Draft Concept Design Report For Lot 1 PDF

Consultancy services for the Route Selection and Survey, Feasibility and
Environmental Impact, Ethiopian Roads Authority

Assessment (EIA) Studies, Concept Engineering Design, Resettlement Action Plan
(RAP) and
Tender Document Preparation for Bule Hora-Shakiso –Kibremengist Road Project.
Lot 1: Kibremengist- Bule Kero
Draft Concept Design
April 2020
Executive Summary
This report contains an illustrative presentation of the detailed site
investigation carried out by the consultant from February
8, 2020 to February 17, 2020 vis-a vis a detailed analysis of the initial findings
in consideration of ERA 2002 & 2013,
AASHTO Geometric Design Manual 2001&2004, NCHRP, FHWA and ASTM standards and the
surfacing situation of the
proposed route.
Prior to commencing the design, all the design criteria had been organized.
Accordingly, a Traffic count was conducted.
The road`s functional classification was set to be Link Road. For the same,
considering 20 years period of Design Life the
future traffic was projected resulting AADT for section one (0Km to 23km) 2732, and
for section two (km23 to 72.724km) is
1161. The AADT for PCU is less than 300, implying that there is no need for
adjustment. The Design speed and criteria
was set to be DC6 standard for the first section (0km-23km) and road DC5 standard
for the second section (km23 to
72.724km).
In consideration of the field study results and the data provided by the standards
mentioned vide supra in paragraph one
with vaunt courier usage of ERAGDM,2013 manual, a typical section sketch showing
the proposed geometric section, such
as finished subgrade width, ditch dimensions, crown and super elevation, cut and
fill slope sections was contained within
chapter 8 of this report.
Accordingly, A median width of 2.0m and 2.5m are provided for developing town and
town sections. Climbing lane was
totally cancelled by the employer for this project. Due considerations had been
taken to avoid mis phasing of vertical and
horizontal curves. Further, it was designated that the profile grade roll with the
terrain avoiding high fills and cuts providing
smooth grades as viably as possible.
As well, to minimize discrepancies related to unanticipated departures from the

standard special attention given to the issue.
Consequently, the only anticipated departure from the standard is departure from
Maximum gradient.
Three towns, one developing town and fifteen villages are crossed by the proposed
road alignment. Due to the close
proximity of the towns and villages along the existing road and also during
consultation all the three Weredas; preferred the
existing route except in town sections in which the alignment shall follow new
routes as per the master plan of the city.
Special attention shall be given to the geometric design and ROW cost minimization
of the project road sections from
35+000 to Km 42+000, which are characterized which are covered with extensive long
plantations including coffee
plantations.
A soil profile sample of the proposed route was also taken and the engineering
characteristics was determined in laboratory
as per the requirements of the TOR and standard procedures. Based on the sub grade
condition investigation the sub grade
class was set to be S3 and the traffic loading was T6 for stretch from 0+000 to
23+000 considering 15-years design period
and T5 for the road stretch from 23+000 to 72+724 considering 20-years design
period. Here of, the AC thickness for
sections 0+000 to 23+000 is 50mm, CRB 200mm and Sub-base 350mm; for the remaining
sections AC thickness of 50mm,
CRB 175mm and Sub-base 325 mm is recommended. Moreover, a DBST shoulder with the
pavement layers extended up
to the edge of the shoulder is recommended.
Locations of possible source of materials had been indicated. Thus, three rock
sources for asphalt and base course at LHS
of 0+000 more than 200,000 cubic meter estimated quantity, at 25+400 more than
200,000 cubic meter estimated quantity
and at 79+400 more than 200,000 cubic meter estimated quantity are obtainable for
construction purpose. Eleven spots of
borrow material had been identified. Construction water sources which are located
at 13+900 and 43+000 had been
Pure Consulting Engineers PLC in Sub-Consultancy with Sound Engineering Solutions

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identified. These sources are clean and free from any industrial pollution. In
addition, water test was conducted in laboratory
taking representative samples and the result confirmed the suitability of the
proposed construction water.
The geotechnical aspects had been considered and mitigative measures had been
proposed for problematic soils. Safety
aspects of the proposed route had also been considered. Finally, the consultant put
uttermost effort to provide
environmentally friendly, economically viable and practicable design.
This document “Concept Design Report” is a crude guide that is prepared based on
the consultants detailed site
investigation and initial findings. The Design-Builder shall develop the Project
design so as to meet all the requirements of
the Contract Documents. If the Design-Builder adopts the Conceptual Design as the
basis from which it will design the
Project, the Design-Builder is responsible for:
• Ensuring that the resulting design meets the requirements as specified in

the Contract Documents.
• Assuming full responsibility for any project requirements as per this
provision arising from using the Conceptual
Designs as the basis of the Project design and construction.

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CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE
SUMMARY ...........................................................................
..........................................I
LIST OF
TABLES ............................................................................
.......................................... IX
LIST OF
FIGURES ...........................................................................
......................................... XI
LIST OF
PHOTOS ............................................................................
...................................... XIII
LISTS OF
APPENDICES ........................................................................
............................... XIV
LIST OF
ABBREVIATION.......................................................................
.............................. XV
1.
INTRODUCTION ......................................................................
................... 1
1.1 Introduction and

purpose ...........................................................................
......................... 1
1.2 Contract
Data ..............................................................................
......................................... 3
1.3 Scope of the Consultancy Service and
Objectives ............................................................. 4
1.3.1 Objective of the
Study .............................................................................
.......................... 4
1.3.2 Scope of the

Study .............................................................................
................................ 4
1.4 Project
Description .......................................................................
........................................ 6
2. TRAFFIC
STUDY .............................................................................
................ 10
2.1
General............................................................................
...................................................... 10
2.2 Traffic
Count .............................................................................
............................................ 10
2.3 Classified Traffic Volume
Counts.............................................................................
........ 10
2.3.1 Estimation of Average Daily Traffic
(ADT) ...................................................................11
2.3.2 Traffic Variation: Day and

Night .............................................................................
.......11
2.3.3 Seasonal Variation in Traffic and Estimation of Seasonal

Conversation Factors ......11
2.3.4 Estimation of Average Annual Daily

Traffic .................................................................12
2.3.5 Recommended Road Section and Estimation of Average Annual

Daily Traffic ........16
2.4 Conversion of Non-moterable Traffic to Moterable

Traffic .......................................... 17
2.4.1 Conversion of Non Motorable to Motorable
Traffic .....................................................17
2.5 Generated
Traffic ...........................................................................
.................................... 18
2.5.1 Travel Time to Determine Generated
Traffic ................................................................20
2.5.2 Generated Traffic Factor

Determination .....................................................................
..21
2.6 Origin and Destination

Survey ............................................................................
............. 21
2.7 Traffic
Projection ........................................................................
....................................... 23
2.7.1
General ...........................................................................
...................................................23
2.7.2 Project
Schedule ..........................................................................
.....................................24

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2.7.3 Traffic
Projection ........................................................................
.....................................24
2.7.4 Analysis of Past Traffic

Data ..............................................................................
.............25
2.8 Elasticity of Transport

Demand.............................................................................
........... 31
2.9 The National Economic
Context ...........................................................................
............ 31
2.9.1
General ...........................................................................
...................................................31
2.9.2 Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in

Ethiopia ...................................................................32
2.9.3 Fuel
Consumption .......................................................................
.....................................33
2.9.4 Transportation Demand

Elasticity ........................................................................
..........34
2.9.5
Projections........................................................................
.................................................35
3. ROUTE
SELECTION..........................................................................
.............. 37
3.1 Identification of alternative

routes ............................................................................
....... 37
3.2 Public
Consultations .....................................................................
..................................... 37
3.3 Route assessment of the existing
road ..............................................................................
38
4. TOPOGRAPHY
SURVEY......................................................................... 42
4.1 Sampling of stretches for

surveying .........................................................................
........ 42
4.2 Mobilization of Surveyors and
Equipment’s ................................................................... 42
4.3 Data
Collection ........................................................................
........................................... 43
4.4 Scope of Topographic
Survey.............................................................................
............... 43
4.5 GPS Surveying
Methodology .......................................................................
..................... 44
4.5.1 Establishment of Geodetic Control Points Using Global
Positioning System (GPS) ..44
4.5.2 Tying with National Coordinate

System.........................................................................45
4.5.3 Coordinate
System ............................................................................
...............................45
4.5.4 Verification of
Positioning .......................................................................
........................45
4.5.5 Data Processing and

Mapping ...........................................................................
..............45
4.6 Benchmark
Setup .............................................................................
.................................. 46
4.6.1 Control Traverse-
Line ..............................................................................
.......................46
4.6.2 Geometric Level-

Line...............................................................................
........................46
4.7 Collection of Cross-section

Data ..............................................................................
......... 47
4.8 Data Processing and
CADD ..............................................................................
................ 47
5. SOIL AND MATERIAL INVESTIGATION AND PAVEMENT
DESIGN .................. 48
5.1
General ...........................................................................
..................................................... 48
5.2 Traffic Loading and Traffic
Class .............................................................................
....... 48

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5.2.1 Traffic Axle
Loading ...........................................................................
.............................48
5.2.2 Equivalency
Factor.............................................................................
..............................48
5.2.3 Design Traffic Loading

(DT) ..............................................................................
.............50
5.3 Existing Road

Condition..........................................................................
.......................... 51
5.4 Subgrade
Conditions ........................................................................
.................................. 53
5.4.1 Geological Formation Along the
Route ..........................................................................53
5.4.2 Subgrade Soil

Investigation .....................................................................
........................54
Plasticity 60
Grading 62
Moisture –Density
Relationship ......................................................................
...................................63
California bearing
ratio .............................................................................
.........................................65
5.5 Pavement Structure

Design ............................................................................
....................... 69
5.5.1 Pavement Design using ERA pavement design manual
2013 .......................................69
5.5.2 Design of
Shoulder ..........................................................................
..................................72
5.6 Source of Construction

Material ..........................................................................
............ 73
5.6.1
Introduction ......................................................................
................................................73
5.6.2 Rock Sources for Asphalt Aggregate and Base

Course .................................................73
5.6.3 Borrow Material

Sources ...........................................................................
......................79
5.6.4 Natural Sand Sources /Fine

Aggregates ........................................................................
.85
5.6.5 Water Sources for

Construction ......................................................................
...............85
6. HYDROLOGY / HYDRAULIC DESIGN STANDARDS AND DATA

COLLECTION. 87
6.1
General............................................................................
...................................................... 87
6.2 Review of Existing Data and
Maps ..............................................................................
..... 87
6.2.1 Hydrologic Soil
type ..............................................................................
...........................87
6.2.2 Vegetation and Land

Use. ..............................................................................
..................88
6.2.3
Topography ........................................................................
...............................................89
6.2.4 Site Visit

findings ..........................................................................
....................................89
6.3 HYDROLOGICAL AND HYDRAULIC TASKS CARRIED

OUT ............................. 94
6.4 HYDROLOGICAL DESIGN STANDARD
CRITERIA ............................................... 95
6.4.1 Return Periods (Design
Frequency) ........................................................................
........95
6.4.2 Departures from

Standards .........................................................................
....................96
6.5 Hydrological
Analysis ..........................................................................
.............................. 96
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6.5.1
General ...........................................................................
...................................................96
6.5.2 Watershed area

Delineation .......................................................................
.....................96
6.5.3 Rainfall - Runoff Models and Flood Estimation

Method ..............................................97
6.5.4 Runoff Curve

Numbers ...........................................................................
.......................103
6.6 Hydraulic
Analysis ..........................................................................
................................. 105
6.6.1
General ...........................................................................
.................................................105
6.6.2 Manning’s Formula of Hydraulic

Analysis ..................................................................105
6.6.3 Bridge Design

Criteria ..........................................................................
.........................106
6.6.4 Culvert Design

Criteria ..........................................................................
........................106
6.6.5 Ditches-longitudinal
Drainage ..........................................................................
.............106
6.7 Summary of Drainage Requirements from field investigation and

Preliminary analyses
107
6.7.1 Major River Crossing
Structure .........................................................................
..........107
6.7.2 Minor Crossing Culvert

Structures ........................................................................
......108
6.7.3 Side Drain

Recommendations ...................................................................
....................110
6.7.4
Recommendation ....................................................................
........................................111
7. GEOTECHNICAL CONCEPT
DESIGN ............................................................ 112
7.1 Design of Earth

work ..............................................................................
......................... 112
7.1.1 Embankment design along the
escarpment ..................................................................112
7.2 Finishing of
slopes ............................................................................
................................ 112
7.2.1 Cut
slope .............................................................................
.............................................112
7.2.2 The problem of

cuttings ..........................................................................
.......................112
7.2.3 Design and

construction ......................................................................
...........................113
7.3 Slopes
design ............................................................................
......................................... 113
7.3.1 Cut slope
design ............................................................................
..................................113
7.4 Fill slope

design ............................................................................
.................................... 113
7.4.1 Expansive
soil ..............................................................................
....................................113
7.4.2 Embankment
settlement ........................................................................
........................114
7.4.3 Embankment
stability .........................................................................
...........................114
7.4.4 Types of embankment

materials .........................................................................
..........114
7.4.5 Placing and compaction

material ..........................................................................
........114
7.4.6 Embankment Slope
protection ........................................................................
..............115

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7.5 Retaining wall
design ............................................................................
........................... 115
7.6 Structures
foundation ........................................................................
.............................. 115
7.6.1 Soil, Rock and other problem
conditions .....................................................................116
7.6.2 Subsurface exploration and testing

problems ..............................................................116
8. GEOMETRIC
DESIGN ............................................................................
....... 118
8.1
Introduction ......................................................................
................................................ 118
8.2 Design Control and
Criteria ..........................................................................
.................. 120
8.2.1 Functional
Classification.....................................................................
...........................120
8.2.2 Design
Standards .........................................................................
...................................120
8.2.3 Type of area

Classification ....................................................................
........................125
8.2.4 Road users and their

characteristics ...................................................................
..........127
8.2.5 ROW
obstructions ......................................................................
....................................130
8.2.6 Geotechnical
considerations ....................................................................
......................131
8.2.7 Seasonally wet

ground ............................................................................
........................131
8.2.8 Mining and Dense coffee

plantation.........................................................................
.....132
8.3 Selection of Design Standard Parameters and their Limiting

Values ......................... 132
8.3.1 Geometric Design
Elements ..........................................................................
.................132
8.3.2 Typical Cross

sections ..........................................................................
..........................139
8.3.3 Side slopes for cuts and

fills .............................................................................
..............139
8.3.4 Climbing
lanes .............................................................................
...................................140
8.3.5 Medians and median

openings ..........................................................................
............140
8.3.6 Phasing of horizontal and vertical

alignment ..............................................................140
8.3.7 At Grade
Intersections .....................................................................
..............................141
8.3.8 Departures from

standard ..........................................................................
...................143
9. STRUCTURES
DESIGN .........................................................................
145
9.1
General ...........................................................................
................................................... 145
9.2 Design
Methodology .......................................................................
.................................. 145
9.3
Loading............................................................................
.................................................. 145
9.4
Materials .........................................................................
.................................................. 145
9.5 Structure Type
Selection .........................................................................
........................ 146
9.6 Structural Evaluation of Existing
structures ................................................................. 147
9.6.1 Detail
Design ............................................................................
.......................................148

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9.6.2 Structures in the
Project ...........................................................................
.....................150
10. ROAD
SAFETY ............................................................................
............ 154
10.1 Review of Existing Accident

Data ..............................................................................
..... 154
10.2 Road Safety
Design.............................................................................
.............................. 159
10.2.1 Road safety
Philosophy ........................................................................
..........................159
10.2.2 Risk factors influencing crash

involvement .................................................................159
10.2.3 Road safety design principles and

strategies ................................................................161
10.2.4 Road Safety

Audit .............................................................................
.............................162

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List of Tables
Table1- 1: Contract
Data ..............................................................................
................................................. 3
Table1- 2: Payment
schedule ..........................................................................
.............................................. 4
Table1- 3: Project
Description .......................................................................
................................................ 6
Table 2- 1: Seasonal Conversion
factors ...........................................................................
.......................... 11
Table 2- 2 AADT and Traffic count at
Kibremengist.......................................................................
.............. 12
Table 2- 3: AADT and Traffic count at Kenticho
Junction ..........................................................................
.. 13
Table 2- 4: AADT and Traffic count at Megado
Junction ..........................................................................
... 14
Table 2- 5: AADT and Traffic count at Heye Dima
Junction ........................................................................
15
Table 2- 6: AADT and Traffic count at Kibremengist
(23km) ...................................................................... 16
Table 2- 7: AADT and Traffic count at Kenticho Junction
(62km) ............................................................... 16
Table 2- 8: Non Motorable Traffic on the project
Road ..............................................................................
. 17
Table 2- 9: Converted NMT to Motorable
Traffic............................................................................
.............. 18
Table 2- 10: Result of Travel Time Survey along the Project Road
Section ................................................ 20
Table 2- 11: Generated Traffic Factor for the project Road
Section ............................................................ 21
Table 2- 12: OD Survey at
Kibremengist ......................................................................
............................... 22
Table 2- 13: OD Survey at Bule
Hora ..............................................................................
............................ 22
Table 2- 14: Project
Schedule ..........................................................................
........................................... 24
Table 2- 15: Historical ERA’s AADT (2007-2018) Volumes and Trends in Dilla Wondo
Road.................... 25
Table 2- 16: Projected Traffic of the Road Section
One ..............................................................................
27
Table 2- 17: Projected Traffic of the Road Section
Two ..............................................................................
27
Table 2- 18:Vehicle Kilometer of Travel in Ethiopia (2001 –
2016) .............................................................. 30
Table 2- 19: Growth rate of Vehicle
Kilometers ........................................................................
................... 31
Table 2- 20: Percentage Growth rate of Real GDP and GDP by
Sectors ................................................... 32
Table 2- 21: Expected GDP Growth in Ethiopia (2010 –
2030) ................................................................... 32
Table 2- 22: Fuel Import of the
Country ...........................................................................
............................ 33
Table 2- 23: Traffic Growth rate based on Population, Income and GDP (Medium
Scenario) ..................... 35
Table 2- 24: Comparison of Derived Traffic Growth
Rates .......................................................................... 36
Table 4- 1: List of Survey
instruments .......................................................................
.................................. 42
Table 4- 2: List personnel’s (team 1: GPS
team) .............................................................................
............ 43

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Table 4- 3: List personnel’s (team 2: Control traverse
surveys) ................................................................... 43
Table 5- 1: Average Equivalency Factors for Different Vehicle
Types ......................................................... 49
Table 5- 2: Average Equivalency Factors on Different Road
Projects ......................................................... 49
Table 5- 3: - Suggested Lane Distribution
Factor ............................................................................
............ 50
Table 5- 4: - Truck Factors of the Road
Project ...........................................................................
................ 50
Table 5- 5: - Mean Cumulative ESAL for Kebremengest – km23 Road
Section .......................................... 51
Table 5- 6: - Mean Cumulative ESAL for km23 – km70 Road
Section ........................................................ 51
Table 5- 7: Geological
Formation .........................................................................
....................................... 53
Table 5- 8: Alignment Material
Extension .........................................................................
........................... 55
Table 5- 9: Problematic Soil
Stretches..........................................................................
............................... 67
Table 5- 10: Design Sub Grade Strength Values and
Classes ................................................................... 68
Table 5- 11: - Pavement Thicknesses Based on ERA
Manual .................................................................... 70
Table 5- 12: Selected Pavement
Thickness .........................................................................
....................... 72
Table 5- 13: List of Rock Quarries along the Road
Project ..........................................................................
75
Table 5- 14: Summary of test results for rock
sources............................................................................
..... 78
Table 5- 15:- Locations of Borrow Sources Identified Along the Road
Project ............................................ 80
Table 5- 16: - Summary of Test Results for Borrow
Sources ....................................................................... 84
Table 5- 17: Summary of Laboratory Test Results of Water
Sources .......................................................... 85
Table 6- 1- Design Storm Frequency (Yrs.) by Geometric Design Criteria (Road
Standard) (Adopted from
ERA,
2013) .............................................................................
..................................................................... 95
Table 6- 2: Runoff Coefficients, C Value (Adopted from ERA, 2013 and FHWA
manual) ........................... 98
Table 6- 3: (ERA DDM-2013) Frequency Factors for Rational
Formula .................................................... 101
Table 6- 4: Peak -24hr Rainfall Depth Vs
Frequency..........................................................................
....... 101
Table 6- 5: Coefficients for SCS Peak Discharge
Method .........................................................................
105
Table 6- 6:-Summary of Hydrological analysis of Major River
Crossing .................................................... 108
Table 6- 7:- Summary of Hydraulically analysis of Major River
Crossing ................................................... 108
Table 6- 8:- Summary of Hydrological analysis recommendations of Slab and Box
culvert of the Project. 109
Table 6- 9:- Summary of Hydraulic analysis recommendations of Slab and Box culvert
of the Project ..... 110
Table 6- 10:-Summary of Side
drain .............................................................................
............................. 111
Table 8- 1: Traffic forecast from Km 0 to Km 23(Section 1) for the years 2024 –
2043 ............................. 121

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Table 8- 2: Traffic forecast for Section two for the years 2021 -
2043 ....................................................... 122
Table 8- 3: ERA GDM,2013 Terrain
classification ....................................................................
................. 123
Table 8- 4: Terrain
Classification ....................................................................
........................................... 123
Table 8- 5: Percentage distribution of
terrain ...........................................................................
.................. 125
Table 8- 6: Area classification along the
route .............................................................................
.............. 125
Table 8- 7: Weighted average traffic at mid-life of 2034 and percentage proportions
................................ 128
Table 8- 8: Design vehicle characteristic (ERAGDM,2013, Table 5-
2) ...................................................... 129
Table 8- 9: Non- Motorized Average Daily Traffic
Volume .........................................................................
130
Table 8- 10: Expansive Soil
Stretches .........................................................................
.............................. 131
Table 8- 11: Seasonally Water logged stretches along proposed
route ..................................................... 132
Table 8- 12: Design
Standards .........................................................................
......................................... 133
Table 8- 13: Slope Ratio Table – Vertical to
Horizontal ........................................................................
..... 139
Table 8- 14: List of major and moderate
intersections .....................................................................
.......... 141
Table 8- 15: Roundabouts as per the master plan of
town ........................................................................ 142
Table 8- 16: Departure based on the concept
design ............................................................................
.... 143
Table 8- 17: The departures from the concept
design ............................................................................
... 144
Table 9- 1: List of compulsory structural
drawings ..........................................................................
........... 149
Table 10- 1: Severity of traffic accidents in
Ethiopia ..........................................................................
........ 155
Table 10- 2: Road Traffic Fatality Crashes by Road Type and Road Pavement July
2005-June 2011 ..... 155
Table 10- 3: Fatal and Injury Crashes in the Six Year Period by Lanes/Medians, Road
Alignment, Junction
Type and Illumination
Conditions ........................................................................
....................................... 156
Table 10- 4: Crashes by Land
Use ...............................................................................
............................. 158

