Solvent Extraction Degumming Oil Processing and Products out on edible oils, this step may be delayed until

Oil Processing and Products out on edible oils, this step may be delayed until other progressively dried to about 0.1% moisture content. This gives of their good stability and pourability and the low saturated
The presscake from the expellers, as is, or as collets from processes, such as hydrogenation of the oil, have been done. the best adsorption efficiency. As indicated earlier, about fatty acid content. Table 2 gives typical data from industry
The “crude” oil from the two extraction stages is usually
extruders, is conveyed to the solvent extractor. Some cooling Little authoritative industrial experience with physical refining 1-3% clay (10% moisture content) may be required to achieve experience.
blended and then degummed before being stored for sale Alkali and Physical Refining
during conveying is done to minimize vaporization of hexane and the pretreatment of canola oil for physical refining has chlorophyll removal to <25 ppb. This level is innocuous in
or further processing. Degumming removes phosphatides
Degummed oil is further purified in a process of refining. been published so far. respect to oxidation and colour of the oil. Mag, 1989 (5) has Table 2: Composition and Stability of Lightly
in the extractor. A variety of extractor designs are in use. The coextracted with the oil, which tend to separate from the
One of two methods are used, namely, alkali refining, given an overview of edible oil bleaching practice, with Hydrogenated Canola
solvent is hexane, specifically refined for this application. In oil as a sludge during storage. The phosphatide content of
especially with water degummed oil, and physical refining Canola Oil Processing particular attention to canola oil. Brimberg, 1981 (9) and
the extractor, the solids are solvent-washed in stages, first with crude oil varies, but is usually in the order of 1.25%, or
with acid-water degummed oil. Alkali refining is the most Henderson, 1993 (10) have investigated aspects of chlorophyll Canola
hexane already high in oil content (miscella) and then with measured as phosphorus, 500 ppm.
common process used, even with acid-water degummed oil. adsorption important to the process.
progressively leaner miscella and, finally with pure hexane. non-hydrogenated lightly hydrogenated
Physical refining is a relatively new development. It requires
This leaches the oil content in the solid material (meal) down Two degumming methods are in use: (a) using water to Crude Degummed Oil
well-degummed oil of moderate chlorophyll and free fatty Hydrogenation Fatty acid composition
to about 1%, depending somewhat on equipment design and precipitate phosphatides and; (b) using an acid such as citric,
acid content, but it is then very economical. C16:0 palmitic 4 4
throughput rate. malic, or phosphoric and water (superdegumming). After This process, which was first introduced in the edible oils
contacting the oil with these reagents, the oil is centrifuged Alkali-Refining Acid Pretreating / industry in connection with cottonseed and marine oil around C18:0 stearic 2 4
In alkali refining, the oil is first contacted with about
The meal and the miscella are now “stripped” of the solvent to to separate the precipitated material. Degumming with water Bleaching 1900, changes the melting behaviour of oils and improves
0.05-0.1% of concentrated phosphoric acid in a high intensity C18:1 oleic 60 80
recover solvent-free meal and oil. The solvent-saturated meal only, leaves from 100-250 ppm of phosphorus, depending on the oxidative stability. Today, it is also applied to such oils as
mixer to help precipitate phosphatides. It is then contacted
is conveyed to a desolventizer, which is a vertical tank the extent of hydrolysis of phosphatides in the course of seed soybean and canola. Hydrogen is added to the double bonds C18:2 linoleic 22 8
with an approximately 12% aqueous solution of sodium Bleaching
equipped with heated trays and agitators. Reduced pressure preparation, as discussed earlier. In degumming with an acid of unsaturated fatty acids at temperatures of 160-200ºC and
hydroxide to neutralize the free fatty acids and any excess C18:3 linolenic 10 2
and sometimes live steam are used to evaporate the hexane and and water, the hydrolyzed, non-hydratable phosphatides (NHP) pressures of 100-300 kPa in the presence of a nickel catalyst
phosphoric acid present, and to precipitate phosphatides. Iodine Value 115 90
to dry the meal. The hexane and moisture vapours are are also removed. Residual concentrations are about 25 ppm to facilitate the reaction. Chlorophyll, phosphatides, soaps,
This requires about 2-3% of the solution. Very intensive Hydrogenation
condensed, the water and hexane are separated, and the hexane of phosphorus. The separated phosphatides are added to the and especially sulfur compounds “poison” the catalyst, Stability
mixing is used. Temperatures and contact times may vary from
is reused. Several stages of heating and drying are applied to meal in the desolventizer. This raises the residual oil content raising process costs. The former are removed in refining
about 90ºC and only seconds for both acid and caustic in the Frying -- good
reduce the hexane content to negligible levels and moisture of the meal to about 2-3% and raises its energy content. and bleaching. Sulfur compounds are only reduced somewhat
so called “short-mix” process to about 40ºC and 15 minutes
to 8-11 %. Some removal of glucosinolates and their break- Typical concentrations of the various minor constituents found Catalyst Removal Other Oils in these treatments; deMan, 1983 (11) has investigated the AOM hours 15 75
each in the “long-mix” process. The oil/soap mixture is
down products and some protein denaturing occurs. in crude and in degummed canola oil are given in Table 1. role of sulfur compounds in catalyst poisoning in canola
then heated to about 90ºC, if required, and centrifuged to Pourability Yes Yes
oil hydrogenation.
separate the aqueous soap phase. This phase also contains
To achieve the best meal quality, the process must be well Table 1: Minor Constituents of Crude and of Blending
the precipitated phosphatides and some triglyceride oil. The The process is carried out batchwise. There are various Table 3 shows some typical margarine oil blends using
controlled with respect to temperature (110ºC max.) and time. Degummed Canola Oil centrifuged oil must be further contacted with about 5-10% reactor designs in use. Depending on temperature, pressure, canola oil hydrogenated to different melting ranges and
Usually, the final treatment in desolventizing is a cooling
hot water to reduce soap levels from about 400 ppm and to some extent the specific catalyst properties, different non-hydrogenated, and also hydrogenated soybean oils.
stage. Cooled meal may be ground to a uniform particle size,
to <50 ppm. Free fatty acids are reduced to <0.05% Dewaxing* Dewaxing* melting behaviour in the hydrogenated fat can be obtained.
or pelleted, ready for storage and marketing. Dehulling of Free fatty acids 0.4 – 1.0%
and phosphorus to <2 ppm. Iron and copper concentrations The oxidative stability improvement, also, is modified
the meal for non-ruminant feed may, in future, become Phospholipids 1 – 1.5% Table 3: Margarine with Canola Oil
are reduced to below detection. Coloured compounds somewhat by choice of process conditions. It is possible
commercial practice.
Water degummed (as P) 100 – 250 ppm (chlorophylloids, carotenoids) are not affected significantly. Physical Refining / to hydrogenate fatty acids with multiple double bonds
Deodorization
The concentration of sulfur compounds is reduced slightly. preferentially. These are the most easily oxidized and their Oil Stock Hard Margarine Soft Margarine No-Trans
The miscella containing the oil is desolventized in three-stage Acid – water deg. (as P) 10 – 50 ppm Deodorization
This oil is now ready for bleaching. The soap phase from this concentration must, therefore, be reduced or eliminated for
evaporator equipment. The hexane vapour from this operation % 1 2 1 2 3
Unsaponifiables operation can be added to the meal, similar to the disposal of best effect on stability. Usually, conditions are chosen which
is, also, condensed for reuse. A properly operated extraction Canola
the phosphatides from degumming, or it can be acidulated and provide this selectivity. In canola oil, very low concentrations
plant loses no more than about 2-3 litres of hexane/mt of seed (Tocopherols, Sterols) 0.5 – 1.2%
used as a feed ingredient. The wash water must be treated to Bulk Oil of these fatty acids can be achieved with very little hardening Hard 46 -- 25 -- --
processed. Beach (1), Unger (2), Buhr (4), Dahlen (6), and Chlorophylls 10 – 35 ppm Crystallization /
reduce the oil content to acceptable levels for discharge. Mag, of the oil taking place. Melting behaviour is most usually
Williams (7) have written on details of various aspects of Packaging / Tempering Shipping Medium 8 -- 10 -- --
Sulphur compounds (as S) 3 – 15 ppm 1990 (3) has reviewed industrial refining practice in some evaluated by determining the proportion of solid fat in
canola seed extraction.
detail. Carlson, 1993 (8) reviewed refining methods and costs. / Shipping a sample over the temperature range of interest, usually Soft 46 60 12 -- --
Iron, Crude/Acid-Wat. Deg. <2/<0.2 ppm
Canola Seed Extraction & Degumming of Oil 10-40ºC. Non -
Copper <det. limit In physical refining, acid-water degummed oil with a
Canola Seed (42% Oil) phosphorus content below 50 ppm is first subject to a Another consequence of hydrogenation is the formation of Hydrogenated -- -- 53 75 90
phosphoric acid pretreatment, as in the short-mix alkali * Dotted box indicates this process is optional isomeric fatty acids. Positional isomers as well as geometric,
Seed Cleaning The most recent development in degumming uses acid Palm/Palm Kernel
refining process. It is then contacted with acid-activated or trans isomers are formed. These compounds are important
and aqueous sodium hydroxide, rather than acid and bleaching clay in a standard bleaching process at 95-105ºC. Interesterified -- -- -- -- 10
Preheating water, especially with lower quality oils. This represents Adsorptive Bleaching contributors to the melting properties and the functional utility
The clay, along with precipitated phosphatides and adsorbed of the hydrogenated fat. Recently, nutrition science has again Soy Bean
an intermediate between acid-water degumming and alkali chlorophylloid and some carotenoid compounds, is then
Crushing / Flaking Alkali refined oil, which still contains most of the focused on the role of trans isomer fatty acids in the diet.
refining. Phosphatides as well as some of the other impurities removed by filtration. This is the first and most important Very Hard -- -- -- 25 --
chlorophylloid compounds present in the crude oil, requires This will probably continue to be controversial for some time.
are removed and, if sufficient alkali is applied to saponify stage of physical refining. It delivers bleached oil ready for Hard -- 40 -- -- --
Cooking bleaching. These compounds must be removed. They catalyze
the free fatty acids, fully refined oil is obtainable. deodorizing. Except for the free fatty acids in the oil, all other oil oxidation and give an undesirable green colour to the oil. Hydrogenated Canola Oil in Shortenings
Pressing minor constituents are reduced to the same concentrations as It has become recognized that chlorophyll removal is the most and Margarines The above hydrogenated canola oil stocks that are used in
in alkali refining and in addition, chlorophyll is reduced to important aspect of canola oil bleaching. Acid-activated clays
Settling / Filtering Solvent Extraction the concentration required of bleached oil, namely <25 ppb. Hydrogenated fats from canola oil play an important role margarines, are also used extensively in shortenings and as sta-
are used. Their adsorptive properties are especially effective
Usually, from 1-3% acid-activated bleaching clay is used, in the production of the wide range of fat products used ble frying fats. Industry makes a wide variety of canola based
Press Oil Oil Desolventization Meal Desolventization
for the removal of these compounds. Other coloured
depending primarily on the concentration and type of in Canada and other countries. They often appear in blends hydrogenated oil stocks for tailor-made shortenings.
compounds, some of the oxidation breakdown products
chlorophylloid compounds present in the oil. with other oils to combine the advantages of canola oil with
Extracted Oil Meal Grinding / and traces of iron are also removed in this process.
those of other oils. They are especially important as lightly Very highly hydrogenated canola oils are rarely used in
Pelletizing
The removal of the free fatty acids in the oil is done by steam hydrogenated oils for their exceptional stability. This is due, margarine and baking shortenings, because of the tendency
The process itself is carried out under vacuum with the oil at
Degumming distillation in a deodorizer. This simultaneously deodorizes the in part, to the high content of monounsaturated fatty acids in to form large (beta) crystals over time. This impairs eating
Meal Storage / about 100ºC. Many process versions are in use. About 5-30
Shipping oil. Because deodorization is the last process normally carried canola oil. These products are becoming very popular because properties and baking performance. The crystallization
minutes of contact time is given, while the oil/clay slurry is
Oil Processing
email: [email protected] • www.canola-council.org
significantly enhanced. 400-167 Lombard Avenue, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada R3B 0T6 • Phone: (204) 982-2100 • Fax: (204) 942-1841 and hydrogenation form traces of compounds, which also
properties. Capacity of solvent extraction equipment is ones, coagulates protein for better diffusion during solvent
which it is derived. In addition, such processes as bleaching
intact cells to release oil, coalesces small oil droplets to larger
of presscake (collets) have excellent solvent extraction
CANOLA COUNCIL OF CANADA President of T. Mag/Associates Consulting. oil which impart odour and taste typical of the seed from
making it very porous. These small diameter, porous pieces several very important functions: it ruptures remaining Ted Mag is a consultant to the fats & oils industry, and is step. Its primary function is to remove compounds from the
pressure release on discharge “expands” the extruded material, This heating, also called cooking or conditioning, serves
In edible oil processing, deodorization is the final "refining"
small openings of a die plate at the end of the barrel. The shortenings made from hydrogenated canola oil.
is developed. The material is then discharged through the plants, horizontal, rotary kilns equipped with steam coils. Deodorization
his studies on the crystallization behaviour of margarines and
and mixing take place along the length of the barrel. Pressure tanks with agitated, steam-heated trays or, in more modern tempering has been studied by deMan (12) in connection with
a rotating shaft fitted with flights. Steam is added and heating about 75-100ºC in cookers. These may be either vertical effect of commercial crystallization conditions and product have studied waxes in canola oil.
Extruders used for this purpose consist of a barrel with clearance than the first. The flaked seed is then heated to tempered for a shorter time and then refrigerated. The produces a visible haze. Przybylski (16), and Ackman (17)
extrusion to improve its solvent extraction properties. roller mills are used, with the second set adjusted to a tighter for optimum shortening properties. Margarines are usually This reduces the wax content to <50 ppm, which no longer
In some plants, the presscake is subjected to mechanical roller mills, set to very tight clearance. Usually, two sets of It is a poorly understood process, but it is very important a filter aid into the chilled oil stream on the way to a filter.
may also be required. The preheated seed is then flaked on to improve plasticity, creaming, and baking performance. exchanger to about 5ºC and metering about 0.1% of
solvent extraction. important with very cold seed. Some moisture adjustment The process is carried out by chilling in a continuous heat
packaged products is held for two to four days at 25-27ºC
breaker to produce uniform sized particles, is now ready for to about 30-40ºC to prevent shattering. This is especially therefore, to dewax the oil to avoid a hazy appearance.
fat mixture to reach completion. The properly crystallized,
stage. The presscake, which may be put through a mechanical In many extraction plants, the cleaned seed is first heated room temperature, or lower. In some cases, it is desirable,
allowing certain equilibrium processes in the crystalline/liquid
by gravity and filtration, and recycled to the conditioning triglycerides in composition, but are usually crystalline at
Seed Preparation for Extraction Tempering of crystallized fat products refers to the process of
expeller is unavoidable. These fines are separated from the oil (about 100 – 200 ppm). These compounds are related to
discharge of very fine solids with the oil draining from the crystallization before the product enters the package. oil does occasionally contain a small concentration of waxes
Dehulling of the seed is, at present, not a commercial process.
the solids (presscake) discharge end of the barrel. Some achieved. Essentially this means very rapid and complete clear and liquid at refrigerator temperatures. However, the
combination of these are used in the cleaning process.
the rotating screw shaft working against an adjustable choke at crystallization to the very small beta prime type crystals is Canola oil is a natural salad oil. This means that it remains
of the seed. Aspiration, indent cleaning, sieving, or some
within. Pressure and heat are developed within the barrel by in hydrogenated canola oil require special care to ensure that
plant stalks, grain seeds and other materials from the bulk Dewaxing
flow from between the bars while retaining the solid material about a 1ºC temperature rise in the package. Products high
are obtained. The graded seed is then cleaned to remove
mounted edgewise around the inside and spaced to allow oil to package. When done properly, there should be no more than alternatively, bleached.
It is the first step to help ensure that a quality oil and meal
shaft in a cylindrical barrel. The barrel has flat steel bars crystallization to take place before the product enters the added to neutralize the base. The oil is then washed, or
the Canadian Grain Commission. Payment is based on grade. 17. Ackman, R.G., et al. 1993, CUAP Project Report #90-31. In print.
efficient and economical. Expellers consist of a rotating screw the A-unit to about 25ºC and resting to allow most of the The oil is then cooled to about 90ºC, phosphoric acid is
according to a strict grading standard for canola established by
solvent extraction of the remaining oil is then much more 16. Przybylski, R., et al. 1993. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 70, 10, p. 1009-1015. appearance. Essential process conditions are chilling in contacted for about 30 minutes to catalyse the reaction.
