TABLE OF CONTENTS

3
CHAPTER 1

Number Systems

3
CHAPTER 2

Sets, Functions and Groups

4
CHAPTER 3

Matrices and Determinants

5
CHAPTER 4

Quadratic Equations

7
CHAPTER 5

Partial Fractions

7
CHAPTER 6

Sequences and Series

9
CHAPTER 7

Permutation, Combination and Probability

10
CHAPTER 8

Mathematical Induction & Binomial Theorem

11
CHAPTER 9

Fundamentals of Trigonometry

12
CHAPTER 10

Trigonometry Identities Sum and Difference of Angles

12
CHAPTER 11

Trigonometry Functions and their Graphs

13
CHAPTER 12

Application of Trigonometry

14
CHAPTER 13

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

14
CHAPTER 14

Solution of Trigonometric Equations

 FBISE MATHEMATICS // HSSC - 1
o To take the conjugate of a complex number, change
1. NUMBER SYSTEMS the sign of its imaginer part.
o A real number is a self-conjugate
1.1 Rational and Irrational Numbers ▪ Note: Iota can never be in denominator in an
𝑝
• Rational Numbers can be represented in the form of 𝑞 answer, always multiply and divide it with the
where p and q are real numbers and 𝑞 ≠ 0 conjugate.
2 4 2 • Sum or Product of two complex numbers is also complex
o i.e. − , , etc.
3 9 1 • Sum or Product of two conjugate complex is real
• Irrational Numbers cannot be represented in the form of
𝑝 • If 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏
𝑞
where p and q are real numbers and 𝑞 ≠ 0 o Then −𝑧 = −𝑎 − 𝑖𝑏
o i.e. √2, √3, π etc. o and 𝑧̅ = 𝑎 − 𝑖𝑏 (conjugate of complex number)
▪ Note: make sure to go over examples 2 and 3 (the o and −𝑧̅ = −𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏
proofs of √𝟐, √𝟑, being rational numbers. Either o and |𝑧| = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 (modulus of complex number)
one often appears as 4 marks short question. o and |−𝑧| = √(−𝑎)2 + (−𝑏)2 = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
o and |𝑧̅| = √(𝑎)2 + (−𝑏)2 = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
1.2 Properties of Real Numbers
• Closure property: numbers that exist in the set after an o and |−𝑧̅| = √(−𝑎)2 + (𝑏)2 = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
addition or multiplication operation is performed over ▪ |−𝑧| = |𝑧| = |𝑧̅| = |−𝑧| (Proof on page 21 IMP)
them. • Polar form of a complex number:
𝑎 1 𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)
• Closure law of multiplication: 𝑏 = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏
o Here 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
• Commutative property: 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑏 + 𝑎
o And 𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
• Associative property: (𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑐 = 𝑎 + (𝑏 + 𝑐) 𝑦
o And 𝜃 = tan−1 𝑥
• Distributive property: 𝑎(𝑏 + 𝑐) = 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑐
• Additive inverse: 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 0 • De Moivre's Theorem:
(cos 𝜃 +𝑖 sin 𝜃)𝑛 = cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃
o i.e. 2 + (−2)
o Basically, multiplies the power to the function’s values
• Multiplicative inverse: 𝑎𝑏 = 1
1 provided that 𝑛 consists of rational numbers.
o i.e. 2 ∗ ▪ Note: This is used in Examples 5 and 6 which are
2
• Golden rule of fraction: multiplying and dividing with the quite important as they tend to often come in exams
same number as short questions. However, the theorem is not
o Note that inequality sign changes when taking inverse used elsewhere.
or a reciprocal
2. SETS, FUNCTIONS AND GROUP
1.3 Complex Numbers Note: Only exercise 2.4, 2.5, 2.6 and 2.8 are important;
• The numbers in the form 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are real questions from the rest of the exercises come rarely. The
numbers and 𝑖 = √−1 are complex numbers. following notes are made accordingly.
o Here 𝑎 is called the real part
o While 𝑏 is called the imaginary part 2.1 Inductive and Deductive Logic
• Every real number is a complex number with 0 as its SYMBOL HOW TO READ SYMBOLIC
imaginary part EXPRESSION
• 𝑖 = √−1 and 𝑖 2= −1 ~ ′ not ~𝑝 𝑝′
o Any power of 𝑖 must be equal to 1, 𝑖, -1 or −𝑖 ∧ ∩ and 𝑝∧𝑞 𝑝 ∩𝑞
• Complex numbers of the form (𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏) and (𝑎 − 𝑖𝑏) ∨ ∪ or 𝑝∨𝑞 𝑝 ∪ 𝑞
which have the same real parts and whose imaginary → If…then, implies 𝑝→𝑞
parts differ in sign only, are called conjugates of each ↔ Is equivalent to, if and 𝑝↔𝑞
other. only if

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 FBISE MATHEMATICS // HSSC - 1
2.2 Truth Tables: 2.4 Abelian group:
Constructing a Truth Table: Abelian group with respect to addition:
• Use the formula 2𝑛 to find the amount of values. • If a set G is called an abelian group with respect to
• Here n = number of variables i.e if we have two addition then it has to satisfy the following 5 properties:
variables, 𝑝 and 𝑞, the amount of values we’ll have 1. If ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 then 𝑎 + 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺
will be 22 = 4 i.e. G is closed with respect to addition
Truth Table: 2. If ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺
𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ~𝒒 𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 𝒑 ∧ 𝒒 𝒑 → 𝒒 𝒑 ↔ 𝒒 Then (𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑐 = 𝑎 + (𝑏 + 𝑐)
T T F F T T T T i.e. G is associative with respect to addition
T F F T T F F F 3. If 0 ∈ 𝐺 and ∀ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺
F T T F T F T F Then 𝑎 + 0 = 𝑎
F F T T F F T T i.e. Additive identity exists in G
Conditionals: 4. If ∀ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 and −𝑎 ∈ 𝐺
Let 𝑝 → 𝑞 be a given conditional. Then Then 𝑎 + (−𝑎) = 0
• Converse: switching of places; i.e. i.e. Additive inverse of each element of G exists in G
𝑞 → 𝑝 is the converse of 𝑝 → 𝑞 5. If ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺
• Inverse: changing of signs; i.e. Then 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑏 + 𝑎
~𝑝 → ~𝑞 is the inverse of 𝑝 → 𝑞 i.e. G is Commutative with respect to addition
• Contraposition: switching of both places and signs; i.e. Note: The same properties apply to Abelian group with
~𝑞 → ~𝑝 is the contrapositive of 𝑝 → 𝑞 respect to multiplication

