road detectors
 This technology using electronics which is video image processing, sometimes referred
to as a machine-vision system
 This system consists of an electronic camera overlooking a large section of the roadway
and a microprocessor.
SPOT SPEED (METHOD OF CONDUCTING)

ELECTRONIC-PRINCIPLE
DETECTORS
 The electronic camera receives the
images from the road, then the
microprocessor determines the vehicle’s
presence or passage on a lane.
 This information is used to determine the
traffic characteristics in real time.
 One such system is the autoscope.
 TUTORIAL QUESTION 1
1. Table show the data collected from a rural highway during spot speed study.
Determine:
a. The arithmetic mean speed
b. The standard deviation
c. Minimum number of sample
d. The median speed
e. The mode or modal speed
f. Pace (range of speed taken 10km/hr interval from the highest number of observation
vehicle)
g. The 85th percentile speed (establish speed limit)
 TUTORIAL QUESTION 1
Vehicle Speed Vehicle Speed Vehicle Speed Vehicle Speed Vehicle Speed
number (km/hr) number (km/hr) number (km/hr) number (km/hr) number (km/hr)
1 71.3 11 84.6 21 71.8 31 70.4 41 95.2
2 62.1 12 78.3 22 75.9 32 67.4 42 87.3
3 70.6 13 70.3 23 69.3 33 75.5 43 81.6
4 62.8 14 51.9 24 81.4 34 67.8 44 75.5
5 58.3 15 64.7 25 63.7 35 75.9 45 58.4
6 89.34 16 47.3 26 78.6 36 71.3 46 76.4
7 73.12 17 81.8 27 95.4 37 75.3 47 67.4
8 93.23 18 53.8 28 92.2 38 86.5 48 82.5
9 81.3 19 69.6 29 85.4 39 76.4 49 76.4
10 88.4 20 77.5 30 82.2 40 92.5 50 73.3
 TUTORIAL ANSWER 1
Vehicle Speed Vehicle Speed Vehicle Speed Vehicle Speed Vehicle Speed
number (km/hr) number (km/hr) number (km/hr) number (km/hr) number (km/hr)
16 47.3 47 67.4 7 73.12 20 77.5 29 85.4
14 51.9 34 67.8 50 73.3 12 78.3 38 86.5
18 53.8 23 69.3 37 75.3 26 78.6 42 87.3
5 58.3 19 69.6 33 75.5 9 81.3 10 88.4
45 58.4 13 70.3 44 75.5 24 81.4 6 89.34
2 62.1 31 70.4 22 75.9 43 81.6 28 92.2
4 62.8 3 70.6 35 75.9 17 81.8 40 92.5
25 63.7 1 71.3 39 76.4 30 82.2 8 93.23
15 64.7 36 71.3 46 76.4 48 82.5 41 95.2
32 67.4 21 71.8 49 76.4 11 84.6 27 95.4

Range of speed = 95.4 – 47.3 km/hr = 48.1 km/hr

 TUTORIAL ANSWER 1
% Of Cumulative
Class mid Frequency Cumulative
Speed class ui x fi ഥ
𝒇 𝒖𝒊 − 𝒖 𝟐 observation % of
value (ui) (fi) frequency
frequency frequency
45 - 49.9 47.5 1 1 47.5 784 2 2
50 - 54.9 52.5 2 3 105 1058 4 6
55 - 59.9 57.5 2 5 115 648 4 10
60 - 64.9 62.5 4 9 250 676 8 18
65 - 69.9 67.5 5 14 337.5 320 10 28
70 - 74.9 72.5 8 22 580 72 16 44
75 - 79.9 77.5 11 33 852.5 44 22 66
80 - 84.9 82.5 7 40 577.5 343 14 80
85 - 89.9 87.5 5 45 437.5 720 10 90
90 - 94.9 92.5 3 48 277.5 867 6 96
95 - 99.9 97.5 2 50 195 968 4 100
Total Σ= 50 Σ= 3775 Σ= 6500 Σ= 100
TUTORIAL ANSWER 1