Seed delivered to the extraction plant from the farm is graded
(8% moisture basis) to 16-20% mechanically. Subsequent of the B-units. This gives the product its white, even-textured to the heated (150ºC) oil as a powder under agitation and
15. Desrosier, W.J. 1988. M. Sc. Thesis, U. of Saskatchewan.
is to reduce the oil content of the seed from about 42% Seed Grading and Cleaning about 10% by volume of nitrogen gas is added ahead Sodium methoxide (a strong base, 0.05%) is added
screw-presses or expellers. The function of this equipment 14. Thomas, K.C., et al. 1988 J. Can. Inst. Food Sc. and Techn. 21, p. 167-173.
a variety of packages and sizes. In the case of shortenings, spray. The oil must be very dry and low in free fatty acids.
The heat-conditioned seed is passed into continuous Extraction of Seed for Oil and Meal 13. Naguib-Mostafa, A., et al. 1985, J. Am. Oil Chemists’ Soc. 62, 4, p. 756-759 and 760-762. product is then transferred to fillers where it is packaged in agitated tank, equipped with a vacuum system and a water
Prepressing 12. deMan, J., et al. 1992. INFORM, 3, 4, p. 542. place. The now partially crystalline, but still pumpable fat In modern plants, the process is carried out in a heated,
the industry. in which further crystallization with or without agitation takes
usually unavoidable. gives an overview of these processes and methods as used in 11. deMan, J., et al. 1983. ibid. 60, 3 558-562. heat exchangers (A-units), followed by resting units (B-units) use for this purpose because of cost.
to refine. A small concentration of breakdown products is long history, and is continually being improved. This brochure 10. Henderson, J.H. 1993 J. Am. Oil Chemists’ Soc. 70, 9, p. 831-835. out in systems consisting of ammonia cooled, scraped-surface hydrogenated canola oil, however, it has not found significant
phosphatide breakdown products make the oil more difficult large variety of oil products for human consumption also has a phase, are crystallized directly. The crystallization is carried use in controlling the problem with beta crystallization of
the quality of the oil and the meal; triglyceride and, especially, improved. Processing of the oil after extraction to obtain a 9. Brimberg, U.I. 1981. Fette, Seifen, Anstrichmittel 83, 5, p. 184. phase first. Shortenings, which do not usually involve a water performance. Interesterification has also been proposed for
quality oil and meal. Glucosinolate breakdown products impair developed over the years. These methods are continually being 8. Carlson, K. 1993, INFORM, 4, 3, 272-281. use. Margarine oils are emulsified with an appropriate water decreased in the future, interesterification will assume greater
These hydrolysis processes must be suppressed to produce a high quality protein meal as an animal feed have been shortening oils are converted into semi-solid form for final vegetable oils. If trans isomers in fat and oil products must be
7. Williams, M.A. 1989, Oil Mill Gazeteer, 95, 3. With the exception of bulk frying fats, margarine and cation of non-hydrogenated canola oil with fully hydrogenated
and lipases, which hydrolyze triglycerides and phosphatides. to produce a high quality raw oil for further processing and
of importance: myrosinase, which hydrolyzes glucosinolates; The processing methods used to extract the oil from the seed 6. Dahlen, J. 1973. Ger. Offen. 2 313 224. Margarine and Shortening Packaging and Tempering Thomas (14) and Desrosier (15) have investigated interesterifi-
on temperature and moisture content. Two enzyme systems are 5. Mag, T.K. 1989, ibid. p. 107-116.
to control enzymatic activity in the flaked seed, which depends The meal is an important source of protein in animal feeding. which are associated with vacuum generation and volatiles. melting properties.
Another very important function of the cooking operation is important component of the seed in terms of market value. D.R. Erickson, ed., American Oil Chemists’ Society, Champaign, Ill. USA, p. 43-48. hydrogenated fats to manufacture products of a variety of
ciency of the process and eliminating air and water pollution,
its nutritional qualities in the human diet and is the most 4. Buhr, N. 1989. Edible Fats and Oils Processing: Basic Principles and Modern Practices, The process represents an alternative to the use of partially
there has been much emphasis on improving the energy effi-
to solvent extraction. The oil from the seed has gained an excellent reputation for 3. Mag, T.K. 1990. ibid. p. 251-259. Many different process versions are in use. In recent years of the resulting fat in a way not achievable by mere blending.
extraction, and adjusts the moisture content of the seed prior Canola is one of the most important oilseed crops in the world. and allows efficient removal of the volatiles to very low levels. from the original oils to change the melting characteristics
Technology, F. Shahidi, ed., van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, p. 235-249. acid compositions are formed that can be sufficiently different
2. Unger, E.H. 1990. Canola and Rapeseed; Production, Chemistry, Nutrition, and Processing through the oil (2-4%), which increases the volatility further
the volatility of the compounds to be removed. Steam is blown applied to blends of different oils, triglycerides with fatty
Academic Press, Toronto, p. 181–195. vacuum (2-4mm Hg pressure) to exclude air. This increases the triglyceride is changed randomly. When the process is
by Ted Mag 1. Beach, D.H.C. 1983, High and Low Erucic Acid Rapeseed Oils,J.K.G. Kramer, et al. eds., previous process steps, is heated to 260-265ºC under very high properties of fats and oils. The position of fatty acids in
materials. The oil, which must be thoroughly purified in the Interesterification is another process for changing the melting
References
distillation is used extensively in industries with heat sensitive Interesterification
volatile compounds from the oil such as free fatty acids. Steam
and Oil Processing
and flavour compounds from the oil, as well as other relatively linola and olive.
The treatment is essentially a steam distillation of the odour non-hydrogenated oils such as sunflower, soybean,
ponent, preferably alone, but also in combination with other
the oil as an alternative to alkali refining. nutritional profile is used as the liquid, non-hydrogenated com-
As mentioned earlier, deodorizing serves to physically refine for trans-free margarines, canola oil with its favourable
carotenoid compounds is an important aspect of the process. (12) and Naguib-Mostafa (13). With the increasing demand
at the temperatures required, heat-bleaching of the yellow-red shortening products has been studied extensively by deMan

Canola Seed
impart typical odour and taste and must be removed. Further, behaviour of hydrogenated canola oil for margarine and
Solvent Extraction Degumming Oil Processing and Products out on edible oils, this step may be delayed until other progressively dried to about 0.1% moisture content. This gives of their good stability and pourability and the low saturated
The presscake from the expellers, as is, or as collets from processes, such as hydrogenation of the oil, have been done. the best adsorption efficiency. As indicated earlier, about fatty acid content. Table 2 gives typical data from industry
The “crude” oil from the two extraction stages is usually
extruders, is conveyed to the solvent extractor. Some cooling Little authoritative industrial experience with physical refining 1-3% clay (10% moisture content) may be required to achieve experience.
blended and then degummed before being stored for sale Alkali and Physical Refining
during conveying is done to minimize vaporization of hexane and the pretreatment of canola oil for physical refining has chlorophyll removal to <25 ppb. This level is innocuous in
or further processing. Degumming removes phosphatides
Degummed oil is further purified in a process of refining. been published so far. respect to oxidation and colour of the oil. Mag, 1989 (5) has Table 2: Composition and Stability of Lightly
in the extractor. A variety of extractor designs are in use. The coextracted with the oil, which tend to separate from the
One of two methods are used, namely, alkali refining, given an overview of edible oil bleaching practice, with Hydrogenated Canola
solvent is hexane, specifically refined for this application. In oil as a sludge during storage. The phosphatide content of
especially with water degummed oil, and physical refining Canola Oil Processing particular attention to canola oil. Brimberg, 1981 (9) and
the extractor, the solids are solvent-washed in stages, first with crude oil varies, but is usually in the order of 1.25%, or
with acid-water degummed oil. Alkali refining is the most Henderson, 1993 (10) have investigated aspects of chlorophyll Canola
hexane already high in oil content (miscella) and then with measured as phosphorus, 500 ppm.
common process used, even with acid-water degummed oil. adsorption important to the process.
progressively leaner miscella and, finally with pure hexane. non-hydrogenated lightly hydrogenated
Physical refining is a relatively new development. It requires
This leaches the oil content in the solid material (meal) down Two degumming methods are in use: (a) using water to
well-degummed oil of moderate chlorophyll and free fatty Crude Degummed Oil Fatty acid composition
to about 1%, depending somewhat on equipment design and precipitate phosphatides and; (b) using an acid such as citric, Hydrogenation
acid content, but it is then very economical. C16:0 palmitic 4 4
throughput rate. malic, or phosphoric and water (superdegumming). After This process, which was first introduced in the edible oils
contacting the oil with these reagents, the oil is centrifuged
In alkali refining, the oil is first contacted with about Alkali-Refining Acid Pretreating / industry in connection with cottonseed and marine oil around C18:0 stearic 2 4
The meal and the miscella are now “stripped” of the solvent to to separate the precipitated material. Degumming with water Bleaching 1900, changes the melting behaviour of oils and improves
recover solvent-free meal and oil. The solvent-saturated meal only, leaves from 100-250 ppm of phosphorus, depending on
0.05-0.1% of concentrated phosphoric acid in a high intensity
the oxidative stability. Today, it is also applied to such oils as C18:1 oleic 60 80
mixer to help precipitate phosphatides. It is then contacted
is conveyed to a desolventizer, which is a vertical tank the extent of hydrolysis of phosphatides in the course of seed soybean and canola. Hydrogen is added to the double bonds C18:2 linoleic 22 8
with an approximately 12% aqueous solution of sodium Bleaching
equipped with heated trays and agitators. Reduced pressure preparation, as discussed earlier. In degumming with an acid of unsaturated fatty acids at temperatures of 160-200ºC and
hydroxide to neutralize the free fatty acids and any excess C18:3 linolenic 10 2
and sometimes live steam are used to evaporate the hexane and and water, the hydrolyzed, non-hydratable phosphatides (NHP) pressures of 100-300 kPa in the presence of a nickel catalyst
phosphoric acid present, and to precipitate phosphatides. Iodine Value 115 90
to dry the meal. The hexane and moisture vapours are are also removed. Residual concentrations are about 25 ppm to facilitate the reaction. Chlorophyll, phosphatides, soaps,
This requires about 2-3% of the solution. Very intensive Hydrogenation
condensed, the water and hexane are separated, and the hexane of phosphorus. The separated phosphatides are added to the and especially sulfur compounds “poison” the catalyst, Stability
mixing is used. Temperatures and contact times may vary from
is reused. Several stages of heating and drying are applied to meal in the desolventizer. This raises the residual oil content raising process costs. The former are removed in refining
reduce the hexane content to negligible levels and moisture of the meal to about 2-3% and raises its energy content.
about 90ºC and only seconds for both acid and caustic in the
and bleaching. Sulfur compounds are only reduced somewhat Frying -- good
so called “short-mix” process to about 40ºC and 15 minutes
to 8-11 %. Some removal of glucosinolates and their break- Typical concentrations of the various minor constituents found
each in the “long-mix” process. The oil/soap mixture is Catalyst Removal Other Oils in these treatments; deMan, 1983 (11) has investigated the AOM hours 15 75
down products and some protein denaturing occurs. in crude and in degummed canola oil are given in Table 1. role of sulfur compounds in catalyst poisoning in canola
then heated to about 90ºC, if required, and centrifuged to Pourability Yes Yes
oil hydrogenation.
separate the aqueous soap phase. This phase also contains
To achieve the best meal quality, the process must be well Table 1: Minor Constituents of Crude and of Blending
the precipitated phosphatides and some triglyceride oil. The The process is carried out batchwise. There are various Table 3 shows some typical margarine oil blends using
controlled with respect to temperature (110ºC max.) and time. Degummed Canola Oil centrifuged oil must be further contacted with about 5-10% reactor designs in use. Depending on temperature, pressure, canola oil hydrogenated to different melting ranges and
Usually, the final treatment in desolventizing is a cooling
hot water to reduce soap levels from about 400 ppm and to some extent the specific catalyst properties, different non-hydrogenated, and also hydrogenated soybean oils.
stage. Cooled meal may be ground to a uniform particle size,
to <50 ppm. Free fatty acids are reduced to <0.05% Dewaxing* Dewaxing*
or pelleted, ready for storage and marketing. Dehulling of Free fatty acids 0.4 – 1.0% melting behaviour in the hydrogenated fat can be obtained.
and phosphorus to <2 ppm. Iron and copper concentrations The oxidative stability improvement, also, is modified
the meal for non-ruminant feed may, in future, become Phospholipids 1 – 1.5% Table 3: Margarine with Canola Oil
are reduced to below detection. Coloured compounds somewhat by choice of process conditions. It is possible
commercial practice.
Water degummed (as P) 100 – 250 ppm (chlorophylloids, carotenoids) are not affected significantly.
Deodorization Physical Refining / to hydrogenate fatty acids with multiple double bonds
The concentration of sulfur compounds is reduced slightly. Oil Stock Hard Margarine Soft Margarine No-Trans
The miscella containing the oil is desolventized in three-stage Acid – water deg. (as P) 10 – 50 ppm Deodorization preferentially. These are the most easily oxidized and their
This oil is now ready for bleaching. The soap phase from this
evaporator equipment. The hexane vapour from this operation concentration must, therefore, be reduced or eliminated for % 1 2 1 2 3
is, also, condensed for reuse. A properly operated extraction
Unsaponifiables operation can be added to the meal, similar to the disposal of best effect on stability. Usually, conditions are chosen which
the phosphatides from degumming, or it can be acidulated and Canola
plant loses no more than about 2-3 litres of hexane/mt of seed (Tocopherols, Sterols) 0.5 – 1.2% provide this selectivity. In canola oil, very low concentrations
used as a feed ingredient. The wash water must be treated to Bulk Oil of these fatty acids can be achieved with very little hardening Hard 46 -- 25 -- --
processed. Beach (1), Unger (2), Buhr (4), Dahlen (6), and Chlorophylls 10 – 35 ppm Crystallization /
reduce the oil content to acceptable levels for discharge. Mag,
Williams (7) have written on details of various aspects of Packaging / Tempering Shipping of the oil taking place. Melting behaviour is most usually Medium 8 -- 10 -- --
Sulphur compounds (as S) 3 – 15 ppm 1990 (3) has reviewed industrial refining practice in some evaluated by determining the proportion of solid fat in
canola seed extraction.
detail. Carlson, 1993 (8) reviewed refining methods and costs. / Shipping a sample over the temperature range of interest, usually Soft 46 60 12 -- --
Iron, Crude/Acid-Wat. Deg. <2/<0.2 ppm
Canola Seed Extraction & Degumming of Oil 10-40ºC. Non -
Copper <det. limit In physical refining, acid-water degummed oil with a
Canola Seed (42% Oil) phosphorus content below 50 ppm is first subject to a Another consequence of hydrogenation is the formation of Hydrogenated -- -- 53 75 90
phosphoric acid pretreatment, as in the short-mix alkali
Seed Cleaning The most recent development in degumming uses acid
* Dotted box indicates this process is optional isomeric fatty acids. Positional isomers as well as geometric, Palm/Palm Kernel
refining process. It is then contacted with acid-activated or trans isomers are formed. These compounds are important
and aqueous sodium hydroxide, rather than acid and bleaching clay in a standard bleaching process at 95-105ºC. Interesterified -- -- -- -- 10
Preheating water, especially with lower quality oils. This represents Adsorptive Bleaching contributors to the melting properties and the functional utility
The clay, along with precipitated phosphatides and adsorbed of the hydrogenated fat. Recently, nutrition science has again Soy Bean
an intermediate between acid-water degumming and alkali chlorophylloid and some carotenoid compounds, is then
Crushing / Flaking Alkali refined oil, which still contains most of the focused on the role of trans isomer fatty acids in the diet.
refining. Phosphatides as well as some of the other impurities removed by filtration. This is the first and most important Very Hard -- -- -- 25 --
chlorophylloid compounds present in the crude oil, requires This will probably continue to be controversial for some time.
are removed and, if sufficient alkali is applied to saponify stage of physical refining. It delivers bleached oil ready for Hard -- 40 -- -- --
Cooking bleaching. These compounds must be removed. They catalyze
the free fatty acids, fully refined oil is obtainable. deodorizing. Except for the free fatty acids in the oil, all other oil oxidation and give an undesirable green colour to the oil. Hydrogenated Canola Oil in Shortenings
Pressing minor constituents are reduced to the same concentrations as It has become recognized that chlorophyll removal is the most and Margarines The above hydrogenated canola oil stocks that are used in
in alkali refining and in addition, chlorophyll is reduced to important aspect of canola oil bleaching. Acid-activated clays
Settling / Filtering Solvent Extraction the concentration required of bleached oil, namely <25 ppb. Hydrogenated fats from canola oil play an important role margarines, are also used extensively in shortenings and as sta-
are used. Their adsorptive properties are especially effective
Usually, from 1-3% acid-activated bleaching clay is used, in the production of the wide range of fat products used ble frying fats. Industry makes a wide variety of canola based
Press Oil Oil Desolventization Meal Desolventization
for the removal of these compounds. Other coloured
depending primarily on the concentration and type of in Canada and other countries. They often appear in blends hydrogenated oil stocks for tailor-made shortenings.
compounds, some of the oxidation breakdown products
chlorophylloid compounds present in the oil. with other oils to combine the advantages of canola oil with
Extracted Oil Meal Grinding / and traces of iron are also removed in this process.
those of other oils. They are especially important as lightly Very highly hydrogenated canola oils are rarely used in
Pelletizing
The removal of the free fatty acids in the oil is done by steam hydrogenated oils for their exceptional stability. This is due, margarine and baking shortenings, because of the tendency
The process itself is carried out under vacuum with the oil at
Degumming distillation in a deodorizer. This simultaneously deodorizes the in part, to the high content of monounsaturated fatty acids in to form large (beta) crystals over time. This impairs eating
Meal Storage / about 100ºC. Many process versions are in use. About 5-30
Shipping oil. Because deodorization is the last process normally carried canola oil. These products are becoming very popular because properties and baking performance. The crystallization
minutes of contact time is given, while the oil/clay slurry is
Oil Processing

email: [email protected] • www.canola-council.org

significantly enhanced. 400-167 Lombard Avenue, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada R3B 0T6 • Phone: (204) 982-2100 • Fax: (204) 942-1841 and hydrogenation form traces of compounds, which also
properties. Capacity of solvent extraction equipment is ones, coagulates protein for better diffusion during solvent
of presscake (collets) have excellent solvent extraction intact cells to release oil, coalesces small oil droplets to larger
CANOLA COUNCIL OF CANADA President of T. Mag/Associates Consulting.
which it is derived. In addition, such processes as bleaching
oil which impart odour and taste typical of the seed from
making it very porous. These small diameter, porous pieces several very important functions: it ruptures remaining Ted Mag is a consultant to the fats & oils industry, and is step. Its primary function is to remove compounds from the
pressure release on discharge “expands” the extruded material, This heating, also called cooking or conditioning, serves
In edible oil processing, deodorization is the final "refining"
small openings of a die plate at the end of the barrel. The shortenings made from hydrogenated canola oil.
is developed. The material is then discharged through the plants, horizontal, rotary kilns equipped with steam coils. Deodorization
his studies on the crystallization behaviour of margarines and
and mixing take place along the length of the barrel. Pressure tanks with agitated, steam-heated trays or, in more modern tempering has been studied by deMan (12) in connection with
a rotating shaft fitted with flights. Steam is added and heating about 75-100ºC in cookers. These may be either vertical effect of commercial crystallization conditions and product have studied waxes in canola oil.