2.3 Tautologies: 3. MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS

Tautology: A statement which is true for all the possible
values of the variables involved is called a tautology. For 3.1 Introduction
example, Square Matrix:
𝑝 → (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) is a tautology. Proof is given in the next • A square matrix is a matrix in which the number of rows
column. is equal to the number of columns.
{Ex 2.4} Question 3: Scalar Matrix
(ii) Statement: Show that 𝑝 → (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) is a tautology • Scalar Matrix is said to be scalar if all of its elements are
Solution: zero except the principal diagonals’ elements and also
𝒑 𝒒 𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 𝒑 → (𝒑 ∨ 𝒒) all the principal diagonal elements are same
T T T T 𝑘 0 0
T F T T i.e. [0 𝑘 0]
F T T T 0 0 𝑘
Unit Matrix (Identity Matrix)
F F F T
The last column of the above table shows that the • Unit Matrix (Identity Matrix) is a matrix where all of its
statement is true for all values of 𝑝 and 𝑞. Thus the elements are zero except the principal diagonal
given statement is a tautology. elements and also all the principal diagonal elements
are "𝐼"
𝐼 0 0
Absurdity: A statement which is always false is called an i.e. [0 𝐼 0]
absurdity or a contradiction e.g. 𝑝 → ~𝑝 0 0 𝐼
Contingency: A statement which can be true or false Transpose of a Matrix:
depending upon the truth values of variables involved is a • If 𝐴 is a matrix of order 𝑚 x 𝑛 then an 𝑛 x 𝑚 matrix
contingency e.g. (𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ ( 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) obtained by interchanging the rows and columns of 𝐴 is
called the transpose.

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 FBISE MATHEMATICS // HSSC - 1
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑎11 𝑎21 𝑎31 𝐴𝑖𝑗 = (−1)𝑖+𝑗 ∗ 𝑀𝑖𝑗
𝑎
𝐴 = [ 21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ] & 𝐴𝑡 = [𝑎12 𝑎22 𝑎32 ]
o Here 𝑖 is the row, 𝑗 is the column and 𝑀𝑖𝑗 is the Minor
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑎13 𝑎23 𝑎33
Adjoint of a 3x3 Matrix:
Determinant of a 2x2 Matrix: • If 𝐴 is a matrix of order 3x3 and 𝐴′ is a matrix of the co-
• If 𝐴 is a matrix of order 2x2 then the determinant of 𝐴, factors of 𝐴, then the Adjoint of A will be given by:
denoted by |𝐴| will be 𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴′
𝑎 𝑏 Operations of Matrices:
| | = 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 • The following row and column operations are applied to
𝑐 𝑑
• Note: The determinant of a singular matrix is zero matrices to obtain equivalent matrices.
• Note: If determinant of a matrix is zero then there is no o Interchanging two rows or columns
inverse ▪ Note that on each interchange, the matrix is
Adjoint of a 2x2 Matrix: multiplied with −1
• If 𝐴 is a matrix of order 2x2 then the adjoint of 𝐴, o Multiplying a row by a non-zero number
denoted by 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 will be o Adding, subtracting or dividing a multiple of one row
𝑎 𝑏 𝑑 −𝑏 or column to another.
𝐴𝑑𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 [ ]=[ ]
𝑐 𝑑 −𝑐 𝑎 Symmetric and Hermitian Matrices:
Inverse of a Matrix: • A square matrix 𝐴 is Symmetric if 𝐴𝑡 = 𝐴
• If 𝐴 is a non-singular square matrix then its Inverse will • A square matrix 𝐴 is Skew-Symmetric if 𝐴𝑡 = −𝐴
be:
• A square matrix 𝐴 is Hermitian if (𝐴̅)𝑡 = 𝐴
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐴
𝐴−1 = • A square matrix 𝐴 is Skew-Hermitian if (𝐴̅)𝑡 = −𝐴
|𝐴| 𝐷𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐴
Echelon Form:
• Note: A matrix and its inverse have the same order.
• A matrix of order 𝑚 x 𝑛 is said to be in echelon form if:
• Systems regarding Inverse of a Matrix
o The first non-zero entry in each row is "1"
o (𝐴𝐵)−1 = 𝐵−1 𝐴−1
o (1st case) All the elements under the principal diagonal
o (𝐴𝐵)𝑡 = 𝐵𝑡 𝐴𝑡
are zero
o (𝐴−1 )𝑡 = (𝐴𝑡 )−1
o Every non zero row precedes every zero row, if any
o (𝐴−1 )−1 = 𝐴
1 2 3 0 1 2
o (𝐴𝑡 )𝑡 = 𝐴 i.e. [0 1 6] , [0 0 1]
Determinant of a 3x3 Matrix: 0 0 1 0 0 0
• If 𝐴 be a matrix of the order 3x3 such that: Reduced Echelon Form:
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 • A matrix of order 𝑚 x 𝑛 is said to be in reduced echelon
𝐴 = [ 21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ]
𝑎
form if it is in echelon form and all other entries of that
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
column are zero.
• Then |𝐴| is given by expanding either of the three rows
1 0 0
or columns, in this case expanding by the first row, such i.e. [0 1 0]
that: 0 0 1
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 Rank of a Matrix:
|𝐴| = 𝑎11 |𝑎22 𝑎23 | − 𝑎12 |𝑎21 𝑎23 | − 𝑎13 |𝑎21 𝑎22 |
32 33 31 33 31 32 • The number of non-zero rows in the reduced echelon
= 𝑎11 (𝑎22 𝑎33 − 𝑎23 𝑎32 ) − 𝑎12 (𝑎21 𝑎33 − 𝑎23 𝑎31 )
form of a matrix is called the rank of the matrix
− 𝑎13 (𝑎21 𝑎32 − 𝑎22 𝑎31 )
Minor and Cofactor of an Element of a Matrix:
• Minor: The minor of an element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 is a determinant of
4. QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
that element, formed by deleting the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ row and 𝑗 𝑡ℎ 4.1 Solution of Quadratic Equations
column if 𝐴 or |𝐴|. It is denoted by 𝑀𝑖𝑗 . • An equation of the form 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 where 𝑎 ≠ 0
𝑎22 𝑎23
e.g. Element → 𝑎11 |𝑎 |  Minor of the element is called a quadratic equation or 2nd degree equation.
32 𝑎33
• Cofactor: The cofactor of an element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 is denoted as o The degree of an equation depends upon its highest
power
𝐴𝑖𝑗 and the formula is:
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• Quadratic equation has at most two solutions. 4.4 Polynomial Function
o The number of solutions an equation will have Polynomial Expression:
depends upon its highest power. • A polynomial in 𝑥 is an expression of the form
• Quadratic equations have three solutions 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎0 , 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0
o By Factorization o Here 𝑛 is a non-negative integer and the coefficients
o By applying Quadratic formula 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑎𝑛−1 , … are real numbers.
o By completing the square • The highest power of 𝑥 in polynomial of 𝑥 is called the
Quadratic Formula: degree of the polynomial.
−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 • Remainder Theorem: If a polynomial of a degree ≥ 1 is
𝑥=
2𝑎 divided by (𝑥 − 𝑎) till no 𝑥-term exists in the remainder,
• This whole chapter is based on solving a quadratic then the polynomial is the remainder, else it is not.
equation. Questions appear in complicated formats and • Factor Theorem: (𝑥 − 𝑎) is a factor of polynomial 𝑓(𝑥)
require working to turn them into quadratic equation(s) if and only if 𝑥 = 𝑎 is a root of the polynomial equation
and then finding its solution. 𝑓(𝑥) = 0
• Synthetic Division: A shortcut method for long division
4.2 Three Cube Roots of Unity of a polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) by polynomial of the form (𝑥 − 𝑎)
• In the three cube roots of unity, one is a real root while Example of Synthetic Division
the other two are complex or imaginary roots. They are: To Divide the polynomial (𝑝𝑥 3 + 𝑞𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑) by
−1+√3𝑖 −1−√3𝑖
o 1, , 2 (𝑥 − 𝑎)
2
Use the following method:
• Note: The latter two of the roots are denoted by 𝜔
𝑎 𝑝 𝑞 𝑐 𝑑 First Line
and 𝜔2 respectively. Such that:
𝑎𝑝 Second Line
−1 + √3𝑖
𝜔= 𝑝
2 Third Line
−1 + √3𝑖
𝜔2 = Remainder
2 Outline of the Method:
Properties of Cube Roots of Unity: (Proofs on PG 152)
• Write down the coefficients of the dividend 𝑓(𝑥)
• Each complex cube root of unity is square of the other from left to right in decreasing order of powers of 𝑥.
• The sum of all three cube roots of unity is zero Insert 0 for any missing terms.
i.e. 1 + 𝜔 + 𝜔2 = 0 • To left of the first line, write 𝑎 of the divisor (𝑥 − 𝑎)
• The product of all three cube roots of unity is unity • To write the second and third lines, follow the
i.e. 1 ∗ 𝜔 ∗ 𝜔2 = 𝜔3 = 0 arrow. The vertically downward arrow means adding
• For any 𝑛 ∈ Ζ, 𝜔𝑛 is equivalent to one of the cube roots the terms and the diagonally right arrow means
of unity multiplying by 𝑎

