First Year EPM

ECE170: Electronics (1)

Spring 2020

ECE170: Electronics (1)

Lecture (3)
➢ Application (1): Power Supply
❑ Capacitor Filters
o The filtering concept showing a nearly smooth dc output voltage from the filter.
The small amount of fluctuation in the filter output voltage is called ripple.

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 ✓ Operation of Half wave rectifier with C- Filter

Figure (a)

Figure (b)

Figure (c)

Figure (38)
Electronics Prepared by: Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
✓ Operation of Full wave rectifier with C- Filter

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✓ Comparison of ripple voltages for half-wave and full-wave rectified voltages with the
same filter capacitor and load and derived from the same sinusoidal input voltage.

• A full-wave rectifier easier to filter because of the shorter time between peaks. When
filtered, the full-wave rectified voltage has a smaller ripple than does a half-wave
voltage for the same load resistance and capacitor values. The capacitor discharges less
during the shorter interval between full wave pulses.

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✓ Capacitor- Filter Ripple Voltage
The variation in the capacitor voltage due to the charging and discharging is
called the ripple voltage. Generally, ripple is undesirable; thus, the smaller the
ripple, the better the filtering action.
C=100µF

C=1000µF

C=2200µF

Full wave rectifier

❑Ripple Factor

o The ripple factor (r) is an indication of the effectiveness of the filter and is defined as:

Vr ( pp )
r=
Vdc
where V r(pp) is the peak-to-peak ripple voltage and VDC is the dc (average) value of the filter’s
output voltage).

o The lower the ripple factor, the better the filter. The ripple factor can be lowered by
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increasing the value of the filter capacitor or increasing the load resistance.
✓ Ripple Factor Approximate Equation
VR = ic RL
L
(1)
dvc
ic = C (2)
dt
dvc
VR = RLC (3)
L
dt
Assume
dt  T ,VR  V p ( rect) , dvc  Vr ( pp ) and f = 1 / T
L

thus
1
Vr ( pp )  ( )V p ( rect) (4)
fRLC
Vr ( pp )
VDC  V p ( rect) − (5)
2
1
VDC  (1 − )V p ( rect) (6)
2 fRLC
thus
Vr ( pp ) 2
r=  (7 )
VDC 2 fRLC − 1 8
Example
Determine the ripple factor for the filtered bridge rectifier with a load as indicated in
Figure.

V p ( pri) = 120 2 = 169.7V

V p (sec) = nV p ( pri) = 0.1 169.7 = 16.97V
V p ( rect) = V p (sec) − 1.4 = 15.57V
1 1
Vr ( pp )  ( )VP ( rect) = ( −6
)  15.57 = 0.59V
fRLC 120  220  1000  10
Vr ( pp )
VDC = V p ( rect) − = 14.98V
2
Vr ( pp )
r= = 0.039
VDC
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❑ Surge Current in the Capacitor-Input Filter
o Before the switch is closed, the filter capacitor is uncharged. At the instant
the switch is closed, voltage is connected to the bridge and the uncharged
capacitor appears as a short.
o This produces an initial surge of current, Isurge, through the two forward-
biased diodes D1 and D2.
o The worst-case situation occurs when the switch is closed at a peak of the
secondary voltage and a maximum surge current, Isurge(max), is produced
o A slow-blow type fuse is generally used because of the surge current that
initially occurs when power is first turned on. The fuse rating is determined
from:
I fuse = 1.2 I pri
Pin
I pri =
V pri
Figure10(42)
❑ Voltage Regulators
o A voltage regulator is connected to the output of a filtered rectifier and
maintains a constant output voltage (or current) despite changes in the
input, the load current, or the temperature.
o Most regulators are integrated circuits and have three terminals—an input
terminal, an output terminal, and a reference (or adjust) terminal
o An output capacitor (typically ) is connected
from the output to ground to improve the
transient response.

