MODULE-3

Group Level of Analysis or Group Dynamics

Organizational
level

Group
Level

Individual
level
Group Level of Analysis or Group Dynamics
• Groups focuses on
 Nature of groups

 Formation of groups

 Development of groups

 Interrelationships with individuals

Group Level of Analysis or Group Dynamics
• For example,
 5 people waiting in a checkout line at a super market is
consider to be a group.

 Three couples getting together for dinner

• Obviously, a group is more than simply a collection of

people.
Group Level of Analysis or Group Dynamics
• How effectively groups operate?

• How people are affected by the presence of

others?
GROUP
• Two or more individuals interacting and
interdependent, who have come together to achieve
particular objectives

• Characteristics:
 Two or more people in social interaction
 Stable structure
 Members share common goals
 Members perceive themselves as being a group
Why do people join groups?
• To satisfy mutual interests and goals

• To achieve security (trade unions)

• To fill social needs (to affiliate with others)

• To fill need for self-esteem

esteem (group membership
provides opportunities for people to be recognized)
What Types of Groups Exist?

Groups

Formal Informal
Groups Groups
What Types of Groups Exist?

Groups

Formal Informal
Groups Groups

Command Interest
Groups Groups

Task Friendship
Groups Groups
Types of groups
• Formal Groups: Groups that are created by the
organization, intentionally designed to direct its
members towards some organizational goal.

• Informal Groups: Groups that develop naturally

among people, without any direction from the
organization within which they operate.
Types of groups
Formal Groups Informal Groups
Defined by the Neither formally
organization structure structured nor
organizationally
determined

Ex: The 6 members of an Ex: 5 members from

airline flight crew are a different departments
formal group who regularly have lunch
or coffee together
Types of groups: Formal Groups
• Command Groups: a group created by connections
between individuals who are a formal part of the
organization.
Ex: A school principal and teachers
• Task Groups: a group of people working together to
complete a job task.
Ex: If a college student accused of a campus crime, dealing
with the problem might require coordination among the
dean of academic affairs, head of the department,
registrar, director of security and students advisor.
• All command groups are task groups.
• But all task groups are not command groups.
Types of groups: Informal Groups
• Interest Groups: affiliate to attain a specific
objective of shared interest.
interest
Ex: Vacations

• Friendship Groups: members have one or

more common characteristics
Ex: Support for regional cricket teams during
IPL matches.
Stages of Group Development

• The 5 Stage Model of Group Development

• An Alternative Model for Temporary

Groups with Deadlines
Stages of Group Development
• The 5 Stage Model of Group Development:
1. FORMING
2. STORMING

3. NORMING

4. PERFORMING
5. ADJOURNING
ages of Group Development: The 5 Stage Model of Group Development

Forming:
The first stage, forming stage , is characterized by a great
deal of uncertainty about the group’s purpose, structure,
and leadership.
Members “test the waters” to determine what types of
behaviors are acceptable. This stage is complete when
members have begun to think of themselves as part of a
group.
ages of Group Development: The 5 Stage Model of Group Development

• Storming:

 In this stage it is characterized by a high degree of

conflict within the group.

 There is conflict over who will control the group.

 Hierarchy of leadership becomes clear, the storming

stage is complete.
ages of Group Development: The 5 Stage Model of Group Development

• Norming:

 In this stage it is characterized by close relationships

and cohesiveness.

 The norming stage is complete when the members of

the group accept a common set of expectations about
how to do things.
ages of Group Development: The 5 Stage Model of Group Development

• Performing:

 This stage, questions about group relationships and

leadership have been resolved and the group is ready
to work.

 Group at this point is fully functional and accepted.

 This is the last stage for permanent work groups.

ages of Group Development: The 5 Stage Model of Group Development

• Adjourning:

• However, for temporary committees, teams, task forces,

and similar groups that have a limited task to perform,
the adjourning stage is for wrapping up activities
and preparing to disband.