4.3 Four Fourth Roots of Unity 4.5 Relations between the Roots and Co-
• In the four fourth roots of unity, two are real root while efficient of a Quadratic Equation
the other two are complex or imaginary roots. They are: • If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of a quadratic equation
o +1, −1, +𝑖, −𝑖 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, 𝑎 ≠ 0 then
Properties of four Fourth roots of Unity: (Proof on 𝑏
o Sum of the roots (denoted by S) = 𝛼 + 𝛽 = 𝑆 = − 𝑎
PG154): 𝑐
o Product of the roots (denoted by P) = 𝛼𝛽 = 𝑃 = 𝑎
• Sum of all four fourth roots of unity is zero
• The real fourth roots of unity are additive inverses of Note: Proofs are given on Page 161
each other
• Both of the complex/imaginary fourth roots of unity are
conjugates of each other
• Product of all the fourth roots of unity is −1
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4.6 Formation of an Equation Whose Roots 𝑄𝑢𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 +
𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟
are Given 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑟
Example of Improper Fraction:
• To form a Quadratic Equation when roots are given, use
2𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3
the following formula
2𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥
𝑥 2 − 𝑆𝑥 + 𝑃 = 0
• Note: If the exponents of the Nominator and the
• Where S and P are the Sum and Product of Roots.
Denominator are equal, then too, the fraction is
Improper.
4.7 Nature of the roots of a Quadratic
equation 5.3 Partial Fractions
• The nature of roots of an equation depends on the value There are 5 cases of fractions that are studied in the
of the expression of its discriminant. chapter. They are listed below.
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 1. Linear, Non-Repeated
• There are three cases to check the nature of the roots. 3𝑥 − 4 𝐴 𝐵
o Case 𝑰 = +
(2𝑥 + 3)(2𝑥 + 5) (2𝑥 + 3) (2𝑥 + 5)
If 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 0 then roots of given equation are real 2. Linear, Repeated
and repeated equal 3𝑥 − 4 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
o Case 𝑰𝑰 3
= + 2
+
(2𝑥 + 3) (2𝑥 + 3) (2𝑥 + 3) (2𝑥 + 3)3
If 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0 then roots of given equation are 3. Linear and Quadratic, Non-Repeated
complex (imaginary) and unequal 3𝑥 − 4 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
= + 2
o Case 𝑰𝑰𝑰 (𝑥 + 2𝑎)(𝑥 + 𝑎 ) (𝑥 + 2𝑎) (𝑥 + 𝑎2 )
2 2