❑Arithmetic mean speed/ calculated ❑ Standard deviation of speed data, S

mean speed, 𝑢ത
σ𝑓 𝑢−𝑢ഥ 2
σ 𝑓𝑖 𝑢𝑖 S=
𝑁 −1
𝑢ത =
σ 𝑓𝑖

6500
3775 S = = 11.52 𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟
= = 75.5 𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟
50 −1
50
TUTORIAL ANSWER 1

❑ Minimum required number of sample (N) with limit of acceptable error (d) is 3.5 km/hr

2
𝑍𝑆
𝑁= or
𝑑

1.96 𝑥 11.52 2
𝑁= = 41.61 < 50 , so 50 is acceptable
3.5
 TUTORIAL ANSWER 1

12

❑The modal speed = 77.5 10

km/hr (speed occur the Pace
most in group of data) 8

frequency
6
❑Pace (range of speed
taken 10km/hr interval 4
from the highest number
2
of observation vehicle) =
72.5 – 82.5 km/hr 0
47.5 52.5 57.5 62.5 67.5 72.5 77.5 82.5 87.5 92.5 97.5
Class mid value (km/hr)
 TUTORIAL ANSWER 1
110

Cumulative percentage of frequency

100
❑The median speed obtained 90
from 50th percentile speed = 80
74 km/hr 70
60

(%)
❑85th percentile speed = 85 50
km/hr (commonly used for 40
the speed limit value) 30
20
10 74 85
0
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Class mid value (km/hr)
 TUTORIAL QUESTION 2
2. Table show the data collected from a rural highway during spot speed study. Determine:
a. The arithmetic mean speed
b. The standard deviation
c. Minimum number of sample use
i. If Acceptable error = 3.5 km/hr
𝜎 𝑆
ii. If Acceptable error to be use is equal to standard error of the mean, so use (𝑑 = 𝑜𝑟 )
𝑁 𝑁

d. The median speed

e. The mode or modal speed
f. Pace
g. The 85th percentile speed (establish speed limit)
TUTORIAL QUESTION 2
Speed class Vehicle frequency (fi)

21-25 2
26-30 6
31-35 18
36-40 25
41-45 19
46-50 16
51-55 17
56-60 12
61-65 7
66-70 4
71-75 3
76-80 1
 GROUP 1 GROUP 2 GROUP 3 GROUP 4 GROUP 5 GROUP 6 GROUP 7
ABAS IBRAHIM ABDIRAHMAN SAID ABDIWAHAB ABDULLAHI AMIRAH AQILAH ANIS ARIF RASHIDI B
MUDEY AHMED HUSSEIN HIREY ALI OMAR ZULBAHAR BIADATUN ABD HAMID
NISAK BINTI
SANUSI
HAFIZUL ILHAM AKMAL BIN ISMAIL MOHAMED IZZATUL IZZUAN AL JOAN ANG LAILATUL SOLEHAH
SYAZWAN BIN MUHAMAD OSMAN NURAIN BINTI HAFIZ BIN SABRI BINTI MOHD
ZAINUDDIN NASRUDIN CHE SANG JAAFAR
BERI
NOOR SYAZWANI MOHAMMED MUHAMAD MUHAMMAD MUHAMMAD MUHAMMAD MUHAMMAD
SUHAIME HESHAM HAMOOD HAZIQ BIN ALIF BIN AMIN HAFIY BIN FIRDAUS BIN HARRIS BIN HAIRUL
ABDULRAHMAN RASHIDI ADNAN RUDZUAN ABDUL HALIM ANWA