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List of Figures
Figure 1- 1: Project
Location ..........................................................................
................................................ 8
Figure 2- 1: Trends of traffic in the project area (Dilla – Wondo ERA 2002-2016)
and 2017-2020 Trend
Estimate) .........................................................................
............................................................................ 29
and 2017-2020 Trend
Estimate) .........................................................................
............................................................................ 29
and 2017-2020 Trend
Estimate) .........................................................................
............................................................................ 30
Figure5- 1: Geological Formation of the Route
Corridor ..........................................................................
.... 54
Figure5- 2: Variation of Plasticity Value (%) of the Sub Grade
Soil ............................................................. 61
Figure5- 3: %age Compositions of Sub Grade
Soil ..............................................................................
...... 62
Figure5- 4: Particle Size Distribution of Sub Grade Soils Along the Road
Alignment .................................. 63
Figure5- 5: Variation of Maximum Dry Density along the
Route .................................................................. 64
Figure5- 6: Variation of Optimum Moisture Content along the
Road ........................................................... 65
Figure5- 7: Variation of CBR Swell Along the
Alignment .........................................................................
.... 66
Figure5- 8: Variation of CBR along the
Alignment .........................................................................
.............. 67
Figure5- 9: Homogeneous sections along the project
route ........................................................................ 68
Figure5- 10: ERA chart 2013
(ERAFPD,2013) .....................................................................
....................... 71
Figure 6- 1: Major Soil Classification of the Project watershed
area ............................................................ 88
Figure 6- 2:-Land use and Land Cover of the Project Watershed
Area ....................................................... 89
Figure 6- 3:- Water shade Area of the Project
Area ..............................................................................
....... 97
Figure 6- 4: Rainfall Region of Project
area ..............................................................................
................... 99
Figure 6- 5:- Intensity Duration curve (IDF) Region
B2 ..............................................................................
100
Figure 8- 1: Design Vehicle template, (ERADGM,2013 Figure 5-
3)........................................................... 129
Figure 10- 1: Trends in Reported Road Traffic Death , Source ( (WHO,
2018) ......................................... 154
Figure 10- 2: Major causes of traffic accident
(WHO,2015) .......................................................................
155

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List of Photos
Photo 1- 1: Major Towns along the Project
Road ..............................................................................
............ 9
Photo 3- 1: Steep descent on the section 3+000 to
12+000 ........................................................................ 39
Photo 3- 2: Sharp curves and descents to Aweta
River..............................................................................
. 39
Photo 3- 3: Typical sharp curve along the project
road ..............................................................................
.. 40
Photo 3- 4: Typical sharp curve along the project
road ..............................................................................
.. 41
Photo 5- 1: Newly Constructed Kibremengist Shakiso road
segment .......................................................... 52
Photo 5- 2: Highly Distress Uncomfortable (Shakiso – km70) Road
Segment............................................. 52
Photo 5- 3: Reddish Clayey
Silt ..............................................................................
..................................... 58
Photo 5- 4: Swampy Area, Brown Clay
Soil ..............................................................................
................... 59
Photo 5- 5: Sub grade test
pits ..............................................................................
...................................... 60
Photo 5- 6: Quarry site along the project
road ..............................................................................
............... 74
Photo 5- 7: Borrow Material Source
(km29.8) ..........................................................................
.................... 79
Photo 5- 8: Water Source
(14+300) ..........................................................................
................................... 86
Photo 6- 1: Bridge Mermera River at Station
43+310 ............................................................................
...... 90
Photo 6- 2: Bridge at Hawata River at station
14+180 ............................................................................
..... 90
Photo 6- 3: Bridge Haye Dima at Station
60+800 ............................................................................
............ 91
Photo 6- 4: Typical Minor drainages along the
route .............................................................................
...... 93
Photo 6- 5: Concrete Side Drainage from Shakiso
-Dollo ............................................................................
94
Photo 6- 6: Shakiso Town
Drainage ..........................................................................
.................................. 94

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Lists of Appendices
Appendix 1-1 Kibremengist -Bule Kero Road Project Informative Photos
Appendix 3-1: Minutes of Meeting
Appendix 4: List of Primary and Secondary Topographic Surveying Control points
Appendix 4-1 List of GPS Coordinates
Appendix 4-2 List of Bench Mark Points
Appendix 4-2 Differential Levelling
Appendix 5-1: Laboratory Test Results
Appendix 5-2: Test Pits Log
Appendix 6-1: SCS method of H& H analysis
Appendix 6-2: Hydrology and Hydraulics analysis of Bridges
Appendix 6-3: Hydrology and Hydraulics analysis of Minor Structures
Appendix 8-1: Typical Cross-Section

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List of Abbreviation
AOI Area of Influence
AASHTO American Association of State Highway Transportation Officials
ADT Average Daily Traffic
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
BC Box Culvert
BR Bridge
DEM Digital Elevation Model
EMA Ethiopian Mapping Agency
ERADDM ERA Drainage Design Manual
ERAFPM ERA Flexible Pavement Manual
ERAGDM ERA Geometric Design Manual
FHWA Federal Highway Administration
GDP Gross Domestic Product
IDF Intensity Duration Frequency
NCHRP National Cooperative Highway Research Program
OD Origin Destination
PC Pipe Culvert
SC Slab Culvert
SCS Services and Curve Number method of runoff estimation
SRTM Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission
TOR Terms of Reference
VDF Vehicle Damage Factor
VOC Vehicle Operating Cost
DC Design Class

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1. Introduction
1.1 Introduction and purpose
The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia has launched Road Sector Development
Program (RSDP) to enhance
development objectives and the living standard of the population all over the
country. Accordingly, Ethiopian Roads
Authority, on behalf of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) is
implementing various road projects
including new road construction, rehabilitation or upgrading of main trunk, link
and rural roads to expand the Roads
Network all over the country.
The Government of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) represented by the

Ethiopian Roads Authority
(ERA) has allocated funds towards the Consultancy Services to carry out Concept
Design, Feasibility and EIA, RAP,
Detailed Engineering Design and Tender Document Preparation & Engineering Cost
Estimate of Bule Hora –
Kibremengsit – Shakiso road projects Lot I: Kibremengist – Bule Kero.
The Ethiopian Roads Authority (ERA) of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia
(the Employer) signed an
Agreement with Pure Consulting Engineers PLC in Sub-Consultancy with Sound
Engineering Solutions PLC for
Consultancy Service for the Concept Design, Feasibility, EIA, RAP, Risk Assessment
and Tender Document
Preparation & Engineering Cost Estimate of Bule Hora – Kibremengist – Shakiso road
projects Lot I: Kibremengist –
Bule Kero.
The Ethiopian Roads Authority (ERA) has been entrusted the responsibility of
implementing this road project. ERA, on
the behalf of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, intends to utilize part
of its budgetary allocation to finance
the Consultancy services for the project under reference. The provision of this
service is procured through National
Competitive Bidding (NCB).
The preparation of Works tender documents on Design and Build basis dictates the
application of the highest possible
Engineering and Contract standard so that the implementation of the construction
project can be realized without undue
imbalance of risk between the contracting parties. Therefore, based on this premise
the Consultant carries out such
services with utmost care, diligence and expertise.
The Consultant shall perform all necessary services and activities to fulfill the
stated objectives whether or not a specific
activity is stated in the Scope of Services in the Terms of Reference.

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The purpose of this concept design document is to present findings on sensitive
areas such as landslide area, swampy
areas, high embankment stability, flood plains; and identified Environmental and
Social problems and together with
their corresponding recommendations for mitigation measures given as Engineering
solutions. The findings on
identified Environmental and Social problems shall include but not limited to:
• ROW issue such as identification of spoil areas, resettlement/land use
demand of the design, reinstatement
• Effects of deep cuts and high fills on the livelihood of local residents
• Traffic management issues in town sections, difficult terrains
• Health and safety on site

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1.2 Contract Data
Table1- 1: Contract Data

Project Name : Bule Hora – Shakiso – Kibremengist
Road Project, Lot 1: Kibremengist-
Bule Kero & Tango-Assosa Road Project
And Bule Hora – Shakiso –
Kibremengist Road Project, Lot 2: Bule
Kero – Bule Hora
Lot : Lot 1: Kibremengist – Bule Kero Road

project
Project No. : S/01/NCB/RFP/GOE/2012 EFY
Funding : The government of Federal Democratic

Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE)
Consultant : Pure Consulting Engineers PLC in Sub-

Consultancy with Sound
Engineering Solutions PLC
Type of Services : Concept Design, Tender Documents and

Engineering Cost Estimate
Project Period : Four (4) Months
Consultancy Contract
Signed on: : January 3, 2020
Commencement Date : 14 January 2020 (ERA’s letter dated 14

January 2020 with reference
No. AA19/26/10-155
Planned Duration : Four (4) Months
Project Cost : Ethiopian Birr 15,458,875 (Ethiopian

Birr Fifteen Million Four Hundred
Fifty Eight Thousand Eight Hundred
Seventy Five Only) inclusive of
15%VAT and local taxes.
Concept design of Lot 1 and Phase : Ethiopian Birr 5,545,829.00 (Ethiopian

Birr Five Million Five Hundred
I of Detailed engineering Design of Forty Five Thousand Eight Hundred
Twenty Nine Only) inclusive of
the first section/Lot 15%VAT and local taxes.
Payment Schedule : Please see Table 1.2 below

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Table 1- 2: Payment schedule
Percentage of
Item
Amount to be
Type of Deliverables
payment to be
No.
released (Birr)
released
1 Upon Submission of Final Inception Report

11.43% 633,809.03
Upon Submission of Final Concept Engineering Design Report

2 and Final Concept Design Drawing and Final EIA for Concept
11.43% 633,809.03
Design
Upon Submission of Final Tender Document, Risk Assessment
3
21.43% 1,188,391.93
Report, Engineering Estimates
Upon Submission of Feasibility report of concept design and
4
11.43% 633,809.03
RAP Report
Upon Submission of Final Route Selection Report of detailed

5
16.43% 911,100.48
Design
6 Final Feasibility Study of detailed Design

16.43% 911,100.48
7 Final Environmental Impact Assessments Report

11.43% 633,809.03
TOTAL
5,545,829.00
1.3 Scope of the Consultancy Service and Objectives

1.3.1 Objective of the Study
The main objective of the consultancy service is to prepare the Concept Design,
Engineering Cost estimate and Tender
Document preparation for the Design-Build type of works contract of Bule Hora –
Shakiso –Kibremengist Road Project,
Lot 1: Kibremengist (Adolawayu) – Bule Kero.
The specific objective and an immediate aim of an environmental impact assessment
of this project is to properly guide
the decision making processes through identifying potentially significant
environmental effects and proposing realistic
environmental management and monitoring plan of the proposed project so that it
will serve as a guide for the upcoming
works Contract and eventually help achieve the overall objective of road sector
development program.
1.3.2 Scope of the Study

The scope of services of the proposed project is to execute the committed
assignment with an utmost care, diligence
and experience so that the implementation of the construction project can be
realized without undue imbalances of
risks between the contracting parties. To achieve these intentions, the scope of
work includes but not limited to the
following.

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✓ Confirm the project start and end control points and determine intermediate
control points of the project in an
acceptable way from social point of view while fitting the overall purpose
of the project with due consideration
for technical and environmental matters;
✓ Select at least three alternative alignments that pass through the control
points and eventually choose the
preferred alignment with full justification based generally on qualitative
parameters supplemented by
quantifiable ones where possible. This is expected to be done in
consultation with key stakeholders (Region,
Zone and Wereda Administration) with particular emphasis on Wereda
Administration;
✓ Identify and locate project road sections where it is impossible to implement
ERA’s Design Standards,
especially on mountainous and escarpment terrains and propose to what
extent the design criteria can be
relaxed on such problematic areas;
✓ Determine the terrain condition of the preferred route as well as its length
and then conduct ground survey of
the 20% of the project route length; giving priority in order of
escarpment, mountainous, rolling and flat terrains
of the road;
✓ Conduct at least preliminary site visits and identify problematic areas such
as landslide areas (existing and
potential), extent of expansive soil and swampy areas and propose possible
recommendation to be taken as
remedial measures;
✓ Carryout identification of town sections along the route alignment in terms
of length, XY coordinates of the
start and ends of the same. This has to be done in close consultation and
involvement of Wereda and Zone
Administrations;
✓ Conduct preliminary soil extension survey, identification of construction
materials sites as well as the type,
size and number of crossing structures and side drains;
✓ Produce the Employers’ Requirements Components of the tender document and
estimate the duration of the
project which is believed to be sufficient to execute the work load of the
project with an optimum cost-time
relationship;
✓ Prepare a complete cost estimate for the Design and Build works contract
based on current market prices
while determining the roadway (carriageway) surfacing;
Similarly, the specific scope the EIA work of this Concept Design Project includes
but not limited to:
✓ Determine the extent of adverse impacts of the project on landslide, soil
erosion associated with excessive
earthworks and extent of deforestation;
✓ Identify the impact of drainage channels on the surrounding resources and
propose appropriate scour and
erosion control measures;

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✓ Identify adverse impacts of the project on sensitive natural environment
such as wildlife resources, natural
and manmade vegetation, sensitive habitats like parks, sanctuaries, game
reserves and ecosystem bio
diversities;
✓ Identify the possible impacts of the project on cultural heritage and
historical sites, possible contamination of
soil and water resources by hazardous substances, surface and subsurface
water resources due to earthwork
operation and works of drainage structures as well as erection, operation
and rehabilitation of temporarily
used construction facilities such as camp site, borrow pits and quarry
sites, material production and storage
areas, etc…;
✓ Briefly define the site reinstatement activities, the method and level of
reinstatement, cost of reinstatement
and how to compel the contractor for failure to not to reinstate the
damaged sites.
✓ Conduct public consultation with key stakeholders and proposed waste
disposal areas if found practicable;
In summary, the scope of the environmental impact assessment study will therefore,
include assessment of all
environmental and social baseline conditions such as physio-chemical, biological,
ecological and social issues
prevailing at the project sites and its environs. The negative and positive
environmental and social impacts of the
project components will be articulated. The study will be carried out by
categorizing possible impacts or influence areas
as direct and indirect impact zones. Generally, the scope of the study will be
confined to assessment of overall
environmental and social aspects of the road project.
1.4 Project Description
The Kibremengist (Adolawayu)-Shakiso-BuleHora Road Project (Lot I: Adolawayu-Bule
Kero) Road Project is intended
to connect 3 Wereda Administration and 3 Town Administration located within Guji
Zone of Oromia National Regional
State.
The rural Wereda are Adola, Odoshakiso and Harawayou Wereda Administrations while
the town administrations,
which have Wereda Status, are Adolawayu and Shakiso Towns Administration. As per
the TOR of the project, the
project start is Kibremengist (Adolawayu) Town while the project end is Bule Kero,
located within the Harawayou
Wereda Administration. However, the administrative boundary between Guji and West
Guji Zone as well as between
the Harawayou and Melaka Soda Wereda is Dawa River located at about km85. As a
result, it seems reasonable to
extend the concept design work up to Dawa River rather than limiting the cut-off
point at km70 that will split Harawayou
Wereda in to two phases of the project.
The project can be accessed from both start and end, from end, Bule hora town,
470Km on the road from Addis Ababa
–Hawasa- Moyale-Kenya and from start, Kibremengist (Adolawayu), which is 460Km for
Addis Ababa – Hawasa-
Negele road.
Table 1- 3: Project Description

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Bule Hora – Shakiso – Kibremengist, Lot
1: Kibremengist/Adolawayu
Project Name – Bule Kero Road Project
Road No: S/01/NCB/RFP/GOE/2012 EFY
Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia,
Oromia National Regional State,
Region/Zone
Guji Zone
Kibremengist (Adolawayu) which is at 460
Km from Addis Ababa through
Starting Point Description
Hawasa, - Wendo- Negele road
Bule Kero located within Harawayou

Wereda, 15 Km from dawa River
Ending Point Description
which is the administrative boundary
between Guji and West Guji Zone
Length (km) 72.724

Road Functional Classification Link Road
Weyna Dega and Kola Area
Climate Classification
Traffic Volume AADT (Km0 to Km

2732
23)
Traffic Volume AADT
1161
(km23+km72.724)
Design Class (km0 to km23) DC6
Design Class (km23 to 72.724km) DC5

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Figure 1- 1: Project Location

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Photo 1- 1: Major Towns along the Project Road

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2. TRAFFIC STUDY
2.1 General
This chapter presents traffic studies and analyses carried out for addressing
various objectives and issues pertaining
to improvement of the project road. The results of analysis will form inputs for
designing the pavement and carrying out
a reliable economic analysis thereafter.
The traffic study aims at estimating the base year daily traffic and travel
characteristics on the project corridor and
forecasting the Average Annual Daily Traffic for project horizon year considering
various constituent streams namely
normal, induced and divertible traffic on the project road considering immediate
influence area and surrounding road
network of the project road. Various aspects of traffic study are presented in
subsequence sections of this chapter.
2.2 Traffic Count
In view of the available information and data requirements of the project road, the
Consultants identified the data-gaps,
and planned to conduct a series of traffic surveys. In consideration of the TOR
requirements, following traffic surveys
were conducted;
➢ 7 Days Classified Traffic Volume Counts; and
➢ Days Origin-Destination Surveys.
The programme of classified traffic counts was conducted at the two sites, along
the project road. Traffic count points
were established at the outskirts of the towns where there was little local traffic
associated with junctions within the
towns. This was to ensure that the counts represent the average traffic volume on a
given section of road and not
influenced by local traffic movements.
The surveys on the project road were conducted for seven consecutive days, for 12-
hour day counts from 6.00 a.m. to
6.00 p.m. and during the period two 4-hour night counts were taken due to
insecurity to count at night in the project
area.
Vehicle counts were summarized on hourly intervals and were recorded in each
direction at each site.
The vehicle classification system used for traffic programs has been in line with
the ERA system consisting of eight
vehicle types.
Based on the reconnaissance survey and observation of the project road and its
expected traffic movement, these
traffic survey locations were selected, as given below:
Classified Count conducted at:
➢ Staion1) Kibremengist Town: at out skirt of the town
➢ Station 2) Shakiso (Kenticho Junction) at out outskirt of the town
➢ Station 3) Magado Town
➢ Station 4) Haya Dima Town
OD Survey conducted at:
➢ OD 1) Bule Hora (at the outskirt of the town)
➢ OD2) Adola town (at the outskirt of the town)
2.3 Classified Traffic Volume Counts
Classified traffic volume counts were conducted seven days between, February 15 –
2020 to February 21, 2020. The
traffic counts were normally carried out for 12 hours (6:00 am-6:00 pm) each day
and 4 hours’ night count for two days.
The vehicles were classified into eight categories following the ERA’s practice as
indicated below:

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I. Motorized Vehicles
Cars (including taxis);
Utilities (also termed L/Rover);
Small Buses;
Large Buses;
Small Trucks (2-axle);
Medium Trucks (2-axle);
Heavy Trucks (3-axle); and
Truck -Trailers (or Articulated).
2.3.1 Estimation of Average Daily Traffic (ADT)
In order to obtain traffic information needed for the design of the road project,
the raw traffic data was processed
manually. It is evident that the traffic information needed for the detailed
engineering design of the road project are the
Average Daily Traffic (ADT) and Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT) which shows
average 24 hours’ traffic movement
during all seasons (for a year) respectively. To this effect, the following steps
were followed in computing the ADT and
the AADT: -
➢ Seven-day time (6:00 am to 6:00 pm) count of each vehicle type was summed
up.
➢ The sum of day time traffic count of each vehicle type was divided by seven
to get the average day time traffic
(for 12 hours).
➢ The average day time traffic was multiplied by the night factor to get ADT
for 24hrs.
➢ The ADT was adjusted with seasonal adjustment factor to get the AADT.
2.3.2 Traffic Variation: Day and Night
As the traffic counts were carried out for 12hours for seven days and 16 hours for
two days respectively in a period of
seven days. One of the night count was done on market day and the second on normal
week day. So, to determine
the ADT the ratios of the 16-hr count/12-hr count (termed as “night factor”) for
each category of vehicle was calculated,
at survey station as shown in Table 2-2 below.
2.3.2.1 Limitations of Night count
The night factors shown in both count stations are Error! Reference source not
found.suffer from the limitation that t
hey are not count for the 12 hours due to security reasons on the project area
mostly count up to 4 hours at night.
However, count was taken for both stations at normal day and market day.
2.3.3 Seasonal Variation in Traffic and Estimation of Seasonal Conversation Factors
ERA implements three regular short period counts every year. The objective of these
regular counts is to define Annual
Average Daily Traffic (AADT) following adjustment for seasonal variations in
traffic flows. The twelve months of a year
are split into three equal seasons for its traffic monitoring and network planning
purpose. The seasons on which traffic
surveys are executed are referred to as Cycle 1, 2, and 3. Accordingly while
traffic being surveyed during cycle 1 is
considered representative of January- April season; cycle 2 refers to May – August
and 3 for September – December.
Survey programs during each cycle are for seven consecutive days; executed in 1st
weeks of February, July and
November respectively. The project under references traffic counts were executed in
April so should be considered as
Cycle 1. In this project report ERA’s Kibremengist-Bule Kero Road Cycle Traffic for
years (2015-2018) is used as
presented below:
Table 2- 1: Seasonal Conversion factors