Extruders used for this purpose consist of a barrel with clearance than the first. The flaked seed is then heated to tempered for a shorter time and then refrigerated. The produces a visible haze. Przybylski (16), and Ackman (17)
extrusion to improve its solvent extraction properties. roller mills are used, with the second set adjusted to a tighter for optimum shortening properties. Margarines are usually This reduces the wax content to <50 ppm, which no longer
In some plants, the presscake is subjected to mechanical roller mills, set to very tight clearance. Usually, two sets of It is a poorly understood process, but it is very important a filter aid into the chilled oil stream on the way to a filter.
may also be required. The preheated seed is then flaked on to improve plasticity, creaming, and baking performance. exchanger to about 5ºC and metering about 0.1% of
solvent extraction. important with very cold seed. Some moisture adjustment The process is carried out by chilling in a continuous heat
packaged products is held for two to four days at 25-27ºC
breaker to produce uniform sized particles, is now ready for to about 30-40ºC to prevent shattering. This is especially therefore, to dewax the oil to avoid a hazy appearance.
fat mixture to reach completion. The properly crystallized,
stage. The presscake, which may be put through a mechanical In many extraction plants, the cleaned seed is first heated room temperature, or lower. In some cases, it is desirable,
allowing certain equilibrium processes in the crystalline/liquid
by gravity and filtration, and recycled to the conditioning triglycerides in composition, but are usually crystalline at
Seed Preparation for Extraction Tempering of crystallized fat products refers to the process of
expeller is unavoidable. These fines are separated from the oil (about 100 – 200 ppm). These compounds are related to
discharge of very fine solids with the oil draining from the crystallization before the product enters the package. oil does occasionally contain a small concentration of waxes
Dehulling of the seed is, at present, not a commercial process.
the solids (presscake) discharge end of the barrel. Some achieved. Essentially this means very rapid and complete clear and liquid at refrigerator temperatures. However, the
combination of these are used in the cleaning process.
the rotating screw shaft working against an adjustable choke at crystallization to the very small beta prime type crystals is Canola oil is a natural salad oil. This means that it remains
of the seed. Aspiration, indent cleaning, sieving, or some
within. Pressure and heat are developed within the barrel by in hydrogenated canola oil require special care to ensure that
plant stalks, grain seeds and other materials from the bulk Dewaxing
flow from between the bars while retaining the solid material about a 1ºC temperature rise in the package. Products high
are obtained. The graded seed is then cleaned to remove
mounted edgewise around the inside and spaced to allow oil to package. When done properly, there should be no more than alternatively, bleached.
It is the first step to help ensure that a quality oil and meal
shaft in a cylindrical barrel. The barrel has flat steel bars crystallization to take place before the product enters the added to neutralize the base. The oil is then washed, or
the Canadian Grain Commission. Payment is based on grade. 17. Ackman, R.G., et al. 1993, CUAP Project Report #90-31. In print.
efficient and economical. Expellers consist of a rotating screw the A-unit to about 25ºC and resting to allow most of the The oil is then cooled to about 90ºC, phosphoric acid is
according to a strict grading standard for canola established by
solvent extraction of the remaining oil is then much more 16. Przybylski, R., et al. 1993. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 70, 10, p. 1009-1015. appearance. Essential process conditions are chilling in contacted for about 30 minutes to catalyse the reaction.
Seed delivered to the extraction plant from the farm is graded
(8% moisture basis) to 16-20% mechanically. Subsequent of the B-units. This gives the product its white, even-textured to the heated (150ºC) oil as a powder under agitation and
15. Desrosier, W.J. 1988. M. Sc. Thesis, U. of Saskatchewan.
is to reduce the oil content of the seed from about 42% Seed Grading and Cleaning about 10% by volume of nitrogen gas is added ahead Sodium methoxide (a strong base, 0.05%) is added
screw-presses or expellers. The function of this equipment 14. Thomas, K.C., et al. 1988 J. Can. Inst. Food Sc. and Techn. 21, p. 167-173.
a variety of packages and sizes. In the case of shortenings, spray. The oil must be very dry and low in free fatty acids.
The heat-conditioned seed is passed into continuous Extraction of Seed for Oil and Meal 13. Naguib-Mostafa, A., et al. 1985, J. Am. Oil Chemists’ Soc. 62, 4, p. 756-759 and 760-762. product is then transferred to fillers where it is packaged in agitated tank, equipped with a vacuum system and a water
Prepressing 12. deMan, J., et al. 1992. INFORM, 3, 4, p. 542. place. The now partially crystalline, but still pumpable fat In modern plants, the process is carried out in a heated,
the industry. in which further crystallization with or without agitation takes
usually unavoidable. gives an overview of these processes and methods as used in 11. deMan, J., et al. 1983. ibid. 60, 3 558-562. heat exchangers (A-units), followed by resting units (B-units) use for this purpose because of cost.
to refine. A small concentration of breakdown products is long history, and is continually being improved. This brochure 10. Henderson, J.H. 1993 J. Am. Oil Chemists’ Soc. 70, 9, p. 831-835. out in systems consisting of ammonia cooled, scraped-surface hydrogenated canola oil, however, it has not found significant
phosphatide breakdown products make the oil more difficult large variety of oil products for human consumption also has a phase, are crystallized directly. The crystallization is carried use in controlling the problem with beta crystallization of
the quality of the oil and the meal; triglyceride and, especially, improved. Processing of the oil after extraction to obtain a 9. Brimberg, U.I. 1981. Fette, Seifen, Anstrichmittel 83, 5, p. 184. phase first. Shortenings, which do not usually involve a water performance. Interesterification has also been proposed for
quality oil and meal. Glucosinolate breakdown products impair developed over the years. These methods are continually being 8. Carlson, K. 1993, INFORM, 4, 3, 272-281. use. Margarine oils are emulsified with an appropriate water decreased in the future, interesterification will assume greater
These hydrolysis processes must be suppressed to produce a high quality protein meal as an animal feed have been shortening oils are converted into semi-solid form for final vegetable oils. If trans isomers in fat and oil products must be
7. Williams, M.A. 1989, Oil Mill Gazeteer, 95, 3. With the exception of bulk frying fats, margarine and cation of non-hydrogenated canola oil with fully hydrogenated
and lipases, which hydrolyze triglycerides and phosphatides. to produce a high quality raw oil for further processing and
of importance: myrosinase, which hydrolyzes glucosinolates; The processing methods used to extract the oil from the seed 6. Dahlen, J. 1973. Ger. Offen. 2 313 224. Margarine and Shortening Packaging and Tempering Thomas (14) and Desrosier (15) have investigated interesterifi-
on temperature and moisture content. Two enzyme systems are 5. Mag, T.K. 1989, ibid. p. 107-116.
to control enzymatic activity in the flaked seed, which depends The meal is an important source of protein in animal feeding. which are associated with vacuum generation and volatiles. melting properties.
Another very important function of the cooking operation is important component of the seed in terms of market value. D.R. Erickson, ed., American Oil Chemists’ Society, Champaign, Ill. USA, p. 43-48. hydrogenated fats to manufacture products of a variety of
ciency of the process and eliminating air and water pollution,
its nutritional qualities in the human diet and is the most 4. Buhr, N. 1989. Edible Fats and Oils Processing: Basic Principles and Modern Practices, The process represents an alternative to the use of partially
there has been much emphasis on improving the energy effi-
to solvent extraction. The oil from the seed has gained an excellent reputation for 3. Mag, T.K. 1990. ibid. p. 251-259. Many different process versions are in use. In recent years of the resulting fat in a way not achievable by mere blending.
extraction, and adjusts the moisture content of the seed prior Canola is one of the most important oilseed crops in the world. and allows efficient removal of the volatiles to very low levels. from the original oils to change the melting characteristics
Technology, F. Shahidi, ed., van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, p. 235-249. acid compositions are formed that can be sufficiently different
2. Unger, E.H. 1990. Canola and Rapeseed; Production, Chemistry, Nutrition, and Processing through the oil (2-4%), which increases the volatility further
the volatility of the compounds to be removed. Steam is blown applied to blends of different oils, triglycerides with fatty
Academic Press, Toronto, p. 181–195. vacuum (2-4mm Hg pressure) to exclude air. This increases the triglyceride is changed randomly. When the process is
by Ted Mag 1. Beach, D.H.C. 1983, High and Low Erucic Acid Rapeseed Oils,J.K.G. Kramer, et al. eds., previous process steps, is heated to 260-265ºC under very high properties of fats and oils. The position of fatty acids in
materials. The oil, which must be thoroughly purified in the Interesterification is another process for changing the melting
References
and Oil Processing distillation is used extensively in industries with heat sensitive
volatile compounds from the oil such as free fatty acids. Steam
Interesterification

and flavour compounds from the oil, as well as other relatively linola and olive.
The treatment is essentially a steam distillation of the odour non-hydrogenated oils such as sunflower, soybean,
Canola Seed the oil as an alternative to alkali refining.
As mentioned earlier, deodorizing serves to physically refine
carotenoid compounds is an important aspect of the process.
at the temperatures required, heat-bleaching of the yellow-red
ponent, preferably alone, but also in combination with other
nutritional profile is used as the liquid, non-hydrogenated com-
for trans-free margarines, canola oil with its favourable
(12) and Naguib-Mostafa (13). With the increasing demand
shortening products has been studied extensively by deMan
impart typical odour and taste and must be removed. Further, behaviour of hydrogenated canola oil for margarine and
Solvent Extraction Degumming Oil Processing and Products out on edible oils, this step may be delayed until other progressively dried to about 0.1% moisture content. This gives of their good stability and pourability and the low saturated
The presscake from the expellers, as is, or as collets from processes, such as hydrogenation of the oil, have been done. the best adsorption efficiency. As indicated earlier, about fatty acid content. Table 2 gives typical data from industry
The “crude” oil from the two extraction stages is usually
extruders, is conveyed to the solvent extractor. Some cooling Little authoritative industrial experience with physical refining 1-3% clay (10% moisture content) may be required to achieve experience.
blended and then degummed before being stored for sale Alkali and Physical Refining
during conveying is done to minimize vaporization of hexane and the pretreatment of canola oil for physical refining has chlorophyll removal to <25 ppb. This level is innocuous in
or further processing. Degumming removes phosphatides
Degummed oil is further purified in a process of refining. been published so far. respect to oxidation and colour of the oil. Mag, 1989 (5) has Table 2: Composition and Stability of Lightly
in the extractor. A variety of extractor designs are in use. The coextracted with the oil, which tend to separate from the
One of two methods are used, namely, alkali refining, given an overview of edible oil bleaching practice, with Hydrogenated Canola
solvent is hexane, specifically refined for this application. In oil as a sludge during storage. The phosphatide content of
especially with water degummed oil, and physical refining Canola Oil Processing particular attention to canola oil. Brimberg, 1981 (9) and
the extractor, the solids are solvent-washed in stages, first with crude oil varies, but is usually in the order of 1.25%, or
with acid-water degummed oil. Alkali refining is the most Henderson, 1993 (10) have investigated aspects of chlorophyll Canola
hexane already high in oil content (miscella) and then with measured as phosphorus, 500 ppm.
common process used, even with acid-water degummed oil. adsorption important to the process.
progressively leaner miscella and, finally with pure hexane. non-hydrogenated lightly hydrogenated
Physical refining is a relatively new development. It requires
This leaches the oil content in the solid material (meal) down Two degumming methods are in use: (a) using water to
well-degummed oil of moderate chlorophyll and free fatty Crude Degummed Oil Fatty acid composition
to about 1%, depending somewhat on equipment design and precipitate phosphatides and; (b) using an acid such as citric, Hydrogenation
acid content, but it is then very economical. C16:0 palmitic 4 4
throughput rate. malic, or phosphoric and water (superdegumming). After This process, which was first introduced in the edible oils
contacting the oil with these reagents, the oil is centrifuged
In alkali refining, the oil is first contacted with about Alkali-Refining Acid Pretreating / industry in connection with cottonseed and marine oil around C18:0 stearic 2 4
The meal and the miscella are now “stripped” of the solvent to to separate the precipitated material. Degumming with water Bleaching 1900, changes the melting behaviour of oils and improves
recover solvent-free meal and oil. The solvent-saturated meal only, leaves from 100-250 ppm of phosphorus, depending on
0.05-0.1% of concentrated phosphoric acid in a high intensity
the oxidative stability. Today, it is also applied to such oils as C18:1 oleic 60 80
mixer to help precipitate phosphatides. It is then contacted
is conveyed to a desolventizer, which is a vertical tank the extent of hydrolysis of phosphatides in the course of seed soybean and canola. Hydrogen is added to the double bonds C18:2 linoleic 22 8
with an approximately 12% aqueous solution of sodium Bleaching
equipped with heated trays and agitators. Reduced pressure preparation, as discussed earlier. In degumming with an acid of unsaturated fatty acids at temperatures of 160-200ºC and
hydroxide to neutralize the free fatty acids and any excess C18:3 linolenic 10 2
and sometimes live steam are used to evaporate the hexane and and water, the hydrolyzed, non-hydratable phosphatides (NHP) pressures of 100-300 kPa in the presence of a nickel catalyst
phosphoric acid present, and to precipitate phosphatides. Iodine Value 115 90
to dry the meal. The hexane and moisture vapours are are also removed. Residual concentrations are about 25 ppm to facilitate the reaction. Chlorophyll, phosphatides, soaps,
This requires about 2-3% of the solution. Very intensive Hydrogenation
condensed, the water and hexane are separated, and the hexane of phosphorus. The separated phosphatides are added to the and especially sulfur compounds “poison” the catalyst, Stability
mixing is used. Temperatures and contact times may vary from
is reused. Several stages of heating and drying are applied to meal in the desolventizer. This raises the residual oil content raising process costs. The former are removed in refining
reduce the hexane content to negligible levels and moisture of the meal to about 2-3% and raises its energy content.
about 90ºC and only seconds for both acid and caustic in the
and bleaching. Sulfur compounds are only reduced somewhat Frying -- good
so called “short-mix” process to about 40ºC and 15 minutes
to 8-11 %. Some removal of glucosinolates and their break- Typical concentrations of the various minor constituents found
each in the “long-mix” process. The oil/soap mixture is Catalyst Removal Other Oils in these treatments; deMan, 1983 (11) has investigated the AOM hours 15 75
down products and some protein denaturing occurs. in crude and in degummed canola oil are given in Table 1. role of sulfur compounds in catalyst poisoning in canola
then heated to about 90ºC, if required, and centrifuged to Pourability Yes Yes
oil hydrogenation.
separate the aqueous soap phase. This phase also contains
To achieve the best meal quality, the process must be well Table 1: Minor Constituents of Crude and of Blending
the precipitated phosphatides and some triglyceride oil. The The process is carried out batchwise. There are various Table 3 shows some typical margarine oil blends using
controlled with respect to temperature (110ºC max.) and time. Degummed Canola Oil centrifuged oil must be further contacted with about 5-10% reactor designs in use. Depending on temperature, pressure, canola oil hydrogenated to different melting ranges and
Usually, the final treatment in desolventizing is a cooling
hot water to reduce soap levels from about 400 ppm and to some extent the specific catalyst properties, different non-hydrogenated, and also hydrogenated soybean oils.
stage. Cooled meal may be ground to a uniform particle size,
to <50 ppm. Free fatty acids are reduced to <0.05% Dewaxing* Dewaxing*
or pelleted, ready for storage and marketing. Dehulling of Free fatty acids 0.4 – 1.0% melting behaviour in the hydrogenated fat can be obtained.
and phosphorus to <2 ppm. Iron and copper concentrations The oxidative stability improvement, also, is modified
the meal for non-ruminant feed may, in future, become Phospholipids 1 – 1.5% Table 3: Margarine with Canola Oil
are reduced to below detection. Coloured compounds somewhat by choice of process conditions. It is possible
commercial practice.