NOR SYAKIRAH NUR ADILA BINTI NUR AFIFAH BT NUR ALIA NUR ALYA NUR ANIS NUR BALQIS BINTI
BINTI ASMAT ABDUL HALIM MOHD IZZATIE BINTI KHAIRINA BINTI SYARAFINAZ SAHAR
KHAIRUDDIN ABDUL GHANI ZULKEPELI BINTI ABD
MANAN
NUR SHUHADA NUR SYAFIKA BINTI NUR SYAKINAH NUR ZAKIAH NURUL NAJWA OOI CHOON SITI NUR MASYITAH
BINTI SAFAR JOHAN BINTI MOHD ANIS BINTI BINTI NOORDIN GUAN BINTI HAIRUDIN
FAUZI ABDUL RAHIM
 GROUP 8 GROUP 9 GROUP 10 GROUP 11 GROUP 12 GROUP 13 GROUP 14
CHRISTINA FADHILAH FATHIN GEETHA AFIFUDDIN BIN AINUN IZZATI AFIQ BIN AHMAD
REMMY ANAK IZZATI BINTI ELLIANA BINTI MURUKAIYA AZIZUDDIN BINTI HASHIM SAFFRI
ENTALAI ABDUL RANI JA’AFAR

LEE YONG QIU LIM HAO KAI LIM JIA XIN MOHAMED MOHAMAD AIMAN NUR HUMAIRAH MUHAMAD HAFIZ
HASSAN ADEN BIN HISHAMUDDIN BINTI ROSLI BIN ROHIZAN

MUHAMMAD NOOR ALHA MOHAMMAD NOR AISYAH MUHAMMAD SYAFIQ NUR SYAHIRAH MUHAMMAD ZHARIF
LUTFIL HADI BINTI ABDUL SYAFIZUL SYAFIQAH BINTI ABU BAKAR SYAZWANI BINTI RAMADA BIN
BIN NORAINI MUTALIB ASYRAF BIN NORDIN RAMLEE SUHAIMEY
AMRAN

NUR FATIN NUR HIDAYAH NUR IZYAN NUR JUNAIDA MUHD ALIFF NUR AINAA BINTI MOHD ZAHIDI BIN
EZZATY BT BT KHAIRUL BINTI ZAKARIA BINTI ASHRAFF BIN SAMSUDIN ABDUL HANAN
YUSRI ANUAR MOHAMAD YUSOFF
JAMEL

SITINUR SYARIFAH SYIFA TAN JUN KAI MUHAMMAD YUSRI NUREEN UMAR ABD AZIZ BIN
ATHIRAH BINTI NURUL SYAZWANI BT ABU BAKAR SYAHIRAH BINTI ZAINUDDIN
KAMARUL SYAFIQAH BT JUHARI MUSTAFA
BAKHTIAR SYED MOHD
SUKRI
 GROUP 15 GROUP 16 GROUP 17 GROUP 18 GROUP 19 GROUP 20
WAN NUR DINI NURUL ASYIQIN UMI SYAIDA WAN ABDUL TAN KIA SHENG MOHAMAD REYAD
WAN SAFRI SAFRUDDIN SYAZANANI BINTI QAYYUM BIN WAN ALHADI
ZAMANI SHARIFUDIN ABDUL AZIZ

AINAA SYAFIQAH SITI HAJAR MOHD ASYIQIN BT LUQMAN HAKEEM KOK JIAN YIK MUHAMMAD
KHAIRUDDIN ZAINOL MUHAMMAD BASRI BIN BUJUNG ZAMEEL HAKIM
AHMAD SABRI

ANG SI WEI LEE KAR YAO TAN YING CHUN LU WEI SIANG AHMED BASHIR ZUBAIDAH
HAMID ABDULLAH

MOHAMMED S.A. AMAR YOUSEF LEE JUN SIANG MUHAMMAD AMEER HAMEED MOHAMAD AMMAR
ALSALOUL ALDHEEN KHUSAIZAM HATEM IBRAHIM
MAZALAN

MUHAMMAD SYED AMIRUL HUSNI

FAKRULLAH SYED AZMAN
MOHAMAD JEFFRI
TRAVEL TIME AND
DELAY STUDIES
 TRAVEL TIME AND DELAY STUDIES

 A travel time study determines the amount of time required to travel from one point
to another on a given route
 In conducting such a study, information may also be collected on the locations,
durations, and causes of delays
 Data obtained from travel time and delay studies give a good indication of the level of
service (LOS) on the study section
 These data also aid the traffic engineer in identifying problem locations, which may
require special attention in order to improve the overall flow of traffic on the route.
 TRAVEL TIME AND DELAY STUDIES (APPLICATION)