• Wrapping up activities is the focus rather than high task

performance. Some group members are upbeat, others
may be depressed.
Stages of Group Development
tages of Group Development: The 5 Stage Model of Group Development

• Confusion, uncertainty, testing ground rules, defining goals,

ming establishing rules

• Disagreement over priorities, struggle for leadership, hostility

ming

• Leadership accepted, trust established, co-operation

co
ming

• Successful performance
rming

• Disengagement, self evaluation, sadness, positive feeling

rning towards leader
s of Group Development: An Alternative Model for Temporary Groups with Deadlines

Period of Period of Change

Equilibrium

Final
makes changes
made
plans
makes
changes
Task
completed

Beginning of group Group deadline

Halfway to deadline
discussions
s of Group Development: An Alternative Model for Temporary Groups with Deadlines

Temporary groups with deadlines do not seem to follow the

usual 5 stage model. Studies indicate they have their own
unique sequencing of actions:

1. The first meeting sets the group’s direction.

2. The first phase of group activity is one of inertia.

3. A transition takes place at the end of this phase, when

the group has used up exactly half of its allotted
time.
ges of Group Development: An Alternative Model for Temporary Groups with Deadlines

4. This transition initiates major changes.

5. A second phase of inertia follows the transition.

6. The group’s last meeting has markedly accelerated

activity.

• This pattern called the Punctuated Equilibrium

Model.
ges of Group Development: An Alternative Model for Temporary Groups with Deadlines

Punctuated Equilibrium Model:

• Temporary groups under time constrained

deadlines go through transitions between inertia
and activity – at the half-way
half point, they
experience an increase in productivity.
productivity
ges of Group Development: An Alternative Model for Temporary Groups with Deadlines
ges of Group Development: An Alternative Model for Temporary Groups with Deadlines

Period of Equilibrium Period of Change

Group Group Final

Task
makes makes changes
completed
plans changes made

Beginning of group Halfway to Group

discussions deadline deadline

Time
Group Properties or Group Structure

• The key characteristics of a group is its stable structure.

• Group Structure
 The pattern of interrelationships between the individuals
constituting a group; the guidelines of group behavior that
make group functioning orderly and predictable.
 It helps shape the behavior of its members, predict the
behavior and guide the performance of the group as a whole.
Group Properties or Group Structure
• Six different aspects of group structure:
structure

1. Roles

2. Norms

3. Status

4. Size of a Group

5. Cohesiveness

6. Diversity
Group Properties or Group Structure: Roles
Roles: The various parts played by group member

Ex: Rahul is a plant manager in BHEL industry. He

fulfills a number of roles like, member of middle
management, electrical engineer and spokesperson in the
community.

Off the job, he finds himself in more roles: son, husband,

father, tennis player, president of his housing society etc.,.

• So different groups impose different role requirements on

individuals.
Group Properties or Group Structure: Roles

• Roles:

Role Perception
Role Expectations
Role Conflict
Group Properties or Group Structure: Roles
• Role Perception: Our view of how we are supposed
to act in a given situation.

• We get role perceptions from stimuli all around us -

for example, parents, friends, books, relatives,
movies, television.
Group Properties or Group Structure: Roles

• Role Expectations: How others believe a person

should act in a given situation.

• For example, the role of a supreme court judge is viewed

as having propriety and dignity, while a football coach
is seen as aggressive, dynamic and inspiring to his
players.
Group Properties or Group Structure: Roles

• Role Conflict: When compliance with one role

requirement may take it difficult to comply with
another, the result is role conflict.
conflict

• For example, Work vs Family ( Rahul’s wife and

children want to remain in Hyderabad but he is
interested to accept relocation )
Group Properties or Group Structure: Norms
Norms: Acceptable standards of behavior within a
group that are shared by the group’s members.

Classes of Norms:

• Performance norms - How hard members should work,

what the level of output should be, how to get the job done,
what level of tardiness (is the quality of being late) is appropriate.

• Appearance norms - what to wear ( dress codes, when to

look busy )
Group Properties or Group Structure: Norms

Classes of Norms:
• Social arrangement norms - Whom to have
lunch with, whether to form friendships with co
workers.

• Allocation of resources norms -

Assignment of difficult jobs, distribution of
resources like pay or equipment.
equipment
Group Properties or Group Structure: Status
tatus: A socially defined position or rank given to groups by
thers.

t differentiates group members.

Group Properties or Group Structure: Status
Status characteristics theory :

1.. The power a person wields over others.

Ex. Politicians (control over a group’s resources).

2. A person’s ability to contribute to a group’s goals.

Ex. Star sports persons (in cricket), top notch hospital

administrators.

3. An individual’s personal characteristics.

Ex. intelligence, friendly personality, good looks.