Water degummed (as P) 100 – 250 ppm (chlorophylloids, carotenoids) are not affected significantly.
Deodorization Physical Refining / to hydrogenate fatty acids with multiple double bonds
The concentration of sulfur compounds is reduced slightly. Oil Stock Hard Margarine Soft Margarine No-Trans
The miscella containing the oil is desolventized in three-stage Acid – water deg. (as P) 10 – 50 ppm Deodorization preferentially. These are the most easily oxidized and their
This oil is now ready for bleaching. The soap phase from this
evaporator equipment. The hexane vapour from this operation concentration must, therefore, be reduced or eliminated for % 1 2 1 2 3
is, also, condensed for reuse. A properly operated extraction
Unsaponifiables operation can be added to the meal, similar to the disposal of best effect on stability. Usually, conditions are chosen which
the phosphatides from degumming, or it can be acidulated and Canola
plant loses no more than about 2-3 litres of hexane/mt of seed (Tocopherols, Sterols) 0.5 – 1.2% provide this selectivity. In canola oil, very low concentrations
used as a feed ingredient. The wash water must be treated to Bulk Oil of these fatty acids can be achieved with very little hardening Hard 46 -- 25 -- --
processed. Beach (1), Unger (2), Buhr (4), Dahlen (6), and Chlorophylls 10 – 35 ppm Crystallization /
reduce the oil content to acceptable levels for discharge. Mag,
Williams (7) have written on details of various aspects of Packaging / Tempering Shipping of the oil taking place. Melting behaviour is most usually Medium 8 -- 10 -- --
Sulphur compounds (as S) 3 – 15 ppm 1990 (3) has reviewed industrial refining practice in some evaluated by determining the proportion of solid fat in
canola seed extraction.
detail. Carlson, 1993 (8) reviewed refining methods and costs. / Shipping a sample over the temperature range of interest, usually Soft 46 60 12 -- --
Iron, Crude/Acid-Wat. Deg. <2/<0.2 ppm
Canola Seed Extraction & Degumming of Oil 10-40ºC. Non -
Copper <det. limit In physical refining, acid-water degummed oil with a
Canola Seed (42% Oil) phosphorus content below 50 ppm is first subject to a Another consequence of hydrogenation is the formation of Hydrogenated -- -- 53 75 90
phosphoric acid pretreatment, as in the short-mix alkali
Seed Cleaning The most recent development in degumming uses acid
* Dotted box indicates this process is optional isomeric fatty acids. Positional isomers as well as geometric, Palm/Palm Kernel
refining process. It is then contacted with acid-activated or trans isomers are formed. These compounds are important
and aqueous sodium hydroxide, rather than acid and bleaching clay in a standard bleaching process at 95-105ºC. Interesterified -- -- -- -- 10
Preheating water, especially with lower quality oils. This represents Adsorptive Bleaching contributors to the melting properties and the functional utility
The clay, along with precipitated phosphatides and adsorbed of the hydrogenated fat. Recently, nutrition science has again Soy Bean
an intermediate between acid-water degumming and alkali chlorophylloid and some carotenoid compounds, is then
Crushing / Flaking Alkali refined oil, which still contains most of the focused on the role of trans isomer fatty acids in the diet.
refining. Phosphatides as well as some of the other impurities removed by filtration. This is the first and most important Very Hard -- -- -- 25 --
chlorophylloid compounds present in the crude oil, requires This will probably continue to be controversial for some time.
are removed and, if sufficient alkali is applied to saponify stage of physical refining. It delivers bleached oil ready for Hard -- 40 -- -- --
Cooking bleaching. These compounds must be removed. They catalyze
the free fatty acids, fully refined oil is obtainable. deodorizing. Except for the free fatty acids in the oil, all other oil oxidation and give an undesirable green colour to the oil. Hydrogenated Canola Oil in Shortenings
Pressing minor constituents are reduced to the same concentrations as It has become recognized that chlorophyll removal is the most and Margarines The above hydrogenated canola oil stocks that are used in
in alkali refining and in addition, chlorophyll is reduced to important aspect of canola oil bleaching. Acid-activated clays
Settling / Filtering Solvent Extraction the concentration required of bleached oil, namely <25 ppb. Hydrogenated fats from canola oil play an important role margarines, are also used extensively in shortenings and as sta-
are used. Their adsorptive properties are especially effective
Usually, from 1-3% acid-activated bleaching clay is used, in the production of the wide range of fat products used ble frying fats. Industry makes a wide variety of canola based
Press Oil Oil Desolventization Meal Desolventization
for the removal of these compounds. Other coloured
depending primarily on the concentration and type of in Canada and other countries. They often appear in blends hydrogenated oil stocks for tailor-made shortenings.
compounds, some of the oxidation breakdown products
chlorophylloid compounds present in the oil. with other oils to combine the advantages of canola oil with
Extracted Oil Meal Grinding / and traces of iron are also removed in this process.
those of other oils. They are especially important as lightly Very highly hydrogenated canola oils are rarely used in
Pelletizing
The removal of the free fatty acids in the oil is done by steam hydrogenated oils for their exceptional stability. This is due, margarine and baking shortenings, because of the tendency
The process itself is carried out under vacuum with the oil at
Degumming distillation in a deodorizer. This simultaneously deodorizes the in part, to the high content of monounsaturated fatty acids in to form large (beta) crystals over time. This impairs eating
Meal Storage / about 100ºC. Many process versions are in use. About 5-30
Shipping oil. Because deodorization is the last process normally carried canola oil. These products are becoming very popular because properties and baking performance. The crystallization
minutes of contact time is given, while the oil/clay slurry is
Oil Processing

email: [email protected] • www.canola-council.org

significantly enhanced. 400-167 Lombard Avenue, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada R3B 0T6 • Phone: (204) 982-2100 • Fax: (204) 942-1841 and hydrogenation form traces of compounds, which also
properties. Capacity of solvent extraction equipment is ones, coagulates protein for better diffusion during solvent
of presscake (collets) have excellent solvent extraction intact cells to release oil, coalesces small oil droplets to larger
CANOLA COUNCIL OF CANADA President of T. Mag/Associates Consulting.
which it is derived. In addition, such processes as bleaching
oil which impart odour and taste typical of the seed from
making it very porous. These small diameter, porous pieces several very important functions: it ruptures remaining Ted Mag is a consultant to the fats & oils industry, and is step. Its primary function is to remove compounds from the
pressure release on discharge “expands” the extruded material, This heating, also called cooking or conditioning, serves
In edible oil processing, deodorization is the final "refining"
small openings of a die plate at the end of the barrel. The shortenings made from hydrogenated canola oil.
is developed. The material is then discharged through the plants, horizontal, rotary kilns equipped with steam coils. Deodorization
his studies on the crystallization behaviour of margarines and
and mixing take place along the length of the barrel. Pressure tanks with agitated, steam-heated trays or, in more modern tempering has been studied by deMan (12) in connection with
a rotating shaft fitted with flights. Steam is added and heating about 75-100ºC in cookers. These may be either vertical effect of commercial crystallization conditions and product have studied waxes in canola oil.
Extruders used for this purpose consist of a barrel with clearance than the first. The flaked seed is then heated to tempered for a shorter time and then refrigerated. The produces a visible haze. Przybylski (16), and Ackman (17)
extrusion to improve its solvent extraction properties. roller mills are used, with the second set adjusted to a tighter for optimum shortening properties. Margarines are usually This reduces the wax content to <50 ppm, which no longer
In some plants, the presscake is subjected to mechanical roller mills, set to very tight clearance. Usually, two sets of It is a poorly understood process, but it is very important a filter aid into the chilled oil stream on the way to a filter.
may also be required. The preheated seed is then flaked on to improve plasticity, creaming, and baking performance. exchanger to about 5ºC and metering about 0.1% of
solvent extraction. important with very cold seed. Some moisture adjustment The process is carried out by chilling in a continuous heat
packaged products is held for two to four days at 25-27ºC
breaker to produce uniform sized particles, is now ready for to about 30-40ºC to prevent shattering. This is especially therefore, to dewax the oil to avoid a hazy appearance.
fat mixture to reach completion. The properly crystallized,
stage. The presscake, which may be put through a mechanical In many extraction plants, the cleaned seed is first heated room temperature, or lower. In some cases, it is desirable,
allowing certain equilibrium processes in the crystalline/liquid
by gravity and filtration, and recycled to the conditioning triglycerides in composition, but are usually crystalline at
Seed Preparation for Extraction Tempering of crystallized fat products refers to the process of
expeller is unavoidable. These fines are separated from the oil (about 100 – 200 ppm). These compounds are related to
discharge of very fine solids with the oil draining from the crystallization before the product enters the package. oil does occasionally contain a small concentration of waxes
Dehulling of the seed is, at present, not a commercial process.
the solids (presscake) discharge end of the barrel. Some achieved. Essentially this means very rapid and complete clear and liquid at refrigerator temperatures. However, the
combination of these are used in the cleaning process.
the rotating screw shaft working against an adjustable choke at crystallization to the very small beta prime type crystals is Canola oil is a natural salad oil. This means that it remains
of the seed. Aspiration, indent cleaning, sieving, or some
within. Pressure and heat are developed within the barrel by in hydrogenated canola oil require special care to ensure that
plant stalks, grain seeds and other materials from the bulk Dewaxing
flow from between the bars while retaining the solid material about a 1ºC temperature rise in the package. Products high
are obtained. The graded seed is then cleaned to remove
mounted edgewise around the inside and spaced to allow oil to package. When done properly, there should be no more than alternatively, bleached.
It is the first step to help ensure that a quality oil and meal
shaft in a cylindrical barrel. The barrel has flat steel bars crystallization to take place before the product enters the added to neutralize the base. The oil is then washed, or
the Canadian Grain Commission. Payment is based on grade. 17. Ackman, R.G., et al. 1993, CUAP Project Report #90-31. In print.
efficient and economical. Expellers consist of a rotating screw the A-unit to about 25ºC and resting to allow most of the The oil is then cooled to about 90ºC, phosphoric acid is
according to a strict grading standard for canola established by
solvent extraction of the remaining oil is then much more 16. Przybylski, R., et al. 1993. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 70, 10, p. 1009-1015. appearance. Essential process conditions are chilling in contacted for about 30 minutes to catalyse the reaction.
Seed delivered to the extraction plant from the farm is graded
(8% moisture basis) to 16-20% mechanically. Subsequent of the B-units. This gives the product its white, even-textured to the heated (150ºC) oil as a powder under agitation and
15. Desrosier, W.J. 1988. M. Sc. Thesis, U. of Saskatchewan.
is to reduce the oil content of the seed from about 42% Seed Grading and Cleaning about 10% by volume of nitrogen gas is added ahead Sodium methoxide (a strong base, 0.05%) is added
screw-presses or expellers. The function of this equipment 14. Thomas, K.C., et al. 1988 J. Can. Inst. Food Sc. and Techn. 21, p. 167-173.
a variety of packages and sizes. In the case of shortenings, spray. The oil must be very dry and low in free fatty acids.
The heat-conditioned seed is passed into continuous Extraction of Seed for Oil and Meal 13. Naguib-Mostafa, A., et al. 1985, J. Am. Oil Chemists’ Soc. 62, 4, p. 756-759 and 760-762. product is then transferred to fillers where it is packaged in agitated tank, equipped with a vacuum system and a water
Prepressing 12. deMan, J., et al. 1992. INFORM, 3, 4, p. 542. place. The now partially crystalline, but still pumpable fat In modern plants, the process is carried out in a heated,
the industry. in which further crystallization with or without agitation takes
usually unavoidable. gives an overview of these processes and methods as used in 11. deMan, J., et al. 1983. ibid. 60, 3 558-562. heat exchangers (A-units), followed by resting units (B-units) use for this purpose because of cost.
to refine. A small concentration of breakdown products is long history, and is continually being improved. This brochure 10. Henderson, J.H. 1993 J. Am. Oil Chemists’ Soc. 70, 9, p. 831-835. out in systems consisting of ammonia cooled, scraped-surface hydrogenated canola oil, however, it has not found significant
phosphatide breakdown products make the oil more difficult large variety of oil products for human consumption also has a phase, are crystallized directly. The crystallization is carried use in controlling the problem with beta crystallization of
the quality of the oil and the meal; triglyceride and, especially, improved. Processing of the oil after extraction to obtain a 9. Brimberg, U.I. 1981. Fette, Seifen, Anstrichmittel 83, 5, p. 184. phase first. Shortenings, which do not usually involve a water performance. Interesterification has also been proposed for
quality oil and meal. Glucosinolate breakdown products impair developed over the years. These methods are continually being 8. Carlson, K. 1993, INFORM, 4, 3, 272-281. use. Margarine oils are emulsified with an appropriate water decreased in the future, interesterification will assume greater
These hydrolysis processes must be suppressed to produce a high quality protein meal as an animal feed have been shortening oils are converted into semi-solid form for final vegetable oils. If trans isomers in fat and oil products must be
7. Williams, M.A. 1989, Oil Mill Gazeteer, 95, 3. With the exception of bulk frying fats, margarine and cation of non-hydrogenated canola oil with fully hydrogenated
and lipases, which hydrolyze triglycerides and phosphatides. to produce a high quality raw oil for further processing and
of importance: myrosinase, which hydrolyzes glucosinolates; The processing methods used to extract the oil from the seed 6. Dahlen, J. 1973. Ger. Offen. 2 313 224. Margarine and Shortening Packaging and Tempering Thomas (14) and Desrosier (15) have investigated interesterifi-
on temperature and moisture content. Two enzyme systems are 5. Mag, T.K. 1989, ibid. p. 107-116.
to control enzymatic activity in the flaked seed, which depends The meal is an important source of protein in animal feeding. which are associated with vacuum generation and volatiles. melting properties.
Another very important function of the cooking operation is important component of the seed in terms of market value. D.R. Erickson, ed., American Oil Chemists’ Society, Champaign, Ill. USA, p. 43-48. hydrogenated fats to manufacture products of a variety of
ciency of the process and eliminating air and water pollution,
its nutritional qualities in the human diet and is the most 4. Buhr, N. 1989. Edible Fats and Oils Processing: Basic Principles and Modern Practices, The process represents an alternative to the use of partially
there has been much emphasis on improving the energy effi-
to solvent extraction. The oil from the seed has gained an excellent reputation for 3. Mag, T.K. 1990. ibid. p. 251-259. Many different process versions are in use. In recent years of the resulting fat in a way not achievable by mere blending.
extraction, and adjusts the moisture content of the seed prior Canola is one of the most important oilseed crops in the world. and allows efficient removal of the volatiles to very low levels. from the original oils to change the melting characteristics
Technology, F. Shahidi, ed., van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, p. 235-249. acid compositions are formed that can be sufficiently different
2. Unger, E.H. 1990. Canola and Rapeseed; Production, Chemistry, Nutrition, and Processing through the oil (2-4%), which increases the volatility further
the volatility of the compounds to be removed. Steam is blown applied to blends of different oils, triglycerides with fatty
Academic Press, Toronto, p. 181–195. vacuum (2-4mm Hg pressure) to exclude air. This increases the triglyceride is changed randomly. When the process is
by Ted Mag 1. Beach, D.H.C. 1983, High and Low Erucic Acid Rapeseed Oils,J.K.G. Kramer, et al. eds., previous process steps, is heated to 260-265ºC under very high properties of fats and oils. The position of fatty acids in
materials. The oil, which must be thoroughly purified in the Interesterification is another process for changing the melting
References
and Oil Processing distillation is used extensively in industries with heat sensitive
volatile compounds from the oil such as free fatty acids. Steam
Interesterification

and flavour compounds from the oil, as well as other relatively linola and olive.
The treatment is essentially a steam distillation of the odour non-hydrogenated oils such as sunflower, soybean,
Canola Seed the oil as an alternative to alkali refining.