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Table: Seasonal Traffic Count and Seasonal Conversion Factor along the Road
(Kibremengist- Bule kero)
Year Cycle Car 4WD S. Bus L.Bus S.Truck
M.Truck H T.T Total
.Truck
2015 1st Cycle 6 84 148 50 132
97 69 44 630
2nd Cycle 1 97 149 48 118
66 68 42 589
3rd Cycle 6 78 156 61 143
97 83 37 661
Annual Mean 4.3 86 151 53 131
87 73 41 627
2016 1st Cycle 4 52 67 56 73
51 57 18 378
2nd Cycle 4 52 67 56 73
51 57 18 378
3rd Cycle 4 52 67 56 73
51 57 18 378
Annual Mean 4 52 67 56 73
51 57 18 378
2017 1st Cycle 3 47 36 27 62
64 26 15 280
2nd Cycle 0 56 83 52 89
70 74 61 485
3rd Cycle 2 43 48 53 63
112 110 24 455
Annual Mean 2 49 56 44 71
82 70 33 407
2018 1st Cycle 6 89 147 171 129
160 146 46 894
2nd Cycle
0
3rd Cycle 0 30 86 54 82
105 90 62 509
Annual Mean 3.0 60 117 113 106
133 118 54 468
Seasonal 1st Cycle 0.68 0.91 0.98 0.87 0.96
0.95 1.07 1.19 0.92
Factors 2nd Cycle 2.60 1.20 1.30 1.70 1.36
1.88 1.60 1.21 1.38
3rd Cycle 1.08 1.21 1.09 1.19 1.05
0.96 0.94 1.04 1.00
Seasonal Average 1.46 1.11 1.13 1.25 1.13
1.26 1.20 1.15 1.10
Source: Computed ERA Traffic Count by Cycles, 2017
Three SCFs were developed for each type of vehicle. The average SCF was thus
computed from the three conversion
factors and this average SCF was used to estimate the AADT. Error! Reference source
not found.Table 2-1 above s
hows the SCFs by vehicle type for all stations and the next tables shows the
estimated AADTs at four stations.
2.3.4 Estimation of Average Annual Daily Traffic
Table 2- 2 AADT and Traffic count at Kibremengist
Date Car 4W Smal Large Smal Mediu
Heav Truc Othe Tota
s D l bus bus l m
y k r l
15/6/12 Normal 15 245 173 79 134
truc 96
truck
46
truck 16
tailor 0 804
16/6/12 Normal
Day 20 327 177 132 115 78
89 14 13 965
k
17/6/12 Market
Day 21 225 210 122 113 56
114 13 4 878
18/6/12 Normal
Day 22 228 146 71 134 82
140 11 8 842
19/6/12 Normal
Day 27 130 171 94 136 71
133 15 9 786
20/6/12 Normal
Day 21 229 120 68 90 88
86 14 12 728
21/6/12 Market
Day 17 187 171 112 104 69
83 14 5 762
Day
Motorable Night Count
1. Market day
Date Car 4W Smal large Smal Mediu
Heav Truc Othe Tota
s D l bus bus l m
y k r l
21/6/12 Market 0 60 40 16 45
truc 22
truck
31
truck 4tailor 1
2.Normal day Day k

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Date Car 4W Smal large Smal
Mediu Heav Truc Othe Tota
s D l bus bus l m
y k r l
19/6/12 Normal 6 53 39 11 44
truc 40
truck 29
truck 3tailor 0
Night Factor Day k
Market day 1 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.4 1.3
1.4 1.3 1.2
Non Market 1.2 1.4 1.2 1.1 1.3 1.6
1.2 1.2 1
ADT
day
15/6/12 Normal 18 345 212 88 177 150
56 19 0 1067
16/6/12 Normal
Day 24 460 217 147 152 122
108 17 13 1262
17/6/12 Market
Day 21 297 259 139 162 74
157 17 5 1131
18/6/12 Normal
Day 27 321 179 79 177 128
171 13 8 1104
19/6/12 Normal
Day 33 183 210 105 180 111
162 18 9 1011
20/6/12 Normal
Day 26 322 147 76 119 138
105 17 12 962
21/6/12 Market
Day 17 247 211 128 149 91
114 18 6 981
Average ADT Day 24 311 205 109 160 116
125 17 8 1074
AADT
Seasonal Correction Factor ( SCF )
0.68 0.91 0.98 0.87 0.96 0.95
1.07 1.19 0.92
AADT MT 16 282 201 95 153 110
133 20 7 1018
Converted 26 1 0 1
0 0 28
NMT
AADT, 2020 16 282 227 96 154 111
133 20 35 1073
Table 2- 3: AADT and Traffic count at Kenticho Junction
Car 4W Sma large Sma
Mediu Hea Truc Oth Tot
Date s D ll bus ll
m vy k er al
15/6/12 Normal 48 35 bus 51
50 truc
36
truck
13 truc
11 2tailo 0 246
16/6/12 Normal
Day 71 62 62 122 28
k
30 9k 4r 13 401
17/6/12 Market
Day 97 82 75 138 44
30 18 7 4 495
18/6/12 Normal
Day 87 74 65 148 54
49 31 13 8 529
19/6/12 Normal
Day 59 83 58 86 47
21 16 15 9 394
20/6/12 Normal
Day 52 52 58 122 15
57 13 0 12 381
21/6/12 Market
Day 26 37 42 65 20
16 6 2 5 219
Day Motorable Night Count
1. Market day
Car 4W Sma large Sma
Date s D ll bus ll
m vy k er al
21/6/12 Market 3 10 bus 14
12 truc
15
truck
31 truc
19 tailo
23 2
2.Normal day Day k
k r
car 4W Sma large Sma
Date s D ll bus ll
m vy k er al
19/6/12 Normal 0 12 bus
6 11 truc
49
truck
14 truc
32 tailo
3 0
Night Factor Day k
k r
Night Factor Market 1.1 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.8
2.9 4.2 12.5 1.4
Night
day Factor Non 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.1 2.0
1.7 3.0 1.2 1.0
ADT
Market day
15/6/12 Normal 48 40 55 58 74
22 33 2 0 331
16/6/12 Normal
Day 71 71 68 138 57
50 27 5 13 500
Day
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17/6/12 Market 108 104 96 168 77 88
75 88 6 810
18/6/12 Normal
Day 100 82 73 302 90 147
37 13 0 844
19/6/12 Normal
Day 59 95 64 97 96 35
48 18 9 521
20/6/12 Normal
Day 52 60 64 138 31 95
39 0 12 490
21/6/12 Market
Day 29 47 54 79 35 47
25 25 7 348
AVERGE ADT Day 67 71 68 140 66 69
41 22 7 549
AADT
Seasonal Correction Factor ( SCF ), Jan -Apr
SCF Kibremengist 0.6 0.9 0.98 0.87 0.96 0.95
1.07 1.19 0.92
AADT MT
Shakiso ) 46
8 65
1 67 122 63 65
43 26 6 502
NMT Converted 6 0 0 2
0 0
AADT, 2020 46 65 73 122 63 67
44 26 6 511
Table 2- 4: AADT and Traffic count at Megado Junction

Sm
Hea Tru
Sm all
Mediu vy ck
Car 4W all Large truc m
truc Tail Oth Tota
Date s D bus bus k
truck k or er l
15/6/12 Normal 0 29 41 11 52 29
7 6 0 175
16/6/12 Market
Day 0 19 35 7 6 58
7 1 0 133
17/6/12 Normal
Day 1 33 99 23 35 121
35 25 48 420
18/6/12 Normal
Day 0 51 28 12 23 57
30 4 1 206
19/6/12 Market
Day 0 14 49 10 33 50
24 3 4 187
20/6/12 Normal
Day 6 30 28 12 14 44
21 2 11 168
21/6/12 Normal
Day 0 28 39 15 20 33
17 0 2 154
Day Motorable Night Count
1. Market day
Car 4W Sm Large Sm
Mediu Hea Tru Oth Tota
Date s D all bus all m
vy ck er l
19/6/12 Market 0 7 bus
14 6 truc
16
truck
17
truc
13 tailo
7 2 82
2.Normal day Day k
k r
Car 4W Sm Large Sm
Mediu Hea Tru Oth Tota
Date s D all bus all m
vy ck er l
21/6/12 Normal 0 6 bus
10 5 truc
11
truck
17
truc
12 tailo
4 0 65
Night Factor Day k
k r
Night Factor Market 1.0 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.8 1.5
1.8 1.0 2.0
Night
day Factor Non 1.0 1.4 1.2 1.5 1.3 1.3
1.5 2.3 1.0
ADT
Market day
15/6/12 Normal 0 41 49 17 69 39
11 14 0 240
16/6/12 Normal
Day 0 27 42 11 8 78
11 2 0 178
17/6/12 Market
Day 1 41 135 32 63 183
62 25 96 638
18/6/12 Normal
Day 0 61 42 16 31 86
70 4 0 310
19/6/12 Normal
Day 0 20 59 15 44 67
36 7 4 252
20/6/12 Normal
Day 6 43 34 18 19 59
32 5 11 225
21/6/12 Market
Day 0 35 53 21 36 50
30 0 4 229
Average ADT Day 1 38 59 18 39 80
36 8 16 296
AADT
Seasonal Correction Factor ( SCF )
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SCF Kibremengist 0.68 0.9 0.98 0.87 0.96
0.95 1.07 1.19 0.92
AADT MT)
Shakiso 1 135 58 16 37
76 38 10 15 286
NMT Converted 7 0 0
0 0 0 8
AADT, 2020 1 35 65 16 37
76 38 10 23 301
Table 2- 5: AADT and Traffic count at Heye Dima Junction

Date Stati Mot Car 4W Sm
Large Sm Mediu Hea Tru
on or s D all
bus all m vy ck
Cycl bus
truc truck truc tailo
e
k k r
15/6/12 Normal 4 477 0 41 54 47
82 73 24 9
16/6/12 Normal
Day 4 374 0 16 24 16
33 27 7 1
17/6/12 Market
Day 4 426 0 20 64 27
55 30 34 15
18/6/12 Normal
Day 4 277 0 9 18 19
53 31 28 5
19/6/12 Normal
Day 4 319 1 35 24 20
64 38 11 5
20/6/12 Normal
Day 4 262 0 30 25 24
59 34 4 0
21/6/12 Market
Day 4 401 0 37 64 49
96 73 16 0
Day Motor able Night Count
1. Market day
Date Stati Mot Ca 4 Sm
Larg Sm Medi Hea Tru
on or rs W all e
bus all um vy ck
Cy D bu
tru truc truc Tail
cle s
ck k k or
21/6/12 Market 4 75 0 5 6 2
58 49 9 1
2.Normal day Day
Date Stati
Mot car 4 Sm
large sm medi hea truc
19/6/12 Normal 81
or 4
on 0
s 4
W all 3
bus 28
all 21
um 0
vy 0
k
Day NIGHT
Cyc FACTOR
D bus
truc truck truc tail
Night Factor Market day 1.0 1.1 1.1
1.0 1.6 1.7 1.6 1.0
le
k k er
Night Factor Non 1.0 1.1 1.3
1.2 1.4 1.6 1.0 1.0
Market day ADT
Normal 3 41 0 46 70 54
118 113 24 9
16/6/12 Normal
Day 3 49 0 18 31 18
47 42 7 1
17/6/12 Market
Day 3 63 0 23 70 28
88 50 53 15
18/6/12 Normal
Day 3 72 0 12 21 27
82 31 28 5
19/6/12 Normal
Day 3 43 1 39 31 23
92 59 11 5
20/6/12 Normal
Day 3 45 0 33 32 28
85 53 4 0
21/6/12 Market
Day 3 49 0 42 70 51
154 122 25 0
AVERGE ADT Day 0 30 46 33
95 67 22 5
AADT
Seasonal Correction Factor ( SCF ), Jan -Apr
SCF (Kibremengist Shakiso 0.6 0.9 0.9
0.87 0.9 0.95 1.0 1.1
) 8 1 8
6 7 9
AADT MT 0 27 45 29 92 64
23 6
NMT 6 0
0 1 0 0

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AADT, 2020 0 27 52
29 92 65 23 6
2.3.5 Recommended Road Section and Estimation of Average Annual Daily Traffic
As we have seen from section 2.3.1 the AADT estimation we have Four stations and
AADT is estimated separately for
each station. However, the design team critically investigate the stations and
recommended that the four station should
be grouped into homogenous sections of the road segment (please see the detail in
Pavement section). Accordingly,
the first 23 km section is categorized as section one and the remaining 62km as
section two. Hence, AADT is regrouped
into two and presented as Table 2-6 below.
Table 2- 6: AADT and Traffic count at Kibremengist (23km)
Small Large Small

Medium Heavy Truck
Date Cars 4WD
Total
bus bus truck
truck truck tailor
ADT
Average ADT 24 311 205 109 160
116 125 17 1067
AADT
SCF 0.68 0.91 0.98 0.87 0.96
0.95 1.07 1.19
AADT MT 16 282 201 95 153
110 133 20 1010
Converted NMT 26 1 0
1 0 0
AADT 2020 16 282 227 96 154
111 133 20 1039
Table 2- 7: AADT and Traffic count at Kenticho Junction (62km)

Vehicles Cars 4WD Small large Small Medium
Heavy Truck Other Total
bus bus truck truck
truck tailor
ADT
Average ADT 23 46 58 64 67 72
33 12 8 382
AADT
SCF 0.68 0.91 0.98 0.87 0.96 0.95

1.07 1.19 0.92
AADT MT 15 42 57 55 64 68
35 14 8 359
NMT 0 0 6 0 0 1
0 0 5
Converted
AADT, 2020 15 42 63 55 64 69
35 14 13 359

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2.4 Conversion of Non-moterable Traffic to Moterable Traffic
Since the road is a new road, it is not trafficable. The possible way to estimate
traffic of the road is counting the non
motorable traffic and changing this to motorable traffic. To this effect, the
following steps were followed in changing
Non-motorable (NMT) to motorable traffic to compute ADT and the AADT: -
➢ Seven-day time (6:00 am to 6:00 pm) count of each NMT was conducted. NMT are
pedestrian, pack animals,
animal drawn carts etc.
➢ The seven day counted NMT were summed up.
➢ The sum of day time traffic divided by seven to get Average Daily Time
Traffic (ADTT) NMT
➢ ADTT is multiplied by Night Factor to get Average Daily Traffic (ADT) ADT is
multiplied by Seasonal
conversion factor (SCF) to get the Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT)
Table 2- 8: Non Motorable Traffic on the project Road

Section one Km 23
Section Two km 62
Day
Cycle Pedestrians Pack Animal Carts Cycle
Pedestrians Pack Animal Carts
15/6/12 66 2077 9 44 77
2952 280 133
16/6/12 53 3322 0 102 190
5030 349 397
17/6/12 15 3959 0 76 50
3224 228 260
18/6/12 10 3726 0 43 184
5030 349 397
19/6/12 14 3853 10 92 73
3741 194 311
20/6/12 15 3766 0 65 62
3187 253 177
21/6/12 15 3875 2 98 52
3354 269 268
ADT 27 3511 3 74 98
3788 274 278
SCF 0.9
AADT 24 3160 3 67 89
3410 247 250
2.4.1 Conversion of Non Motorable to Motorable Traffic

The communities in the wereda have problems of access to road transport, it can be
said that there is no properly
designed standard road that connects the project area community to the neighboring
towns and weredas. They should
use long routes to access their neighboring weredas and towns. The impact is sever
particularly on section two of the
project road. Consequently, the community is obliged to bear high cost of
transportation and livelihood. Rural roads
are particularly critical to market the agricultural products from the community
and to purchase modern products, due
to the absence of standard roads; the community does not have such an access. This
hampers the socio-economic
development of the population.
The construction of the proposed road will play a significant role in the socio-
economic development of the community
in the wereda and around the wereda by creating a great potential for the use of
local resources, creating decent jobs,
support the local economy and strengthening local commerce and have therefore
important implications for poverty
reduction. Furthermore, the construction of the proposed road will reduce travel
time and burdens related to it and
reduce transportation cost. Hence, it will encourage & enhance the demand to travel
more frequently. In addition, there

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will be a modal shift from Non Moterable Traffic to Moterable Traffic; improving
the modes from pack animals to animal
carts and animal carts to motorized freight traffic. There is a high probability
that the impacts itemized hereunder will
be observed: -
• Freight transport employing animals will partly shift to trucks.
• Pedestrian traffic and passengers using horseback can partly shift to
vehicular traffic.
• Passengers currently travelling by trucks are likely to shift to buses and
other type of motorized transport.
With the opening of road, it is assumed that people who are bringing their produce
to nearby market on the head or
using pack animals, will be converted to animal cart.
Modal shift of passenger traffic is also considered and approximated for population
residing within area of influence
(AOI) of the road. Procedure adopted for estimating this is presented as follows:
a) Total Non-motorable traffic is counted and the proportion of pedestrian
and pack animals are computed based
on the traffic count and proportional composition made on the project
area.
b) The proportion of the motorable traffic counted in the project area is
used to generate the share of vehicles
from non-motorable. If count is not available, the count made near the
vicinity of the area, is applied to the
Non motorable traffic to get the share of vehicles (passenger traffic and
freight traffic proportion).
c) Multiplying the proportion of freight traffic and passenger traffic
obtained in step (b) we arrived at the number
of passenger who probably change to passenger vehicle and freight
vehicles.
d) The result in (c) is divided by the number seats for Buses and Ton / Kg
for trucks to get the number of vehicles
e) Based on the travel characteristics of the project area observed during
the survey it is assumed that 50% of
pedestrian will shift to passenger traffic and 30% of pack animals will
shift to fright traffic.
f) The travel modes (mini bus, standard bus and truck types) are estimated
based on the motorable traffic count
of the project
g) Values obtained as in step (e) are taken as a modal shift traffic to the
road. Table 2- 9 provides estimate of
base case passenger traffic by modal shift.
Table below briefly summaries the above steps discussed to reach the estimated
modal shift of the project road.
Table 2- 9: Converted NMT to Motorable Traffic
Small bus Standard
of 12 seats bus of 45 Small Medium
Heavy Truck
Vehicles classification capacity seats trucks trucks
trucks Trailer Total
Section 1 (23km) 28 3 0 0
0 0 31
Section 2 (62km) 27 6 0 1
0 0 34
Total Modal Shift (AADT) 55 9 0 1
0 0 65
2.5 Generated Traffic

The generated traffic refers to the economic “law of demand”, which states that the
consumption of any goods and
services increases as its price declines. Therefore, the generated traffic depends
on the saving in transportation cost
and increase in, the transport demand, which is largely guided by the transport
market. That is, the evaluation of
demand for transport due to change in price (the demand elasticity w.r.t. changes
in price), in turn, triggered by
improvement of transport infrastructure.

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The proposed project road is proposed as a standard Asphalt road with improvement
in geometric features of road,
are expected to result in faster movement, decreased transportation cost and
increased demand for transportation –
passenger and freight.
The proposed upgrading of the roads leading to widen and surfaced with asphalt.
This will have significantly improved
access to the project road and will have increased the traffic levels through
generated and induced traffic during the
period.
The present condition is fair for the first section with an estimated roughness of
11-13 IRI (2017) and driving speeds of
around 50km/hr. for light vehicles while it is bad with an estimated roughness of
20-22 IRI (2017) for the second section
of and driving speed of 25km. An upgrade to asphalt will undoubtedly improve the
roughness and increase the driving
speed on the road and will result in generated and induced traffic.
At 2020 the observed existing traffic must be considered as normal traffic as this
is what exists now and the growth
rates observed will reflect the effect of diversion, generated and induced traffic
in addition to the normal traffic growth
due to increased numbers of vehicles.
Generated traffic benefits are estimated as half the benefits of normal traffic
benefits (Rule of Half). Rule of half” in
economic theory suggests that when consumers change their travel in response to a
financial incentive, the net
consumer surplus is half of their price change so the economic appraisal is
influenced by the assumptions made.
The other category of generated traffic which occurs in response to the provision
or improvement of a road relates to
the reduction in travel time is discussed and estimated below.
Currently, agricultural activities and passenger mobility are depressed due to bad
condition of the existing road. Thus,
generated traffic is the induced traffic, which will use the road following road
construction or improvement that would
not occur without the project road. These changes may lead to new or increased
economic activity or higher volumes
of consumption or marketed products, or increased frequency or new patterns of
personal trip making, leading to
increased passenger traffic.
In other words, some new vehicles start to travel along the constructed road as
operating cost decreases and vehicles
that are currently travelling on the existing road make some more trips as the
riding quality of the existing road improves
(and VOC decreases). The existing gravel road will be upgraded to higher standard
roads. In the project area crop
production including cash crop, livestock and livestock products are available in
the area of influence of the road. There
is an initiative to change the area by the potential private investors and
governmental agencies. Intensive and extensive
agricultural and agro-industry could be developed by local society and investors
that would contribute to the Regional
and National economic growth.
The amount of traffic that is generated will depend on the size of the unit cost
reduction and on the ability of the
consumer to take advantage of this cost reduction; the greater the cost reduction,
the more trips that will be generated.
In other words, generated traffic will be materialized for the project under
reference mainly because of reduction in
vehicle operating cost (VOC) due to better service traceable to improved road
conditions. When this reduction in VOC
results in lower transport costs (i.e. reduced tariffs for passenger and goods
traffic) the benefits of additional investment
on road improvement will reach the ultimate beneficiaries. Such reduction in
transport cost creates a situation of

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consumer surplus which in turn induces additional traffic. Further, level of
generated traffic is observed to be inversely
proportional to the reduction in transport cost and is worked out as a percentage
of normal traffic.
2.5.1 Travel Time to Determine Generated Traffic

The proposed road improvement program is expected to result in saving in travel
time along the route through the
combination of better riding surface, widening and changes to a number of geometric
attributes including increase in
carriageway width, reduction in existing levels of curvature, gradients. The travel
time of the project road section has
been assessed based on operating speed (km/hr.) and travel time in terms of minutes
for sub sections. Table2-10
below presents results of the travel time to examine the implication assessed in
terms of cost of transport (i.e., amount
of time spent to travel along the proposed road before commencement of construction
on the route) at existing condition
and after construction of the proposed project.
Table 2- 10: Result of Travel Time Survey along the Project Road Section
Length Without Project
With project
(km) Speed Travel
Speed Travel
Road Segment
(km/hr.) Time
(km/hr. ) Time
(min)
(min)
Kibremengist Section(23km) 23 50 28
70 20
Kentich Section (62km) 62 25 149
70 53
Source: Consultant`s Assessment: 2020
The average speeds observed on the road section provides an indication of the
riding condition of the road. In principle
areas with lower speed implies bad surface condition and /or town section with
limited speed and sections with higher
speed implies better surface condition to ride freely. Concerning the area under
reference, implies the gravel surfacing
material of rural road at bad to fair condition. Generally, both on rural and towns
sections of the road, bad to fair road
condition reveals low speed and improvement of the road condition improves the
riding speed. From Table 2-10 shown
above, it had been observed that measured travel time for the first 23km is
stipulated to be 50km/hr. on average and
for the second Kenticho section (62km) 25 km/hr. on average at existing condition
and 70- 80km/hr. after the
construction of the proposed project.
The existing road on the proposed route is deteriorated and of lower standards that
requires upgrading. The upgrading
of the proposed road scheme, involving geometric improvements and provisioning of
better ride quality is expected to
significantly contribute to transport cost reduction, which in turn encourages
additional trips by the existing users,
together with likelihood of induced economic development as well. The proposed
improvement is expected to greatly
improve the existing damaged road, with roughness to a reasonable level of quality
following upgrading the road. Upon
completion of the up-gradation works, it is assumed that the road quality enhances
significantly, featuring lower
roughness and increase in carriage way width. Upgrading the road implies a
substantial decline in travel time. From
this, travel time of the road is reduced from about 28 minutes on the existing road
to about 20 minutes after construction
of the proposed road in the first section and from 149 minutes to 53 minutes in the
second section.