If 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 > 0 then roots of given equation are real 4. Linear and Quadratic, Repeated
and unequal 3𝑥 − 4 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸
= + +
• Note: If the discriminant is a perfect square then roots (𝑥 + 2𝑎)(𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )2 (𝑥 + 2𝑎) (𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 ) (𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )2
will be rational. However, if the discriminant is not a 5. Quadratic, Repeated
perfect square then the roots will be irrational. 3𝑥 − 4 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
2 2 2
= 2 + 2
(𝑥 + 𝑎 ) (𝑥 + 𝑎 ) (𝑥 + 𝑎2 )2
2

5. PARTIAL FRACTIONS 5.4 Exercises Structure

5.1 Introduction • Exercise 5.1: Linear and not repeated
• Expressing a rational function as a sum of partial o Improper fraction question(s): 2, 7, 8, 9
fractions is called Partial Fraction Resolution and that is • Exercise 5.2: Linear and repeated
what this chapter is about. o Improper fraction question(s): 12
• Exercise 5.3: Quadratic and not repeated
5.2 Proper and Improper Fractions o Improper fraction question(s): 9
• Proper Fraction: A fraction will be proper if the degree • Exercise 5.4: Quadratic and repeated
of the Denominator’s exponent(s) is greater than the o Improper fraction question(s): None
Nominator’s degree of exponent(s).
Example of Proper Fraction: 6. SEQUENCES AND SERIES
3𝑥 − 4
(𝑥 + 2𝑎)(𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 ) 6.1 Introduction
• Improper Fraction: A fraction will be improper if the • Arithmetic, Geometric and Harmonic Series and
Nominator exponents are greater than the Sequences are studied in this chapter.
Denominators’. • A sequence is a function whose domain is a subset of
• In the event that a fraction is Improper, it will be the set of natural numbers
reduced by long division to a mixed form consisting of • An infinite sequence has no last term
the sum of a polynomial and a proper rational fraction
as such:
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6.2 Arithmetic Progression (A.P.) 6.7 Sum of 𝒏 terms of a Geometric Series
• A sequence 𝑎𝑛 is called an Arithmetic sequence or • To find 𝑆𝑛 , which is the sum of 𝑛 terms of a geometric
progression if the difference of the two consecutive series, we use the following formulae:
terms in the same • When |𝒓| < 𝟏
𝑎1 (1 − 𝑟 𝑛 )
𝑆𝑛 =
nth Term of A.P: 1−𝑟
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 • If |𝒓| > 𝟏
• Here 𝑎1 = First term of the sequence, 𝑑 = common 𝑎1 (𝑟 𝑛 − 1)
𝑆𝑛 =
difference and 𝑛 = the total number of terms. 𝑟−1

6.3 Arithmetic Mean (A.M.) 6.8 The Infinite Geometric Series

• The middle term of three consecutive terms in A.P. is • In case of Infinite Geometric Series, we have four cases
the A.M. that are each dependent upon the absolute value
• If a number 𝐴 is said to be the A.M. between the two (modulus) of 𝑟, which is the common ratio.
numbers 𝑎 and 𝑏, then o An infinite series is said to be convergent if it has finite
𝑎+𝑏 definite sum
𝐴= o An infinite series is said to be divergent if it has
2
indefinite sum
6.4 Series • Case 1: If |𝒓| < 𝟏
• If a sequence is 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … then 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 , … is o In this case, the series is convergent
called a series. o We use the following formula to find the Sum of the
Sum of first 𝒏 terms of an arithmetic series: series
𝑛 𝑎1
𝑆𝑛 = (𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑛 ) 𝑆𝑛 =
2 𝑟−1
• Here 𝑛 are the total number of terms, 𝑎1 is the first • Case 2: If |𝒓| > 𝟏: the series is divergent
term, 𝑎𝑛 is the last term, and 𝑆𝑛 is the sum of n terms. • Case 3: If |𝒓| = 𝟏: the series is divergent
• Incase 𝑎𝑛 , the last term of the series is not known, we • Case 4: If |𝒓| = −𝟏: the series is oscillatory.
can expand the above formula to make It into the
following: 6.9 Harmonic Progression (H.P)
𝑛 • A sequence of numbers is called a harmonic progression
𝑆𝑛 = [2𝑎1 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑]
2 if the reciprocals of its terms are in A.P.
(by substituting the value of 𝑎𝑛 ) • Zero cannot be a term of H.P.
1 1 1
6.5 Geometric Progression (G.P.) • If 1, 3 , 5 , 7 , … are in H.P. then 1, 3, 5, 7, … are in A.P.
• A sequence 𝑎𝑛 is a geometric sequence or geometric Harmonic Mean:
progression if there exists a common ration 𝑟 between • A number H is said to be harmonic mean between 𝑎 and
two consecutive terms. 𝑏 if 𝑎, 𝐻, 𝑏 are in H.P. The formula to find the Harmonic
General term of G.P: Mean is:
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 𝑟 𝑛−1 2𝑎𝑏
𝐻=
𝑎+𝑏
6.6 Geometric Means
• A number 𝐺 is said to be a geometric mean between 6.10 Relations between Arithmetic,
two numbers 𝑎 and 𝑏 if 𝑎, 𝐺, 𝑏 are in G.P. Geometric and Harmonic Means
• To find the Geometric Mean 𝐺 between two numbers 𝑎 • In summary, we know that for any two numbers 𝑎 and
and 𝑏, use the following formula 𝑎+𝑏
𝐴=
𝐺 = ±√𝑎𝑏 2
𝐺 = ±√𝑎𝑏