As mentioned earlier, deodorizing serves to physically refine
carotenoid compounds is an important aspect of the process.
at the temperatures required, heat-bleaching of the yellow-red
ponent, preferably alone, but also in combination with other
nutritional profile is used as the liquid, non-hydrogenated com-
for trans-free margarines, canola oil with its favourable
(12) and Naguib-Mostafa (13). With the increasing demand
shortening products has been studied extensively by deMan
impart typical odour and taste and must be removed. Further, behaviour of hydrogenated canola oil for margarine and
Solvent Extraction Degumming Oil Processing and Products out on edible oils, this step may be delayed until other progressively dried to about 0.1% moisture content. This gives of their good stability and pourability and the low saturated
The presscake from the expellers, as is, or as collets from processes, such as hydrogenation of the oil, have been done. the best adsorption efficiency. As indicated earlier, about fatty acid content. Table 2 gives typical data from industry
The “crude” oil from the two extraction stages is usually
extruders, is conveyed to the solvent extractor. Some cooling Little authoritative industrial experience with physical refining 1-3% clay (10% moisture content) may be required to achieve experience.
blended and then degummed before being stored for sale Alkali and Physical Refining
during conveying is done to minimize vaporization of hexane and the pretreatment of canola oil for physical refining has chlorophyll removal to <25 ppb. This level is innocuous in
or further processing. Degumming removes phosphatides
Degummed oil is further purified in a process of refining. been published so far. respect to oxidation and colour of the oil. Mag, 1989 (5) has Table 2: Composition and Stability of Lightly
in the extractor. A variety of extractor designs are in use. The coextracted with the oil, which tend to separate from the
One of two methods are used, namely, alkali refining, given an overview of edible oil bleaching practice, with Hydrogenated Canola
solvent is hexane, specifically refined for this application. In oil as a sludge during storage. The phosphatide content of
especially with water degummed oil, and physical refining Canola Oil Processing particular attention to canola oil. Brimberg, 1981 (9) and
the extractor, the solids are solvent-washed in stages, first with crude oil varies, but is usually in the order of 1.25%, or
with acid-water degummed oil. Alkali refining is the most Henderson, 1993 (10) have investigated aspects of chlorophyll Canola
hexane already high in oil content (miscella) and then with measured as phosphorus, 500 ppm.
common process used, even with acid-water degummed oil. adsorption important to the process.
progressively leaner miscella and, finally with pure hexane. non-hydrogenated lightly hydrogenated
Physical refining is a relatively new development. It requires
This leaches the oil content in the solid material (meal) down Two degumming methods are in use: (a) using water to
well-degummed oil of moderate chlorophyll and free fatty Crude Degummed Oil Fatty acid composition
to about 1%, depending somewhat on equipment design and precipitate phosphatides and; (b) using an acid such as citric, Hydrogenation
acid content, but it is then very economical. C16:0 palmitic 4 4
throughput rate. malic, or phosphoric and water (superdegumming). After This process, which was first introduced in the edible oils
contacting the oil with these reagents, the oil is centrifuged
In alkali refining, the oil is first contacted with about Alkali-Refining Acid Pretreating / industry in connection with cottonseed and marine oil around C18:0 stearic 2 4
The meal and the miscella are now “stripped” of the solvent to to separate the precipitated material. Degumming with water Bleaching 1900, changes the melting behaviour of oils and improves
recover solvent-free meal and oil. The solvent-saturated meal only, leaves from 100-250 ppm of phosphorus, depending on
0.05-0.1% of concentrated phosphoric acid in a high intensity
the oxidative stability. Today, it is also applied to such oils as C18:1 oleic 60 80
mixer to help precipitate phosphatides. It is then contacted
is conveyed to a desolventizer, which is a vertical tank the extent of hydrolysis of phosphatides in the course of seed soybean and canola. Hydrogen is added to the double bonds C18:2 linoleic 22 8
with an approximately 12% aqueous solution of sodium Bleaching
equipped with heated trays and agitators. Reduced pressure preparation, as discussed earlier. In degumming with an acid of unsaturated fatty acids at temperatures of 160-200ºC and
hydroxide to neutralize the free fatty acids and any excess C18:3 linolenic 10 2
and sometimes live steam are used to evaporate the hexane and and water, the hydrolyzed, non-hydratable phosphatides (NHP) pressures of 100-300 kPa in the presence of a nickel catalyst
phosphoric acid present, and to precipitate phosphatides. Iodine Value 115 90
to dry the meal. The hexane and moisture vapours are are also removed. Residual concentrations are about 25 ppm to facilitate the reaction. Chlorophyll, phosphatides, soaps,
This requires about 2-3% of the solution. Very intensive Hydrogenation
condensed, the water and hexane are separated, and the hexane of phosphorus. The separated phosphatides are added to the and especially sulfur compounds “poison” the catalyst, Stability
mixing is used. Temperatures and contact times may vary from
is reused. Several stages of heating and drying are applied to meal in the desolventizer. This raises the residual oil content raising process costs. The former are removed in refining
reduce the hexane content to negligible levels and moisture of the meal to about 2-3% and raises its energy content.
about 90ºC and only seconds for both acid and caustic in the
and bleaching. Sulfur compounds are only reduced somewhat Frying -- good
so called “short-mix” process to about 40ºC and 15 minutes
to 8-11 %. Some removal of glucosinolates and their break- Typical concentrations of the various minor constituents found
each in the “long-mix” process. The oil/soap mixture is Catalyst Removal Other Oils in these treatments; deMan, 1983 (11) has investigated the AOM hours 15 75
down products and some protein denaturing occurs. in crude and in degummed canola oil are given in Table 1. role of sulfur compounds in catalyst poisoning in canola
then heated to about 90ºC, if required, and centrifuged to Pourability Yes Yes
oil hydrogenation.
separate the aqueous soap phase. This phase also contains
To achieve the best meal quality, the process must be well Table 1: Minor Constituents of Crude and of Blending
the precipitated phosphatides and some triglyceride oil. The The process is carried out batchwise. There are various Table 3 shows some typical margarine oil blends using
controlled with respect to temperature (110ºC max.) and time. Degummed Canola Oil centrifuged oil must be further contacted with about 5-10% reactor designs in use. Depending on temperature, pressure, canola oil hydrogenated to different melting ranges and
Usually, the final treatment in desolventizing is a cooling
hot water to reduce soap levels from about 400 ppm and to some extent the specific catalyst properties, different non-hydrogenated, and also hydrogenated soybean oils.
stage. Cooled meal may be ground to a uniform particle size,
to <50 ppm. Free fatty acids are reduced to <0.05% Dewaxing* Dewaxing*
or pelleted, ready for storage and marketing. Dehulling of Free fatty acids 0.4 – 1.0% melting behaviour in the hydrogenated fat can be obtained.
and phosphorus to <2 ppm. Iron and copper concentrations The oxidative stability improvement, also, is modified
the meal for non-ruminant feed may, in future, become Phospholipids 1 – 1.5% Table 3: Margarine with Canola Oil
are reduced to below detection. Coloured compounds somewhat by choice of process conditions. It is possible
commercial practice.
Water degummed (as P) 100 – 250 ppm (chlorophylloids, carotenoids) are not affected significantly.
Deodorization Physical Refining / to hydrogenate fatty acids with multiple double bonds
The concentration of sulfur compounds is reduced slightly. Oil Stock Hard Margarine Soft Margarine No-Trans
The miscella containing the oil is desolventized in three-stage Acid – water deg. (as P) 10 – 50 ppm Deodorization preferentially. These are the most easily oxidized and their
This oil is now ready for bleaching. The soap phase from this
evaporator equipment. The hexane vapour from this operation concentration must, therefore, be reduced or eliminated for % 1 2 1 2 3
is, also, condensed for reuse. A properly operated extraction
Unsaponifiables operation can be added to the meal, similar to the disposal of best effect on stability. Usually, conditions are chosen which
the phosphatides from degumming, or it can be acidulated and Canola
plant loses no more than about 2-3 litres of hexane/mt of seed (Tocopherols, Sterols) 0.5 – 1.2% provide this selectivity. In canola oil, very low concentrations
used as a feed ingredient. The wash water must be treated to Bulk Oil of these fatty acids can be achieved with very little hardening Hard 46 -- 25 -- --
processed. Beach (1), Unger (2), Buhr (4), Dahlen (6), and Chlorophylls 10 – 35 ppm Crystallization /
reduce the oil content to acceptable levels for discharge. Mag,
Williams (7) have written on details of various aspects of Packaging / Tempering Shipping of the oil taking place. Melting behaviour is most usually Medium 8 -- 10 -- --
Sulphur compounds (as S) 3 – 15 ppm 1990 (3) has reviewed industrial refining practice in some evaluated by determining the proportion of solid fat in
canola seed extraction.
detail. Carlson, 1993 (8) reviewed refining methods and costs. / Shipping a sample over the temperature range of interest, usually Soft 46 60 12 -- --
Iron, Crude/Acid-Wat. Deg. <2/<0.2 ppm
Canola Seed Extraction & Degumming of Oil 10-40ºC. Non -
Copper <det. limit In physical refining, acid-water degummed oil with a
Canola Seed (42% Oil) phosphorus content below 50 ppm is first subject to a Another consequence of hydrogenation is the formation of Hydrogenated -- -- 53 75 90
phosphoric acid pretreatment, as in the short-mix alkali
Seed Cleaning The most recent development in degumming uses acid
* Dotted box indicates this process is optional isomeric fatty acids. Positional isomers as well as geometric, Palm/Palm Kernel
refining process. It is then contacted with acid-activated or trans isomers are formed. These compounds are important
and aqueous sodium hydroxide, rather than acid and bleaching clay in a standard bleaching process at 95-105ºC. Interesterified -- -- -- -- 10
Preheating water, especially with lower quality oils. This represents Adsorptive Bleaching contributors to the melting properties and the functional utility
The clay, along with precipitated phosphatides and adsorbed of the hydrogenated fat. Recently, nutrition science has again Soy Bean
an intermediate between acid-water degumming and alkali chlorophylloid and some carotenoid compounds, is then
Crushing / Flaking Alkali refined oil, which still contains most of the focused on the role of trans isomer fatty acids in the diet.
refining. Phosphatides as well as some of the other impurities removed by filtration. This is the first and most important Very Hard -- -- -- 25 --
chlorophylloid compounds present in the crude oil, requires This will probably continue to be controversial for some time.
are removed and, if sufficient alkali is applied to saponify stage of physical refining. It delivers bleached oil ready for Hard -- 40 -- -- --
Cooking bleaching. These compounds must be removed. They catalyze
the free fatty acids, fully refined oil is obtainable. deodorizing. Except for the free fatty acids in the oil, all other oil oxidation and give an undesirable green colour to the oil. Hydrogenated Canola Oil in Shortenings
Pressing minor constituents are reduced to the same concentrations as It has become recognized that chlorophyll removal is the most and Margarines The above hydrogenated canola oil stocks that are used in
in alkali refining and in addition, chlorophyll is reduced to important aspect of canola oil bleaching. Acid-activated clays
Settling / Filtering Solvent Extraction the concentration required of bleached oil, namely <25 ppb. Hydrogenated fats from canola oil play an important role margarines, are also used extensively in shortenings and as sta-
are used. Their adsorptive properties are especially effective
Usually, from 1-3% acid-activated bleaching clay is used, in the production of the wide range of fat products used ble frying fats. Industry makes a wide variety of canola based
Press Oil Oil Desolventization Meal Desolventization
for the removal of these compounds. Other coloured
depending primarily on the concentration and type of in Canada and other countries. They often appear in blends hydrogenated oil stocks for tailor-made shortenings.
compounds, some of the oxidation breakdown products
chlorophylloid compounds present in the oil. with other oils to combine the advantages of canola oil with
Extracted Oil Meal Grinding / and traces of iron are also removed in this process.
those of other oils. They are especially important as lightly Very highly hydrogenated canola oils are rarely used in
Pelletizing
The removal of the free fatty acids in the oil is done by steam hydrogenated oils for their exceptional stability. This is due, margarine and baking shortenings, because of the tendency
The process itself is carried out under vacuum with the oil at
Degumming distillation in a deodorizer. This simultaneously deodorizes the in part, to the high content of monounsaturated fatty acids in to form large (beta) crystals over time. This impairs eating
Meal Storage / about 100ºC. Many process versions are in use. About 5-30
Shipping oil. Because deodorization is the last process normally carried canola oil. These products are becoming very popular because properties and baking performance. The crystallization
minutes of contact time is given, while the oil/clay slurry is
Oil Processing

email: [email protected] • www.canola-council.org

significantly enhanced. 400-167 Lombard Avenue, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada R3B 0T6 • Phone: (204) 982-2100 • Fax: (204) 942-1841 and hydrogenation form traces of compounds, which also
properties. Capacity of solvent extraction equipment is ones, coagulates protein for better diffusion during solvent
of presscake (collets) have excellent solvent extraction intact cells to release oil, coalesces small oil droplets to larger
CANOLA COUNCIL OF CANADA President of T. Mag/Associates Consulting.
which it is derived. In addition, such processes as bleaching
oil which impart odour and taste typical of the seed from
making it very porous. These small diameter, porous pieces several very important functions: it ruptures remaining Ted Mag is a consultant to the fats & oils industry, and is step. Its primary function is to remove compounds from the
pressure release on discharge “expands” the extruded material, This heating, also called cooking or conditioning, serves
In edible oil processing, deodorization is the final "refining"
small openings of a die plate at the end of the barrel. The shortenings made from hydrogenated canola oil.
is developed. The material is then discharged through the plants, horizontal, rotary kilns equipped with steam coils. Deodorization
his studies on the crystallization behaviour of margarines and
and mixing take place along the length of the barrel. Pressure tanks with agitated, steam-heated trays or, in more modern tempering has been studied by deMan (12) in connection with
a rotating shaft fitted with flights. Steam is added and heating about 75-100ºC in cookers. These may be either vertical effect of commercial crystallization conditions and product have studied waxes in canola oil.
Extruders used for this purpose consist of a barrel with clearance than the first. The flaked seed is then heated to tempered for a shorter time and then refrigerated. The produces a visible haze. Przybylski (16), and Ackman (17)
extrusion to improve its solvent extraction properties. roller mills are used, with the second set adjusted to a tighter for optimum shortening properties. Margarines are usually This reduces the wax content to <50 ppm, which no longer
In some plants, the presscake is subjected to mechanical roller mills, set to very tight clearance. Usually, two sets of It is a poorly understood process, but it is very important a filter aid into the chilled oil stream on the way to a filter.
may also be required. The preheated seed is then flaked on to improve plasticity, creaming, and baking performance. exchanger to about 5ºC and metering about 0.1% of
solvent extraction. important with very cold seed. Some moisture adjustment The process is carried out by chilling in a continuous heat
packaged products is held for two to four days at 25-27ºC
breaker to produce uniform sized particles, is now ready for to about 30-40ºC to prevent shattering. This is especially therefore, to dewax the oil to avoid a hazy appearance.
fat mixture to reach completion. The properly crystallized,
stage. The presscake, which may be put through a mechanical In many extraction plants, the cleaned seed is first heated room temperature, or lower. In some cases, it is desirable,
allowing certain equilibrium processes in the crystalline/liquid
by gravity and filtration, and recycled to the conditioning triglycerides in composition, but are usually crystalline at
Seed Preparation for Extraction Tempering of crystallized fat products refers to the process of
expeller is unavoidable. These fines are separated from the oil (about 100 – 200 ppm). These compounds are related to
discharge of very fine solids with the oil draining from the crystallization before the product enters the package. oil does occasionally contain a small concentration of waxes
Dehulling of the seed is, at present, not a commercial process.
the solids (presscake) discharge end of the barrel. Some achieved. Essentially this means very rapid and complete clear and liquid at refrigerator temperatures. However, the
combination of these are used in the cleaning process.
the rotating screw shaft working against an adjustable choke at crystallization to the very small beta prime type crystals is Canola oil is a natural salad oil. This means that it remains
of the seed. Aspiration, indent cleaning, sieving, or some
within. Pressure and heat are developed within the barrel by in hydrogenated canola oil require special care to ensure that
plant stalks, grain seeds and other materials from the bulk Dewaxing
flow from between the bars while retaining the solid material about a 1ºC temperature rise in the package. Products high
are obtained. The graded seed is then cleaned to remove
mounted edgewise around the inside and spaced to allow oil to package. When done properly, there should be no more than alternatively, bleached.
It is the first step to help ensure that a quality oil and meal
shaft in a cylindrical barrel. The barrel has flat steel bars crystallization to take place before the product enters the added to neutralize the base. The oil is then washed, or
the Canadian Grain Commission. Payment is based on grade. 17. Ackman, R.G., et al. 1993, CUAP Project Report #90-31. In print.
efficient and economical. Expellers consist of a rotating screw the A-unit to about 25ºC and resting to allow most of the The oil is then cooled to about 90ºC, phosphoric acid is
according to a strict grading standard for canola established by
solvent extraction of the remaining oil is then much more 16. Przybylski, R., et al. 1993. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 70, 10, p. 1009-1015. appearance. Essential process conditions are chilling in contacted for about 30 minutes to catalyse the reaction.