Group Properties or Group Structure: Status

Status effects on groups:

 Status and Norms: High-status
status individuals (Doctors,
Lawyers) are often given more freedom to deviate from
norms than other group members.
members
Interaction High status people tend
 Status and Group Interaction:
to be more assertive group members.
members They speak out more
often, criticize more, state more commands and interrupt
others more often.
Group Properties or Group Structure: Status
Status effects on groups:
• Status Inequity:
 It is important for group members to believe the status
hierarchy is equitable.
 People expect rewards to be proportionate to costs
incurred.
 For example, reena and priya are two finalists for the
head nurse position in a hospital, and reena clearly has a
more seniority and better preparation, but priya has
chosen because she is the relative of the hospital director.
Group Properties or Group Structure: Size of a Group

• Smaller groups are faster at completing tasks than

larger ones.

• Individuals perform better in smaller groups than in

larger ones.

• In problem solving, larger groups consistently get

better marks than their smaller counterparts.

• One of the most important finding about the size of a

group concerns social loafing..
Group Properties or Group Structure: Size of a Group
• Social Loafing: The tendency for individuals to
expend less effort when working collectively than
when working individually.

• Ex: Rope Pulling Study

Group Properties or Group Structure: Size of a Group
Ways to prevent social loafing:
loafing

• Increase intergroup competition.

• Engage in peer evaluation.

• Select highly motivated people who prefer working in

groups.

• Base group rewards on each member’s unique

contribution.
Group Properties or Group Structure: Cohesiveness
• The degree to which group members are attracted to
each other and are motivated to stay in the group.

• Cohesiveness effects group productivity.

productivity
Group Properties or Group Structure: Cohesiveness

Relationship Between Group Cohesiveness,

Performance Norms, and Productivity
Group Properties or Group Structure: Cohesiveness
How to increase group cohesiveness?
1. Make the group smaller.
2. Encourage agreement with group’s goals.
3. Increase the time members spend together.
4. Increase the group’s status and the perceived
difficulty of attaining membership.
5. Stimulate competition with other groups.
6. Give rewards to the group rather than individual
members.
7. Physically isolate the group
Group Properties or Group Structure: Diversity
• The degree to which members of the group are
similar to, or different from one another.

• Diversity appears to increase in group conflict,

and raises dropout rates.
Group Properties or Group Structure: Diversity
Group Properties or Group Structure: Diversity
How to prevent diversity in groups?

1. Build a culture of respect diversity.

diversity

2. Diversity training programs.

Group Decision Making
Now a days, many decisions in organizations are made by
roups or committees.

Decision making groups may be widely used in organizations.

Group Decision Making: Strengths

• More complete information and knowledge

• Increased diversity of views

• Increased acceptance of reasons

Group Decision Making: Weakness

• Pressures to confirm (supported by the majority)

• Dominations by the few

• Time consuming

• Ambiguous responsibility(who is responsible for the

final outcome?)

• Delaying progress
Group Decision Making

Two by products of group decision making have

the potential to affect a group’s ability.

• Groupthink

• Group shift
Group Decision Making: Groupthink
Group Decision Making: Groupthink

phenomenon in which the norm for consensus overrides the

ealistic appraisal of alternative courses of action.
Group Decision Making: Groupthink
Symptoms of groupthink:

1. Group members rationalise any resistance to the assumptions

they have made, no matter how strong the evidence.

2. Members apply direct pressure on those who express doubts

about the option favoured by the majority.

3. Members who differ keep silent, even minimising to themselves

the importance of their doubts.

4. Illusion of unanimity. Abstention becomes a yes vote

Group Decision Making: Groupthink

How can managers minimise groupthink?

1. Monitor group size. More than 10 members is

when groupthink starts to take stronger effect.

2. Group leaders must play an impartial role.

3. Group leaders must actively seek input from all

members and avoid expressing their own opinions.
Group Decision Making: Groupthink

How can managers minimise groupthink?

4. One group member must play the “Devil’s Advocate”.(someone

who pretends, in an argument or discussion, to be against an idea that a lot
of people support, in order to make people discuss and consider it in
more detail)

5. The group can first talk about that dangers or risks

inherent in a decision rather than the possible gains.
Group Decision Making: Group shift

•A change in decision risk between a group’s decision

and an individual’s decision that a member within the
group would make; the shift can be toward either
conservatism or greater risk.
Group Decision Making: Group shift
Group discussions tend to exaggerate the initial position of the group.
WHY?