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2𝑎𝑏 Prove that 𝟎! = 𝟏
𝐻=
𝑎+𝑏 Solution:
• From these we can conclude (Proofs located in book) As we know
o 𝐺 2 = 𝐴𝐻 𝑛! = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)!
𝐺 𝐻 Let 𝑛 = 1
▪ 𝐴
= 𝐺
here, 𝐴, 𝐺, 𝐻 are in G.P.
1! = 1(1 − 1)!
o 𝐴 ≥ 𝐺 ≥ 𝐻 if 𝐺 > 0 and 𝑎, 𝑏 are also positive
Hence 1! = 1(0)!
o 𝐴 ≤ 𝐺 ≤ 𝐻 if 𝐺 < 0 and 𝑎, 𝑏 are also negative 0! = 1 (Proved)
6.11 Sigma Notation (Summation Notation) 7.2 Permutation
• Σ (Sigma) is a Greek letter and it is used to denote sums.
• The number of ordered arrangements of 𝑟 objects taken
For Instance:
𝑛 from 𝑛 unlike objects is:
𝑛
𝑛!
∑𝐾 𝑃𝑟 =
(𝑛 − 𝑟)!
𝑘=1
• This is read as Sigma K varies from 𝟏 to 𝒏, where • Order matters
o 𝑘 is called the index of summation • If 𝑟 = 𝑛 then 𝑛𝑃𝑛 = 𝑛!
o 1 is called the lower limit • 𝑛 always has to be greater than or equal to 𝑟
o 𝑛 is called the upper limit • 𝑛 and 𝑟 always have to be positive
• In theory, we have to sum the series starting from 1 • If there are 𝑛1 alike things of one kind, 𝑛2 alike things of
(𝑎1 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚) to 𝑛, (𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚) second kind and, 𝑛3 alike things of third kind, then the
Following are the formulae needed for Exercise 6.11: number of permutations of 𝑛 things taken all at a time is
𝑛 given by
∑1=𝑛 𝑛!
𝑘=1 (𝑛1 )! ∗ (𝑛2 )! ∗ (𝑛3 )
𝑛
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
∑𝑘 = 7.3 Combinations
2
𝑘=1
𝑛 • The no. of combinations of 𝑛 different objects taken 𝑟 at
𝑛(𝑛 + 1) 𝑛
∑𝑘 = a time is denoted by 𝑛𝐶𝑟 or ( ) and is given by:
2 𝑟
𝑘=1
𝑛 𝑛
𝑛!
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1) 𝐶𝑟 =
∑ 𝑘2 = 𝑟! (𝑛 − 𝑟)!
6 • Order does not matter
𝑘=1
𝑛
𝑛(𝑛 + 1) 2 • Note that 𝑛𝐶𝑟 𝑟! = 𝑛𝑃𝑟
3
∑𝑘 =( ) • If 𝑟 = 𝑛, then 𝑛𝐶𝑛 = 1
2
𝑘=1 • If 𝑟 = 0, then 𝑛𝐶0 = 1
• 𝑛𝐶𝑟 = 𝑛𝐶𝑛−𝑟
7. PERMUTATION, COMBINATION AND
PROBABILITY 7.4 Probability
• Probability is the numerical evaluation of a chance that
7.1 Introduction a particular event would occur.
Factorial Notation: • Sample Space: The set of all possible outcomes of a
• The product 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) … 3.2.1 is denoted by 𝑛! given experiment.
or |𝑛 and read as 𝑛 factorial. Thus, • Event: A subset of the sample space is called an Event.
𝑛! = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) … 3.2.1 • Mutually Exclusive Events (Disjoint): If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are two
• Note: 0! = 1 events such that 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = ∅ then 𝐴 and 𝐵 are
disjoint/mutually exclusive events.

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 FBISE MATHEMATICS // HSSC - 1
Probability of occurrence of an event: 5. Take the value on the end of the Left-Hand Side of
• Let 𝑆 be a sample space, then the probability of Equation B, add it to Equation A and simplify to make
occurrence of an event 𝐸 is denoted by 𝑃(𝐸) and is Equation C
given by: Note: Equation C after simplification needs to be the
𝑛(𝐸) 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝐸 same as Equation B
𝑃(𝐸) = =
𝑛(𝑆) 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑆 6. In conclusion add “From Equation B and Equation C, the
• Note: 0 ≤ 𝑃(𝐸) ≤ 1 always. two equations are the same. Hence 𝑆(𝑛) is true for all
o If 𝑃(𝐸) = 0 then the event 𝐸 does not occur and is an values of 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1 when it is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘
impossible event
o If 𝑃(𝐸) = 1 then event 𝐸 is certain & sure to occur 8.2 Binomial Theorem
Probability that an Event does not Occur: • Formula:
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
• Let 𝑆 be a sample space and 𝐸 the event of 𝑆. (𝑎 + 𝑥)𝑛 = ( ) 𝑎𝑛 + ( ) 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 + ( ) 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑥 2 + ⋯ +
0 1 2
o Then the probability of non-occurrence of 𝐸 is 𝑛 𝑏
( )𝑥
denoted by 𝑃(𝐸̅ ) and is given by 𝑃(𝐸̅ ) = 1 − 𝑃(𝐸) 𝑛
Addition of Probabilities: • The following points can be observed in the expansion
• Let 𝑆 be a sample space and 𝐴 and 𝐵 are two events of of (𝑎 + 𝑥)𝑛
the sample space 𝑆, then 𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) is given by: • The number of terms in the expansion is one greater
o 𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐵) − 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) when 𝐴 and 𝐵 than its index.
are over lapping or 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴. • The sum of exponents of 𝑎 and 𝑥 in each term of the
o 𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐵) when 𝐴 and 𝐵 are disjoint. expansion is equal to its index.
Multiplication of Probabilities: • The sum of even binomial expansion terms is equal to
• Let 𝑆 be a sample space and 𝐴, 𝐵 be two independent the sum of odd binomial expansion terms.
events of 𝑆. Then: • Number of expansions of 𝑛 are 𝑛 + 1
𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) ∗ 𝑃(𝐵) • The exponent of 𝑎 decreases from index to zero
• The exponent of 𝑥 increases from zero to index
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
8. MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION & BINOMIAL • ( ) , ( ) , ( ) , … , ( ) are binomial coefficients
0 1 2 𝑛
THEOREM o The coefficients of the terms from beginning and end
𝑛 𝑛
of the expansion are equal as ( ) = ( )
8.1 Mathematical Induction 𝑟 𝑛−𝑟
• There are two conditions that need to be satisfied in o The sum of coefficients in the binomial expansion
order to prove Mathematical Induction equals to 2𝑛
𝑛 𝑛!
1. Statement is named 𝑆(𝑛) and is true for 𝑛 = 1 o ( ) = 𝑛𝐶𝑟 = 𝑟! (𝑛−𝑟)! (discussed in chapter 7)
𝑟
2. Equation B is same as Equation C and true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 𝑛 𝑛
o( )=( )=1
and 𝑛 = 1: 0 𝑛
o Use the 𝑛𝐶𝑟 option in your calculator to solve these
• The question related to Mathematical Induction follow
efficiently.
these steps to prove the two conditions. Use these as a
• General term of the binomial expansion:
guide. 𝑛
1. Let equation be 𝑆(𝑛) 𝑇𝑟+1 = ( ) ∗ 𝑎𝑛−𝑟 ∗ 𝑏 𝑟
𝑟
2. Let 𝑛 = 1. Simplify to make Left Hand Side equal to Where 𝑛 ≥ 𝑟 and 𝑛 & 𝑟 are positive
Right Hand Side, satisfying Condition 1 • Middle term(s) of the binomial expansion:
3. Let 𝑛 = 𝑘, add “Let 𝑆(𝑛) be true for 𝑛 = 𝑘”. Then o Case 1: 𝒏 is even
simplify if necessary and mark the equation as 𝑛
If 𝑛 is even then 𝑛 + 1 is odd, so (2 + 1) 𝑡ℎ term will
Equation A
be the only middle term in the expansion
4. Add “Then 𝑆(𝑛) will also be true for 𝑛 = 1”
Then Let 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1, simplify if necessary and mark
the equation as Equation B