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2.5.2 Generated Traffic Factor Determination
Evidence from several evaluation studies carried out in developing countries give a
range of between - 0.6 to - 2.0 for
the price elasticity of demand for transport, with an average of about 1.0
(Overseas Road Note 5, TRL, 2005). This
means that a one percent decrease in transport costs leads to a one percent
increase in traffic. Where the change in
transport costs are relatively small, generated traffic benefits will represent a
small component of total benefits. By
contrast, when the change in transport costs is large, then generated traffic
benefits are more likely to be high.
In line with reduction of travel time, elasticity of the demand for transport is
used for estimating generated traffic of the
project. The estimation of generated traffic is based on estimating the shape of
the demand function, which is expressed
as an elasticity of demand. This shows the responsiveness of quantity demanded to a
change in cost. In the case of
generated traffic, the demand for trip making is related to expected reductions in
journey costs and travel time. In this,
savings in journey time have been used. This is expressed as a travel cost function
time. The generated traffic factor
is used the simplified model (RAFU, 2006) of the form:
Generated Traffic Factor = β [(Cijp / Cijb) – 1];
Where;
β is the elasticity;
Cijp is the with project travel cost
Cijb is the base case, without project travel cost
Table 2- 11: Generated Traffic Factor for the project Road Section
Parameter Low
Medium High
First Section 23km
β (elasticity) -0.6 -1
-2
Cijp (time in minutes) 23 23
23
Cijb (time in minutes) 28 28
28
Generated Traffic Factor 0.17
0.29 0.57
Second Section 62 km
β (elasticity) -0.6 -1
-2
Cijp (time in minutes) 53 53
53
Cijb (time in minutes) 149
149 149
Generated Traffic Factor 0.39
0.64 1.29
Improvement of project road section will improve the existing deteriorated rural
road. For overall impact of the
improvement, medium elasticity is used for the section. Hence, the generated
traffic factor of 0.29 is derived (about 29
%) as shown in Table 2-11 above that is applied to normal traffic for the first
section of the road and 64% for the second
section of the road. The saving resulting from VOC passes onto users through
decreased transport fare (public
transport) and freight rate (cargo transport), and passage of the benefit through
lower retail prices of goods and services
again governed by the competitive environments under which the different industries
(including the transport sector)
operate. Based on this 29% and 64% of the current traffic is assumed to be taken as
generated traffic.
2.6 Origin and Destination Survey

In order to establish the movement pattern on the project road, roadside interviews
with vehicle drivers/crew were
conducted side by side at the traffic survey locations, to ascertain the origins
and destinations of the vehicles using the

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road. However, due to the uncertainty of the project area regarding security it was
not possible to conduct sufficient
OD and get sufficient information. With this limitation, we collected data as much
as possible.
The Diverted Traffic, expected to diverted from other routes to the proposed
project as a result of the project
commencement is very limited as the OD survey in the two sites of Kibremengist and
Bule Hora exhibited. Tables 2-
12 &2-13 below presents the OD Matrix indicates the places and magnitude of the
diversion in the two places
Kibremengist and Bule Hora.
Table 2- OD
Table 11: 12:survey
OD Survey at Kibremengist
at Kibremengist
Destination
Nagale Borona
Shashamane
Medawelabo
Addis ababa
Arsi Nagale
marihame
Hayesuftu
Anasoraa
Bule hora
Harergea
Hawassa
Buanbua
Anferare
Genallea
Meboco
Melema
Shakiso
Hagare
Adama
Melaka
Harba
Yorba
Adola
Maro
Dollo
Gulie
Balle
Bore
Dilla
Origin
Total
Adama 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 2 0 0 0
0 0 0 5
Addis ababa 0 0 2 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
4 0 0 9
Adola 0 1 0 1 4 4 1
11 1 2 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
4 0 0 2 0 1 1 0
0 2 2 39
Agwaye 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
Anferare 0 0 3 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 3
Arsi Nagale 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 3
Arso 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 0 0 3
Balle 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 2
Bore 0 0 8 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 0 0 11
Buanbua 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
Dawaa 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
Filtu 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
Hawassa 0 0 3 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
4 0 0 9
Madera 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
Meboco 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
Medawelabo 2 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 2
Melaka 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
Nagale 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
Sebeta 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
Shakiso 0 3 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 7
Shashamane 0 0 1 0 0 2 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 4
Shikie 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
Tero 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
Yabello 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1
Yirgalem 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1
Yobeko 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
Yorba 0 0 4 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 4
Zeway 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
Total 4 7 27 1 5 11 1
12 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
7 1 1 2 3 1 1 2
16 2 2 116
Table 2-12 above shows that, the dominant origin and destination areas are Adola,
Bore, Shakiso and Arsi Negle. It
can be seen that about 57% of the traffic goes from these areas while about 43%
goes from other areas. In terms
destination similar pattern is observed.
Table 2- 13: OD Survey at Bule Hora

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Draft
TableConcept DesignBule Hora
12 : OD Survey
April 2020
Destination
Shashamane
Addis ababa
Aleta wondo
Arsi Nagale
Finch weha
Dagosoda
Bule hora
Hawassa
Burjsiya
Cheleltu
Yabello
Djibouti
Chorso
Kercha
Harero
Gedeb
Gerba
Gimtu
Guchi
Moyle
Adola
Balle
Dilla
Origin
Total
Adama 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 3 0 0 0 4 0 0 7
Addis ababa 0 0 0 0 0 5
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 2 0 5 12
Aleta wondo 0 0 0 0 0 3
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3
Amaro 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Bedessa 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Bule hora 2 1 3 1 0 0
0 0 1 1 22 0 0 6 11
2 0 0 2 10 0 4 0 66
Chafee 0 0 0 0 0 3
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3
Chorso 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Dilla 0 0 0 0 0 16
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 17
Djibouti 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
Finch weha 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 3
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6
Gedeb 0 0 0 0 0 10
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10
Gerba 0 0 0 0 0 12
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 12
Gimtu 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Hawassa 0 0 0 0 0 2
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 5
Mero 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 2
Moyle 2 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2
Shashamane 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 5
Toriea 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Yabello 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 3 0 8
Total 5 1 3 1 1 57
1 1 1 1 22 2 2 8 14
2 3 1 3 10 8 7 10 164
Table 2-13 above shows that the dominant origin and destination areas are Bulehora,
Dilla, Gerba, Kercha and Yabelo.
It can be seen that about 69% of the traffic goes from these areas while about 21%
goes from other areas. In terms
destination similar pattern is observed.
Regarding the diverted traffic, overall, the diverted traffic based on the above OD
matrix gives us not more than 5% of
the respondents are likely to divert on the future constructed road. Hence 5% of
the AADT use estimated to be
converted to diverted traffic.
The traffic surveys and analysis have been discussed in the above section, which
has established the base year traffic
in terms of AADT on the project road. Whereas the sections below present the
traffic demand forecast model, and
estimating the future traffic on the project road with the help of primary and
secondary data.
The results of this exercise will form the basis for the traffic projection on the
project road. To carry out the above
exercises, the data base, methods and surveys undertaken by the Consultants are
illustrated in the following sections
along with the different functional activities involved in the entire process of
the traffic projections.
2.7 Traffic Projection
2.7.1 General
The traffic surveys and analysis have been discussed in the previous sections,
which had established the base year
traffic in terms of AADT on the project road. Whereas the present sub section aims
at carrying out the traffic demand
forecast model, and estimating the future traffic on the project road with the help
of primary and secondary data.

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The results of this exercise will form the basis for the traffic projection on the
project road. To carry out the above
exercises, the data base, methods and surveys undertaken by the Consultants are
illustrated in the following sections
along with the different functional activities involved in the entire process of
the traffic projections.
2.7.2 Project Schedule

The economic evaluation of the investment in road improvement mainly depends on the
level of traffic, which would
take place in future on the project road. The analysis period for the economic
evaluation has been considered as 20
years starting after the completion of the improvement, and opening the project
road to traffic. In this context, the project
schedule is envisaged in the Table 2-14 below.
Table 2- 14: Project Schedule

Activity
Period
Contractor Selection
2020
Implementation (3 years)
2021 – 2023
Opening to traffic after implementation
2024
Traffic service period (20years)
2024-2043
2.7.3 Traffic Projection

Investments in the transport sector constitute a significant part of the total
investment. This is especially true in the
case of developing nations, where transport is the catalyst for all round
development and one of the basic
infrastructures. When the capital available is scarce and has competing demands,
the investments in a transport project
have to be carefully planned, keeping in view not only the present demand but also
the requirements for a reasonable
period in future. This underlines the need for estimating the future traffic
accurately, whether the plan is for the
construction of a new facility or the improvement of existing facilities. The
accurate estimate of future traffic will have a
significant influence on the engineering design of the facility and on the economic
decision whether to take up the
project or not.
Traffic forecasting is at best approximate. Traffic is generated as a result of the

interplay of a number of contributory
factors. Forecasts of traffic have therefore to be dependent on the forecasts of
factors such as population, gross
domestic product, vehicle ownership, agricultural output, fuel consumption and the
like. Future pattern of change in
these factors can be estimated with only a limited degree of accuracy, thereby the
forecasting of future traffic is quite
a challenging job.
Accordingly, following three widely used techniques have been adopted in this study
for estimating growth factors and
future traffic:
• Time series growth using previous traffic count,
• Historical growth in vehicle registration, and
• Elasticity of Transport demand.
For the purpose of the above analysis, the consultants need to have the latest
traffic situation relating to the project
road and its influence area. The analysis of socio-economic performance indicators
including the GDP at national as
well as Region levels has been discussed in detail in Sub-section 2.9.2 below.

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2.7.4 Analysis of Past Traffic Data
ERA has been carrying out traffic surveys at the project area, and vehicle
category-wise AADT based on these surveys
for the years 2008-2016 is shown in Table 2-15 below. The traffic data in Table 2-
15 by vehicle type shows fluctuations
in traffic volumes from year to year.
The historical ERA traffic count is analyzed vis-a-vis the consultant counts for
the year 2020, resulting AADT of 1039
and 359 for section one (23km) and section two (62km) respectively. In his respect,
ERA’s 19 years’ average count for
the years (2002-2020) is much higher than the consultant`s count. However, for the
year 2020, ERA`s AADT of 359 (is
less compared to consultant`s AADT of 1039.
When we analyzed ERA’s count, the traffic count at 2012 which is 1372 is highest
over the years and more than triple
compared to the next year of 2013. The count at 2013, shows a substantial
decrement. The count since 2002 up to
2026 shows fluctuation & the decrement reached to AADT of 637. The fluctuation is
thus, obvious.
The details are presented in Error! Reference source not found.2-15 which provides
a perspective of the level and p
ace of traffic development in the project road area. The traffic growth trend
indicates as fluctuating from year-to-year
(both increasing and decreasing). However, in the long-term, the traffic growth is
expected as positive and fairly high.
Even though, the available ERA`s historic data is up to 2016, the Transport
Economist projected the trends up to 2020
and accordingly a trend analysis has been analyzed for the years 2017-2020.The
importance of the trend analysis is
to understand the future traffic trend of the area based on the available trend
data of ERA.
It is clear from the Table 2-15 that, medium and small trucks are dominant traffic
compositions. Accordingly, small
truck reached peak in 2012 and declined then after. The number of medium trucks
fluctuates between the years 2002-
2016 while slowly growing since then. Overall, the Traffic trend shows growth over
the years.
The annual growth rates based on the historical data (Table 2-15) on AADTs shows
that it is very fluctuating. On
average all vehicles growth rate is estimated to be 9% per annum. Figures 2-1,2-2 &
2-3. Trends of traffic in the project
area (Dilla–Wondo ERA 2002-2016) and 2017-2020 Trend Estimate)
Table 2- 15: Historical ERA’s AADT (2007-2018) Volumes and Trends in Dilla Wondo
Road
Year Cars Land Small Large Small Medium Heavy
Truck Total
Rover Bus Bus Truck Truck Truck
&
Trailer
2002 0 41 6 16 53 7 16
2 141
2003 0 24 3 18 21 41 19
11 137
2004 0 42 12 17 70 56 55
26 278
2005 0 17 2 28 20 69 29
13 178
2006 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0
2007 0 40 54 12 61 152 50
37 406

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2008 0 50 20 26 5 40 96
17 254
2009 0 62 60 16 143 40 52
22 395
2010 0 98 72 25 129 71 77
49 521
2011 0 42 58 21 85 104 81
50 441
2012 0 283 79 52 356 297 231
74 1372
2013 0 51 73 27 82 54 61
29 377
2014 0 47 31 26 16 64 74
23 281
2015 6 84 148 50 132 97 69
44 630
2016 5 63 139 35 95 152 92
56 637
Trends Analysis since 2017-2020
2017 3 108 121 40 147 145 118
56 737
2018 3 114 130 42 155 152 124
59 779
2019 3 119 139 44 162 160 131
63 821
2020 4 125 148 46 170 168 137
66 863
Average 1 74 68 28 100 98 80
37 487
Percentage 0% 15% 14% 6% 21% 20% 16%
8% 100%
Source: ERA

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Table 2- 16: Projected Traffic of the Road Section One
Years 2020.0 2021.0 2022.0 2023.0 2024.0 2025.0 2026.0 2027.0 2028.0
2029.0 2030.0 2031.0 2032.0 2033.0 2034.0 2035.0 2036.0 2037.0 2038.0 2039.0 2040.0
2041.0 2042.0 2043.0
Growth Rate
Cars 6.2 6.2 6.2 6.2 6.2 6.2 5.8 5.8 5.8
5.8 5.8 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0
3.4 3.4 3.4
4wheel 6.2 6.2 6.2 6.2 6.2 6.2 5.8 5.8 5.8
5.8 5.8 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0
4.0 3.4 3.4
S/Bus 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 5.8 5.8 5.8
5.8 5.8 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0
4.0 3.4 3.4
L/Bus 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 5.8 5.8 5.8
5.8 5.8 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0
4.0 3.4 3.4
S/Truck 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 5.8 5.8 5.8
0.0 0.0 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0
4.0 3.4 3.4
M/Truck 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 5.8 5.8 5.8
5.8 5.8 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0
4.0 3.4 3.4
L/Truck 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 5.8 5.8 5.8
5.8 5.8 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0
4.0 3.4 3.4
Articulated (T&T) 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 5.8 5.8 5.8
5.8 5.8 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0
4.0 3.4 3.4
Projections
Cars 16 17 18 19 27 29 31 32 34
36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58
60 62 64
4wheel 282 299 318 337 473 502 531 562 595
629 665 695 727 760 795 831 863 898 933 970 1008
1048 1083 1120
S/Bus 227 240 255 270 406 430 455 481 509
538 570 595 622 651 680 711 739 768 799 830 863
897 927 959
L/Buses 96 102 108 115 164 174 184 194 205
217 230 240 251 263 275 287 298 310 322 335 348
362 374 387
S/Truck 154 163 172 183 256 271 271 271 271
271 271 283 296 309 324 338 352 365 380 395 410
427 441 456
M/Truck 111 117 124 132 184 195 206 218 231
244 259 270 283 295 309 323 336 349 363 377 392
407 421 435
H/Truck 133 141 150 158 222 235 249 263 278
294 311 325 340 356 372 389 404 420 436 454 472
490 507 524
Articulated (T&T) 20 21 23 24 34 36 38 40 42
45 47 49 52 54 56 59 61 64 66 69 71
74 77 79
Total 1039 1101 1168 1238 1765 1872 1964 2062 2166 2275 2391 2499
2613 2732 2856 2985 3103 3226 3353 3486 3623 3766 3893 4023
Table 2- 17: Projected Traffic of the Road Section Two

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TableConcept Design
23: Projected Traffic for Section two
April 2020
Years 2020.0 2021.0 2022.0 2023.0 2024.0 2025.0 2026.0 2027.0 2028.0
2029.0 2030.0 2031.0 2032.0 2033.0 2034.0 2035.0 2036.0 2037.0 2038.0 2039.0 2040.0
2041.0 2042.0 2043.0
Growth Rate
Cars 6.2 6.2 6.2 6.2 6.2 6.2 5.8 5.8 5.8
5.8 5.8 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0
3.4 3.4 3.4
4wheel 6.2 6.2 6.2 6.2 6.2 6.2 5.8 5.8 5.8
5.8 5.8 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0
4.0 3.4 3.4
S/Bus 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 5.8 5.8 5.8
5.8 5.8 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0
4.0 3.4 3.4
L/Bus 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 5.8 5.8 5.8
5.8 5.8 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0
4.0 3.4 3.4
S/Truck 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 5.8 5.8 5.8
0.0 0.0 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0
4.0 3.4 3.4
M/Truck 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 5.8 5.8 5.8
5.8 5.8 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0
4.0 3.4 3.4
L/Truck 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 5.8 5.8 5.8
5.8 5.8 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0
4.0 3.4 3.4
Articulated (T&T) 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 5.8 5.8 5.8
5.8 5.8 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0
4.0 3.4 3.4
Projections
Cars 15 16 17 19 31 33 35 37 39
42 44 46 48 50 53 55 57 59 62 64 67
69 71 74
4wheel 42 45 48 51 86 91 96 102 108
114 121 126 132 138 144 150 156 163 169 176 183
190 196 203
S/Bus 63 67 71 75 154 163 172 182 193
204 216 225 236 246 257 269 280 291 302 314 327
340 351 363
L/Buses 56 59 63 67 118 125 132 140 148
157 166 173 181 189 198 207 215 224 232 242 251
261 270 279
S/Truck 64 68 72 76 129 137 137 137 137
137 137 143 149 156 163 170 177 184 191 199 207
215 222 230
M/Truck 69 74 78 83 140 149 157 166 176
186 197 206 215 225 235 246 256 266 276 287 299
310 321 332
H/Truck 35 37 39 42 71 75 79 84 89
94 99 104 108 113 118 124 129 134 139 145 150
156 161 167
Articulated (T&T) 14 15 15 16 28 29 31 33 35
37 39 41 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 57 59
61 63 65
Total 359 380 403 427 756 802 840 881 924
969 1017 1064 1112 1162 1215 1270 1320 1373 1427 1483 1542 1602 1656 1712

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900
Large Bus Medium
Truck
800 Cars Linear
(Large Bus)
Linear (Medium Truck) Linear
(Medium Truck)
700
Linear (Cars) Linear
(Cars)
600
500
400
300
y = 14.132x -
23.689
y = 3.706x - 3.2632
200
100
y = 0.2596x - 1.3333
0
0 5 10 15
20 25
and 2017-2020 Trend Estimate)
900
Truck & Trailer Small Bus
800
Linear (Truck & Trailer) Linear
(Truck & Trailer)
700 Linear (Small Bus) Linear
(Small Bus)
600
500
400
300
y = 14.295x -
58.453
200
100
y = 5.7376x - 13.195
0
0 5 10 15
20 25

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900
800 Land Rover Heavy Truck

Linear (Land Rover)
700 Linear (Heavy Truck) Linear (Heavy Truck)
600
500
400
300
200 y = 11.629x
- 21
100
y = 10.426x - 15.668
0
0 5 10 15
20 25
A time series data of the national vehicle Kilometer of travel and vehicles number
was collected from the Ethiopian
Roads Authority (ERA) from 2001 – 2015/2016. The total vehicles kilometer of travel
by the end of 2016 was
24,017,568, which shows vehicles Kilometer of travel over the given period in terms
of different categories of vehicle
type.
Table 2- 18:Vehicle Kilometer of Travel in Ethiopia (2001 – 2016)

Year Car Buses Trucks T&T
Total Growth
2001 1,016,433 925,044 2,012,027 758,185
4,711,689 (%)
2002 1,060,742 1,048,375 2,104,443 793,891
5,007,451 6%
2003 1,148,282 1,156,776 2,388,307 911,033
5,604,398 12%
2004 1,206,267 1,357,122 2,566,368 947,327
6,077,084 8%
2005 1,299,660 1,518,197 2,842,405 1,109,162
6,769,424 11%
2006 1,433,782 1,829,093 3,239,164 1,213,358
7,715,397 14%
2007 1,740,032 2,221,318 3,849,856 1,499,864
9,311,070 21%
2008 1,813,768 2,494,117 3,870,347 1,461,213
9,639,445 4%
2009 2097199 2961330 4846763 1847160
11,752,452 22%
2010 2,163,794 3,266,111 4,977,211 1,720,419
12,127,535 3%
2011 2,492,302 3,889,205 5,777,146 2,044,393
14,203,046 17%
2012 2,519,603 4,045,298 5,996,057 2,122,960
14,683,918 3%
2013 2,733,651 4,483,670 6,747,059 2,309,239
16,273,619 11%
2014 2,873,811 4,895,736 7,141,878 2,379,943
17,291,368 6%
2015 3,142,060 5,315,501 7,731,747 2,727,897
18,917,205 9%

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2016 4,380,626 6,639,352 9,656,741 3,340,849
24,017,568 27%
Average 17% 28% 41% 14%
100% 12%
(2001-
2016)Road Transport Authority, 2017)
(Source:
The total vehicle kilometer in the country in 2016 was estimated at 24,017,568. The
vehicle kilometer of travel of the
country is composed of Cars and Utilities 17%, Buses 28%, Trucks 41%, Truck and
Trailer 14%. The average annual
growth rate estimates for all vehicles during 2001-2016 period was 12 percent. The
trends in vehicle kilometer of travel
growth in Ethiopia between 2001 and 2016 have been used to derive the annual growth
rates as shown in Table 2-19.
Table 2- 19: Growth rate of Vehicle Kilometers

Vehicles Growth Rate (pa)
Cars and Utilities 17%
Buses 28%
Trucks 41%
Average 14%
(Source: Road Transport Authority, 2017)
2.8 Elasticity of Transport Demand

This method of long-term traffic forecasting incorporates analyses of some of the
key socio-economic characteristics
in the road influence area and their anticipated rates of change during the study
period, these characteristics being
taken as indicators for the future growth of traffic.
The growth rates for normal traffic obtained from this approach take account of the
following factors, which affect future
traffic levels:
• The prospective growth in the economy,
• The estimated elasticity of demand for transport, and
• Change in the structure of the vehicle fleet, if any.
•
It must be noted that the growth in agriculture and manufacturing sectors affect
the growth of freight vehicles, while
growth in population and income level affects growth of passenger vehicles. This
method thus incorporates the
perspective growth envisaged in the state of economy and the changes in transport
demand elasticity over a period of
time as the basic data input.
2.9 The National Economic Context

2.9.1 General
With a land area of more than one million km2 Ethiopia is a large country, with
average population density of 69
persons/km2. The country has been handicapped by political upheavals and some
isolation prior to the 1990s and

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remains economically weak, with a per capita income of US$120 pa. Supported by
international finance and expertise,
it said and reported in different reports in the recent times, Ethiopia has been
making steady social and economic
progress including in the field of road development.
2.9.2 Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in Ethiopia