Seed delivered to the extraction plant from the farm is graded
(8% moisture basis) to 16-20% mechanically. Subsequent of the B-units. This gives the product its white, even-textured to the heated (150ºC) oil as a powder under agitation and
15. Desrosier, W.J. 1988. M. Sc. Thesis, U. of Saskatchewan.
is to reduce the oil content of the seed from about 42% Seed Grading and Cleaning about 10% by volume of nitrogen gas is added ahead Sodium methoxide (a strong base, 0.05%) is added
screw-presses or expellers. The function of this equipment 14. Thomas, K.C., et al. 1988 J. Can. Inst. Food Sc. and Techn. 21, p. 167-173.
a variety of packages and sizes. In the case of shortenings, spray. The oil must be very dry and low in free fatty acids.
The heat-conditioned seed is passed into continuous Extraction of Seed for Oil and Meal 13. Naguib-Mostafa, A., et al. 1985, J. Am. Oil Chemists’ Soc. 62, 4, p. 756-759 and 760-762. product is then transferred to fillers where it is packaged in agitated tank, equipped with a vacuum system and a water
Prepressing 12. deMan, J., et al. 1992. INFORM, 3, 4, p. 542. place. The now partially crystalline, but still pumpable fat In modern plants, the process is carried out in a heated,
the industry. in which further crystallization with or without agitation takes
usually unavoidable. gives an overview of these processes and methods as used in 11. deMan, J., et al. 1983. ibid. 60, 3 558-562. heat exchangers (A-units), followed by resting units (B-units) use for this purpose because of cost.
to refine. A small concentration of breakdown products is long history, and is continually being improved. This brochure 10. Henderson, J.H. 1993 J. Am. Oil Chemists’ Soc. 70, 9, p. 831-835. out in systems consisting of ammonia cooled, scraped-surface hydrogenated canola oil, however, it has not found significant
phosphatide breakdown products make the oil more difficult large variety of oil products for human consumption also has a phase, are crystallized directly. The crystallization is carried use in controlling the problem with beta crystallization of
the quality of the oil and the meal; triglyceride and, especially, improved. Processing of the oil after extraction to obtain a 9. Brimberg, U.I. 1981. Fette, Seifen, Anstrichmittel 83, 5, p. 184. phase first. Shortenings, which do not usually involve a water performance. Interesterification has also been proposed for
quality oil and meal. Glucosinolate breakdown products impair developed over the years. These methods are continually being 8. Carlson, K. 1993, INFORM, 4, 3, 272-281. use. Margarine oils are emulsified with an appropriate water decreased in the future, interesterification will assume greater
These hydrolysis processes must be suppressed to produce a high quality protein meal as an animal feed have been shortening oils are converted into semi-solid form for final vegetable oils. If trans isomers in fat and oil products must be
7. Williams, M.A. 1989, Oil Mill Gazeteer, 95, 3. With the exception of bulk frying fats, margarine and cation of non-hydrogenated canola oil with fully hydrogenated
and lipases, which hydrolyze triglycerides and phosphatides. to produce a high quality raw oil for further processing and
of importance: myrosinase, which hydrolyzes glucosinolates; The processing methods used to extract the oil from the seed 6. Dahlen, J. 1973. Ger. Offen. 2 313 224. Margarine and Shortening Packaging and Tempering Thomas (14) and Desrosier (15) have investigated interesterifi-
on temperature and moisture content. Two enzyme systems are 5. Mag, T.K. 1989, ibid. p. 107-116.
to control enzymatic activity in the flaked seed, which depends The meal is an important source of protein in animal feeding. which are associated with vacuum generation and volatiles. melting properties.
Another very important function of the cooking operation is important component of the seed in terms of market value. D.R. Erickson, ed., American Oil Chemists’ Society, Champaign, Ill. USA, p. 43-48. hydrogenated fats to manufacture products of a variety of
ciency of the process and eliminating air and water pollution,
its nutritional qualities in the human diet and is the most 4. Buhr, N. 1989. Edible Fats and Oils Processing: Basic Principles and Modern Practices, The process represents an alternative to the use of partially
there has been much emphasis on improving the energy effi-
to solvent extraction. The oil from the seed has gained an excellent reputation for 3. Mag, T.K. 1990. ibid. p. 251-259. Many different process versions are in use. In recent years of the resulting fat in a way not achievable by mere blending.
extraction, and adjusts the moisture content of the seed prior Canola is one of the most important oilseed crops in the world. and allows efficient removal of the volatiles to very low levels. from the original oils to change the melting characteristics
Technology, F. Shahidi, ed., van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, p. 235-249. acid compositions are formed that can be sufficiently different
2. Unger, E.H. 1990. Canola and Rapeseed; Production, Chemistry, Nutrition, and Processing through the oil (2-4%), which increases the volatility further
the volatility of the compounds to be removed. Steam is blown applied to blends of different oils, triglycerides with fatty
Academic Press, Toronto, p. 181–195. vacuum (2-4mm Hg pressure) to exclude air. This increases the triglyceride is changed randomly. When the process is
by Ted Mag 1. Beach, D.H.C. 1983, High and Low Erucic Acid Rapeseed Oils,J.K.G. Kramer, et al. eds., previous process steps, is heated to 260-265ºC under very high properties of fats and oils. The position of fatty acids in
materials. The oil, which must be thoroughly purified in the Interesterification is another process for changing the melting
References
and Oil Processing distillation is used extensively in industries with heat sensitive
volatile compounds from the oil such as free fatty acids. Steam
Interesterification

and flavour compounds from the oil, as well as other relatively linola and olive.
The treatment is essentially a steam distillation of the odour non-hydrogenated oils such as sunflower, soybean,
Canola Seed the oil as an alternative to alkali refining.
As mentioned earlier, deodorizing serves to physically refine
carotenoid compounds is an important aspect of the process.
at the temperatures required, heat-bleaching of the yellow-red
ponent, preferably alone, but also in combination with other
nutritional profile is used as the liquid, non-hydrogenated com-
for trans-free margarines, canola oil with its favourable
(12) and Naguib-Mostafa (13). With the increasing demand
shortening products has been studied extensively by deMan
impart typical odour and taste and must be removed. Further, behaviour of hydrogenated canola oil for margarine and
Solvent Extraction Degumming Oil Processing and Products out on edible oils, this step may be delayed until other progressively dried to about 0.1% moisture content. This gives of their good stability and pourability and the low saturated
The presscake from the expellers, as is, or as collets from processes, such as hydrogenation of the oil, have been done. the best adsorption efficiency. As indicated earlier, about fatty acid content. Table 2 gives typical data from industry
The “crude” oil from the two extraction stages is usually
extruders, is conveyed to the solvent extractor. Some cooling Little authoritative industrial experience with physical refining 1-3% clay (10% moisture content) may be required to achieve experience.
blended and then degummed before being stored for sale Alkali and Physical Refining
during conveying is done to minimize vaporization of hexane and the pretreatment of canola oil for physical refining has chlorophyll removal to <25 ppb. This level is innocuous in
or further processing. Degumming removes phosphatides
Degummed oil is further purified in a process of refining. been published so far. respect to oxidation and colour of the oil. Mag, 1989 (5) has Table 2: Composition and Stability of Lightly
in the extractor. A variety of extractor designs are in use. The coextracted with the oil, which tend to separate from the
One of two methods are used, namely, alkali refining, given an overview of edible oil bleaching practice, with Hydrogenated Canola
solvent is hexane, specifically refined for this application. In oil as a sludge during storage. The phosphatide content of
especially with water degummed oil, and physical refining Canola Oil Processing particular attention to canola oil. Brimberg, 1981 (9) and
the extractor, the solids are solvent-washed in stages, first with crude oil varies, but is usually in the order of 1.25%, or
with acid-water degummed oil. Alkali refining is the most Henderson, 1993 (10) have investigated aspects of chlorophyll Canola
hexane already high in oil content (miscella) and then with measured as phosphorus, 500 ppm.
common process used, even with acid-water degummed oil. adsorption important to the process.
progressively leaner miscella and, finally with pure hexane. non-hydrogenated lightly hydrogenated
Physical refining is a relatively new development. It requires
This leaches the oil content in the solid material (meal) down Two degumming methods are in use: (a) using water to Crude Degummed Oil
well-degummed oil of moderate chlorophyll and free fatty Hydrogenation Fatty acid composition
to about 1%, depending somewhat on equipment design and precipitate phosphatides and; (b) using an acid such as citric,
acid content, but it is then very economical. C16:0 palmitic 4 4
throughput rate. malic, or phosphoric and water (superdegumming). After This process, which was first introduced in the edible oils
contacting the oil with these reagents, the oil is centrifuged Alkali-Refining Acid Pretreating / industry in connection with cottonseed and marine oil around C18:0 stearic 2 4
In alkali refining, the oil is first contacted with about
The meal and the miscella are now “stripped” of the solvent to to separate the precipitated material. Degumming with water Bleaching 1900, changes the melting behaviour of oils and improves
0.05-0.1% of concentrated phosphoric acid in a high intensity C18:1 oleic 60 80
recover solvent-free meal and oil. The solvent-saturated meal only, leaves from 100-250 ppm of phosphorus, depending on the oxidative stability. Today, it is also applied to such oils as
mixer to help precipitate phosphatides. It is then contacted
is conveyed to a desolventizer, which is a vertical tank the extent of hydrolysis of phosphatides in the course of seed soybean and canola. Hydrogen is added to the double bonds C18:2 linoleic 22 8
with an approximately 12% aqueous solution of sodium Bleaching
equipped with heated trays and agitators. Reduced pressure preparation, as discussed earlier. In degumming with an acid of unsaturated fatty acids at temperatures of 160-200ºC and
hydroxide to neutralize the free fatty acids and any excess C18:3 linolenic 10 2
and sometimes live steam are used to evaporate the hexane and and water, the hydrolyzed, non-hydratable phosphatides (NHP) pressures of 100-300 kPa in the presence of a nickel catalyst
phosphoric acid present, and to precipitate phosphatides. Iodine Value 115 90
to dry the meal. The hexane and moisture vapours are are also removed. Residual concentrations are about 25 ppm to facilitate the reaction. Chlorophyll, phosphatides, soaps,
This requires about 2-3% of the solution. Very intensive Hydrogenation
condensed, the water and hexane are separated, and the hexane of phosphorus. The separated phosphatides are added to the and especially sulfur compounds “poison” the catalyst, Stability
mixing is used. Temperatures and contact times may vary from
is reused. Several stages of heating and drying are applied to meal in the desolventizer. This raises the residual oil content raising process costs. The former are removed in refining
about 90ºC and only seconds for both acid and caustic in the Frying -- good
reduce the hexane content to negligible levels and moisture of the meal to about 2-3% and raises its energy content. and bleaching. Sulfur compounds are only reduced somewhat
so called “short-mix” process to about 40ºC and 15 minutes
to 8-11 %. Some removal of glucosinolates and their break- Typical concentrations of the various minor constituents found Catalyst Removal Other Oils in these treatments; deMan, 1983 (11) has investigated the AOM hours 15 75
each in the “long-mix” process. The oil/soap mixture is
down products and some protein denaturing occurs. in crude and in degummed canola oil are given in Table 1. role of sulfur compounds in catalyst poisoning in canola
then heated to about 90ºC, if required, and centrifuged to Pourability Yes Yes
oil hydrogenation.
separate the aqueous soap phase. This phase also contains
To achieve the best meal quality, the process must be well Table 1: Minor Constituents of Crude and of Blending
the precipitated phosphatides and some triglyceride oil. The The process is carried out batchwise. There are various Table 3 shows some typical margarine oil blends using
controlled with respect to temperature (110ºC max.) and time. Degummed Canola Oil centrifuged oil must be further contacted with about 5-10% reactor designs in use. Depending on temperature, pressure, canola oil hydrogenated to different melting ranges and
Usually, the final treatment in desolventizing is a cooling
hot water to reduce soap levels from about 400 ppm and to some extent the specific catalyst properties, different non-hydrogenated, and also hydrogenated soybean oils.
stage. Cooled meal may be ground to a uniform particle size,
to <50 ppm. Free fatty acids are reduced to <0.05% Dewaxing* Dewaxing* melting behaviour in the hydrogenated fat can be obtained.
or pelleted, ready for storage and marketing. Dehulling of Free fatty acids 0.4 – 1.0%
and phosphorus to <2 ppm. Iron and copper concentrations The oxidative stability improvement, also, is modified
the meal for non-ruminant feed may, in future, become Phospholipids 1 – 1.5% Table 3: Margarine with Canola Oil
are reduced to below detection. Coloured compounds somewhat by choice of process conditions. It is possible
commercial practice.
Water degummed (as P) 100 – 250 ppm (chlorophylloids, carotenoids) are not affected significantly. Physical Refining / to hydrogenate fatty acids with multiple double bonds
Deodorization
The concentration of sulfur compounds is reduced slightly. preferentially. These are the most easily oxidized and their Oil Stock Hard Margarine Soft Margarine No-Trans
The miscella containing the oil is desolventized in three-stage Acid – water deg. (as P) 10 – 50 ppm Deodorization
This oil is now ready for bleaching. The soap phase from this concentration must, therefore, be reduced or eliminated for
evaporator equipment. The hexane vapour from this operation % 1 2 1 2 3
Unsaponifiables operation can be added to the meal, similar to the disposal of best effect on stability. Usually, conditions are chosen which
is, also, condensed for reuse. A properly operated extraction Canola
the phosphatides from degumming, or it can be acidulated and provide this selectivity. In canola oil, very low concentrations
plant loses no more than about 2-3 litres of hexane/mt of seed (Tocopherols, Sterols) 0.5 – 1.2%
used as a feed ingredient. The wash water must be treated to Bulk Oil of these fatty acids can be achieved with very little hardening Hard 46 -- 25 -- --
processed. Beach (1), Unger (2), Buhr (4), Dahlen (6), and Chlorophylls 10 – 35 ppm Crystallization /
reduce the oil content to acceptable levels for discharge. Mag, of the oil taking place. Melting behaviour is most usually
Williams (7) have written on details of various aspects of Packaging / Tempering Shipping Medium 8 -- 10 -- --
Sulphur compounds (as S) 3 – 15 ppm 1990 (3) has reviewed industrial refining practice in some evaluated by determining the proportion of solid fat in
canola seed extraction.
detail. Carlson, 1993 (8) reviewed refining methods and costs. / Shipping a sample over the temperature range of interest, usually Soft 46 60 12 -- --
Iron, Crude/Acid-Wat. Deg. <2/<0.2 ppm
Canola Seed Extraction & Degumming of Oil 10-40ºC. Non -
Copper <det. limit In physical refining, acid-water degummed oil with a
Canola Seed (42% Oil) phosphorus content below 50 ppm is first subject to a Another consequence of hydrogenation is the formation of Hydrogenated -- -- 53 75 90
phosphoric acid pretreatment, as in the short-mix alkali * Dotted box indicates this process is optional isomeric fatty acids. Positional isomers as well as geometric,
Seed Cleaning The most recent development in degumming uses acid Palm/Palm Kernel
refining process. It is then contacted with acid-activated or trans isomers are formed. These compounds are important
and aqueous sodium hydroxide, rather than acid and bleaching clay in a standard bleaching process at 95-105ºC. Interesterified -- -- -- -- 10
Preheating water, especially with lower quality oils. This represents Adsorptive Bleaching contributors to the melting properties and the functional utility
The clay, along with precipitated phosphatides and adsorbed of the hydrogenated fat. Recently, nutrition science has again Soy Bean
an intermediate between acid-water degumming and alkali chlorophylloid and some carotenoid compounds, is then
Crushing / Flaking Alkali refined oil, which still contains most of the focused on the role of trans isomer fatty acids in the diet.
refining. Phosphatides as well as some of the other impurities removed by filtration. This is the first and most important Very Hard -- -- -- 25 --
chlorophylloid compounds present in the crude oil, requires This will probably continue to be controversial for some time.
are removed and, if sufficient alkali is applied to saponify stage of physical refining. It delivers bleached oil ready for Hard -- 40 -- -- --
Cooking bleaching. These compounds must be removed. They catalyze
the free fatty acids, fully refined oil is obtainable. deodorizing. Except for the free fatty acids in the oil, all other oil oxidation and give an undesirable green colour to the oil. Hydrogenated Canola Oil in Shortenings
Pressing minor constituents are reduced to the same concentrations as It has become recognized that chlorophyll removal is the most and Margarines The above hydrogenated canola oil stocks that are used in
in alkali refining and in addition, chlorophyll is reduced to important aspect of canola oil bleaching. Acid-activated clays
Settling / Filtering Solvent Extraction the concentration required of bleached oil, namely <25 ppb. Hydrogenated fats from canola oil play an important role margarines, are also used extensively in shortenings and as sta-
are used. Their adsorptive properties are especially effective
Usually, from 1-3% acid-activated bleaching clay is used, in the production of the wide range of fat products used ble frying fats. Industry makes a wide variety of canola based
Press Oil Oil Desolventization Meal Desolventization
for the removal of these compounds. Other coloured
depending primarily on the concentration and type of in Canada and other countries. They often appear in blends hydrogenated oil stocks for tailor-made shortenings.
compounds, some of the oxidation breakdown products
chlorophylloid compounds present in the oil. with other oils to combine the advantages of canola oil with
Extracted Oil Meal Grinding / and traces of iron are also removed in this process.
those of other oils. They are especially important as lightly Very highly hydrogenated canola oils are rarely used in
Pelletizing
The removal of the free fatty acids in the oil is done by steam hydrogenated oils for their exceptional stability. This is due, margarine and baking shortenings, because of the tendency
The process itself is carried out under vacuum with the oil at
Degumming distillation in a deodorizer. This simultaneously deodorizes the in part, to the high content of monounsaturated fatty acids in to form large (beta) crystals over time. This impairs eating
Meal Storage / about 100ºC. Many process versions are in use. About 5-30
Shipping oil. Because deodorization is the last process normally carried canola oil. These products are becoming very popular because properties and baking performance. The crystallization
minutes of contact time is given, while the oil/clay slurry is
Oil Processing
email: [email protected] • www.canola-council.org
significantly enhanced. 400-167 Lombard Avenue, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada R3B 0T6 • Phone: (204) 982-2100 • Fax: (204) 942-1841 and hydrogenation form traces of compounds, which also
properties. Capacity of solvent extraction equipment is ones, coagulates protein for better diffusion during solvent
which it is derived. In addition, such processes as bleaching
intact cells to release oil, coalesces small oil droplets to larger
of presscake (collets) have excellent solvent extraction
CANOLA COUNCIL OF CANADA President of T. Mag/Associates Consulting. oil which impart odour and taste typical of the seed from
making it very porous. These small diameter, porous pieces several very important functions: it ruptures remaining Ted Mag is a consultant to the fats & oils industry, and is step. Its primary function is to remove compounds from the
pressure release on discharge “expands” the extruded material, This heating, also called cooking or conditioning, serves
In edible oil processing, deodorization is the final "refining"
small openings of a die plate at the end of the barrel. The shortenings made from hydrogenated canola oil.
is developed. The material is then discharged through the plants, horizontal, rotary kilns equipped with steam coils. Deodorization
his studies on the crystallization behaviour of margarines and
and mixing take place along the length of the barrel. Pressure tanks with agitated, steam-heated trays or, in more modern tempering has been studied by deMan (12) in connection with
a rotating shaft fitted with flights. Steam is added and heating about 75-100ºC in cookers. These may be either vertical effect of commercial crystallization conditions and product have studied waxes in canola oil.