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 FBISE MATHEMATICS // HSSC - 1
o Case 2: 𝒏 is odd General Angles: (For Exercise 9.3 Q5 and Q6)
If 𝑛 is odd then 𝑛 + 1 is even, so the
𝑛+1
( 2 ) 𝑡ℎ and the • In Degrees: 𝜃 = 𝜃 ′ + 360𝑘
𝑛+3 • In Radians: 𝜃 = 𝜃 ′ + 2𝜋𝑘
( ) 𝑡ℎ term will be the two middle terms.
2 o Here k = number of revolutions
o Here 𝜃 ′ is the given angle and 𝜃 will be the general
8.3 Binomial Series angle.
• Formula: Trigonometric Functions of Acute-Right Angle Triangles:
𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) 𝑜𝑝𝑝 ℎ𝑦𝑝
(1 + 𝑥)𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + ∗ 𝑥2 + Sine θ = Cosecant θ =
2! 3! ℎ𝑦𝑝 𝑜𝑝𝑝
∗ 𝑥3 + ⋯ 𝑎𝑑𝑗 ℎ𝑦𝑝
• Binomial Series have infinite terms Cosine θ = Secant θ =
ℎ𝑦𝑝 𝑎𝑑𝑗
• Binomial Series is applied when 𝑛 is fraction or negative 𝑜𝑝𝑝 𝑎𝑑𝑗
• In the expansion of (𝑎 + 𝑥)𝑛 in binomial series, Tangent θ = Cotangent θ =
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝑜𝑝𝑝
o 𝑎 > 𝑏 must Reciprocal Identities:
o 𝑏 < 1 must 1 1 1
o 𝑎 = 1 must csc 𝜃 = sec 𝜃 = cot 𝜃 =
sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 tan 𝜃
Quotient Identities:
9. FUNDAMENTALS OF TRIGONOMETRY sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
tan 𝜃 = cot 𝜃 =
cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃
9.1 Unit of Measurements of Angles Fundamental Identities:
• There are two commonly used measurements • sin2 𝜃 + cos2 𝜃 = 1
o Sexagesimal: Degree, Minute and Second • 1 + tan2 𝜃 = sec 2 𝜃
o Circular System: Radian • 1 + cot 2 𝜃 = cosec 2 𝜃
Sexagesimal System: Note:
• One rotation (Anti Clock-Wise) = 360 Degrees (360°) o (sin 𝜃)2 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
• One degree (1°) = 60 Minutes (60′) o (cos 𝜃)2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
• One Minute (1′) = 60 Seconds (60′′) o (tan 𝜃)2 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃
Circular System: Signs of Trigonometric Rations in Different Quadrants:
• Radian: The measure of the angle subtended at the • First Quadrant:
center of the circle by an arc, whose length is equal to All Positive
the radius of the circle and is denoted by 1 rad • Second Quadrant:
o Radian measure is unit-less (It is a real number) Sine and Cosecant
Relation between Degree and Radian: Positive
𝜋
• 1° = 1 ∗ 180 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 = 0.01745 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 • Third Quadrant:
180
• 1 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = 1 ∗ 𝜋
𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 57.296° Tangent and
Relation between the arc of a circle and its Circular Cotangent Positive
Measure: • Fourth Quadrant:
𝒍 Cosine and Secant
𝜽= Positive
𝒓
• 𝜃 is the circular measure of the circle’s central angle
• 𝑙 is the arc length of the circle Even and Odd Trigonometric Functions:
• 𝑟 is the radius of the circle sin(−𝜃) = − sin 𝜃 (odd) cosec(−𝜃) = − cosec 𝜃 (odd)
Co-terminal Angles: tan(−𝜃) = − tan 𝜃 (odd) cot(−𝜃) = − cot 𝜃 (odd)
• The angles with the same initial and terminal sides are cos(−𝜃) = cos 𝜃 (even) sec(−𝜃) = sec 𝜃 (even)
called coterminal angles
i.e. 𝜃, 𝜃 ± 2𝜋, 𝜃 ± 4𝜋 are coterminal angles