Agriculture in Ethiopia is prominently rain-fed and remains vulnerable to periodic
droughts. However, according to the
most recent reports of the National Bank of Ethiopia (NBE), the Ethiopian economy
had registered an almost constant
GDP over the years of (2006/07 – 2012/13), ranging between 12.7 and 10.1. All
economic and social sectors have
contributed to the growth achieved in the overall GDP growth.
The growth rate of agriculture has declined to about -10.5 % in 2001/2002 compared
to the previous year that was
caused by the draught prevailed, while increase again to 16.9% in 2004/05.
Industry and service sectors have also registered 15% and 12.5 per cent annual
growth rate, respectively in 2012/13
Table 2-20 below presents the percentage growth rate by sectors between 2001/02 and
2012/13.
Table 2- 20: Percentage Growth rate of Real GDP and GDP by Sectors
2011/12 2012/13 2013/14 2014/15 2015/ 2016
2016/17
Real GDP 8.7 9.9 10.3 10.4 8.0

10.9
Agriculture 4.9 7.1 5.4 6.4 2.3

6.7
Industry 19.6 24.1 17.0 19.8 20.6

18.7
Services 9.6 9.0 13 11.2 8.7

10.3
The Consultants have, thoroughly studied the development of highway sector in

Ethiopia and other like developing
economies and also discussions as per the report of Macroeconomic development in
Ethiopia, particularly in view of
achieving the targets of the GTP in the country. In the light of the above recent
development in the economy and the
development of transport sector in the country, the Consultant assume the Average
annual GDP growth in Ethiopia as
shown the table 18Error! Not a valid bookmark self-reference. for estimating the
future traffic demand. The growth
rates are assumed as low, medium and high. The medium growth rate referred the in
the Error! Not a valid bookmark
self-reference.2-21 below are the most likely growth rates in the country the years
to come.
Table 2- 21: Expected GDP Growth in Ethiopia (2010 – 2030)

Period GDP growth (%)
Low Medium
High
2010 - 2020 5 8
11
2021 - 2030 4 7
10.5
Population Growth Rate
2010 - 2020 2.0 2.2
2.6

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2021 - 2030 1.6 1.6
2.3
GDP Per Capita
2010 - 2020 3.4 5.4
8.6
2021 - 2030 2.4 4.6
7.8
Source: IMF, GTP II and Consultant Adjustment
2.9.3 Fuel Consumption

Available information on fuel consumption, relating to the entire country shows a
significant fluctuation from year to
year of 13% and the average from 1999/2000-2016/17 was 8%. The data below shows the
smallest growth rate of -
1.0% and highest growth rate of 14%.
Table 2- 22: Fuel Import of the Country

Year Fuel Import '000' Metric Ton Growth %
1999/00 1,023.606
2000/01 1,096.447 7%
2001/02 1,122.223 2%
2002/03 1,232.379 10%
2003/04 1,248.092 1%
2004/05 1,406.899 13%
2005/06 1,475.122 5%
2006/07 1,643.955 11%
2007/08 1,882.272 14%
2008/09 1,913.69 2%
2009/10 2034.193 6%
2010/11 2006.752 -1%
2011/12 2262.578 13%
2012/13 2289.613 1%
2013/14 2622.807 15%
2014/15 2822.091 8%
2015/16 3080.258 9%
2016/17 30501.759 14%
Average Growth (1999- 8%
2016/17)
(Source: EPSE 2018)

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2.9.4 Transportation Demand Elasticity
Empirical evidence has long established that demand for transport tends to expand
at faster rate than the economic
growth rate as measured by national and /or regional GDPs. This relationship is
commonly referred to us income
elasticity of demand for transport, measuring the relative change in
travel/transport demand due to change in income,
over time. Also, it has been well recognized elasticity tends to decrease overtime
as the economy and/or personal
income grows.
Findings drawn from international studies generally suggest transport income

elasticity as found between 1 and 2. In
Ethiopia detailed empirical evidences have not yet been established and/or made
available providing reasonable
estimate.
A study carried out for ERA, estimate income elasticity of demand for transport.
Some general forms of estimates,
which may be taken indicative, are suggested however; drawn from traffic flow and
GDP growth rate. Network Analysis
Study provides estimate of elasticity for different vehicles categories, which in
fact has been based on works by NAS,
but with minor adjustment. Estimates of elasticity considered to apply on forecast
per capita income growth with the
view to provide traffic growth rates eventually, corresponding to assumed two
traffic growth periods, are given in the
table below.
In specifying the forecast traffic growth rate for the projection of stream of
traffic using the road in the future, a simple
model has been used that combines the effect on travel demand of population growth
and changes in per capita
incomes. A model of the following form is, therefore, applied:
Gt = Gp+ e(Gc)
Where;
Gt is the change in passenger / freight transport
Gp is the change in population
Gc is the change in per capita income
e is the income elasticity for passenger travel
Other things being equal, travel demand can be expected to grow in line with growth
in population. As per capita income
rise (i.e, when national economic growth exceeds population growth) travel demand
will be further stimulated. Income
elasticity is a measure responsiveness of this demand: generally, a given rise in
per capita income can be expected to
result in a more than proportionate increase in demand for travel, since demand is
usually found to be income elastic.
Demand for freight transport is normally found to directly relate to growth in
national income.
The Country level data is moderated to reflect conditions in the road influence
area by comparison with region-wise
factors, thereby accounting for the impact of the following:
• Macro-economic scenario growth rate (s) and composition of GDP
• Road influence area economy, sectoral production and potential
• Spatial distribution of economic activities along the corridor
• Road influence area population size
• Shift in personalized travel modes over time
• Changes in the inter-modal share of passenger and freight demand

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In light of suggested model relationship and taking into account the above-
mentioned factors at national as well as
project area levels, coupled with the experience in other developing countries, the
Consultants propose the values of
elasticity of traffic growth with respect to Population, GDP and Income for the
Project Road which is presented in Table
2-23Error! Reference source not found. below, corresponding to the forecast traffic
growth period.
Table 2- 23: Traffic Growth rate based on Population, Income and GDP (Medium
Scenario)
Variables Income Elasticities Growth Rate
2017-2025 2025-2035 2021-2025 2026-2030

2031-2035 2036-2040 2041-2045
GDP Growth Rate 8.8 7

6.5 6 5
(%)
Population Growth 2.6 2.4

2.2 2 1.8
Rate (%)
Growth in Per Capita 6.2 4.6

4.3 4 3.2
Income (%)
Passenger Traffic Gt = Gp+ e(Gc)
Cars 1.5 1.3 12.0 9.3

7.8 7.2 6.0
4wheel 1.5 1.3 12.0 9.3

7.8 7.2 6.0
S/Bus 1.4 1.3 11.3 8.8

7.8 7.2 6.0
L/Bus 1.4 1.3 11.3 8.8

7.8 7.2 6.0
Freight Traffic
S/Truck 1.4 1.3 11.3 8.8

7.8 7.2 6.0
M/Truck 1.4 1.3 11.3 8.8

7.8 7.2 6.0
H/Truck 1.4 1.3 11.3 8.8
7.8 7.2 6.0
TT 1.4 1.3 11.3 8.8

7.8 7.2 6.0
It may be noted that growth rates given as medium in Table 2-23 above are in
conformity with the threshold limit of
GDP growth at 11% pa, which is considered as an essential pre-condition for
achieving the GTP II.
2.9.5 Projections
Traffic projection exercise for the project road for the years 2024 -2043, consists
of projecting the current AADT (2020)
to future years by using year-to-year normal growth rates including generated and
divertible traffic.

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Though Normal Traffic in our case study is insignificant, growth factor in traffic
will be applicable only when the road is
constructed. Growth rates related to three main vehicle groups (cars & utilities,
buses and trucks) have been derived
in three different approaches, namely: Historical growth rates based on past
traffic data for the Project Road; Growth
rates of vehicle population in Ethiopia, treated as a proxy for the project road
traffic; and traffic growth rate related to
the likely future national GDP growth, with regional adjustments.
The three kinds of traffic growth rates mentioned above are compared in Table 2-24
below.
Table 2- 24: Comparison of Derived Traffic Growth Rates
Vehicle Group Based on past Based on Vehicle Traffic growth trend
related to
traffic data for Population data GDP growth
(medium)
project area for Ethiopia
Period
Growth rate
Range
% pa % pa Years
% pa
Cars & Utilities 12 17 2020-32

8.4 -12
2032-2042
7.2 – 7.8
Buses 8 28 2020-32
8.4 -12
2032-2042
7.2 – 7.8
Trucks 12 41 2020-32
8.4 -11.3
2032-2043
6.0
It can be observed from Table 2-24 that the traffic growth rates developed by the
three different approaches on the
project road are giving different growth rates. The growth rate based on ERA
historic traffic is high, but it can be
observed on some roads section on Ethiopia. In general, it is low, but still in
order, which has been experienced on
some roads in Ethiopia whose improvements were carried out. High traffic growth
rates could be expected in the context
of low base traffic, as also for the project road, and possibly as a manifestation
of suppressed transportation demand
finding expression under favorable conditions, such as the removal of
transportation constraints through road
improvements. Being improvement to standard Asphalt new road, traffic growth rate
will be quite high for first 5 – 10
years and then traffic tends to reach near saturation level, thereby traffic in
quantities terms increase but growth rate
will decrease. It is also mentioned here that the elasticity technique takes
account of many of the socio-economic
factors, which influence traffic growth, which may serve to reduce the uncertainty
of the results. Hence the traffic
volumes computed for the most probable scenario based on Elasticity Coefficient
have therefore been adopted for
design and economic analysis.
Considering the AADT for the road, and the proposed growth rates, generated and
diverted traffic, if any, the traffic
projections exercise has been carried for entire project appraisal period. The
results of the traffic projections for all the
motorized modes on the project road, is presented in Sub-section 2.7.4 Table 2-16
and 2-17 for road section one and
two respectively.

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3. Route Selection
3.1 Identification of alternative routes
The project road is entirely an existing gravel road constructed by Oromia Roads
Authority around 1995 E.C. The
existing road location and geometry are substantially good and acceptable. However,
some sections of the road require
realignments and alignment modification to meet current higher road standards. The
existing gravel road has an
average carriageway width of 6-7m with fair to poor riding quality due to loss of
gravel wearing course. The project
road has an estimated length of 72.724km.
Based on our observations and consultations with the various Wereda and zone,
upgrading of the existing route is
found as the most feasible option. The existing road is well located connecting 18
villages, Kebele seats and towns of
which 3 are Wereda seats and with independent municipality and master plan. The
consultant has observed that the
existing route is socially and technically feasible due to the close proximity of
the towns and villages along the existing
road and all the three Wereda have also preferred the existing route except in town
sections in which the alignment
shall follow new routes as per the master plan of the city.
3.2 Public Consultations

Detailed discussions have been conducted with Adola wayu town administration
together with Adola Rede Woreda,
Shakiso Town Administration, Shakiso Oda Woreda, Haya Dima Woreda and Guji Zone.
The main issues highlighted
in the discussion include alternative route alignments, socioeconomic significance
of the road project, and expected
impacts during project implementation. Moreover, Detail discussions have been made
on alternative alignments as per
master plan of the towns mainly in the town Administration’s.
During the joint meeting held with Adola- Wayu Town and Adola- Rede woreda
representatives at Adola-Rede Woreda
Administration has selected the alignment to follow the existing road, but later
on, the government bodies has requested
based on their minutes of meeting held at 03/06/2012, to change the alignment which
starts from Mission
(Mekaneyesus Church) on the town section as per the master plan of the city. On the
contrary, after the minutes of
meeting is finalized some government bodies has unofficially requested to change
the entire alignment from Adola
town to Shakiso road, though it is not finally decided and minted by all the
cabinet members. Thus, at this time of
inception report, the Cabinet members doesn’t duly finalize the route corridor as
the town Administrator’s need to follow
the route already minted, while the Wereda members need to follow a new route from
Adola to Shakiso.
During the discussion held at Shakiso Oda Wereda, the Wereda administrative opinion
is to follow the existing road
since there are settlements along the route, while the Shakiso town Administration
has requested to follow a new route
as per the master plan of the city apart from the already constructed Surface
treatment route.
Cabinet members from Haga wayu Wereda clarified that, the existing road thoroughly
by passes Bore-Shet town and
shall pass through the center of the town, in addition to this, the alignment on
Haya Dima town shall follow the new
master plan route up to Hawaryat church then back to the existing road to cater the
existing settlements along the
existing road. Apart from this, the cabinet members have requested to follow the
existing road alignment until the
project end.

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During these meetings, valuable information and suggestions were obtained that are
very relevant to the study. The
cabinet members of the local administration body had also explained about the
importance of the proposed road project
from the beneficiaries’ point of view as it is mainly a cash crop and mineral
reserve areas.
All the consulted local government body requested the road to majorly follow the
existing road with minor modifications
to fulfil geometric and other requirements except at town administrations which may
follow a new route as per the
master plan of the city.
The field reconnaissance team has also conducted meeting with Guji Zone
administration. The purpose of the meeting
is to create awareness about the project, gather the zone level opinions and
suggestions about the project and to jointly
evaluate the Wereda level minutes of meetings and create consensuses.
The minutes of meetings of all the meetings at woreda and zone level are included
as Annex 3-1 of this report for your
reference.
3.3 Route assessment of the existing road
The road alignment in the first 14kms until Aweta River is administratively located
in Adola- Rede Wereda. The road
alignment starts at Adola-Wayu town to Shakiso and is currently being constructed
by ERCC as a surface treatment,
which is on the verge of completion. The alignment for the 3km distance is bounded
with in the Adola- wayu town
administration and has an independent Municipality and mayor; the terrain in this
section is categorized as flat to rolling
alignment and Gentle Grades. The section from km 3+000 to 12+000 is characterized
with generally Gentle curves
with some steep ascent and descents in some sections of the road.
There are sharp curves and steep descents towards Aweta River from km 12+000 to
14+000. This section of the
alignment, general characterized by sharp horizontal curves and steep grade, in
balance with the mountainous
topography. At few spot locations of mountainous terrain, it is difficult to attain
the minimum geometric parameters and
relaxation from the standard is expected.

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Photo 3- 1: Steep descent on the section 3+000 to 12+000
Photo 3- 2: Sharp curves and descents to Aweta River
The road alignment from Km 14+000 to km 46+500 is administratively located in

Shakiso Oda Wereda. The road
alignment from km 14+000 to 19+400 is a new realigned route at a distant from the
existing route as per the master of

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the city, and then follows hill side alignment until km 36+000. The road alignment
from station 36+000 to 43+000 is a
mountainous to Escarpment section and generally follows as ridge top alignment and
gently descends downward till it
crosses Mormora River at km 43+200. However, in some sections there are sharp
curves and steep gradients which
need improvement to meet the required standard.
The last section of the project road alignment from Km 46+500 to End is
administratively located in Haga-Wayu
Woreda. The road alignment from km 46+500 to km 66+000 follows a foot of mountain
with rolling and Mountainous
terrain. The remaining section of the project (from km 66+000 town to end of
project) alignment mostly follows ridge
top alignment. Some section of the project is characterized by sharp curves and
steep grades in balance with the
mountainous and Escarpment topography. In some section of the road, it is difficult
to attain the minimum geometric
parameters and relaxation from the standard is expected.
Photo 3- 3: Typical sharp curve along the project road

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Photo 3- 4: Typical sharp curve along the project road

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4. Topography Survey
Topographic Survey is a survey that gathers data about the elevation of points on a
piece of land and presents them
as contour lines on a plot. The purpose of a topographic survey is to collect
survey data about the natural and man-
made features of the land, as well as its elevations. Topographic maps are used to
show elevations and grading
features. It is one of the most important and crucial field tasks that form the
base data for the project design.
The topographic survey is basic pre - requisite to capture all the physical futures
along the project corridor to enable
the selection of feasible and most useful alignment and later to design and to
facilitate the establishment of final center
line of the project road and land acquisition requirements. The topographic survey
work methodology consists of
following main tasks.
• Establishment of geodetic control points using the most important

technological advance in surveying that is
the Global Positioning System (GPS)
• Setting up of permanent beacons to serve as a reference system during road
design and construction
• Development of control traverse-line and geometric level-line.
• Detailed field survey using electronic Theodolite with EDM (Total
Stations) and digital Levels, which will have
a different precision according to the topographic operations.
• Data Processing and CAD;
• Development of Land acquisition plan; and
• Delivery of survey Report including Diagrams and Monographs
• Ground surface and Structural location survey
For carrying the survey work the consultant approached EMA (Ethiopian Mapping
Authority) and collected EMA control
points within the Project Corridor and deployed high and precision instruments like
GPS, Total station, and Auto level
in compliance to the TOR.
4.1 Sampling of stretches for surveying

The consultant carried out detail ground survey for 20% of the project length by
giving priority in the order of
Escarpment, Mountainous, Rolling and flat terrains of the road.
4.2 Mobilization of Surveyors and Equipment’s

The survey instrument used in this project and their accuracy are mentioned below.
Table 4- 1: List of Survey instruments
S/No Survey Instrument Model/ make No Degree of

Accuracy
1 GPS instruments Trimble 5800 GPS system Static
Mode with at least 8 satellites tracking per site (5
receiver sets mm +
0.5ppm)
2 Total Station Sokkia Set 310, Nikon, Topcon 2’’ and
3’’
3 Level Sokkia SE6055 With a
maximum tolerance in mm for single section equal
to:
10K, where  is the distance in km.
In order to achieve the required output within time the limit, the consultant
deployed three teams.

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Table 4- 2: List personnel’s (team 1: GPS team)
No Name of staff Job Title

Position on the Project
1 S. Surveyor
Coordinator/ Surveying Team
Dawit Bekele
leader
2 Getachew Akalu S. Surveyor
S. Surveyor
Table 4- 3: List personnel’s (team 2: Control traverse surveys)
No Name of staff Job Title Position

on the Project
Senior
Surveyor (Responsible
1 Tadios Tesfaye S. Surveyor
Traversing)
2 Efrem M. A/Surveyor A/Surveyor
4.3 Data Collection

Data collection is the first stage of topography surveying which has been conducted
in two stages, Desk study and Site
reconnaissance. During desk study relevant information have been collected from
topographical maps, satellite
imageries, Google earth maps and GPS Control points’ information have been
collected from Ethiopian Mapping
Agency.
The list of data collected and used in each category includes:
a) 1:250,000 scale topographic mosaic map of Ethiopia
b) E37-N05 DT2 30Mx30m DEM Grid data- Shuttle Radar Topography Mission
(SRTM) data
c) List of National GPS control points
No Point Name
1 RAKO
The result of the collected and analyzed data is presents at the end of this report
as Annexes 4-1, 4-2 4-3 and 4-4
4.4 Scope of Topographic Survey

The scope and methodology of the topographic surveying works conducted in the
specified sections mainly includes
✓ Collection of data for route selection, route location and detail
topographic surveying on the field.
✓ Route location and marking of the preferred route on the field.
✓ Establishing GPS points at every 3km interval of the road and tying it to
the National Grid System.
✓ Installation of permanent benchmarks at a maximum of 100m to 300m
intervals.
✓ Levelling of the control points with automatic level instruments

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✓ Carrying out detailed cross-section survey at every 20m interval or lesser
and with a band width varying
between 50 to 100m and beyond, depending on the terrain conditions, to the
left and right of the approximate
center line of road
✓ Carrying out detail surveying at the bridge locations
✓ Gathering all the information required for the land acquisition related to
the project
✓ Generating a terrain model from the survey data and using the terrain model
for the detailed engineering
design of the road
4.5 GPS Surveying Methodology

4.5.1 Establishment of Geodetic Control Points Using Global Positioning System
(GPS)
Global positioning system (GPS) observations were determined within approximately
about 3.0 KMs interval along the
road length. The geodetic GPS points were placed in highly accessible sites with
appropriate bench marks protected
against impact to guaranty their stability and integrity.
The established GPS points are couple and inter visible to each other at a minimum
distance of 100m and were tied
with national coordinates system found within the vicinity of the project road.
The GPS points are painted yellow and the description is marked in red.

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4.5.2 Tying with National Coordinate System
The observations were carried out with four units of Trimble GPS system receivers
using static mode with at least 8
satellites tracking per site in order to determine 3-D WGS84 co-ordinates. The
baseline measurement accuracy was
5mm+ 0.5ppm with at least fifty minutes of observation.
4.5.3 Coordinate System

The coordinate system used for the project is the Ethiopian National Grid System
(Clarke 1880 modified spheroid,
U.T.M Grid Adindan Datum).
4.5.4 Verification of Positioning

The positions of the GPS points were checked with the National coordinates.
4.5.5 Data Processing and Mapping

We made widespread use of computerized system whilst carrying out investigation and
survey activities. This permits
an easier, more efficient and rapid management and guarantees a continuous control
of all activities and aspects of
the work.
Using highly post- processing GNSS Solutions software, the WGS84 co-ordinates will
be transformed into the national
grid, U.T.M. co-ordinates based on Clark 1880 (Modified) spheroid –Datum: Adindan.
Transformation parameters
Coordinate system
Name: Ethiopia Zone 37
Type: Projected
Unit name: Meters
Vertical Datum: Ellipsoid
Vertical Unit: Meters
Datum
Name: Adindan 37
Ellipsoid Name: Clark 1880 mod
Semi-major Axis: 6378249.145 m
Inverse Flattening: 293.466307674
DX to WGS84: -165.0000 m
DY to WGS84: -11.0000 m
DY to WGS84: 206.0000 m

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Projection
Projection Class: Transverse Mercator
Latitude_of_origin 0° 00' 00.00000"N
Central_meridian 39° 00' 00.00000"E
Scale_factor 0.999600000000
False_Easting 500000.000 m
False_Northing 0.000 m
4.6 Benchmark Setup

Benchmark (secondary control points) referenced in the field on reliable points on
appropriate bench mark beacons
protected against impact to guaranty their stability and integrity. These
benchmarks established at intervals of
approximately 100m to 300 m. The vertical controls of the bench marks were
established using differential levelling
procedure. The differences in elevation between consecutive benchmarks / GPS points
are determined which are used
to extend elevation from the first GPS point elevation to all other benchmarks and
GPS points.
4.6.1 Control Traverse-Line

A traverse surveying is usually employed in all forms of legal and engineering
works to compute Easting and Northing
positions for networks of benchmarks extended from GPS points. Essentially,
traverses are a series of established
survey stations that are tied together by angles and distances measured and
recorded using electronic total stations
between each vertex by beginning on twin GPS points and closing on the next twin
GPS points.
The accuracy of traverse surveying is:
Allowable angular accuracy
= √ (N+1) * 30”
Allowable Linear accuracy
1:10,000
The angle and distance measurements are reduced into Easting and Northing
coordinates using standard traverse
computations procedures.
4.6.2 Geometric Level-Line

The elevations of the consecutive Bench marks are transformed by direct
differential levelling starting from the elevation
of the first GPS point elevation using levelling instrument. Levels for each
consecutive bench marks are determined by
forward and a subsequent backward run forming a closed loop. Levels for each
control points are computed using
standard differential levelling computation. For this reason, the elevations of GPS
points listed on the differential
levelling overrides the list on the GPS Monograph.
The accuracy of level (Z) is:
Z = 10 mm x √K; Where (K being the survey distance in km between control
points).