Extruders used for this purpose consist of a barrel with clearance than the first. The flaked seed is then heated to tempered for a shorter time and then refrigerated. The produces a visible haze. Przybylski (16), and Ackman (17)
extrusion to improve its solvent extraction properties. roller mills are used, with the second set adjusted to a tighter for optimum shortening properties. Margarines are usually This reduces the wax content to <50 ppm, which no longer
In some plants, the presscake is subjected to mechanical roller mills, set to very tight clearance. Usually, two sets of It is a poorly understood process, but it is very important a filter aid into the chilled oil stream on the way to a filter.
may also be required. The preheated seed is then flaked on to improve plasticity, creaming, and baking performance. exchanger to about 5ºC and metering about 0.1% of
solvent extraction. important with very cold seed. Some moisture adjustment The process is carried out by chilling in a continuous heat
packaged products is held for two to four days at 25-27ºC
breaker to produce uniform sized particles, is now ready for to about 30-40ºC to prevent shattering. This is especially therefore, to dewax the oil to avoid a hazy appearance.
fat mixture to reach completion. The properly crystallized,
stage. The presscake, which may be put through a mechanical In many extraction plants, the cleaned seed is first heated room temperature, or lower. In some cases, it is desirable,
allowing certain equilibrium processes in the crystalline/liquid
by gravity and filtration, and recycled to the conditioning triglycerides in composition, but are usually crystalline at
Seed Preparation for Extraction Tempering of crystallized fat products refers to the process of
expeller is unavoidable. These fines are separated from the oil (about 100 – 200 ppm). These compounds are related to
discharge of very fine solids with the oil draining from the crystallization before the product enters the package. oil does occasionally contain a small concentration of waxes
Dehulling of the seed is, at present, not a commercial process.
the solids (presscake) discharge end of the barrel. Some achieved. Essentially this means very rapid and complete clear and liquid at refrigerator temperatures. However, the
combination of these are used in the cleaning process.
the rotating screw shaft working against an adjustable choke at crystallization to the very small beta prime type crystals is Canola oil is a natural salad oil. This means that it remains
of the seed. Aspiration, indent cleaning, sieving, or some
within. Pressure and heat are developed within the barrel by in hydrogenated canola oil require special care to ensure that
plant stalks, grain seeds and other materials from the bulk Dewaxing
flow from between the bars while retaining the solid material about a 1ºC temperature rise in the package. Products high
are obtained. The graded seed is then cleaned to remove
mounted edgewise around the inside and spaced to allow oil to package. When done properly, there should be no more than alternatively, bleached.
It is the first step to help ensure that a quality oil and meal
shaft in a cylindrical barrel. The barrel has flat steel bars crystallization to take place before the product enters the added to neutralize the base. The oil is then washed, or
the Canadian Grain Commission. Payment is based on grade. 17. Ackman, R.G., et al. 1993, CUAP Project Report #90-31. In print.
efficient and economical. Expellers consist of a rotating screw the A-unit to about 25ºC and resting to allow most of the The oil is then cooled to about 90ºC, phosphoric acid is
according to a strict grading standard for canola established by
solvent extraction of the remaining oil is then much more 16. Przybylski, R., et al. 1993. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 70, 10, p. 1009-1015. appearance. Essential process conditions are chilling in contacted for about 30 minutes to catalyse the reaction.
Seed delivered to the extraction plant from the farm is graded
(8% moisture basis) to 16-20% mechanically. Subsequent of the B-units. This gives the product its white, even-textured to the heated (150ºC) oil as a powder under agitation and
15. Desrosier, W.J. 1988. M. Sc. Thesis, U. of Saskatchewan.
is to reduce the oil content of the seed from about 42% Seed Grading and Cleaning about 10% by volume of nitrogen gas is added ahead Sodium methoxide (a strong base, 0.05%) is added
screw-presses or expellers. The function of this equipment 14. Thomas, K.C., et al. 1988 J. Can. Inst. Food Sc. and Techn. 21, p. 167-173.
a variety of packages and sizes. In the case of shortenings, spray. The oil must be very dry and low in free fatty acids.
The heat-conditioned seed is passed into continuous Extraction of Seed for Oil and Meal 13. Naguib-Mostafa, A., et al. 1985, J. Am. Oil Chemists’ Soc. 62, 4, p. 756-759 and 760-762. product is then transferred to fillers where it is packaged in agitated tank, equipped with a vacuum system and a water
Prepressing 12. deMan, J., et al. 1992. INFORM, 3, 4, p. 542. place. The now partially crystalline, but still pumpable fat In modern plants, the process is carried out in a heated,
the industry. in which further crystallization with or without agitation takes
usually unavoidable. gives an overview of these processes and methods as used in 11. deMan, J., et al. 1983. ibid. 60, 3 558-562. heat exchangers (A-units), followed by resting units (B-units) use for this purpose because of cost.
to refine. A small concentration of breakdown products is long history, and is continually being improved. This brochure 10. Henderson, J.H. 1993 J. Am. Oil Chemists’ Soc. 70, 9, p. 831-835. out in systems consisting of ammonia cooled, scraped-surface hydrogenated canola oil, however, it has not found significant
phosphatide breakdown products make the oil more difficult large variety of oil products for human consumption also has a phase, are crystallized directly. The crystallization is carried use in controlling the problem with beta crystallization of
the quality of the oil and the meal; triglyceride and, especially, improved. Processing of the oil after extraction to obtain a 9. Brimberg, U.I. 1981. Fette, Seifen, Anstrichmittel 83, 5, p. 184. phase first. Shortenings, which do not usually involve a water performance. Interesterification has also been proposed for
quality oil and meal. Glucosinolate breakdown products impair developed over the years. These methods are continually being 8. Carlson, K. 1993, INFORM, 4, 3, 272-281. use. Margarine oils are emulsified with an appropriate water decreased in the future, interesterification will assume greater
These hydrolysis processes must be suppressed to produce a high quality protein meal as an animal feed have been shortening oils are converted into semi-solid form for final vegetable oils. If trans isomers in fat and oil products must be
7. Williams, M.A. 1989, Oil Mill Gazeteer, 95, 3. With the exception of bulk frying fats, margarine and cation of non-hydrogenated canola oil with fully hydrogenated
and lipases, which hydrolyze triglycerides and phosphatides. to produce a high quality raw oil for further processing and
of importance: myrosinase, which hydrolyzes glucosinolates; The processing methods used to extract the oil from the seed 6. Dahlen, J. 1973. Ger. Offen. 2 313 224. Margarine and Shortening Packaging and Tempering Thomas (14) and Desrosier (15) have investigated interesterifi-
on temperature and moisture content. Two enzyme systems are 5. Mag, T.K. 1989, ibid. p. 107-116.
to control enzymatic activity in the flaked seed, which depends The meal is an important source of protein in animal feeding. which are associated with vacuum generation and volatiles. melting properties.
Another very important function of the cooking operation is important component of the seed in terms of market value. D.R. Erickson, ed., American Oil Chemists’ Society, Champaign, Ill. USA, p. 43-48. hydrogenated fats to manufacture products of a variety of
ciency of the process and eliminating air and water pollution,
its nutritional qualities in the human diet and is the most 4. Buhr, N. 1989. Edible Fats and Oils Processing: Basic Principles and Modern Practices, The process represents an alternative to the use of partially
there has been much emphasis on improving the energy effi-
to solvent extraction. The oil from the seed has gained an excellent reputation for 3. Mag, T.K. 1990. ibid. p. 251-259. Many different process versions are in use. In recent years of the resulting fat in a way not achievable by mere blending.
extraction, and adjusts the moisture content of the seed prior Canola is one of the most important oilseed crops in the world. and allows efficient removal of the volatiles to very low levels. from the original oils to change the melting characteristics
Technology, F. Shahidi, ed., van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, p. 235-249. acid compositions are formed that can be sufficiently different
2. Unger, E.H. 1990. Canola and Rapeseed; Production, Chemistry, Nutrition, and Processing through the oil (2-4%), which increases the volatility further
the volatility of the compounds to be removed. Steam is blown applied to blends of different oils, triglycerides with fatty
Academic Press, Toronto, p. 181–195. vacuum (2-4mm Hg pressure) to exclude air. This increases the triglyceride is changed randomly. When the process is
by Ted Mag 1. Beach, D.H.C. 1983, High and Low Erucic Acid Rapeseed Oils,J.K.G. Kramer, et al. eds., previous process steps, is heated to 260-265ºC under very high properties of fats and oils. The position of fatty acids in
materials. The oil, which must be thoroughly purified in the Interesterification is another process for changing the melting
References
distillation is used extensively in industries with heat sensitive Interesterification
volatile compounds from the oil such as free fatty acids. Steam
and Oil Processing
and flavour compounds from the oil, as well as other relatively linola and olive.
The treatment is essentially a steam distillation of the odour non-hydrogenated oils such as sunflower, soybean,
ponent, preferably alone, but also in combination with other
the oil as an alternative to alkali refining. nutritional profile is used as the liquid, non-hydrogenated com-
As mentioned earlier, deodorizing serves to physically refine for trans-free margarines, canola oil with its favourable
carotenoid compounds is an important aspect of the process. (12) and Naguib-Mostafa (13). With the increasing demand
at the temperatures required, heat-bleaching of the yellow-red shortening products has been studied extensively by deMan

Canola Seed
impart typical odour and taste and must be removed. Further, behaviour of hydrogenated canola oil for margarine and
Solvent Extraction Degumming Oil Processing and Products out on edible oils, this step may be delayed until other progressively dried to about 0.1% moisture content. This gives of their good stability and pourability and the low saturated
The presscake from the expellers, as is, or as collets from processes, such as hydrogenation of the oil, have been done. the best adsorption efficiency. As indicated earlier, about fatty acid content. Table 2 gives typical data from industry
The “crude” oil from the two extraction stages is usually
extruders, is conveyed to the solvent extractor. Some cooling Little authoritative industrial experience with physical refining 1-3% clay (10% moisture content) may be required to achieve experience.
blended and then degummed before being stored for sale Alkali and Physical Refining
during conveying is done to minimize vaporization of hexane and the pretreatment of canola oil for physical refining has chlorophyll removal to <25 ppb. This level is innocuous in
or further processing. Degumming removes phosphatides
Degummed oil is further purified in a process of refining. been published so far. respect to oxidation and colour of the oil. Mag, 1989 (5) has Table 2: Composition and Stability of Lightly
in the extractor. A variety of extractor designs are in use. The coextracted with the oil, which tend to separate from the
One of two methods are used, namely, alkali refining, given an overview of edible oil bleaching practice, with Hydrogenated Canola
solvent is hexane, specifically refined for this application. In oil as a sludge during storage. The phosphatide content of
especially with water degummed oil, and physical refining Canola Oil Processing particular attention to canola oil. Brimberg, 1981 (9) and
the extractor, the solids are solvent-washed in stages, first with crude oil varies, but is usually in the order of 1.25%, or
with acid-water degummed oil. Alkali refining is the most Henderson, 1993 (10) have investigated aspects of chlorophyll Canola
hexane already high in oil content (miscella) and then with measured as phosphorus, 500 ppm.
common process used, even with acid-water degummed oil. adsorption important to the process.
progressively leaner miscella and, finally with pure hexane. non-hydrogenated lightly hydrogenated
Physical refining is a relatively new development. It requires
This leaches the oil content in the solid material (meal) down Two degumming methods are in use: (a) using water to Crude Degummed Oil
well-degummed oil of moderate chlorophyll and free fatty Hydrogenation Fatty acid composition
to about 1%, depending somewhat on equipment design and precipitate phosphatides and; (b) using an acid such as citric,
acid content, but it is then very economical. C16:0 palmitic 4 4
throughput rate. malic, or phosphoric and water (superdegumming). After This process, which was first introduced in the edible oils
contacting the oil with these reagents, the oil is centrifuged Alkali-Refining Acid Pretreating / industry in connection with cottonseed and marine oil around C18:0 stearic 2 4
In alkali refining, the oil is first contacted with about
The meal and the miscella are now “stripped” of the solvent to to separate the precipitated material. Degumming with water Bleaching 1900, changes the melting behaviour of oils and improves
0.05-0.1% of concentrated phosphoric acid in a high intensity C18:1 oleic 60 80
recover solvent-free meal and oil. The solvent-saturated meal only, leaves from 100-250 ppm of phosphorus, depending on the oxidative stability. Today, it is also applied to such oils as
mixer to help precipitate phosphatides. It is then contacted
is conveyed to a desolventizer, which is a vertical tank the extent of hydrolysis of phosphatides in the course of seed soybean and canola. Hydrogen is added to the double bonds C18:2 linoleic 22 8
with an approximately 12% aqueous solution of sodium Bleaching
equipped with heated trays and agitators. Reduced pressure preparation, as discussed earlier. In degumming with an acid of unsaturated fatty acids at temperatures of 160-200ºC and
hydroxide to neutralize the free fatty acids and any excess C18:3 linolenic 10 2
and sometimes live steam are used to evaporate the hexane and and water, the hydrolyzed, non-hydratable phosphatides (NHP) pressures of 100-300 kPa in the presence of a nickel catalyst
phosphoric acid present, and to precipitate phosphatides. Iodine Value 115 90
to dry the meal. The hexane and moisture vapours are are also removed. Residual concentrations are about 25 ppm to facilitate the reaction. Chlorophyll, phosphatides, soaps,
This requires about 2-3% of the solution. Very intensive Hydrogenation
condensed, the water and hexane are separated, and the hexane of phosphorus. The separated phosphatides are added to the and especially sulfur compounds “poison” the catalyst, Stability
mixing is used. Temperatures and contact times may vary from
is reused. Several stages of heating and drying are applied to meal in the desolventizer. This raises the residual oil content raising process costs. The former are removed in refining
about 90ºC and only seconds for both acid and caustic in the Frying -- good
reduce the hexane content to negligible levels and moisture of the meal to about 2-3% and raises its energy content. and bleaching. Sulfur compounds are only reduced somewhat
so called “short-mix” process to about 40ºC and 15 minutes
to 8-11 %. Some removal of glucosinolates and their break- Typical concentrations of the various minor constituents found Catalyst Removal Other Oils in these treatments; deMan, 1983 (11) has investigated the AOM hours 15 75
each in the “long-mix” process. The oil/soap mixture is
down products and some protein denaturing occurs. in crude and in degummed canola oil are given in Table 1. role of sulfur compounds in catalyst poisoning in canola
then heated to about 90ºC, if required, and centrifuged to Pourability Yes Yes
oil hydrogenation.
separate the aqueous soap phase. This phase also contains
To achieve the best meal quality, the process must be well Table 1: Minor Constituents of Crude and of Blending
the precipitated phosphatides and some triglyceride oil. The The process is carried out batchwise. There are various Table 3 shows some typical margarine oil blends using
controlled with respect to temperature (110ºC max.) and time. Degummed Canola Oil centrifuged oil must be further contacted with about 5-10% reactor designs in use. Depending on temperature, pressure, canola oil hydrogenated to different melting ranges and
Usually, the final treatment in desolventizing is a cooling
hot water to reduce soap levels from about 400 ppm and to some extent the specific catalyst properties, different non-hydrogenated, and also hydrogenated soybean oils.
stage. Cooled meal may be ground to a uniform particle size,
to <50 ppm. Free fatty acids are reduced to <0.05% Dewaxing* Dewaxing* melting behaviour in the hydrogenated fat can be obtained.
or pelleted, ready for storage and marketing. Dehulling of Free fatty acids 0.4 – 1.0%
and phosphorus to <2 ppm. Iron and copper concentrations The oxidative stability improvement, also, is modified
the meal for non-ruminant feed may, in future, become Phospholipids 1 – 1.5% Table 3: Margarine with Canola Oil
are reduced to below detection. Coloured compounds somewhat by choice of process conditions. It is possible
commercial practice.