 Determination of the efficiency of a route with respect to its ability to carry traffic
 Identification of locations with relatively high delays and the causes for those delays
 Performance of before-and-after studies to evaluate the effectiveness of traffic
operation improvements
 Compilation of travel time data that may be used in trend studies to evaluate the
changes in efficiency and level of service with time
 Performance of economic studies in the evaluation of traffic operation alternatives that
reduce travel time
 TRAVEL TIME AND DELAY STUDIES (LEVEL OF SERVICE-LOS)
 The LOS can be defined as:
 A quantitative stratification of a performance measure or
 Measures that represent quality of service which describes the operational
conditions within traffic stream, and their observation by motorists and/or travellers
 Level of Service (L.O.S.) has been introduced by the Highway Capacity Manual (HCM)
which represents the level of facility a user can derive from a road under various
operating characteristics and traffic volumes
 When a road is carrying traffic in equal volume to its capacity, or say volume to
capacity ratio near to one, under ideal traffic and roadway conditions, the operating
conditions become poor
 TRAVEL TIME AND DELAY STUDIES (LEVEL OF SERVICE-LOS)

LOS DESCRIPTION VOLUME/CA

PACITY
RATIO
A Free-flow operations at average travel speeds, usually about 90 percent of O.15
the free-flow speed (FFS) for the given street class
Vehicles are completely unimpeded in their ability to move within the
traffic stream
B Reasonable unimpeded operations at average speed usually about 70 0.27
percent of the FFS for the street class.
The ability to move within the traffic stream is only slightly restricted, and
control delay at signalized intersections are not significant.
LOS DESCRIPTION VOLUME/C
APACITY
RATIO
C TRAVEL TIME AND
Stable operations, DELAY
however STUDIES
the ability to move and(LEVEL OF
change lanes SERVICE-LOS)
in midblock 0.43
location may be more restricted than at LOS B, and longer queues, adverse
signal coordination, or both may contribute to lower average of speeds of
about 50 percent of the FFS for the street class
D Small increase in flow may cause substantial increase in delay and decrease 0.64
the travel speed. LOS D may be due to adverse signal progression,
inappropriate signal timing, high volumes, or a combination of these factors.
Average travel speeds are about 40 percent of FFS.
E Significant delays and average travel speed is 33 percent or the less of the 1.0
FFS. Such operations are caused by a combination of adverse progression,
high signal density, high volumes, and extensive delays at critical intersection
and in appropriate signal timing.
F Very congested and extremely low speeds -
TRAVEL TIME AND DELAY STUDIES (LEVEL OF SERVICE-LOS)

➢ The designed capacity volume

value of the road was taken from
the JKR guidelines.
➢ Under ideal condition, the
possible capacity for
uninterrupted flow for two-lanes
two ways (total) are 2800
PCU/hr while for multilane (per
lane) are 2000 PCU/hr
 TRAVEL TIME AND DELAY STUDIES (DEFINITION)

1. Travel time is the time taken by a vehicle to traverse/travel in a given section of a

highway.
2. Running time is the time a vehicle is actually in motion while traversing a given
section of a highway.
3. Delay is the time lost by a vehicle due to causes beyond the control of the driver.
4. Operational delay is that part of the delay caused by the impedance of other traffic.
This impedance can occur either as side friction, where the stream flow is interfered
with by other traffic (for example, parking or unparking vehicles), or as internal
friction, where the interference is within the traffic stream (for example, reduction in
capacity of the highway).
 TRAVEL TIME AND DELAY STUDIES (DEFINITION)

5. Stopped-time delay is that part of the delay during which the vehicle is at rest.
6. Fixed delay is that part of the delay caused by control devices such as traffic signals.
This delay occurs regardless of the traffic volume or the impedance that may exist.
7. Travel-time delay is the difference between the actual travel time and the travel
time that will be obtained by assuming that a vehicle traverses the study section at an
average speed equal to that for an uncongested traffic flow on the section being
studied.
 TRAVEL TIME AND DELAY STUDIES (METHODS)

 These methods can be grouped into two general categories:

(1) Those using a test vehicle and
(2) Those not requiring a test vehicle.