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4.7 Collection of Cross-section Data
The topographical survey is the backbone of engineering design required for
accurate cost estimating for use in the
feasibility study. Accuracy of the information collected during this survey has a
direct impact on almost all the design
activities involved in the project.
This study involves location of control points, construction and fixing of co-
ordinates and documentation of monuments.
Topography surveys are performed in order to determine the position of all natural
and manmade features within the
road corridor. The topography surveying has been carried out with a minimum of 100m
band width (50m to the left and
50m to the right from the center of the road) varying up to 300m band width and a
maximum staking interval of 20m.
Where there is a high cross slope, the band width is increased in order to provide
design flexibility and accommodate
the design cross section.
The survey included the determination of the coordinates of points located:
✓ On the existing road centerline

✓ At the road edges
✓ At the toe line of the fill and cut sections
✓ Break lines and points on Culverts and Bridges
✓ High water marks
✓ Break lines and points along longitudinal section of rivers 100 m either
side in the case of minor bridges and
500 m either in the case major bridges
✓ Cross section of rivers
✓ Features on intersections and side roads up to a length of 50m
✓ Features showing service lines
✓ Buildings
✓ Places of social or traditional importance
4.8 Data Processing and CADD

The consultant uses computerized system whilst carrying out investigation and
survey activities. This permits an easier,
more efficient and rapid management and guarantees a continuous control of all
activities and aspects of the work.
Specific programs are used to transfer and process field data into computers.
Computer programs such as AutoCAD
are used for preparation of drawings and graphics, using software modules that
operate inside AutoCAD that are
specifically designed for maps and for road projects.
The electronic field books and other topographic data are placed in ASCII and / or
DXF formats or MS Excel files.
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5. Soil and Material Investigation and Pavement Design
5.1 General
In order to design road pavement structure, to locate suitable construction
material for the pavement work and to
minimize geotechnical problems along the road stretch, preliminary material
investigation was carried out along
Kebremengest – Bule Kero road project route. This report is prepared based up on
investigations, surveys and
laboratory test result analysis undertaken along the proposed alignment.
Road pavements are designed to limit the stress created at the subgrade level by
the traffic travelling on the pavement
surface so that the subgrade is not subject to significant deformations. The
pavement spreads the concentrated loads
of the vehicle wheels over a sufficiently large area at subgrade level. At the same
time, the pavement materials
themselves should not deteriorate to any serious extent within a specified period
of time. So, the design method aims
at producing a pavement which will reach a relatively low level of deterioration at
the end of the design period, assuming
that routine and periodic maintenance are performed during that period.
The pavement design process is an interactive process involving consideration of

multi-faceted factors such as time,
traffic, pavement materials, sub-grade soils, environmental conditions,
construction practices and economics.
5.2 Traffic Loading and Traffic Class

5.2.1 Traffic Axle Loading
This section presents the procedure for establishing the design traffic loading and
selection of traffic loading class.
One of the main factors that contribute to the structural deterioration of roads is
traffic action. Therefore, the trend and
pattern of the traffic flow of the project area were assessed and analyzed in order
to estimate the volume and damaging
effect of traffic served by the road within the proposed design life. In order to
assess the existing traffic flow pattern of
the area, traffic counts survey was carried out at different locations along the
road project. The data gathered from
such study were compiled and analyzed together with the data obtained from ERA
documentation so as to determine
the average annual daily traffic (AADT).
To determine the loading pattern/characteristics along the route corridor

equivalency factors recommended by ERA
2013 pavement design manual for different type of vehicles in conjunction with the
truck factors obtained in different
road projects around the country is used as an axle loading for design purpose.
5.2.2 Equivalency Factor

The damage that vehicles cause to a paved road is highly dependent on the axle
loads of the vehicles. Light cars and
vans have little effect on a pavement whilst heavily loaded trucks have a major
impact. The damage is exponential
depending upon weight of vehicles. To model this, the concept of an Equivalent
Standard Axle is used, where
Equivalency Factors are evaluated on the basis of axle weight surveys to relate to
the damaging effect of a vehicle
with a truck having a standard axle load (8160 kg).
Since majority section of the existing project route road is a low standard one
with less diversified type of vehicles
category, axle loads recommended for different vehicle classes in ERA 2013 pavement
design manual in conjunction
with the truck factors recommended in different road projects have been used in
order to estimate vehicle damage
factor (VDF) which will be used in the design of flexible pavements. The selection
of road projects is based on diversity

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of traffic movement on the projects, existence in different sections of the country
and representation of loading pattern
of majority section of Ethiopia.
Table 5- 1: Average Equivalency Factors for Different Vehicle Types
Class Type No of Average ESA Average
ESA per Average of Half and
Axles per Vehicle all
Vehicle Half Full Loaded
Loaded
Loaded Vehicles
1 car 2
2 4-wheel drive 2
3 minibus 2 0.3
0.15 0.225
4 bus/coach 2 2
1 1.5
5 small truck/PU 2 1.5

0.7 1.1
6 medium truck 2 5
2.5 3.75
7 large 2-axled truck 2 10

5 7.5
8 3-axled truck 3 12
3.5 7.75
7.5 11.25
8.5 12.75
8.5 12.75
12 2-axled trailer 2 10
5 7.5
13 3 or 4-axled trailer 3/4' 12

6 9
(Source ERA 2013 pavement design)
Table 5- 2: Average Equivalency Factors on Different Road Projects

Sr. Road Project Small Large Small
Medium Heavy Truck
No Bus Bus Truck
Truck Truck Trailer
1 Addis – Weliso 0.21 3.13 0.04
0.57 3.37 8.5
(Beza Consulting, 2012)
2 Jimma – Dedesa 0.09 0.87 0.11
1.11 3.23 7.85
(Gogot consulting, 2017)
3 Sansusi – Tatek Kela 0.05 0.5 0.28
1.12 6.43 9.76
(Hitcon consulting, 2018)
4 Adama – Awash 0.18 1.6 0.83
1.1 4.22 18.84
Awash station
Adama lane
(Beza Consulting, 2015)

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5 Average of half and full loaded
vehicles recommended by ERA 0.225 1.5 1.1
3.75 7.5 10.167
6 Final EF 0.151 1.52 0.7

2.5 5.00 10.167
Taking into consideration the loading pattern of vehicles in different parts of

Ethiopia and recommendations in ERA
manual 2013 final equivalency factor shown in the above table has been used as
final traffic loading/equivalency factor
of the project road.
5.2.3 Design Traffic Loading (DT)

Design traffic loading is determined by multiplying the projected average annual
daily traffic over the design period with
the equivalency factors recommended. 2024 is considered to be the first year which
will accommodate the full pledged
traffic which traverses along the route corridor. The 2024 traffic is projected to
the specified design period with various
growth rates recommended by the transport economist for each of the vehicle classes
and is multiplied by the TF for
each vehicle category (axle configurations). The sum of products is considered as
DT expressed in Equivalent Standard
Axle Loads (ESAL). The DT is determined using the following equation:
AADTb ∗ 365 ∗ TF {(1 + i) n − 1}
ESAL =
i
Where: ESAL = Equivalent Standard Axle Load
TF = Truck factor
i = growth rate (%)
n = design period in years
AADTb = AADT of baseline traffic
The predicated traffic furnished is generally the ESAL applications expected on the
highway. For design purpose the
axle application in the design lane is required. The design traffic figure will be
factored/multiplied by lane distribution
and direction distribution factors. The road project comprises a one-lane pavement
in each direction. This is
substantiated by the traffic analysis which shows that this configuration will
suffice for the foreseeable future.
Accordingly, a value of 100% of the estimated pavement loading has been assumed to
apply to the single lane for the
purpose of the Pavement Design. The direction distribution factor of 0.5 will be
used for determining final traffic loading.
Table 5- 3: - Suggested Lane Distribution Factor

Number of lanes in each direction Percent of 18-
kip ESAL in the design lane
1
100
2
80-100
3
60-80
4
50-75
(Source AASHTO pavement design)
The final forecasted traffic of Kebremengest – Bule Kero was provided by the
traffic engineer and is changed into
ESAL.
The table below shows truck factor and cumulative equivalent standard axle loading
along the project route corridor for
10, 15 and 20-year traffic loadings respectively.
Table 5- 4: - Truck Factors of the Road Project

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Car Utility S/Bus L/Bus Small Truck Medium Truck
Large Truck T/T
0.00 0.00 0.151 1.52 0.7 2.5

5 10.167
Table 5- 5: - Mean Cumulative ESAL for Kebremengest – km23 Road Section

Design ESA/veh
Total
period
S/Bus L/Bus S/Truck M/Truck H/Truck
T&T
20 years 0.315 1.348 0.903 2.542
6.122 1.886 13.117
15 years 0.210 0.899 0.609 1.695

4.082 1.257 8.752
10 years 0.123 0.528 0.366 0.995

2.396 0.738 5.146
Table 5- 6: - Mean Cumulative ESAL for km23 – km70 Road Section

Design ESA/veh
Total
period S/Bus L/Bus S/Truck M/Truck
H/Truck T&T
20 years 0.076 0.677 0.281 1.383

1.397 1.115 4.929
15 years 0.051 0.452 0.191 0.922

0.931 0.743 3.290
10 years 0.030 0.265 0.117 0.541

0.547 0.436 1.936
Based upon the analysis result, the ESAL obtained will be used as final traffic
loading for pavement design purpose of
the respective sections. Axle load analysis is attached in annex of this report as
a standalone document
5.3 Existing Road Condition
Kebremengest – Bule kero road project route connects East and West Guji zones of
Oromia national regional state.
The project route connects the Negele Borona main asphalt road with that of Yabelo
– Yergachefe main asphalt road.
Upgrading the existing road standard is very important to facilitate the socio-
economic activity of the area. The existing
road from Kebremengest to Bule kero can be classified into three sections: -
1. Residential access road: from station 0+000 to 3+500 and 14+500 to 17+500
the route corridor traverses
through low standard residential access earth road. In this subdivision,
the road is not constructed in due
consideration of engineering parameters.
2. New double surface treatment road segment: from station 3+500 to 14+500 the
existing road is a newly
constructed double surface treatment road. Riding quality and comfort
level of this road segment is good. The
consultant during condition survey stage didn’t encounter any distresses
in this section of the route.
3. The highly distresses section of the road: from station 17+500 to 70+000 the
existing road is gravel surface.
The riding quality and comfort level is very poor. Due to high severity
level distresses, it is uncomfortable and
difficult to ride upon it.

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Photo 5- 1: Newly Constructed Kibremengist Shakiso road segment
Photo 5- 2: Highly Distress Uncomfortable (Shakiso – km70) Road Segment
From station 0+000 to 3+500 and from station 14+500 to 70+000, the existing
pavement structure is low standard with
high severity level distresses. Therefore, construction shall commences starting
from roadbed preparation.

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On the section from station 3+500 to 14+500 even if the pavement structure exists
in good condition the design
standard of the new road is different from the existing road design standard.
Therefore, on those sections if the vertical
and horizontal alignments of existing road and new road merges, the base course
layer of the existing road will be
considered as part of sub base layer for the new road pavement after proper ripping
and compacting.
5.4 Subgrade Conditions

The sub grade along the project route length was investigated through geological
maps, visual observation, pit
excavation and sampling of representative soil from layers of the test pit.
5.4.1 Geological Formation Along the Route
The project area exists in south eastern part of the country and is covered by
different types of rock and soil formations
emanating from weathering of those rocks. Kebremengest – Bule kero route corridor
is covered by early Proterozoic
geological timescale period rock formations and soil emanating from weathering of
parent rocks. As per the Geological
map of Ethiopia, 1996 edition, geological formations available along the project
route areas are expressed as below:
➢ Mormora Group (PR1r): Blotite Schist, genesis, Marble and graphitic Schist
➢ Adola Group (PR2a): Amphibolite, quartzite and Graphitic Phyllite
➢ Gb: Gabbro
Table 5- 7: Geological Formation

Geological Description
From To
(PR1r) Mormora Group: Blotite Schist, genesis, Marble and graphitic Schist
0+000 25+500
(PR2a)
25+500 31+000
Adola Group: Amphibolite, quartzite and Graphitic Phyllite
35+500 47+000
51+500 54+500
57+500 70+000
gb
31+000 35+500
Gabbro
47+500 51+500
54+500 57+500
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Figure 5- 1: Geological Formation of the Route Corridor
The fresh rocks are good sources for masonry rock and crushed aggregate, while
weathered ones are good natural
gravel and borrow material sources. To sum up the geological formation of the
project area is composed of rocks that
are good and suitable for construction of different pavement layers, cement
concrete as well as masonry works.
5.4.2 Subgrade Soil Investigation

The subgrade soil investigation was aimed to assess the actual condition of the
alignment material which includes
visual soil extension survey, sampling and logging.
The purposes of the sub grade soil investigation along the road corridor are:
➢ To assess depth and nature of centerline material along the route corridor,
➢ To characterize mechanical properties of centerline material along the route
alignment.
➢ To suggest possible remedial measures that would suit the pavement design.
The detailed sub grade field investigation along the road corridor is presented in
the following sub section.
5.4.2.1 Alignment Material Extension Survey
In order to see the lateral extent and physical properties of the alignment soils,
detailed material extension survey was
conducted along the entire road section. The material extension survey along the
road corridor is carried out by visual
observation of color, texture, moisture and appearance of the soil along the road
side and from test pits dug.

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The soil extension survey was conducted by driving a vehicle at lower speed, about
15km/hr. as well as by walking
over it to check the demarcation of the different soil and rock boundaries.
Accordingly, it should have to be noted that
majority of the material along the road alignment is dominantly brown to reddish
clayey silt. From the alignment material
survey along the road corridor detailed soil extension survey is presented in the
Table 5-8 below.
Table 5- 8: Alignment Material Extension
Station Visual Description of

Material
From To
0+000 2+700 Reddish to brown
clayey silt
2+700 3+800 Light brown clayey silt mixed
with gravel size marble
3+800 4+900 Brown clayey silt mixed
with gravel size rock
4+900 6+000 Light brown
clay soil
6+000 6+982 Reddish SILTY
clay
6+982 8+358 Light brown to
reddish clay soil
8+358 8+735 Decomposed
rock
clay
9+811 10+787 Light greyish
clayey silt
clay
greyish clay soil
13+240 13+317 Stiff light brown
clayey silt
13+293 13+769 Reddish clayey
silt
silt
reddish clayey silt
reddish clay soil
19+651 20+428 Dark brown to black
clay soil
reddish clay soil
silt
reddish clay soil
24+457 24+733 Dark brown clay
soil
silt
clayey silt

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Material
From To
reddish clay soil
silt
silt
28+215 28+391 Swampy area, light
brown clay soil
28+391 28+968 Dark brown clay
soil
reddish clay soil
29+244 31+320 Light brown to reddish
clayey silt
31+320 31+497 Decomposed rock
31+497 31+773 Reddish to light brown
clayey silt
silt
silt
clayey silt
33+531 33+608 Swampy area, light
brown clay soil
clayey silt
silt
SILTY clay
clay
SILTY clay
silt
clayey silt
clayey silt

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Material
From To
rock
41+677 43+153 Stiff reddish
clayey silt
43+130 44+106 Light brown to black
clay soil
rock
SILTY clay
44+559 44+835 Brown to black
clay soil
clayey silt
45+912 45+988 Weathered
rock
clayey silt
rock
clayey silt
clayey silt
48+094 49+270 Brown clay
soil
49+270 49+846 Brown to black
clay soil
49+846 50+023 Stiff light greyish
clayey silt
50+023 50+299 Dark brown to black
clay soil
clayey silt
silt
50+852 51+170 Light brown clay
soil
51+170 51+800 Brown clayey
silt
clayey silt
rock
53+800 55+020 Brown to reddish
clayey silt
rock
silt
58+440 59+200 Brown to reddish
clayey silt
clayey silt
silt

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Material
From To
66+600 67+300 Stiff reddish
clayey silt
clayey silt
clayey silt
silt
Photo 5- 3: Reddish Clayey Silt

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Photo 5- 4: Swampy Area, Brown Clay Soil
5.4.2.2 Sampling and Logging.

To determine the engineering properties and to assess suitability of the sub grade
soil along the road alignment,
representative disturbed samples were collected by digging test pits along the
design centerline. A test pit of approx.
1.0 m x 1.0 m wide are excavated in a staggered manner up to 1.5m depth below the
finished design level of the road
with in 1km interval. Summary of test pits are shown in Annex of this report as a
standalone document.
The lithological soil formations were properly logged. Bulk sample of about 60kg
was taken for all quality tests stated
below.
➢ Wet Sieve analysis (AASHTO T27).
➢ Liquid limit (AASHTO T 89);
➢ Plastic limit (AASHTO T 90);
➢ Modified Proctor test (AASHTO T180) and
➢ CBR test and CBR-swell (AASHTO T193) after 4 days soaking
Finally, after completing the logging and sampling, the test pits were backfilled,
compacted and levelled off to their
original level.

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Photo 5- 5: Sub grade test pits
5.4.2.3 Analysis and Interpretation of Laboratory Test Results

The pavement design process requires properties of the roadbed soil for design
because the roadbed soil represent a
design quality that cannot be changed in the design, and it must be characterized
very thoroughly. This characterization
involves extensive sampling of the soil along the proposed route. Kebremengest –
Bule Kero route corridor sub grade
samples are brought to laboratory and tests are conducted on the collected samples.
The testing program was
designed to provide an indication of the variability of soils along length of the
project. This variability will have an
influence on the final thickness and even on the pavement type selected for
construction.
Laboratory tests are conduct so that the adequacy of the foundation material for
the pavement and/or embankment is
checked. The soil samples are subjected to the following tests: - particle size
distribution (AASTO T-27), liquid limit
(AASHTO T89), plastic limit, plasticity index (AASHTO T-90), moisture density
relation and 3 point CBR test.
The sub grade material test results obtained from samples taken from sites are
presented in Annex 5-1 and 5-2 of this
report as a standalone document for further reference. The laboratory test result
of each samples are analyzed as
follows: -
I. Sub grade classification
Plasticity
The plasticity of a soil is its ability to undergo deformation without cracking or
fracturing. A plastic soil can be molded
into various shapes when it is wet. Plasticity in soils is due to presence of clay
minerals. The clay particles carry a
negative charge on their surface. In contact with water clay particles are
separated by layers of adsorbed water which
allow them to slip over one another. When the soil is subjected to deformations,
the particles do not return to their
original positions, with the result that the deformations are plastic
(irreversible).

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An indication of the nature of the material along

any road section may be given by a variation in plasticity index (PI).
The PI is influenced by the type and proportion of
clay particles present within the material, and high PI values are
often indications of the potential for expansion.
The variation of PI along Kebremengest – Bule Kero

(km70) road project is presented in Figure 5-7 below. From the
detailed analysis on the test result, the sub grade
material along the stretches is dominantly covered with medium to
low plastic nature material (i.e. material having
plastic index of <20% and liquid limit of <50%).
Based on the Ethiopian Road Authority technical

specification, Liquid Limit and Plastic Index parameters are the main
criteria that are used to identify suitability of
materials. In the specification, it states sub grade soil having a liquid limit
exceeding 60% or a plasticity index exceeding 30
when determined in accordance with the requirements of AASHTO
T-89 and T-90 are classified as unsuitable material
and hence it cannot be used for earth work purpose.
As shown in Figure 5-7 below, except the sub grade

soil existing from km0.5 – km2.5, km14.5 – km15.5, km23.5 –
km25.5, km30.5 – km31.5, km43.5 – km44.5 and km58.5
– km59.5 all the other sections sub grade material shows
plasticity index value of below 30 and/or liquid
limit value below 60. From plasticity point of view, majority section of the
route corridor sub grade material is suitable for
roadbed foundation.
Plasticity
Distribution of Sub Grade Samples
70
60
UL PI
Plasticity value (%)
50
40
UL LL
30
LL
20
PI
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
Chainage in km
Figure 5- 2: Variation of Plasticity Value (%) of

the Sub Grade Soil
The Engineering classification of soils is the most

universally accepted indicator of the physical property of a naturally
occurring soil. The AASHTO method of soil
classification is the method most commonly accepted in road design. This
procedure relies on the grain size distribution and
plasticity characteristics of the soil to differentiate between soils
based on their potential to perform as a roadbed
under a pavement structure.
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According to AASHTO soil classification system, the sub grade soil along
Kebremengest – km70 road project falls into
A-7-5, A-7-6, A-2-7, A-4 and A-6 soil groups. However, majority of the sub grade
material along the alignment is
classified as A-6 AASHTO soil group. An evaluation of the test results based upon
AASHTO soil classification system
generally confirmed that natural subgrade material along the route is mainly rated
as fair to poor rated sub grade road
bed foundation. Composition of sub grade soil class of the road alignment is
summarized in the figure below.
Distribution of sub grade classes
A-4, 10% A-2-7, 1%
A-7-5, 20%
A-7-6, 23%
A-6, 46%
Figure 5- 3: % age Compositions of Sub Grade Soil
Details of laboratory tests performed on the subgrade samples are given in Annex 5-
1 of this report as standalone
document.
Grading
Grading and/ particle size distribution represents, the distribution of particles
of different size in the soil mass. The
behavior of coarse grained soils is extremely dependent on the particle size
distribution and behavior of fine grained
soils (minus 75µ) depends upon plasticity characteristics. The Plasticity behavior
of a soil is influenced by the type and
proportion of clay particles present within the material.
Particle Size Distribution (Grading) tests have been carried out on samples
recovered from the trial pits. The results
are summarized on the Figure below in terms of the percentage of silt and clay
(<0.075 mm), the percentage of fine
and medium sand (0.075-0.425 mm), percentage coarse sand (2-0.425) and gravel (2-
75).
From the particle size distribution curve along kebremengest – Bule Kero road
project route, majority of the soil along
the project route corridor is dominated by silt and clay fractions (i.e. more than
65% fraction is silty/clay and 35% sand
& coarse particle fraction). Thus, it can be concluded that, majority of the sub
grade soil mass of kebremengest – Bule
Kero road project is classified as fine grained in both AASHTO and USC soil
classification system.