Water degummed (as P) 100 – 250 ppm (chlorophylloids, carotenoids) are not affected significantly. Physical Refining / to hydrogenate fatty acids with multiple double bonds
Deodorization
The concentration of sulfur compounds is reduced slightly. preferentially. These are the most easily oxidized and their Oil Stock Hard Margarine Soft Margarine No-Trans
The miscella containing the oil is desolventized in three-stage Acid – water deg. (as P) 10 – 50 ppm Deodorization
This oil is now ready for bleaching. The soap phase from this concentration must, therefore, be reduced or eliminated for
evaporator equipment. The hexane vapour from this operation % 1 2 1 2 3
Unsaponifiables operation can be added to the meal, similar to the disposal of best effect on stability. Usually, conditions are chosen which
is, also, condensed for reuse. A properly operated extraction Canola
the phosphatides from degumming, or it can be acidulated and provide this selectivity. In canola oil, very low concentrations
plant loses no more than about 2-3 litres of hexane/mt of seed (Tocopherols, Sterols) 0.5 – 1.2%
used as a feed ingredient. The wash water must be treated to Bulk Oil of these fatty acids can be achieved with very little hardening Hard 46 -- 25 -- --
processed. Beach (1), Unger (2), Buhr (4), Dahlen (6), and Chlorophylls 10 – 35 ppm Crystallization /
reduce the oil content to acceptable levels for discharge. Mag, of the oil taking place. Melting behaviour is most usually
Williams (7) have written on details of various aspects of Packaging / Tempering Shipping Medium 8 -- 10 -- --
Sulphur compounds (as S) 3 – 15 ppm 1990 (3) has reviewed industrial refining practice in some evaluated by determining the proportion of solid fat in
canola seed extraction.
detail. Carlson, 1993 (8) reviewed refining methods and costs. / Shipping a sample over the temperature range of interest, usually Soft 46 60 12 -- --
Iron, Crude/Acid-Wat. Deg. <2/<0.2 ppm
Canola Seed Extraction & Degumming of Oil 10-40ºC. Non -
Copper <det. limit In physical refining, acid-water degummed oil with a
Canola Seed (42% Oil) phosphorus content below 50 ppm is first subject to a Another consequence of hydrogenation is the formation of Hydrogenated -- -- 53 75 90
phosphoric acid pretreatment, as in the short-mix alkali * Dotted box indicates this process is optional isomeric fatty acids. Positional isomers as well as geometric,
Seed Cleaning The most recent development in degumming uses acid Palm/Palm Kernel
refining process. It is then contacted with acid-activated or trans isomers are formed. These compounds are important
and aqueous sodium hydroxide, rather than acid and bleaching clay in a standard bleaching process at 95-105ºC. Interesterified -- -- -- -- 10
Preheating water, especially with lower quality oils. This represents Adsorptive Bleaching contributors to the melting properties and the functional utility
The clay, along with precipitated phosphatides and adsorbed of the hydrogenated fat. Recently, nutrition science has again Soy Bean
an intermediate between acid-water degumming and alkali chlorophylloid and some carotenoid compounds, is then
Crushing / Flaking Alkali refined oil, which still contains most of the focused on the role of trans isomer fatty acids in the diet.
refining. Phosphatides as well as some of the other impurities removed by filtration. This is the first and most important Very Hard -- -- -- 25 --
chlorophylloid compounds present in the crude oil, requires This will probably continue to be controversial for some time.
are removed and, if sufficient alkali is applied to saponify stage of physical refining. It delivers bleached oil ready for Hard -- 40 -- -- --
Cooking bleaching. These compounds must be removed. They catalyze
the free fatty acids, fully refined oil is obtainable. deodorizing. Except for the free fatty acids in the oil, all other oil oxidation and give an undesirable green colour to the oil. Hydrogenated Canola Oil in Shortenings
Pressing minor constituents are reduced to the same concentrations as It has become recognized that chlorophyll removal is the most and Margarines The above hydrogenated canola oil stocks that are used in
in alkali refining and in addition, chlorophyll is reduced to important aspect of canola oil bleaching. Acid-activated clays
Settling / Filtering Solvent Extraction the concentration required of bleached oil, namely <25 ppb. Hydrogenated fats from canola oil play an important role margarines, are also used extensively in shortenings and as sta-
are used. Their adsorptive properties are especially effective
Usually, from 1-3% acid-activated bleaching clay is used, in the production of the wide range of fat products used ble frying fats. Industry makes a wide variety of canola based
Press Oil Oil Desolventization Meal Desolventization
for the removal of these compounds. Other coloured
depending primarily on the concentration and type of in Canada and other countries. They often appear in blends hydrogenated oil stocks for tailor-made shortenings.
compounds, some of the oxidation breakdown products
chlorophylloid compounds present in the oil. with other oils to combine the advantages of canola oil with
Extracted Oil Meal Grinding / and traces of iron are also removed in this process.
those of other oils. They are especially important as lightly Very highly hydrogenated canola oils are rarely used in
Pelletizing
The removal of the free fatty acids in the oil is done by steam hydrogenated oils for their exceptional stability. This is due, margarine and baking shortenings, because of the tendency
The process itself is carried out under vacuum with the oil at
Degumming distillation in a deodorizer. This simultaneously deodorizes the in part, to the high content of monounsaturated fatty acids in to form large (beta) crystals over time. This impairs eating
Meal Storage / about 100ºC. Many process versions are in use. About 5-30
Shipping oil. Because deodorization is the last process normally carried canola oil. These products are becoming very popular because properties and baking performance. The crystallization
minutes of contact time is given, while the oil/clay slurry is
Oil Processing
email: [email protected] • www.canola-council.org
significantly enhanced. 400-167 Lombard Avenue, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada R3B 0T6 • Phone: (204) 982-2100 • Fax: (204) 942-1841 and hydrogenation form traces of compounds, which also
properties. Capacity of solvent extraction equipment is ones, coagulates protein for better diffusion during solvent
which it is derived. In addition, such processes as bleaching
intact cells to release oil, coalesces small oil droplets to larger
of presscake (collets) have excellent solvent extraction
CANOLA COUNCIL OF CANADA President of T. Mag/Associates Consulting. oil which impart odour and taste typical of the seed from
making it very porous. These small diameter, porous pieces several very important functions: it ruptures remaining Ted Mag is a consultant to the fats & oils industry, and is step. Its primary function is to remove compounds from the
pressure release on discharge “expands” the extruded material, This heating, also called cooking or conditioning, serves
In edible oil processing, deodorization is the final "refining"
small openings of a die plate at the end of the barrel. The shortenings made from hydrogenated canola oil.
is developed. The material is then discharged through the plants, horizontal, rotary kilns equipped with steam coils. Deodorization
his studies on the crystallization behaviour of margarines and
and mixing take place along the length of the barrel. Pressure tanks with agitated, steam-heated trays or, in more modern tempering has been studied by deMan (12) in connection with
a rotating shaft fitted with flights. Steam is added and heating about 75-100ºC in cookers. These may be either vertical effect of commercial crystallization conditions and product have studied waxes in canola oil.
Extruders used for this purpose consist of a barrel with clearance than the first. The flaked seed is then heated to tempered for a shorter time and then refrigerated. The produces a visible haze. Przybylski (16), and Ackman (17)
extrusion to improve its solvent extraction properties. roller mills are used, with the second set adjusted to a tighter for optimum shortening properties. Margarines are usually This reduces the wax content to <50 ppm, which no longer
In some plants, the presscake is subjected to mechanical roller mills, set to very tight clearance. Usually, two sets of It is a poorly understood process, but it is very important a filter aid into the chilled oil stream on the way to a filter.
may also be required. The preheated seed is then flaked on to improve plasticity, creaming, and baking performance. exchanger to about 5ºC and metering about 0.1% of
solvent extraction. important with very cold seed. Some moisture adjustment The process is carried out by chilling in a continuous heat
packaged products is held for two to four days at 25-27ºC
breaker to produce uniform sized particles, is now ready for to about 30-40ºC to prevent shattering. This is especially therefore, to dewax the oil to avoid a hazy appearance.
fat mixture to reach completion. The properly crystallized,
stage. The presscake, which may be put through a mechanical In many extraction plants, the cleaned seed is first heated room temperature, or lower. In some cases, it is desirable,
allowing certain equilibrium processes in the crystalline/liquid
by gravity and filtration, and recycled to the conditioning triglycerides in composition, but are usually crystalline at
Seed Preparation for Extraction Tempering of crystallized fat products refers to the process of
expeller is unavoidable. These fines are separated from the oil (about 100 – 200 ppm). These compounds are related to
discharge of very fine solids with the oil draining from the crystallization before the product enters the package. oil does occasionally contain a small concentration of waxes
Dehulling of the seed is, at present, not a commercial process.
the solids (presscake) discharge end of the barrel. Some achieved. Essentially this means very rapid and complete clear and liquid at refrigerator temperatures. However, the
combination of these are used in the cleaning process.
the rotating screw shaft working against an adjustable choke at crystallization to the very small beta prime type crystals is Canola oil is a natural salad oil. This means that it remains
of the seed. Aspiration, indent cleaning, sieving, or some
within. Pressure and heat are developed within the barrel by in hydrogenated canola oil require special care to ensure that
plant stalks, grain seeds and other materials from the bulk Dewaxing
flow from between the bars while retaining the solid material about a 1ºC temperature rise in the package. Products high
are obtained. The graded seed is then cleaned to remove
mounted edgewise around the inside and spaced to allow oil to package. When done properly, there should be no more than alternatively, bleached.
It is the first step to help ensure that a quality oil and meal
shaft in a cylindrical barrel. The barrel has flat steel bars crystallization to take place before the product enters the added to neutralize the base. The oil is then washed, or
the Canadian Grain Commission. Payment is based on grade. 17. Ackman, R.G., et al. 1993, CUAP Project Report #90-31. In print.
efficient and economical. Expellers consist of a rotating screw the A-unit to about 25ºC and resting to allow most of the The oil is then cooled to about 90ºC, phosphoric acid is
according to a strict grading standard for canola established by
solvent extraction of the remaining oil is then much more 16. Przybylski, R., et al. 1993. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 70, 10, p. 1009-1015. appearance. Essential process conditions are chilling in contacted for about 30 minutes to catalyse the reaction.
Seed delivered to the extraction plant from the farm is graded
(8% moisture basis) to 16-20% mechanically. Subsequent of the B-units. This gives the product its white, even-textured to the heated (150ºC) oil as a powder under agitation and
15. Desrosier, W.J. 1988. M. Sc. Thesis, U. of Saskatchewan.
is to reduce the oil content of the seed from about 42% Seed Grading and Cleaning about 10% by volume of nitrogen gas is added ahead Sodium methoxide (a strong base, 0.05%) is added
screw-presses or expellers. The function of this equipment 14. Thomas, K.C., et al. 1988 J. Can. Inst. Food Sc. and Techn. 21, p. 167-173.
a variety of packages and sizes. In the case of shortenings, spray. The oil must be very dry and low in free fatty acids.
The heat-conditioned seed is passed into continuous Extraction of Seed for Oil and Meal 13. Naguib-Mostafa, A., et al. 1985, J. Am. Oil Chemists’ Soc. 62, 4, p. 756-759 and 760-762. product is then transferred to fillers where it is packaged in agitated tank, equipped with a vacuum system and a water
Prepressing 12. deMan, J., et al. 1992. INFORM, 3, 4, p. 542. place. The now partially crystalline, but still pumpable fat In modern plants, the process is carried out in a heated,
the industry. in which further crystallization with or without agitation takes
usually unavoidable. gives an overview of these processes and methods as used in 11. deMan, J., et al. 1983. ibid. 60, 3 558-562. heat exchangers (A-units), followed by resting units (B-units) use for this purpose because of cost.
to refine. A small concentration of breakdown products is long history, and is continually being improved. This brochure 10. Henderson, J.H. 1993 J. Am. Oil Chemists’ Soc. 70, 9, p. 831-835. out in systems consisting of ammonia cooled, scraped-surface hydrogenated canola oil, however, it has not found significant
phosphatide breakdown products make the oil more difficult large variety of oil products for human consumption also has a phase, are crystallized directly. The crystallization is carried use in controlling the problem with beta crystallization of
the quality of the oil and the meal; triglyceride and, especially, improved. Processing of the oil after extraction to obtain a 9. Brimberg, U.I. 1981. Fette, Seifen, Anstrichmittel 83, 5, p. 184. phase first. Shortenings, which do not usually involve a water performance. Interesterification has also been proposed for
quality oil and meal. Glucosinolate breakdown products impair developed over the years. These methods are continually being 8. Carlson, K. 1993, INFORM, 4, 3, 272-281. use. Margarine oils are emulsified with an appropriate water decreased in the future, interesterification will assume greater
These hydrolysis processes must be suppressed to produce a high quality protein meal as an animal feed have been shortening oils are converted into semi-solid form for final vegetable oils. If trans isomers in fat and oil products must be
7. Williams, M.A. 1989, Oil Mill Gazeteer, 95, 3. With the exception of bulk frying fats, margarine and cation of non-hydrogenated canola oil with fully hydrogenated
and lipases, which hydrolyze triglycerides and phosphatides. to produce a high quality raw oil for further processing and
of importance: myrosinase, which hydrolyzes glucosinolates; The processing methods used to extract the oil from the seed 6. Dahlen, J. 1973. Ger. Offen. 2 313 224. Margarine and Shortening Packaging and Tempering Thomas (14) and Desrosier (15) have investigated interesterifi-
on temperature and moisture content. Two enzyme systems are 5. Mag, T.K. 1989, ibid. p. 107-116.
to control enzymatic activity in the flaked seed, which depends The meal is an important source of protein in animal feeding. which are associated with vacuum generation and volatiles. melting properties.
Another very important function of the cooking operation is important component of the seed in terms of market value. D.R. Erickson, ed., American Oil Chemists’ Society, Champaign, Ill. USA, p. 43-48. hydrogenated fats to manufacture products of a variety of
ciency of the process and eliminating air and water pollution,
its nutritional qualities in the human diet and is the most 4. Buhr, N. 1989. Edible Fats and Oils Processing: Basic Principles and Modern Practices, The process represents an alternative to the use of partially
there has been much emphasis on improving the energy effi-
to solvent extraction. The oil from the seed has gained an excellent reputation for 3. Mag, T.K. 1990. ibid. p. 251-259. Many different process versions are in use. In recent years of the resulting fat in a way not achievable by mere blending.
extraction, and adjusts the moisture content of the seed prior Canola is one of the most important oilseed crops in the world. and allows efficient removal of the volatiles to very low levels. from the original oils to change the melting characteristics
Technology, F. Shahidi, ed., van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, p. 235-249. acid compositions are formed that can be sufficiently different
2. Unger, E.H. 1990. Canola and Rapeseed; Production, Chemistry, Nutrition, and Processing through the oil (2-4%), which increases the volatility further
the volatility of the compounds to be removed. Steam is blown applied to blends of different oils, triglycerides with fatty
Academic Press, Toronto, p. 181–195. vacuum (2-4mm Hg pressure) to exclude air. This increases the triglyceride is changed randomly. When the process is
by Ted Mag 1. Beach, D.H.C. 1983, High and Low Erucic Acid Rapeseed Oils,J.K.G. Kramer, et al. eds., previous process steps, is heated to 260-265ºC under very high properties of fats and oils. The position of fatty acids in
materials. The oil, which must be thoroughly purified in the Interesterification is another process for changing the melting
References
distillation is used extensively in industries with heat sensitive Interesterification
volatile compounds from the oil such as free fatty acids. Steam
and Oil Processing
and flavour compounds from the oil, as well as other relatively linola and olive.
The treatment is essentially a steam distillation of the odour non-hydrogenated oils such as sunflower, soybean,
ponent, preferably alone, but also in combination with other
the oil as an alternative to alkali refining. nutritional profile is used as the liquid, non-hydrogenated com-
As mentioned earlier, deodorizing serves to physically refine for trans-free margarines, canola oil with its favourable
carotenoid compounds is an important aspect of the process. (12) and Naguib-Mostafa (13). With the increasing demand
at the temperatures required, heat-bleaching of the yellow-red shortening products has been studied extensively by deMan

Canola Seed
impart typical odour and taste and must be removed. Further, behaviour of hydrogenated canola oil for margarine and