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 FBISE MATHEMATICS // HSSC - 1
Angles and their Values: o cos(𝛼 + 𝛽) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
o cos(𝛼 − 𝛽) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼+𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽
o tan(𝛼 + 𝛽) = 1−𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽
o tan(𝛼 − 𝛽) =
1+𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽
Note: The Proof Theorem of the Fundamental Law of
Trigonometry (Page 314) is quite important and tends to
come in exam as an 8 marks detailed question.
Exercise 10.3
• Double angle Identities
o sin 2𝛼 = 2 sin 𝛼 cos 𝛼
o cos 2𝛼 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼
2 tan 𝛼
o tan 2𝛼 = 2
1−𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼
• Additional double angle identities
10. TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES SUM AND o cos 2𝛼 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 − 1
DIFFERENCE OF ANGLES ▪ 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 = 1 + cos 2𝛼
o cos 2𝛼 = 1 − 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼
10.1 Introduction ▪ 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼 = 1 − cos 2𝛼
Distance Formula: • Half angle identities
𝛼 𝛼
𝑑 = √(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )2 + (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 )2 o sin 𝛼 = 2 sin 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2
Trigonometric Rations of Allied Angles: 𝛼 𝛼
o cos 𝛼 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 2
A device to remember the values of allied angles: 𝛼
• If 𝜃 is added to or subtracted from odd multiples of 90° o cos 𝛼 = 1 − 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 2
𝛼
(i.e. 90, 270, …), then the trigonometric ratios change o cos 𝛼 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2 − 1
𝛼
into their co-ratios and vice versa 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛
2
i.e. if 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 𝑜𝑑𝑑 (90°) ± 𝜃, then o tan 𝛼 = 𝛼
1−𝑡𝑎𝑛2
2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 ⟺ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ⟺ 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐 ⟺ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 • Triple angle identities
• If 𝜃 is added to or subtracted from even multiples of 90° o sin 3𝛼 = 3 sin 𝛼 − 4 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝛼
(i.e. 0, 180, 360, …), then the trigonometric ratios shall o cos 3𝛼 = 4 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝛼 − 3 cos 𝛼
remain the same sin(−𝜃) = − sin 𝜃 (odd) cosec(−𝜃) = − cosec 𝜃 (odd)
• The sign of the result is determined by the quadrant in tan(−𝜃) = − tan 𝜃 (odd) cot(−𝜃) = − cot 𝜃 (odd)
which the terminal arm of the angle lies. cos(−𝜃) = cos 𝜃 (even) sec(−𝜃) = sec 𝜃 (even)
i.e. MEASURE OF THE ANGLE QUADRANT sin(−𝜃) = − sin 𝜃 (odd) cosec(−𝜃) = − cosec 𝜃 (odd)
𝜋 𝐼 tan(−𝜃) = − tan 𝜃 (odd) cot(−𝜃) = − cot 𝜃 (odd)
−𝜃
2 cos(−𝜃) = cos 𝜃 (even) sec(−𝜃) = sec 𝜃 (even)
𝜋 𝐼𝐼
+ 𝜃 𝑜𝑟 𝜋 − 𝜃 3 tan 𝛼−𝑡𝑎𝑛 3 𝛼
2 o tan 3𝛼 = 1−3 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝛼
3𝜋 𝐼𝐼𝐼 Exercise 10.4
− 𝜃 𝑜𝑟 𝜋 + 𝜃
2 • Converting product to sum of difference
3𝜋 𝐼𝑉
+ 𝜃 𝑜𝑟 2𝜋 − 𝜃 o 2 sin 𝛼 cos 𝛽 = sin(𝛼 + 𝛽) + sin(𝛼 − 𝛽)
2
o 2 cos 𝛼 sin 𝛽 = sin(𝛼 + 𝛽) − sin(𝛼 − 𝛽)
o 2 cos 𝛼 cos 𝛽 = cos(𝛼 + 𝛽) + cos(𝛼 − 𝛽)
10.2 Formulae o 2 sin 𝛼 sin 𝛽 = cos(𝛼 − 𝛽) − cos(𝛼 + 𝛽)
Exercise 10.2 • Converting sum or difference into product
𝑃+𝑄 𝑃−𝑄
• The Fundamental Law of Trigonometry Formulae: o sin 𝑃 + sin 𝑄 = 2 sin ( 2
) cos ( 2 )
o sin(𝛼 + 𝛽) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 o sin 𝑃 − sin 𝑄 =
𝑃+𝑄 𝑃−𝑄
2 cos ( 2 ) sin ( 2 )
o sin(𝛼 − 𝛽) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
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𝑃+𝑄 𝑃−𝑄 such that 𝐵 is above and 𝐶 is below the horizontal line
o cos 𝑃 + cos 𝑄 = 2 cos ( 2 ) cos ( 2 )
𝑃+𝑄 𝑃−𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 , then
o cos 𝑃 + cos 𝑄 = −2 sin ( 2 ) sin ( 2 )
o Angle 𝐴𝑂𝐵 is called the angle of elevation
o Angle 𝐴𝑂𝐶 is called angle of depression
11. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR
GRAPHS 12.2 Oblique Triangles and Their Solutions
• A triangle which is not a right-angle triangle is called an
11.1 Domain, Range and Periods of oblique triangle.
Trigonometric Functions • Case 𝑰: When measures of one side and two angles are
• The domain is the set of all possible 𝑥 values which will given then the law of Sines can be applied
make the function "work", and will output real 𝑦 values. • Case 𝑰𝑰: When measures of two sides and their included
• The range is the resulting 𝑦 values we get after angles are given, we can use either of the following
substituting all the possible 𝑥 values. methods:
• Period of a trigonometric function is the smallest o First law of cosine and then law of sines
positive number which, when added to the original o First law of tangents and then law of sines.
circular measure of the angle, gives the same value of • Case 𝑰𝑰𝑰: When measures of three sides are given, we
the function. can use either of the following formulae:
Note: The theorems 11.1 and 11.2 are important and o The law of cosines
either one tends to come in the exams as a 4 marks short o The half angle formulae
question
• Following are the Domain, Range and Periods of the six The Law of Sines: (Used in Exercise 12.4)
trigonometric functions: 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
= =
sin 𝛼 sin 𝛽 sin 𝛾
The Law of Cosines: (Used in Exercise 12.5)
• 𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑏𝑐 cos 𝛼
• 𝑏 2 = 𝑐 2 + 𝑎2 − 2𝑐𝑎 cos 𝛽
• 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 − 2𝑎𝑏 cos 𝛾
The Law of Tangents: (Used in Exercise 12.5)
𝛼−𝛽
𝑎−𝑏 tan
• = 2
𝛼+𝛽
𝑎+𝑏 tan
2
𝛽−𝛾
𝑏−𝑐 tan
12. APPLICATION OF TRIGONOMETRY •
𝑏+𝑐
=
tan
2
𝛽+𝛾
2
Important Exercises: 12.3, 12.6, 12.7, 12.8 𝛾−𝛼
𝑐−𝑎 tan
• = 2
𝛾+𝛼
𝑐+𝑎
12.1 Heights and Distances tan
2

Angles of Elevation and Depression:

12.3 Half Angle Formulae
The Sine of Half the Angle:
𝛼 (𝑠−𝑏)(𝑠−𝑐) 𝛽 (𝑠−𝑐)(𝑠−𝑎) 𝛾 (𝑠−𝑎)(𝑠−𝑏)
• sin 2 = √ 𝑏𝑐
• sin 2 = √ 𝑐𝑎
• sin 2 = √ 𝑎𝑏
The Cosine of Half the Angle:
𝛼 𝑠(𝑠−𝑎) 𝛽 𝑠(𝑠−𝑏) 𝛾 𝑠(𝑠−𝑐)
• cos = √ • cos = √ • cos = √
2 𝑏𝑐 2 𝑎𝑐 2 𝑎𝑏

The Tangent of Half the Angle:

𝛼 (𝑠−𝑏)(𝑠−𝑐) 𝛽 (𝑠−𝑐)(𝑠−𝑎) 𝛾 (𝑠−𝑎)(𝑠−𝑏)
• If ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 is the horizontal line through the eye of the • tan 2 = √ •
𝑠(𝑠−𝑎)
tan 2 = √ •
𝑠(𝑠−𝑏)
tan 2 = √ 𝑠(𝑠−𝑐)
observer at point ′𝑂′ and there are two objects 𝐵 and 𝐶
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12.4 Area of Triangle (Exercise 12.7) •𝑟=
Δ
𝑠
• Case 𝑰: 2 Sides and 1 Angle Δ
o 𝑟1 = 𝑠−𝑎
1 1 1
Δ = 𝑏𝑐 sin 𝛼 = 𝑎𝑐 sin 𝛽 = 𝑎𝑏 sin 𝛾 o 𝑟2 = 𝑠−𝑏
Δ
2 2 2
• Case 𝑰𝑰: 1 Sides and 2 Angles o 𝑟3 =
Δ
First find the 3rd angle, then use: 𝑠−𝑐
𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
𝑎2 sin 𝛽 sin 𝛾 𝑏 2 sin 𝛼 sin 𝛾 𝑐 2 sin 𝛼 sin 𝛽 •𝑠= 2
Δ= = = o 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 2𝑠
2 sin 𝛼 2 sin 𝛽 2 sin 𝛾
o 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 2𝑠 − 𝑐
• Case 𝑰𝑰𝑰: 3 Sides only, No Angle o 𝑎 + 𝑐 = 2𝑠 − 𝑏
o 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 2𝑠 − 𝑎
Δ = √𝑠(𝑠 − 𝑎)(𝑠 − 𝑏)(𝑠 − 𝑐) (𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑜 ′ 𝑠 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎)

12.5 Circles Connected with Triangles 13. INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTION

1. Circum-Circle (𝑹 is the radius)
13.1 Inverse Formulae
• A Circle that touches the edges of
Inverse Sine Function:
a triangle is a Circum-Circle
• The radius 𝑅 is the point in the • 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝐴 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝐵 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (𝐴√1 − 𝐵2 + 𝐵√1 − 𝐴2 )
triangle where the length of the • 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝐴 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝐵 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (𝐴√1 − 𝐵2 − 𝐵√1 − 𝐴2 )
lines from all the three corners of Inverse Cosine Function:
the triangles are equal • 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝐴 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝐵 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (𝐴𝐵 − √(1 − 𝐴2 )(1 − 𝐵2 ))
2. Inscribed Circle (𝒓 is the radius) • 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝐴 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝐵 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (𝐴𝐵 + √(1 − 𝐴2 )(1 − 𝐵2 ))
• A circle that lies in a triangle is an Inverse Tangent Function:
Inscribed Circle 𝐴+𝐵
• 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝐴 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝐵 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (1−𝐴𝐵 )
• The radius of an in-circle is called 𝐴−𝐵
in-radius and is denoted by 𝑟 • 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝐴 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝐵 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (1+𝐴𝐵 )
13.2 Domain and Ranges of Inverse
3. Escribes Circle (𝒓𝟏 , 𝒓𝟐, 𝒓𝟑 are the radii) Trigonometric Functions
• A circle which touches one side of
Function Domain Range
the triangle externally and the other 𝜋 𝜋
𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1 − ≤𝑦≤
two produced sides, is called an 2 2
escribed circle 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥 −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1 0≤𝑦≤𝜋
• The radii of ex-circles are called e- 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑥∈ℝ 𝜋 𝜋
− ≤𝑥≤
radii and they are denoted by 𝑟1 , 𝑟2 2 2
and 𝑟3 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 𝑥 𝑥∈ℝ 0≤𝑦≤𝜋
𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 𝑥 𝑥 ≤ −1 or 𝑥 ≥ 1 𝜋 𝜋
− ≤ 𝑦 ≤ ,𝑦 ≠ 0
12.6 Related Formulae 2 2
The following formulae are used in Exercise 12.8. 𝜋
𝑦 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 𝑥 𝑥 ≤ −1 or 𝑥 ≥ 1 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝜋; 𝑦 ≠
Note: Learn the proofs of each of the formulae in this 2
chapter, all of them tend to come in exams.
𝑎𝑏𝑐
•𝑅= 4Δ 14. SOLUTION OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
•𝑅= = =
2sin 𝛼
𝑎
2 sin 𝛽 2 sin 𝛾
14.1 Introduction
o sin 𝛼 = 2𝑅 • The equations containing at least one trigonometric
𝑏
o sin 𝛽 = 2𝑅 function are called trigonometric equations
o sin 𝛾 =
𝑐 • Trigonometric equations have infinite number of
2𝑅
solutions due to their periodicity

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• Solutions of Sine when sin 𝜃 = 0 is 0 & 𝜋
𝜋 3𝜋
• Solutions of Cosine when cos 𝜃 = 0 is 2 & 2
Reference Angle:
• If the reference angle lies in the first quadrant then 𝜃 =
𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
• If the reference angle lies in the second quadrant then
𝜃 = 𝜋 − 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
• If the reference angle lies in the third quadrant then 𝜃 =
𝜋 + 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
• If the reference angle lies in the fourth quadrant then
𝜃 = 2𝜋 − 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
General Angle:
• To create general form of sine, cosine and their
reciprocals, add 2𝜋𝑛 to 𝜃
• To create general form of tangent and its reciprocal, add
𝜋𝑛 to 𝜃

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