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Variation of
particle size with station
100
coarse
80
sand and
% of material passing
gravel
>0.425
60
Fine and
Medium
sand
40
0.075-
0.425
Silt and
20
Clay
<0.075
0
0 10 20
30 40 50 60 70
Station in km
Figure 5- 4: Particle Size Distribution of Sub
Grade Soils Along the Road Alignment
II. Sub Grade Strength

Moisture –Density Relationship
The moisture content and density relationship
(AASHTO T99 or T180) for a soil is a critical factor affecting strength
and deformation properties of any prepared soil.
Careful laboratory testing to establish this relationship is critical for its
use in specifications to ensure adequate quality
control of the material used in construction and to provide the desired
structural capacity in the roadbed by attaining
the maximum density. The laboratory data is critical for accurately
monitoring a project during construction and for
knowing the compacted density at all times. This importance extends
beyond design requirements to determining density
and moisture values of the roadbed material anytime rehabilitation
is planned because these values will exhibit
seasonal variation.
A proctor compaction curve indicates maximum

density and optimum moisture content which are the two principal
output values from this test. It must be
remembered that each soil has an individual relationship of moisture and
maximum dry density that must be established in
the laboratory. It is critical to select a moisture density specification
that ensures a specific level of physical
performance in the soil. The moisture density state of a compacted soil affects
the strength and deformation characteristics of
the soil in the pavement which is related to its structural adequacy.
Soil samples obtained from test pits have been
compacted in the laboratory at various moisture contents to derive a
dry density versus moisture content relationship.
Compaction test was carried out according to AASHTO T180 on
samples recovered from the test pits. The Maximum
Dry Density (MDD) obtained from the laboratory test is
summarized in Figure 5-10 below:
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2.0
MDD g/cm3 (maximum dry density)
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
0 10 20 30 40 50
60 70
Chainage in km
Figure5- 5: Variation of Maximum Dry Density along the Route
As seen from the chart above the sub grade along route corridor have MDD value
between 1.40 and 1.88g/cm3. As
seen from the chart above majority section of kebremengest –Bule Kero sub grade
have got MDD value >1.56g/cm3.
This will have a direct impact on the CBR values obtained on the sub grade test
results.
As expressed in ERA and other manuals the relationship of density and moisture
content is specific to the nature of
the subgrade soil. As the moisture content increases at constant density the CBR
decreases quite quickly. If the soil
becomes saturated, i.e. the air voids become filled with water and decrease to
zero, the soil becomes very weak indeed.
The moisture content is adjusted during construction in order to make it easier to
achieve a high level of compaction.
Upon completion of the construction operations, the density of the compacted
subgrade soil will remain approximately
the same except for some residual compaction under traffic and possible volume
variations of certain moisture sensitive
soils. However, the moisture content of the subgrade will change, depending on
climate, soil properties, depth of water
table, rainfall and drainage. It is knowledge of this condition of the subgrade
that is required in the design process. As
we can see from the analysis chart below majority sections of kebremengest –Bule
Kero sub grade soil have OMC
>19%. In majority sections, it can be traced that medium to lower optimum moisture
content values in the sub grade is
related to the medium to low plasticity/liquid limit values of the sub grade.

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37.00
OMC % (optimum moisture content)
33.00
29.00
25.00
21.00
17.00
13.00
9.00
0 10 20 30 40
50 60 70
Chainage in km
Figure 5- 6: Variation of Optimum Moisture Content along the Road
California bearing ratio

Soaked CBR test was carried out on disturbed samples of soil recovered from trial
pits along the road corridor to
determine the shear strength of the subgrade material.
Three-point CBR test (i.e., 10, 30 and 65 blows of the hammer) was undertaken in
accordance with AASHTO T-193.
This form of testing is preferred as it can give information of the variation of
strength that can be developed with
increasing compactive effort. The stronger the sub grade (the higher the CBR
reading) the less thick it is necessary to
design and construct the road pavement, this gives considerable cost saving.
Conversely if CBR test indicates the sub
grade is weak (a low CBR reading) we must construct a suitable thicker road
pavement to spread the wheel load over
a greater area of the weak sub grade in order that the weak sub grade material is
not deformed, causing the road
pavement to fail.
CBR-swell values are determined on disturbed samples of soil recovered from trial
pits along the road corridor to
evaluate potential to heave of the material. As seen on the chart below, dominant
section of Kebremengest – BuleKero
road project have CBR swell value less than 3%. However, the sub grade soil
existing from km4.5 – km7.5 and km67.5
– km70 is characterized by CBR swell value of ≥3%. This stations sub grade material
should have to be excavated
and replaced with selected material.

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6
CBR swell avg.
0
0 10 20 30
40 50 60 70
Chainage in km
Figure 5- 7: Variation of CBR Swell Along the Alignment
Majority of the sub grade soil along Kebremengest – Bule Kero

road project generally shows CBR value greater than
3%. However, the sub grade soil existing in km28.5 – km34.5
and km67.5 – km70 is characterized by CBR value of
≤3%. This stations sub grade material should have to be
excavated and replaced with good bearing strength material.
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40
30
CBR at 95% MDD
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40
50 60 70
Chainage in km
Figure 5- 8: Variation of CBR along the Alignment
5.4.2.4 Unsuitable soil stretches along the road project

According to ERA technical specification, the material from the road prism are
classified as unsuitable material if
Plasticity Index (PI) >30 or liquid limit (LL)>60 or soaked CBR value less than 3%
or CBR-Swell values greater than
3%, and thus the top 60cm of this soils should have to be excavated and replaced
with selected fill material having
(i.e., CBR value of >8%, swell index less than< 2%, LL<60 and PI<30). The
problematic soil stretches that requires
these treatment measures are listed in the Table 5-9 below.
Table 5- 9: Problematic Soil Stretches

Stretch Length (km)
From To
0+000 2+500 2.5
4+500 7+500 3
14+500 15+500 1
23+500 25+500 2
28+500 34+500 6
43+500 44+500 1
58+500 59+500 1
67+500 70+000 2.5

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5.4.2.5 Design of Sub Grade Strength
For designing the thickness of a road pavement, the strength of the subgrade should
be taken as that of the soil at a
moisture content equal to the wettest moisture condition likely to occur on the
subgrade after the road is opened to
traffic. In Kebremengist – Bule Kero road project route the compacted samples for
the CBR test are saturated by
immersion in water for four days before being tested.
While designing pavement structure, the entire length of the road was divided into
some sections which have
homogenous strength and design CBR values were determined for each homogenous
section. For this project the
consultant adopted the methodology recommended by AASHTO Pavement design manual
guide “Analysis Unit
Delineation by Cumulative Differences” to determine fairly homogeneous sections
with respect to the bearing strength
of the sub-grade soil.
Whether laboratory or in situ testes are used to obtain subgrade strength each
sample or each test will usually give
different results and these can sometimes cover a considerable range. For design
purposes it is important that the
strength of the subgrade is not seriously underestimated for large areas of
pavement or overestimated to such an
extent that there is a risk of local failures. For this project road design to
determine the design CBR value the consultant
have used the lower ten percentile value. I.e. the value which is exceeded by 90
percent of the readings.
Based upon the similarity of adjacent homogenous sections CBR value/ (sub grade
class), the consultant tried to
increase the interval and obtained new homogenous sections and design CBR values.
And also merging short distance
homogenous sections will eliminate complications resulting from frequent change in
pavement thicknesses. Using the
laboratory test result data and analyzing for each uniform section the design CBR
value shown below is found:
20
10
Station km
0
Cummulative Difference Value
0 20
40 60
-10
homogenous 2
homogenous 3
homogenous
1
homogenous 4
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
Figure 5- 9: Homogeneous sections along the project route
Table 5- 10: Design Sub Grade Strength Values and Classes

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Road Section Chain age 90th Percentile value

Design sub grade class
(CBR)
1 Km0 – Km33 7.1
S3
2 Km33 – Km39 5.3

S3
S3
3 Km39 – Km60 5.6
S3
4 Km60 – Km70 6.04

S3
5.5 Pavement Structure Design

5.5.1 Pavement Design using ERA pavement design manual 2013
Based on the design parameters discussed in the above section of this chapter,
Charts shown on the figure below are
selected from structural catalogue provided by ERA manual 2013.
Table 5-11 below Summarizes Pavement layer thicknesses design found by this method
of design for Kebremengest
– Bule Kero road project.

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Table 5- 11: - Pavement Thicknesses Based on ERA Manual
CESAL (ESAL)*106
Pavement thickness (millimeter)
Sub
Chain age grade 10
years 15 years 20 years
20 class
10 years 15 years
years AC BC
SB CL AC BC SB CL AC BC SB CL
0+000 to 175
200 350 200
5.146 8.752 13.117 50 (GB1)
325 50 (GB1) 125 (GB2) 275
23+000 (T5) (T6) (T7)
CL CL CL
DBST BC
SB DBST BC SB AC BBRB SB
200
200
200 200 225 200 90 150 150 150
(GB1)
(GB1)
S3
CL CL CL
AC BC
SB AC BC SB AC BC SB
23+000 to
70+000 1.936 3.290 4.929 50 175

275 50 175 325 50 175 325
(T4) (T5) (T5) (GB2)
(GB1) (GB1)
CL CL CL
DBST BC
SB DBST BC SB DBST BC SB
200
175 200 200 200 200 200 200 200
(GB2)
(GB1) (GB1)
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Figure 5- 10: ERA chart 2013 (ERAFPD, 2013)

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Taking functional classification of the road, traffic volume, location and terrain
of the project, financial constraints and
difficulty in forecasting traffic, cost effectiveness both during
construction/maintenance, practicability and construction
methods to be adapted in to consideration; for the road stretch from 0+000 to
23+000, 15-year design period pavement
thickness is recommended for the road stretch from 23+000 to 72+724, 20-year design
period pavement thickness is
recommended.
Table 5- 12: Selected Pavement Thickness

Traffic Sub Asphalt
Crushed Natural/
Loading grade Concrete
Road Base Crushed
Sub grade Section
class
(GB1) Sub-base
material
Km 0+000 to 8.752 50mm

200mm 350mm
Non-Expansive Km 23+000 (T6)
sub grade
Km 23+000 4.929 S3 50mm
175mm 325mm
material
stretches to Km (T5)
72+724
5.5.2 Design of Shoulder

A highway shoulder is "the portion of the roadway contiguous with the traveled way
for accommodation of stopped
vehicles, for emergency use and for lateral support of base and surface courses. In
addition, shoulders provide recovery
space for errant vehicles, accident avoidance areas, lateral clearance to signs and
guardrails, improved sight distance
in cuts, and space for maintenance operations.
Selection of shoulder type is the first step in shoulder design. It is a very

important step because selection of
inappropriate shoulder material can lead to performance problems for the mainline
pavement as well as the shoulder.
One of the major problem areas with shoulders is related to the pavement-shoulder
joint. This joint is particularly
troublesome when the pavement and shoulder are constructed using dissimilar
materials. Dissimilar materials generally
have different properties and stressed by differential vertical deflections across
the joint.
As seen on many roads, shoulders that have structurally adequate designs for the
expected traffic generally perform
satisfactorily, particularly if the pavement-shoulder joint is properly sealed,
and/or if adequate drainage is provided.
Factors which affect the design of shoulders are mainline pavement (and shoulder)
type, Traffic, Environment, Safety,
Planned maintenance strategy and Thickness design concepts. Longitudinal joints
between flexible shoulders and
flexible mainline pavements generally do not experience serious deterioration
problems if the foundation material under
the shoulder is designed for traffic encroachments and is properly compacted during
construction.
Traffic has generally not been considered in shoulder design, primarily on the
assumption that shoulders see very little
traffic. As seen from the reality in our country it indicates that when there is a
paved shoulder and no lateral obstructions,
trucks using the outer lane tend to encroach on the shoulder by as much as 30cm and
sometimes more. Thus, different

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percentages of encroaching traffic could be expected when the shoulders are
constructed of the same material as the
mainline pavement. As recommended on different manuals and highway books the
percentage of parked and
encroaching traffic can be estimated by assigning a percentage on the total traffic
(e.g., 3 - 5 percent) to the shoulder
for shoulder design purposes.
Flexible shoulder thickness design considers two critical areas:

1. the shoulder edge adjacent to the mainline pavement, must withstand the
effects of encroaching traffic, and
2. the outer edge, must be designed primarily for parked vehicle loads
Taking in to consideration the above stated facts, for Kebremengest – Bule Kero
road project route we have adopted
double surface treatment shoulder with the pavement layers extended up to the edge
of the shoulder.
5.6 Source of Construction Material
5.6.1 Introduction
Potential source of construction materials on the vicinity of the project area were
investigated through the following
activities:
➢ A desktop study of available information: The information that was studied
includes geological maps,
geological reports and topographical maps.
➢ Interaction with local people: Local people on the vicinity of the route were
enquired about the existence of
potential sources of construction material.
➢ Field survey for potential sources: All potential sources were visually
inspected and evaluated. Samples were
taken to check suitability of the material source for the intended
purpose.
➢ Laboratory tests were done on material samples: This was done to assess the
material quality and compare
the results with the required materials specifications.
In general, prior to locating each kind of construction materials, the following
factors were considered:
➢ Performance of the material to be used for construction;
➢ Accessibility;
➢ Quantity and Quality;
➢ Type and thickness of overburden materials;
➢ Availability of ample space for erecting crusher and stockpiling; and
➢ Environmental and social aspects
Taking into account these factors the consultant identified construction material
source locations adjacent to the route
and representative samples were collected for further investigation of their
quality in the laboratory, which include
possible sources of rock, natural gravel, sand and water.
5.6.2 Rock Sources for Asphalt Aggregate and Base Course
During the field investigation, the type and quantity of material, accessibility of
the rock quarry, the overburden material
and the suitability of the material for construction purposes are well assessed.
Besides environmental and social
impacts which may arise following utilization of the rock quarry like displacement
of local residents, claim for farm lands
are assessed.

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Both desk top study (i.e. geological formation of the project area) and detailed
field investigation reveals that, there are
rock sources along the road alignment for crushed aggregate and masonry works.
The strength of available rock materials at the potential quarry sites was roughly
evaluated in terms of the number of
blows and blow intensity to break a rock sample with a geological hammer. In
addition, joint spacing of the rock mass
was also noted as it’s an indication of workability and potential weathering.
Finally, the quantity of available material
has been estimated. Ease of mining and development of quarry faces and suitability
to erect a crusher plant have been
also considered as additional factors. The details of each of the sites proposed as
potential sources are shown in the
Table 5-13 below: -
Photo 5- 6: Quarry site along the project road

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Assessment (EIA) Studies, Concept Engineering Design, Resettlement Action
Plan (RAP) and
Project.
April 2020
Table 5- 13: List of Rock Quarries along the Road Project
Ref. GPS Offset/

Over burden
Chain age
Type of material Suitable Quantity
m3
No coordinate distance
thickness (m)
• Fresh columnar
basaltic rock formation
• Previously used
site for construction of Adola -
Negele road
asphalt layer and belongs to the
government
0.5m reddish For crushed Accessible
Q1 37+0483404 0+000 23km RHS • Ideal for asphalt
and base course construction
0665343
clayey silt aggregate >200,000
• The upper 0.5m is
reddish clayey silt
• Ideal site for
crushing and installation of crusher
• Requires
blasting/jack hammer to reduce the
size of the rock
37+0483731
0632593 25+400 • Basaltic rock
formation For crushed
• Newly identified
source
1m reddish clayey aggregate

Q2 1.5km • Requires blasting
/jack hammer for processing Accessible
• Ideal for
installation of crusher silt
>200,000
• Can be used as
crushed aggregate base course,
asphalt and
concrete material

Solutions PLC 75
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• Gabbro rock
formation
9.4km from
• Requires
blasting/jack hammer for processing
km70 • Can be used as
crushed aggregate for base 1m light brown For crushed Accessible
37+0477707 79+400
Q3 Alongside of
clayey silt aggregate >200,000
0593457 course, asphalt and
concrete material
the road • Newly identified
source
• Ideal for
installation of crusher

Solutions PLC 76
(RAP) and
April 2020
Sample was collected from the potential quarry sources. Aggregate Crushing Value
(ACV), Los Angeles Abrasion [LAA],
Soundness [using sodium Sulfate], ten percent fineness value [TFV], coating and
stripping, Specific gravity, Atterberg limit,
linear shrinkage and water absorption tests were conducted on the sample to assess
its suitability. The water absorption
test was used as an indication of the porosity and bitumen/water affinity of the
rock materials, which generally correlate well
with strength and soundness tests.
Comparison of the test result with ERA technical specification and pavement design
manual 2013 shows, the tested quarry
rock qualifies specification requirement set for crushed base course and asphalt
aggregate. Summary of the laboratory test
results on the rock quarry source sample is presented in the Table 5-14 below.

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Table 5- 14: Summary of test results for rock sources
Specific gravity & Water Absorption
Sodium Sulfate Soundness, %
Aggregate Crushing Value, %

Ten Percent
Fine Value, TFV
Ten Percent Fine Value, TFV
(AASHTO T-85-85)
(BS 812 Part 110: 1990

(BS 812:
Part 3: 1975)
(BS 812: Part 3: 1975)

Los Angeles Abrasion
Coating and stripping
(AASHTO T104-96)
(AASHTO T96-83)
Linear Shrinkage
Sr. Source Material
Plastic Limit
Wet/dry %
No. type
Apparent Specific
Water Absorption
wet
Dry
Specific gravity
gravity (SSD)
Bulk Specific
gravity
(dry)
%
0+000 RHS Offset
204.3 202.7 99.2 17.9
Above 95 NP
2.70 2.72
1 17
0.26
2.74 0.55
23km
Quarry Rock
25+400 Offset
197.0 195.0 99.0 22.0
Above 95 NP
2.70
2 27
0.80 2.71
2.71 0.32
1.5km
227.0 225.0 99.1 18.9

Above 95 NP
3 79+400 Both Side 26
1.47 2.64 2.65
2.67 0.53
>110
- NP
ERA specification for crushed base
-
- - -
- -
course aggregate
ERA specification for asphalt aggregate <30
>160 >75
Above 95 <10 <4 <2
- - <2

Solutions PLC
78
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April 2020
5.6.3 Borrow Material Sources
The predominant borrow material that often occurs along the project route corridor
is weathered gravel size marble
formation. The borrow sources show variation in their degree of weathering thus
they demand frequent and strict quality
control at the time of construction.
Natural granular materials that comply with specification requirements for use as
sub base layers without further processing
are often rare. This is due to thick overburden, variability in degree of
weathering and fracturing of rock mass within an
outcrop and the difficulty to comprehensively prove their quality and quantity
through manual excavation and sampling. The
detail summary of the natural gravel sources is presented in the Table 5-15 below.
Photo 5- 7: Borrow Material Source (km29.8)

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Table 5- 15:- Locations of Borrow Sources Identified Along the Road Project
GPS Offset/
Ref. No. Chain age
Type of Material Status and assessed quantity
Coordinates Distance
•
Reddish clayey silt mixed with gravel size rock
formation
• Can
be excavated by excavator/dozer Existing borrow material
37+0496860
BP1 5+300 50m RHS
Accessible
0645810 •
Previously used site Qty: > 100,000
• Can
be used for the construction of
embankment or as a replacement material

•
Gravel size marble mixed with reddish clayey
silt
Existing borrow material
37+0495927 • Can
be excavated by excavator/dozer
BP2 10+700 2km LHS
Accessible
0639113
• Ideal
for fill and sub base material source Qty:>100, 000
•
Previously used site
•
Gravel size marble mixed with reddish silty
sand
37+0493765 • Can
be excavated by excavator/dozer Existing borrow material Accessible
BP3 11+700 2km RHS
0642578
Qty: >100,000
• Ideal
for fill and sub base material source
•
•
Reddish clayey silt mixed with gravel size Existing borrow material
Accessible
marble Qty: >100,000

37+0492225, Alongside of • Can
BP4 13+760
0639745 the road
• Ideal
as fill material source
•

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GPS Offset/
Ref. No. Chain age
•
Reddish clayey silt mixed with gravel size
marble
37+0490792 • The
upper 1m reddish clayey silt Existing material source Accessible
BP5 29+800 5.3km LHS
0626161 • Can
be excavated by excavator/dozer Qty: >80,000
• Ideal
for sub base and fill
•
• brown
clayey silt mixed with gravel size marble
37+ 0483813 • can
BP6 34+800 0.6km RHS
Existing borrow material Accessible
0628533 • ideal
for fill material source
Qty: >40,000
•
previously used site
•
weathered rock formation
• Can
be excavated by excavator/dozer New borrow material
37+0477837 Alongside of
BP7 55+100
Accessible
0615715 the road • Ideal
Qty: >40,000
• New
borrow source
•
Marble size gravel mixed with silty sand
• Can
be excavated by excavator/dozer Existing material source
37+ 0483579
BP8 59+300 4.5km LHS
Accessible
0611002 • Ideal
Qty: >80,000
•
•
Gravel size rock mixed with reddish silty sand Existing borrow source
• Can
be excavated by excavator/dozer Accessible
37+ 0479334
BP9 63+000 0.3km LHS
Qty: >100,000
0609085 • Ideal
•

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GPS Offset/
Ref. No. Chain age
•
Gravel size marble mixed with reddish clayey
silt
37+ 0479850 Alongside of • Can
be excavated by dozer/excavator Existing borrow material Accessible
BP10 68+540
0603851 the road
Qty: >40,000
• Ideal
for fill material source
•
•
Reddish clayey silt mixed with gravel size
marble Existing borrow source

37+ 479690 Alongside of • Can
BP11 69+300
Accessible
0603160 the road
• Ideal
for fill material source Qty > 40,000
•

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In order to assess suitability of gravel materials for replacement of weak sub
grade, embankment work, capping layer and
sub-base layer construction, tests were undertaken on the collected samples and
compared with the requirements of ERA
technical specification 2013.
As per ERA specification manual 2013 granular sub base material should have a
smooth continuous grading within the
limits for grading envelope of Table 5104/1. The table is used as a reference
grading for assessing the conformity of the
borrow area to ERA grading specification requirements.
The grain size distribution of majority borrow sources are finer than ERA
specification. This grain size distribution will be
adjusted during production period or during construction compaction so as to
satisfy the required specification. However,
grading of material has not been considered as a major factor in assessing
conformance with specification requirements
during design stage. The key factor that largely dictates during the design stage
is strength and other relevant material
properties such as PI, CBR and others.
The minimum soaked Californian Bearing Ratio (CBR) of granular sub base materials
which will be used in Kebremengest
– Bule Kero road project shall be 30% and CBR-swell <2% when determined in
accordance with the requirements of
AASHTO T-193. As it shown from the test result, station 10+700, 11+700, 29+800,
59+300 and 63+000 borrow sources
satisfy specification requirement of sub base material for CBR and CBR swell value
requirement. Furthermore, the
maximum Dry density (MDD) of these sources is generally higher, this is due to
granular/rocky nature of borrow materials
The criteria of Plasticity Index of natural gravel sub-base materials is dependent

on the climate nature of the project area.
For Kebremengest – Bule Kero, the requirements for sub base material shall be of
liquid limit <45, Plasticity index <12%
and Linear Shrinkage <6%. As shown from the test result, the borrow sources at
station 10+700, 11+700, 29+800, 59+300
and 63+000 have PI and LL value near to the upper margin of specification
requirement. This may have happened due to
the overburden material on the upper layer. The plasticity values obtained from the
sources will be improved in depth
during deep excavation using heavy machines.
By controlling the amount of fine material/ (screening and blending in controlled

amount using earth work machineries),
station 29+800 and 63+000 borrow sources can be used as sub base construction
material. The blending of the materials
is undertaken to produce acceptable specification values.
On the other hand, it is difficult to obtain well graded natural gravel. Hence, it
is advisable to process the naturally occurring
materials to improve gradation and PI in such a way that it meets with basic
requirements set by ERA’s Technical
Specification-2013.
In addition to the above recommendations, crushed and breakdown of fresh rock mixed
with granular material is required
to improve the CBR/grading and also re-processing is required by mixing and
blending with crushed material to reduce
the plasticity index.