 The particular technique used for any specific study depends on the reason for
conducting the study and the available personnel and equipment.
 TRAVEL TIME AND DELAY STUDIES (METHODS)
Those using a test vehicle
1. Floating-Car Technique
2. Average-Speed Technique
3. Moving-Vehicle Technique

Those not requiring a test vehicle

1. License-Plate Observations
2. Interviews

ITS Advanced Technologies

 TRAVEL TIME AND DELAY STUDIES (METHODS)

Floating-Car Technique

 In this method, the test car is driven by an observer along the test section so that the
test car “floats” with the traffic
 The driver of the test vehicle attempts to pass as many vehicles as those that pass his
test vehicle
 The time taken to traverse the study section is recorded
 This is repeated, and the average time is recorded as the travel time
 TRAVEL TIME AND DELAY STUDIES (METHODS)

Average-Speed Technique

 This technique involves driving the test car along the length of the test section at a
speed that, in the opinion of the driver, is the average speed of the traffic stream.
 The time required to traverse the test section is noted.
 TRAVEL TIME AND DELAY STUDIES (METHODS)

Moving-Vehicle Technique

 In this technique, the observer makes a round trip

on a test section like the one shown in the figure,
where it is assumed that the road runs east to west.
 The observer starts collecting the relevant data at
section X-X, drives the car eastward to section Y-Y,
then turns the vehicle around and drives westward
to section X-X again.
 TRAVEL TIME AND DELAY STUDIES (METHODS)

License-Plate Observations

 The license-plate method requires that observers be positioned at the beginning and
end of the test section.
 Observers also can be positioned at other locations if elapsed times to those locations
are required.
 Each observer records the last three or four digits of the license plate of each car that
passes, together with the time at which the car passes.
 TRAVEL TIME AND DELAY STUDIES (METHODS)

License-Plate Observations

 The reduction of the data is accomplished in the office by matching the times of arrival
at the beginning and end of the test section for each license plate recorded.
 It has been suggested that a sample size of 50 matched license plates will give reasonably
accurate results.
 TRAVEL TIME AND DELAY STUDIES (METHODS)

Interviews

 The interviewing method is carried out by obtaining information from people who drive
on the study site regarding their travel times, their experience of delays, and so forth.
 This method facilitates the collection of a large amount of data in a relatively short time.
 However, it requires the cooperation of the people contacted, since the result depends
entirely on the information given by them.
 TRAVEL TIME AND DELAY STUDIES (METHODS)

Intelligent transport system

 A commonly used technology for locating the positions of the vehicle GPS technology
 The technology is used to determine average speeds and travel times along highways
 Collect, store, and analyse the data on the movement of people and goods
 Also been use in Advanced Traffic Management Systems (ATMS)
 Helps in protection against the threats in the transport system, reduces interruptions in
traffic, enhances travel time and reduces the rate of accidents
 TUTORIAL -QUESTION 3
The data obtained from the travel time and delay study in federal road. It includes
travel time and delay time of the sample vehicle. The studied road length is 4km.
Determine the average journey speed and running speed based on the given
information. Determine also the average delay based on the running speed if the
free flow speed is 60 km/hr.

Journey time (minutes) 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5

Delay time (minutes) 1.6 2.8 3.6 4.5 5.2 6.1
No of vehicle 5 12 21 19 11 5
 TUTORIAL -QUESTION 3 (ANSWER)

Journey time Delay time

No of vehicle-f fX1 fX2
(minutes)-X1 (minutes)-X2
7.0 1.6 5.0 35.0 8.0
7.5 2.8 12.0 90.0 33.6
8.0 3.6 21.0 168.0 75.6
8.5 4.5 19.0 161.5 85.5
9.0 5.2 11.0 99.0 57.2
9.5 6.1 5.0 47.5 30.5
Total 73.0 601 290.4
 TUTORIAL -QUESTION 3 (ANSWER)
σ 𝑓𝑋1 601
 Average time of journey = = = 8.23 minute/veh
σ𝑓 73
σ 𝑓𝑋2 290.4
 Average delay time = = = 3.98 minute/veh
σ𝑓 73
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 4 𝑘𝑚
 Average journey speed = = = 29.15 km/hr
𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑦 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 8.23 𝑚𝑛𝑡/𝑣𝑒ℎ
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 4 𝑘𝑚
 Average running speed = = = 56.41 km/hr
𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑦 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒−𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 8.23 − 3.98 𝑚𝑛𝑡/𝑣𝑒ℎ