o A basic fixed power supply with a +5 V

voltage regulator is shown

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 ❑ Percent Regulation

o The regulation expressed as a percentage is used to specify the

performance of a voltage regulator.
o It can be in terms of input (line) regulation or load regulation.
✓ Line Regulation
o It specifies how much change occurs in the output voltage for a given change in
the input voltage. It is typically defined as a ratio of a change in output voltage
for a corresponding change in the input voltage expressed as a percentage.
V
Line Re gulation = out  100 %
Vin
✓ Load regulation
o It specifies how much change occurs in the output voltage over a certain
range of load current values, usually from minimum current (no load,
NL) to maximum current (full load, FL). It is normally expressed as a
percentage and can be calculated with the following formula:
V −V 12

Load Re gulation = ( NL FL )100 %

VFL
Project (1)
Design and implement a DC power supply that meets the following
requirements:
• Input voltage: 220 V rms @ 50 Hz
• Output voltage: 20 V DC ±10%
• Ripple factor (max) : 5 %
• Load current (max) : 1A

Deadline: after Four weeks from now (4/05/2021)

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Design steps
1. Calculate the ripple peak-to-peak voltage using the ripple factor and DC voltage from:
Vr ( pp ) = VDC r (1)
2. Calculate the rectifier output peak voltage from:
Vr ( pp )
V p ( rect) = VDC + (2)
2
3. Calculate the secondary peak voltage, when rectifier bridge is used, from:

V p (sec) = V p ( rect) + 1.4 (3)

4. Calculate the secondary rms voltage to select transformer from:

Vsec = V p (sec) / 2 (4)

5. Calculate the transformer rated power using the load current a from:
Ptr = 1.2 Pout = 1.2VDC I L (5)
6. Calculate the peak inverse voltage from:
PIV = V p (sec) − 0.7 (6)
7. Calculate the diode rated voltage from:

VD ( rat ) = 1.2 PIV (7 ) 14

8. Calculate the diode rated current from:
I D ( rat ) = 1.2 I L (8)
9. Calculate the load resistance from:
V
RL = DC (9)
IL
10.Calculate the filter capacitance value from:
V
C = p ( rect) (10)
Vrpp f RL
11.Calculate the rated capacitor voltage from:
VC ( rat ) = 1.2V p ( rect) (11)

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Application (2) : Diode Limiters
o Diode circuits, called limiters or clippers, are sometimes used to clip off
portions of signal voltages above or below certain levels.

1. Positive Limiter

o it is used to limits or clips the positive part of the input voltage.

o As the input voltage goes positive, the diode becomes forward biased and conducts
current. Point A is limited to +0.7 V when the input voltage exceeds this value.
o When the input voltage goes back below 0.7 V, the diode is reverse-biased and
appears as an open.
o The output voltage looks like the negative part of the input voltage, but with a
magnitude determined by the voltage divider formed by R1 and the load resistor, RL,
as follows: 16
RL
Vout =( )Vin
R1 + RL
2. Negative Limiter

o If the diode is turned around, the negative part of the input voltage is
clipped off.
o When the diode is forward-biased during the negative part of the input
voltage, point A is held at 0.7 by the diode drop.

o When the input voltage goes above the diode is no longer forward-biased; and a
voltage appears across RL proportional to the input voltage.
RL
Vout = ( )Vin
R1 + RL 17
 3. Biased Positive Limiters

o The level to which an ac voltage is limited can be adjusted by adding a

bias voltage, VBIAS, in series with the diode.

o The voltage at point A must equal VBIAS + 0.7 V before the diode will
become forward-biased and conduct.

o Once the diode begins to conduct, the voltage at point A is limited to VBIAS + 0.7 V
so that all input voltage above this level is clipped off.

RL
Vout = ( )Vin
R1 + RL

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4. Biased Negative Limiters

o To limit a voltage to a specified negative level, the diode and bias

voltage must be connected as in Figure .

o In this case, the voltage at point A must go below -VBIAS - 0.7 V to

forward-bias the diode and initiate limiting action as shown.

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Example (1)
Figure shows a circuit combining a positive limiter with a negative limiter. Determine the output
voltage waveform.