1. The discussion makes the members more comfortable with each

other, thus more bold and daring.

2. The group diffuses responsibility.

3. To demonstrate how different they are from the rest of the group.

4. To prove they are committed.

Group Decision Making Techniques

1. Interacting Groups

2. Brainstorming

3. Nominal Group Technique

4. Electronic Meeting.
Group Decision Making Techniques: Interacting Groups

Typical groups in which members interact with each other

face to face.

But this technique leads to Groupthink and Conformity of

opinion.
Group Decision Making Techniques: Brainstorming

An idea-generation process that specifically encourages

any and all alternatives while withholding any criticism of
those alternatives.
Group Decision Making Techniques: Brainstorming

In a typical brain storming session:

• 6 to 12 people sit around a table.

• Group leader states the problem in a clear manner so that all

participants understand.

• Members then give as many alternatives or ideas as they can in a

given length of time.

• No criticism is allowed.

• All alternatives are recorded for later discussion and analysis.

Group Decision Making Techniques: Brainstorming

• This technique doesn’t provide a solution or decision

itself. Instead, it produces a list of ideas that will
later be considered, discussed, and evaluated when it
is time to reach a final decision.
decision

• This technique is not very efficient. WHY?

 Production blocking : Many are talking at once,
which blocks the thought process.
roup Decision Making Techniques: Nominal Group Technique

Nominal group technique restricts discussion or interpersonal

communication during decision making process.

Group members are all physically present, as in a traditional

committee meeting, but they operate independently.
roup Decision Making Techniques: Nominal Group Technique

Group members are all physically present, but operate

independently. HOW?

1. Members meet as a group, but before any discussion takes

place, each independently writes down ideas on the problem.

2. After this silent period, each member presents 1 idea to the

group. No discussion takes place until all ideas have been
presented and recorded.
roup Decision Making Techniques: Nominal Group Technique

3. The group discusses the ideas for clarity and evaluates them.

4. Each group member silently and independently rank orders

the ideas. The idea with the highest aggregate ranking
determines the final decision.

What does the research say?

 Outperforms Brainstorming Technique.
Group Decision Making Techniques: Electronic Meeting

A meeting in which members interact on computers, allowing

for anonymity of comments and aggregation of votes.
Group Decision Making Techniques: Electronic Meeting
1. Up to 50 people sit around a horse shoe shaped table on
networked laptops.

2. Issues are presented, to which they type anonymous

responses.

3. These individual comments as well as the aggregate votes

are displayed on a projection screen.

4. Allows people to be brutally honest without penalty.

Group Decision Making Techniques: Electronic Meeting

• This technique leads to decreased group

effectiveness, require more time to complete
tasks and result in reduced member satisfaction
compared to face to face groups.
groups
Groups and Teams
Types of Teams
• Problem-Solving Teams

• Self-Managed
Managed Work Teams

• Cross Functional Teams

• Virtual Teams
 Types of Teams
Problem-Solving Teams:
Employees from the same
department and functional area
who are involved in efforts to
improve work activities or to
solve specific problems
 Types of Teams
• Self-Managed Work
Teams
A formal group of
employees who operate
without a manager and are
responsible for a complete
work process or segment.
 Types of Teams

• Cross Functional Teams

 Employees from about the
same hierarchical level,
but from different work
areas, who come together
to accomplish a task.
 Types of Teams

Virtual Teams:
Teams that use computer
technology to link
physically dispersed
members in order to
achieve a common goal.
Videoconferencing etc.,.
Leadership
• The ability to influence a group toward the achievement
of a set of goals.

• Leadership is the potential to influence behaviour of

others.

• Leaders are required to develop future visions, and to

motivate the organizational members to want to achieve
the visions.
Theories of Leadership

• Trait Theories of Leadership

• Behavioral Theories of Leadership

• Contingency Theories of Leadership

Trait Theories of Leadership
• Theories that consider personal qualities and characteristics
that differentiate leaders from non-leaders.
non

• Leadership Traits:
 Self-confidence
 Intelligence
 Honesty
 Problem solving skills
 Desire to lead
 Acceptance and responsibility
Trait Theories of Leadership
Limitations:
• No universal traits found that predict leadership
in all situations.
• Betterpredictor of the appearance of leadership
than distinguishing effective and ineffective
leaders.
• Traitspredict behavior better in “weak”
“weak
situations than “strong” situations.
Behavioral Theories of Leadership