 Average delay time of running speed = 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 − 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

4𝑘𝑚 4𝑘𝑚
= − = 15. 29 sec
56.41𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟 60𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟
 TUTORIAL -QUESTION 4

The data in Table were

obtained in a travel
time study on a section
of highway using the
moving-vehicle technique.
Determine the travel
time and volume in each
direction at this section
of the highway.
𝑇𝑒 = 𝑁𝑒 = 𝑂𝑒 = 𝑃𝑒 =
TUTORIAL -QUESTION 4

𝑇𝑤 = 𝑁𝑤 = 𝑂𝑤 = 𝑃𝑤 =
 TUTORIAL -QUESTION 4 (ANSWER)
Volume in the westbound direction Average travel time in the westbound direction

𝑁𝑒 + 𝑂𝑤 − 𝑃𝑤
𝑉𝑤 = 𝑂𝑤 − 𝑃𝑤
𝑇𝑒 + 𝑇𝑤 𝑇ത𝑤 = 𝑇𝑤 −
𝑉𝑤

Volume in the eastbound direction Average travel time in the eastbound direction

𝑁𝑤 + 𝑂𝑒 − 𝑃𝑒 𝑂𝑒 − 𝑃𝑒
𝑉𝑒 = 𝑇ത𝑒 = 𝑇𝑒 −
𝑇𝑒 + 𝑇𝑤 𝑉𝑒
 TUTORIAL -QUESTION 4 (ANSWER)
𝑁𝑒 + 𝑂𝑤 − 𝑃𝑤 79.50 + 1.25 − 0.875
𝑉𝑤 = = = 13.50 veh/minute = 809.5 veh/hr
𝑇𝑒 + 𝑇𝑤 2.85 + 3.07

𝑁𝑤 + 𝑂𝑒 − 𝑃𝑒 82.25 + 1.00 − 1.50

𝑉𝑒 = = = 13.81 veh/minute = 828.5 veh/hr
𝑇𝑒 + 𝑇𝑤 2.85 + 3.07

𝑂𝑤 − 𝑃𝑤 1.25 − 0.827
𝑇ത𝑤 = 𝑇𝑤 + = 3.07 − = 3.04 minutes
𝑉𝑤 13.50

𝑂𝑒 − 𝑃𝑒 1.00 − 1.50
𝑇ത𝑒 = 𝑇𝑒 + = 2.85 − = 2.89 minutes
𝑉𝑒 13.81
 TUTORIAL -QUESTION 5
The data obtained from the travel time and delay study in federal road. It includes
travel time and delay time of the sample vehicle. The studied road length is 6.0 km.
Determine the average journey speed and running speed based on the given
information. Determine also the average delay based on the running speed if the
free flow speed is 90 km/hr.

Journey time (minutes) 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5

Delay time (minutes) 1.3 1.5 2.7 4.3 4.9 5.7
No of vehicle 13 23 41 37 27 16
 TUTORIAL -QUESTION 6

The data in Table were

obtained in a travel
time study on a section
of highway using the
moving-vehicle technique.
Determine the travel
time and volume in each
direction at this section
of the highway.
TUTORIAL -QUESTION 6
PARKING STUDIES
 PARKING STUDIES
 Any vehicle traveling on a highway will at one time or another be parked for either a
short time or a much longer time, depending on the reason for parking.
 The need for parking spaces is usually very crucial in areas where land uses include
business, residential, or commercial activities.
 The growing use of the automobile as a personal feeder service to transit systems
(“park-and-ride”) has also increased the demand for parking spaces at transit stations
 Providing adequate parking space to meet the demand for parking in the CBD may
necessitate the provision of parking bays along curbs
 Problem: it will reduces the capacity of the streets and may affect the level of
service
 PARKING STUDIES