Solution
When the voltage at point A reaches +5.7 V, diode D1 conducts and limits the waveform to +5.7
V. Diode D2 does not conduct until the voltage reaches Therefore, positive voltages above +5.7 V
and negative voltages below are clipped off. The resulting output voltage waveform is shown in
Figure

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5. Voltage-Divider Bias

o The bias voltage sources that have been used to illustrate the basic
operation of diode limiters can be replaced by a resistive voltage divider
that derives the desired bias voltage from the dc supply voltage
o The bias voltage is set by the resistor values according to the voltage-divider
formula. R3
VBIAS = ( )VSUPPLY
R2 + R3
o The bias resistors must be small compared to R1 so that the forward current
through the diode will not affect the bias voltage.

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Example (2)
Describe the output voltage waveform for the diode limiter in Figure (55).
Solution

R3
VBIAS = ( )VSUPPLY
R2 + R3
Thus :
220
VBIAS = ( )  12 = 8.25V
100 + 220

The output voltage waveform is shown in Figure. The positive part of the output voltage
waveform is limited to VBIAS + 0.7 V.
Application (3) : Diode Clampers

o A clamper adds a dc level to an ac voltage. It can be either positive

clamper or negative clamper

1. Positive Clamper
o The positive clamper circuit that adds a positive dc level to the output
waveform.

o The operation of this circuit can be seen by

considering the first negative half-cycle of the
input voltage.

o When the input voltage initially goes negative, the

diode is forward biased, allowing the capacitor to
charge to near the peak of the input 23
o Just after the negative peak, the diode is reverse-biased. This is because the cathode
is held near (Vp(in)-0.7) by the charge on the capacitor. The capacitor can only
discharge through the high resistance of RL. So, from the peak of one negative half-
cycle to the next, the capacitor discharges very little. The amount that is discharged,
of course, depends on the value of RL. If the capacitor discharges during the period of
the input wave, clamping action is affected. If the RC time constant is 100 times the
period, the clamping action is excellent. An RC time constant of ten times the period
will have a small amount of distortion at the ground level due to the charging current.
The dc voltage of the capacitor adds to the input voltage.

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2. Negative Clamper

o If the diode is turned around, a negative clamper results as shown in figure

o A negative dc voltage is added to the input voltage to produce the output

voltage as shown in the figure.

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Example
What is the output voltage that you would expect to observe across RL in the clamping
circuit of Figure (57) (a)? Assume that RC is large enough to prevent significant capacitor
discharge.

Solution
Vdc = −(VP (in) − 0.7) = −(24 − 0.7) = −23.3 V

The output waveform goes to approximately +0.7 V, as shown in the following Figure

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Application (4): VOLTAGE MULTIPLIERS

o Voltage multipliers use clamping action to increase peak rectified

voltages without the necessity of increasing the transformer’s
voltage rating.

o Multiplication factors of two, three, and four are common. Voltage multipliers are
used in high-voltage, low-current applications such as cathode-ray tubes (CRTs).

1. Voltage Doubler
o A voltage doubler is a voltage multiplier with a multiplication factor of
two. It may be either half-wave voltage doubler or full-wave voltage
doubler.

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❑ Half-Wave Voltage Doubler
A half-wave voltage doubler is shown in Figure (a) and (b).
Applying Kirchhoff’s law around the loop
shown in figure (b) the voltage across C2 is
VC 2 = VC1 + V p

Neglecting the diode drop of D2,

VC1 = V p

Therefore,
VC 2 = 2V p

The peak inverse voltage across each diode:

(a)
PIV = 2V p

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(b)
❑ Full-Wave Voltage Doubler
A full-wave doubler is shown in Figure (a) and (b).
When the secondary voltage is positive, D1 is
forward-biased and C1 charges to approximately Vp,
as shown in figure (a). During the negative half-
cycle, D2 is forward-biased and C2 charges to
approximately Vp , as shown in figure (b). The
(a)
output voltage, 2Vp,
is taken across the two capacitors in series.