• Trait
research provides a basis for selecting the right
people for leadership.
• Trait
theory:
Leaders are born, not made.
• In
contrast, behavioral theories of leadership implied
we could train people to be leaders.
• Behavioral
theory:
Leadership traits can be taught.
 Behavioral Leadership Studies
The Ohio State Studies sought to identify independent
dimensions of leader behavior:
 Initiating Structure

 Consideration

The University of Michigan Studies sought to identified the behavioral

characteristics of leaders related to performance effectiveness
 Employee Oriented Leader

 Production Oriented Leader

 Behavioral Leadership Studies
hio State Studies

Initiating Structure: The extent to which a leader is likely to

define and structure his or her role and those of sub-ordinates
sub in
the search for goal attainment.

Consideration: The extent to which a leader is likely to have job

relationships characterized by mutual trust, respect for
subordinate’s ideas, and regard for their feelings.
 Behavioral Leadership Studies
niversity of Michigan Studies

Employee Oriented Leader: Emphasizing interpersonal

relations; taking a personal interest in the needs of employees
and accepting individual differences among members.

Production Oriented Leader: One who emphasizes

technical or task aspects of the job.
Contingency Theories of Leadership
• It is based on the idea that the most appropriate
leadership style depends on the situation.

• Leaders must have high emotional intelligence so they can

diagnose the circumstances and match their behaviors
accordingly.

• Contingency means something that might happen in the

future.
Contingency Theories of Leadership
• Fiedler’s Contingency Model

• Situational Theory
 Contingency Theories of Leadership
Fiedler’s Model:

According to this model, leader effectiveness depends on

whether the person’s natural leadership style is
appropriately matched to the situation.

Two leadership styles:

 People or Relationship Oriented Style

 Task Oriented Style

 Contingency Theories of Leadership
Fiedler’s Model:

Identifying Leadership Style

Least Preferred Co-Worker

Worker (LPC) Questionnaire: An
instrument that purports (the purpose or intention of
something) to measure whether a person is task or
relationship oriented.
Contingency Theories
of Leadership

Fiedler’s Model:
Identifying
leadership style by
using Least
Preferred Co-Worker
(LPC) Scale or
Questionnaire
 Contingency Theories of Leadership
Fiedler’s Model:

High LPC Score – Relationship Oriented

Low LPC Score - Task Oriented

 Contingency Theories of Leadership
Fiedler’s Model:

Situational control is affected by three factors in the following

order of importance:
 Leader-member relations

 Task structure and

 Position power
 Contingency Theories of Leadership
Fiedler’s Model: Situational Control Factors

member relations refers to how much

Leader-member
employees trust and respect the leader and are willing
to follow his or her guidance.

Task structure refers to the clarity or ambiguity of

operating procedures.
 Contingency Theories of Leadership
Fiedler’s Model: Situational Control Factors

Position power is the degree of influence a leader has

over power variables such as hiring, firing, promotions,
rewards.

These 3 contingencies form the 8 possible combinations

of situation favorableness from the leader’s viewpoint.
ntingency Theories of Leadership: Fiedler’s Model
 Contingency Theories of Leadership
Fiedler’s Model:

Good leader-member relations, high task structure and

strong position power create the most favorable
situation for the leader because he or she has the most
power and influence under these conditions.
 Contingency Theories of Leadership

ituational Leadership Theory (SLT):

A contingency theory that focuses on follower’s readiness.

Unable and Unable but Able and Able and

Unwilling Willing Unwilling Willing

Follower readiness:
ability and
Leader: decreasing need willingness
for support and supervision

Leaders need Leaders need to display high Leaders need to Leaders doesn’t
to give clear task orientation to compensate use a Supportive need to do much,
and specific for followers. and only Monitoring
directions Participative
Style
 Contingency Theory of Leadership: Situational Leadership Theory (SLT)
Follower’s Readiness

Unable and Leaders need to give clear and

Unwilling specific directions

Unable and Leaders need to display high

task orientation to compensate
Willing for followers.

Able and Leaders need to use a

Supportive and Participative
Unwilling Style

Leaders doesn’t need to do much,

Able and Willing only Monitoring
ontingency Theories of Leadership : Situational Leadership Theory (SLT):

Follower
Readiness Unwilling Willing

Supportive
Participative Monitoring
Able
Leadership
Styles

High Task
and
Unable Directive Relationship
Orientations