 The solution is not simple, since the allocation of available space will depend on the
goals of the community which the traffic engineer must take into consideration when
trying to solve the problem.
 Parking studies are therefore used to determine the demand for and the supply of
parking facilities in an area, and the projection of the demand
 PARKING STUDIES (TYPES)

 Parking facilities can be divided into two main

groups: on-street and off-street.
1. On-Street Parking Facilities: These are also
known as curb facilities. Parking bays are
provided alongside the curb on one or both
sides of the street.
2. Off-Street Parking Facilities: These facilities may
be privately or publicly owned; they include
surface lots and garages.
PARKING STUDIES (DEFINITION)

Parking accumulation is the number of

A space-hour is a unit Parking volume is the
parked vehicles in a study area at any
of parking that defines total number of vehicles
specified time. These data can be plotted
the use of a single parking that park in a study area
as a curve of parking accumulation against
space for a period of 1 during a specific length of
time, which shows the variation of the
hour. time, usually a day.
parking accumulation during the day.

The parking load is the Parking duration is the length

area under the accumulation of time a vehicle is parked at a Parking turnover is the rate of
curve between two specific parking bay. When the parking use of a parking space. It is
times. It is usually given as duration is given as an average, it obtained by dividing the parking
the number of space-hours gives an indication of how volume for a specified period by
used during the specified frequently a parking space the number of parking spaces.
period of time. becomes available.
 PARKING STUDIES (METHODOLOGY)

 Comprehensive parking study usually involves

(1) inventory of existing parking facilities,
(2) collection of data: parking accumulation, parking turnover and parking duration
(3) identification of parking generators
(4) collection of information on parking demand
PARKING STUDIES (METHODOLOGY)
Inventory of existing parking facilities
 An inventory of existing parking facilities is a detailed listing of the location and all
other relevant characteristics of each legal parking facility, private and public, in the
study area.
 The inventory includes both on- and off-street facilities include:
1. Type and number of parking spaces at each parking facility
2. Times of operation and limit on duration of parking, if any
3. Type of ownership (private or public)
4. Parking fees, if any, and method of collection
5. Restrictions on use (open or closed to the public)
6. Other restrictions, if any (such as loading and unloading zones, bus stops, or taxi ranks)
PARKING STUDIES (METHODOLOGY)

Collection of parking data

 Parking accumulation
 Usually carried out between 6:00
a.m. and 12 midnight.
 The selection of the times depends
on the operation times of land-use
activities that act as parking
generators
PARKING STUDIES (METHODOLOGY)

Identification of Parking Generators

 This phase involves identifying parking generators (for example, shopping
centers or transit terminals) and locating these on a map of the study area
PARKING STUDIES (METHODOLOGY)

Parking Demand
 Information on parking demand is obtained by interviewing drivers at the various
parking facilities listed during the inventory.
 An effort should be made to interview all drivers using the parking facilities on a
typical weekday between 8:00 a.m. and10:00 p.m.
 Information should include (1) trip origin, (2) purpose of trip, and (3) driver’s
destination after parking.
 The interviewer must also note the location of the parking facility, times of arrival
and departure, and the vehicle type.
PARKING STUDIES (ANALYSIS)
 The space-hours of demand for  The space-hours of supply are
parking are obtained from the obtained from the expression
expression
 EXAMPLE
 The owner of a parking garage located in a CBD has observed that 20% of those
wishing to park are turned back every day during the open hours of 8 a.m. to 6 p.m.
because of lack of parking spaces.
 An analysis of data collected at the garage indicates that 60% of those who park are
commuters, with an average parking duration of 9 hr, and the remaining are
shoppers, whose average parking duration is 2 hr.
 If 20% of those who cannot park are commuters and the rest are shoppers, and a
total of 200 vehicles currently park daily in the garage, determine the number of
additional spaces required to meet the excess demand. Assume parking efficiency is
0.90.
 PARKING STUDIES (SOLUTION)
Space-hours demand

Space-hours served
PARKING STUDIES (SOLUTION)