(b)
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(b)
2. Voltage Tripler
The addition of another diode-capacitor section to the half-wave voltage doubler creates
a voltage tripler, as shown in Figure. The operation is as follows: On the positive
half-cycle of the secondary voltage, C1 charges to Vp through D1. During the negative half cycle,
C2 charges to 2Vp through D2, as described for the doubler. During the next positive
half-cycle, C3 charges to 2Vp through D3. The tripler output is taken across C1 and C3, as
shown in the figure. The PIV of each diode is 2Vp

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3. Voltage Quadrupler
The addition of still another diode-capacitor section, as shown in Figure, produces an
output four times the peak secondary voltage. C4 charges to 2Vp through D4 on a negative
half-cycle. The 4Vp output is taken across C2 and C4, as shown. The PIV of each diode is 2Vp.

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➢ DIODE DATASHEET
A manufacturer’s datasheet gives detailed information on a device so that it can
be used properly in a given application. A typical datasheet provides maximum
ratings, electrical characteristics, mechanical data, and graphs of various
parameters.

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Electronics Prepared by: Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan

 Figure (61)

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Electronics Prepared by: Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan

❑ Absolute Maximum Ratings
The absolute maximum ratings indicate the maximum values of the several parameters under
which the diode can be operated without damage or degradation.
VRRM The peak reverse voltage which is the same as the PIV.
IF(AV) The maximum average value of the rectified forward current.
IFSM The maximum peak value of forward surge current.
Tstg The allowable range of temperatures at which the device can be kept when not operating or
connected to a circuit.
TJ The allowable range of temperatures for the pn junction when the diode is operated
in a circuit.

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Electronics Prepared by: Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan

❑ Thermal Characteristics
All devices have a limit on the amount of heat that they can tolerate without failing in some way.
PD Average power dissipation is the amount of power that the diode can dissipate under any
condition. A diode should never be operated at maximum power, except for brief periods, to
assure reliability and longer life.
RθJA Thermal resistance from the diode junction to the surrounding air. This indicates the ability
of the device material to resist the flow of heat and specifies the number of degrees difference
between the junction and the surrounding air for each watt transferred from the junction to the air.

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❑ Electrical Characteristics
VF The forward voltage drop across the diode when there is 1 A of forward current.
Irr Maximum full load reverse current averaged over a full ac cycle at 75°C.
IR The reverse current at the rated reverse voltage (VRRM). Values are specified at two different
ambient temperatures.
CT This is the total diode capacitance including the junction capacitance in reverse
bias at a frequency of 1 MHz. Most of the time this parameter is not important in low frequency
applications, such as power supply rectifiers.

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❑ Graphical Characteristics
The Forward Current Derating Curve
This curve on the datasheet in Figure shows maximum forward diode current IF(AV)
in amps versus the ambient temperature. Up to about 75°C, the diode can handle a
maximum of 1 A. Above 75°C, the diode cannot handle 1 A, so the maximum
current must be derated as shown by the curve. For example, if a diode is operating
in an ambient temperature of 120°C , it can handle only a maximum of 0.4 A.

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❑ Forward Characteristics Curve
Another graph from the datasheet shows instantaneous forward current as a function of
instantaneous forward voltage. As indicated, data for this curve is derived by applying 300 µs
pulses with a duty cycle of 2%. Notice that this graph is for TJ = 25 °C .For example, a
forward current of 1 A corresponds to a forward voltage of about 0.93 V, as shown in Figure.

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❑ Non repetitive Surge Current
This graph from the datasheet shows IFSM as a function of the number of cycles at 60 Hz. For
a one-time surge, the diode can withstand 30 A. However, if the surges are repeated at a
frequency of 60 Hz, the maximum surge current decreases. For example, if the surge is
repeated 7 times, the maximum current is 18 A, as shown in Figure.

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❑ Reverse Characteristics
This graph from the datasheet shows how the reverse current varies with the reverse
voltage for three different junction temperatures. The horizontal axis is the percentage
of maximum reverse voltage, VRRM. For example, at 25°C, a 1N4001 has a reverse
current of approximately 0.04 μA at 20% of its maximum VRRM or 10 V. If the VRRM is
increased to 90%, the reverse current increases to approximately 0.11 µA, as shown in
Figure.

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