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Table 5- 16: - Summary of Test Results for Borrow Sources
Shrinkage (%)
Atterberg
% Passing Sieve (mm)
AASHTO
Limits (%) MDD OMC CBR-Swell CBR at 95%
Linear
Class
Station (Km)
(g/cm3) (%) (%) MDD

37.5 19 4.75 0.425
0.075 LL PI
5+300 RHS Offset 50m 78 60 45 25 22
36 15 5.11 A-2-6 1.93 13 1.85 21.0
10+700 LHS Offset 2Km 100 78 56 35 22
42 24 5.03 A-2-7 2.00 11 0.39 32.0
11+700 RHS Offset 2km 57 47 36 22 17
33 6 5.11 A-1-b 1.92 10 1.68 33.0
13+760 LHS 100 100 100 91 76
39 17 6.57 A-6 1.70 20 1.84 19.0
29+800RHS Offset 5.3km 100 73 42 26 16
29 19 5.64 A-2-4 1.98 11 0.35 62.0
34+800 RHS Offset 600m 62 50 35 26 20
33 18 4.38 A-2-6 1.92 16 0.66 9.0
55+100 LHS 53 16 7 7 6
46 15 9.49 A-2-7 1.46 21 0.78 21.0
59+300 LHS Offset 4.5Km 100 96 83 63 36
NP NP NP A-4 2.07 5 0.50 40.0
63+000 LHS Offset 300m 100 76 49 23 18
36 16 4.45 A-2-6 2.10 8 0.44 57.0
69+300 LHS 100 79 40 11 8
34 1 8.03 2.17 8 0.69 10.0
70 50 30 11
5 <6
specification of Sub base
<45 <12
>30
100 100 100 56
25

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5.6.4 Natural Sand Sources /Fine Aggregates
Sand will be required for concrete and mortar works. The project road requires
considerable numbers of relief structures
so as to keep normal flow of water. Despite the need for a large quantity of sand
for the intended works it is difficult to find
potential natural sand source within the project road corridor.
However, it is recommended that use of crusher run sand (material passing the
4.75mm sieve from the crusher site) shall
be the most likely solution to avoid facing such problems for all concrete and
masonry works.
5.6.5 Water Sources for Construction
As per ERA manual the water source should have to be clean and free from
detrimental concentration of acids, alkalis,
urine, salts, sugar, and other organic or chemical substances. The PH value of all
tested samples shows that they are
within ERA’s specification limits for concrete works. The results of the chemical
analysis also revealed that the amount of
the total dissolved solids (TDS), the Sulfate content and the Chloride content are
much lower than the maximum limit sated
in ERA’s specification requirements.
As seen during the site investigation stage, rivers along the route are: - clean,
free from industrial wastes and can also be
used for the construction activity. The test result of water samples, along with
the corresponding specification requirements
are given in Table 5-17 below.
Table 5- 17: Summary of Laboratory Test Results of Water Sources
Total Dissolved
sulfate Content Chloride Content
Sr. No. Source & Station PH Value
Solids (TDS)
(mg/L) (mg/L)
1 13+900 893 7.32

61.73 102.66
2 43+000 825 7.31

69.96 46.09
Specification 2000 7-9

500 400
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Photo 5- 8: Water Source (14+300)

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6. Hydrology / Hydraulic Design Standards and Data Collection
6.1 General
The preliminary hydrological study and drainage analysis/design has conducted to
determine the location, types and sizes
of the appropriate structures for cross drainage structures and storm drains for
Adolawayu-Bule Kero. The hydrological
analysis deals with design peak flood estimation. There are many methods developed
for computation of the design flood
but their applicability depends mainly on the availability of hydrological data.
Most of the methods have parameters which
depend on climate and morphological condition of the watershed area. The climate
data like rainfall, stream flow and
intensity record were collected and analyzed. Topographic map, images, land
uses/land cover and geological & soil maps
and field inspection data were examined. Then the design discharge is estimated by
employing appropriate method of
runoff computation which depends on the size of watershed area & available data.
Based on the output of preliminary
hydrological study, hydraulic analysis and observed site condition, the capacities
of structures were checked. New
structures are proposed where required to replace inadequate structures or to
install at location where addition crossing
structures were required.
This study will make assessment of the project road with respect to the
hydrological and hydraulic conditions and the
structural requirements at crossing sites. The following section is in short
explain how the concept study, site and desktop
study is takes place and shows below with sections.
6.2 Review of Existing Data and Maps

Through the site investigation, identifying the hydrology/hydraulic condition of
each major and minor drainage structure,
land use and land curve of the project area, major soil classification of each
river crossing and river bed material of each
stream crossing and identify flooding section along the route was assessed
thoroughly by visual observations on site.
These observations were supplemented with local inquiries
A. Maps, aerial photos and satellite imagery: The followings were used:
• Topographic maps scales 1:250,000 and 1: 50,000 along all road alignment,
major and minor rivers catchments
crossing the road - Ethiopian Mapping Agency (EMA). The list of 1:50,000
Topographic Maps used are:
• Soil Map and Land use/land cover map scale 1:1,000,000 of Ethiopia -
Ministry of Agriculture
• Digital elevation model (DEM) 90x90m and 30x30m - (SRTM)- Shuttle Radar
Topographic Mission.
• ERA DDM-2002 and 2013, other Standard Manuals and Reference.
6.2.1 Hydrologic Soil type
The soil types of the project watershed area have determined from soil map of the
Ethiopia map, The Hydrologic Soil
Group of the watershed area has been extracted from the digitized soil map of
Ethiopia, as shown below in the Figure 6-
1. The project watershed area is dominated with Chromic Vertisols, Chromic Luvisols
and Chromic Cambisols with
Hydrologic soil group -B, and D.

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:-
Figure 6- 1: Major Soil Classification of the Project watershed area
6.2.2 Vegetation and Land Use.

The land use data of the drainage areas which cross the road were extracted from
the map acquired from the Ministry of
Agriculture. Watershed area for major crossings/ bridges are dominated with bushed
shrub and Grass land and, as shown
in Figure 6-2 below. Land use is the catchment area cover, and it includes both
agricultural and non-agricultural.
The SCS uses a combination of soil conditions and land-use (ground cover) to assign
a runoff factor to an area. These
runoff factors, called runoff curve numbers (CN), indicate the runoff potential of
an area. The higher the CN, the higher is
the runoff potential.

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Figure 6- 2:- Land use and Land Cover of the Project Watershed Area
6.2.3 Topography
Topographic data shall be acquired at sites requiring hydraulic studies. These data
are needed to analyze existing flow
conditions, and those created by various design alternatives. Significant physical
and cultural features near the project
shall be located and documented in order to obtain their elevation. Features such
as residences, commercial buildings,
schools, churches, mosque, farms, other roadways and bridges, and utilities can
affect, as well as be affected by, the
design of any new hydraulic structure. Often, recent topographic surveys will not
be available at this early stage of project
development. Aerial photographs, photogrammetric maps, Ethiopian Mapping Authority
topographic maps, and even old
highway plans may be utilized during the planning and location phases. When better
survey data become available, usually
during the design phase, these early estimates will need to be revised to
correspond with the most recent field information.
6.2.4 Site Visit findings

6.2.4.1 Major Crossing
Through Detail Site Investigation, On the Detail Design of km 0+000-to km75+000
Road there are three Existing River
Bridge has been identified during detail site visit, especially at km 14+180, there
is newly constructed river bridge will be
retained as it is as shown below, and the remaining will hydraulically have
evaluated on the Preliminary and Detail Design
based on this the following photo shows below Existing of Major River Bridge
structure.

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April 2020
Photo 6- 1: Bridge Mermera River at Station 43+310
Photo 6- 2: Bridge at Hawata River at station 14+180

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April 2020
Photo 6- 3: Bridge Haye Dima at Station 60+800

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6.2.4.2 Minor Drainage Crossing
The project is dominantly pass through flat, rolling and ridge sections. A number
of existing Minor Pipe Culvert has been
identified which generally serve as relief and crossing of localized and main
stream, and around five inaccessible slab
culverts that are covered with vegetation were observed during site visit. The
Photo 6-4 presented below shows Typical
of Minor Drainage Crossing Along the Route.
SC@ Sta. km58+140 BC-@ Sta. km 28+200
SC @Sta. km19+190 SC@Sta. km 58+900

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April 2020
Typical pipe culvert Typical pipe Culvert
Silted up typical Pipe culvert Double cell Pipe

culvert
Photo 6- 4: Typical Minor drainages along the route

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6.2.4.3 Side Drainage
The road alignment traced from km 2+400 to km 14+000 was newly constructed. Hence
the road side drainage system
for this section currently serves effectually for the rural section. The following
photo 6-5 and 6-6 presents the way how the
side drainage for rural and town sections shall be designed.
Photo 6- 5: Concrete Side Drainage from Shakiso -Dollo
Photo 6- 6: Shakiso Town Drainage
6.3 HYDROLOGICAL AND HYDRAULIC TASKS CARRIED OUT

Through the site investigation, identifying the hydrology/hydraulic condition of
each major and minor drainage structure,
land use and land curve of the project area, major soil classification of each
river crossing and river bed material of each
stream crossing and identify flooding section along the route was assessed
thoroughly by visual observations on site.
These observations were supplemented with local inquiries.

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6.4 HYDROLOGICAL DESIGN STANDARD CRITERIA
The Hydrological Analysis of this concept Study is carried out as recommended by
ERA Drainage Design Manual
(ERADDM, 2013) and other acceptable hydrologic models which are suited for a
particular Catchment areas standard has
also been used. The basic and governing methods have been used ERA DDM, 2013 to
calculate the peak discharge
depending on the size of the catchment area:
• Identification of all catchment areas using 1:50,000 scale topographic map
Supported by 30x30 m DEM shown
below.
• Land use /land and major hydrological soil cover of the project area
presented on Figure 6-2 & 6-3
• Rainfall time-intensity-frequency relationships as developed by ERA DDM,
2013.
• Manual (Rainfall Regime B1) will be used for specific project area.
• For catchments areas less than 0.5 Km2, Rational Method has been adopted and
• For catchments areas more than 0.5 Km2, SCS Unit Hydrograph has adopted
• HEC RAS. WMS, HY-8 and ARC-GIS 10 has been Used
6.4.1 Return Periods (Design Frequency)
The frequency of the flood for the design of drainage structures depends on the
risk with which a given flood can be
expected to occur is the reciprocal of the probability or chance that the flood
will be equaled or exceeded in a given year.
The drainage facilities have been designed for recurrence interval as shown on the
following Table 6-1, as per Drainage
Design Manual of ERADDM, 2013 recommendation for the design standard of DC-5 road
classification.
Table 6- 1- Design Storm Frequency (Yrs.) by Geometric Design Criteria (Road

Standard) (Adopted from ERA, 2013)
Structure Type DC6/DC5

DC4/DC3
Design Check
Design Check
Gutters and Inlets* 5/5 10/10

5/ 10/5
Side Ditches 5/5 10/10

5/2 10/5
Ford/Low-Water Bridge ---- ----

--- ---
Culvert, pipe (see Note) Span<2m 10/10 25/25

10/5 25/10
Culvert, 2m<span <6m 25/25 50/50

25/10 50/25
Short Span Bridges 6m<span<15m 25/25 50/50

25/10 50/25
Medium Span Bridges 15m<span<50m 50/50 100/100

50/25 100/50
Long Span Bridges spans>50m 50/50 100/100

50/25 100/50

PLC 95
(RAP) and
April 2020
6.4.2 Departures from Standards
The Hydrological and Hydraulic analysis of This Project has no depart from the
Design standard of ERA DDM-2013.
6.5 Hydrological Analysis

6.5.1 General
The hydrological analysis deals with the peak design flood estimation. There are
many methods developed for computation
of the design flood but their applicability depends mainly on the availability of
hydrological data.
The rainfall and stream flow data were collected and analyzed. Also, topographic
maps, aerial photographs, land uses/land
cover, soil maps and field inspection data were analyzed and investigated under
hydrological study.
The design discharges were computed using appropriate rainfall-runoff model. Of ERA
DDM-2013, and the Waterway
area of drainage facilities (cross and longitudinal drainage structures) were
determined by hydraulic computation. The
hydraulic dimensions/opening area should pass safely the design flood. The ERA
Drainage Design Manual 2013 has been
used as a guide line.
6.5.2 Watershed area Delineation

The watershed area characteristics extensively studied using site investigation and
topographic maps, (Data regarding
catchment areas) i.e. watershed size and shape, stream slope, stream length and
land slope were determined from DEM
data 30mx30m resolution.
The catchment areas of each watershed on the whole route corridor were delineated
from DEM data of 30mx30m
resolution. The sizes of each catchment area were determined using Arc GIS
software; the delineated catchment areas
and mainstream were properly correlated with the current condition by using goggle
earth images.
Catchments area, stream length and stream slope are determined from Digital
Elevation Model (DEM) using Global
mapper v 15 package. The road routes have been delineated from 30*30m resolution
digital elevation model through ARC
GIS hydrologic modelling tool. As shown in Figure.6-3 below.

PLC 96
(RAP) and
April 2020
Figure 6- 3:- Water shade Area of the Project Area
6.5.3 Rainfall - Runoff Models and Flood Estimation Method

As per the ERA DDM 2013 the following rainfall/runoff methods has been applied for
flood estimation:
• SCS dimensionless hydrograph for catchment areas greater than 0.5 km2
• Rational method for catchment areas less than 0.5 km2
The design standard of the project road is DC-5 and thus, according to ERA DDM the
recommended design flood returns
period for the subject project.
6.5.3.1 Rational Method

The Rational Method is most accurate for estimating the design storm peak runoff
for areas up to 50 ha (0.5 km 2). The
Method can be applied to small rural catchments if they do not exceed 0.5 km 2 as
per ERADDM. The consequences of
applying the Rational Method to larger catchments is to produce an over estimate of
discharge and a non-conservative
design.
The rational formula is expressed as:
Q = 0.278CCf I A
Where:
Q = Maximum rate of runoff, m3/s
C = Runoff coefficient representing a ratio of runoff to rainfall (Table 6-3,
below)

PLC 97
(RAP) and
April 2020
Cf = Frequency factor (Table 6-2, below)
I = Rainfall intensity for a duration equal to the time of concentration and for
design return period, mm/hr.
A = catchment area tributary to the design location, km2
I. Runoff Coefficient (C)
Values shown in Table 6-2, below are stipulated in ERADDM for determination of C
(for non-urban catchments), depending
on terrain type and hydrologic soil grouping.
Table 6- 2: Runoff Coefficients, C Value (Adopted from ERA, 2013 and FHWA manual)
Factor Description
Runoff coefficient
<3.5% Flat
0.05
3.5% - 10% Soft to moderate
0.10
Cs Average slope of catchment 10% - 25% Rolling
0.15
25%-45% Hilly
0.2
>45% Mountainous
0.25
Well drained soil e.g. sand and gravel
0.05
Fair drained soil e.g sand and gravel
with fines 0.10
Cp Permeability of Soil Poorly drained soil e.g silt
0.15
Impervious soil e.g clay, organic silts
and clay 0.25
Water-logged black cotton soil Rock
0.50
Dense first/thick bush

0.05
Sparse forest/dense grass
0.10
Grassland/scrub
0.15
Cv Vegetation
Cultivation
0.20
Space grassland
0.25
Barren
0.30
C = Cs + Cp + Cv
II. Design Rainfall Data and Rainfall Intensity.

PLC 98
(RAP) and
April 2020
The hydrological study requires determination of design rainfall and rainfall
intensities-duration frequencies of the project
areas. These data were taken directly from ERADDM-2013 for the preliminary
hydrological study. The ERADDM divided
the country into eight different hydrological (rainfall) region. The project area
is located under B-2 rainfall region as shown
on Figure 6-4 below the rainfall region map is located in the Wet region.
The ERADDM divides the country into different rainfall regions and for each
provides Intensity - Duration - Frequency IDF
curves, and the Road project lies on rainfall region B2. We have used the rainfall
depth value and IDF curve of the
respective region as per ERA DDM.
Figure 6- 4: Rainfall Region of Project area

PLC 99
(RAP) and
April 2020
Figure 6- 5:- Intensity Duration curve (IDF) Region B2
III. Time of Concentration

The rainfall intensity used in the rational method is determined from the time of
concentration (Tc). Tc is defined as the
time required for surface runoff water to flow hydraulically from the remotest
point of the catchment to the point of exit.
Tc = 0.0147* L1.155 H-0.385 (Kirpich /SCS Equation)

Where
Tc = time of concentration, minutes
L = maximum length of flow, m
H = elevation difference between the most remote and outlet, m
IV. Frequency Factor

As per ERADDM, the frequency factor is used to magnify the less frequent storms,
i.e. storms with recurrence interval
greater than 10yr. Table 6-3. shows the frequency factor values.

PLC 100
(RAP) and
April 2020
Table 6- 3: (ERA DDM-2013) Frequency Factors for Rational Formula
Recurrence Interval (years) Cf.
5 1.0
10 1.0
25 1.1
50 1.2
100 1.25
6.5.3.2 SCS Unit Hydrograph Method

This method is developed by the U. S. Soil Conservation Service for calculating
rates of runoff and requires the same
basic data as the Rational Method: catchment area, a runoff factor, time of
concentration, and rainfall. The SCS approach,
however, is more sophisticated in that it considers also the time distribution of
the rainfall, the initial rainfall losses to
interception and depression storage, and an infiltration rate that decreases during
the course of a storm. With the SCS
method, the direct runoff can be calculated for any storm, either real or
fabricated, by subtracting infiltration and other
losses from the rainfall to obtain the precipitation excess.
I. Peak 24 hr. Rainfall Data

The SCS method is based on a 24-hour storm event which has a Type II-time
distribution. The Type II storm distribution
is a typical time distribution which the SCS has prepared from rainfall records. It
is applicable for interior rather than the
coastal regions and should be appropriate for Ethiopia. To use this distribution,
it is necessary for the user to obtain the
24-hour rainfall value for the frequency of the design storm desired.

PLC 101
(RAP) and
April 2020
Table 6- 4: Peak -24hr Rainfall Depth Vs Frequency
II. Rainfall – Runoff equation

A relationship between accumulated rainfall and accumulated runoff was derived by
SCS from experimental plots for
numerous hydrologic and vegetative cover conditions. Data for land-treatment
measures, such as contouring and
terracing, from experimental catchment areas were included. The equation was
developed mainly for small catchment
areas for which daily rainfall and catchment area data are ordinarily available. It
was developed from recorded storm data
that included total amount of rainfall in a calendar day but not its distribution
with respect to time. The SCS runoff equation
is therefore a method of estimating direct runoff from 24-hour or 1-day storm
rainfall. The equation is:
(P − Ia)2
𝑄=
(P − Ia) + S
Where:
Q = accumulated direct runoff, mm
P = accumulated rainfall (potential maximum runoff), mm
Ia= initial abstraction including surface storage, interception, and infiltration
prior to runoff, mm
S = potential maximum retention, mm
The relationship between Ia and S was developed from experimental catchment area
data. It removes the necessity for
estimating Ia for common usage.

PLC 102
(RAP) and
April 2020
The empirical relationship used in the SCS runoff equation is:
Ia = 0.2*S
Substituting 0.2*S for Ia, the SCS rainfall-runoff equation becomes:
(P − 0.2 ∗ S)2
𝑄=
(P + 0.8 ∗ S)
S is related to the soil and cover conditions of the catchment area through the CN.
CN has a range of 0 to 100, and S is
related to CN by:
25400
S=
CN − 254
III. Runoff Factors
Runoff is rainfall excess or effective rainfall - the amount by which rainfall
exceeds the capability of the land to infiltrate or
otherwise retain the rainwater. The principal physical catchment area
characteristics affecting the relationship between
rainfall and runoff are land use, land treatment, soil types, and land slope.
6.5.4 Runoff Curve Numbers

The ERA Design Manual gives a series of tables related to runoff factors. The
tables are based on an average antecedent
moisture condition, i.e., soils that are neither very wet nor very dry when the
design storm begins. Curve numbers shall be
selected only after a field inspection of the catchment area and a review of cover
type and soil maps. Care shall be taken
in the selection of curve numbers (CN's). Use a representative average curve
number, CN, for the catchment area.
Selection of overly conservative CN’s will result in the estimation of excessively
high runoff and consequently excessively
costly drainage structures. Selection of conservatively high values for all runoff
variables results in compounding the runoff
estimation. It is better to use average values and design for a longer storm
frequency.
Runoff Curve Numbers (CN): - Based on the above land use, land cover and
Hydrological soil group and also type of AMC
of the project area Found in rainfall region of B1 which is Wet Rainfall region,
due to this the average CN of the project
has CN=78 adopted for hydrological analysis.
IV. Time of Concentration (Tc)

Time of concentration (Tc) is the time for runoff to travel from the hydraulically
most distant point of the catchment area to
a point of interest within the catchment area. Tc for the river bridge hydrology is
computed by using Kirpich time of
concentration formula shown below. Kirpich assumes that the catchment coverage is
Agricultural area, well-drained soil
and steep watershed slope.
Tc = 0.0147* L1.155 S-0.385 (Kirpich SCS Equation)

Where
Tc = time of concentration (min)
L = length of overland flow (m)

PLC 103
(RAP) and
April 2020
H = elevation difference between the most remote and outlet, m
V. Ia/p Parameter
Ia/p is a parameter that is necessary to estimate peak discharge rates. Ia denotes
the initial abstraction and p is the 24-
hour rainfall depth for a selected return period. The 24 -hour rainfall depth is
taken from the frequency analysis resulted
obtained above in Table 6-4. For a given 24-hour rainfall distribution Ia/P
represents the fraction of rainfall that must occur
before runoff begins.
VI. Peak Discharge Estimation

The following equation were used for the estimation of the peak discharge in SCS
method
qp =qu*A*Q
Where qp = peak discharge, m3/s
qu = unit peak discharge, m3/s/km2/mm
A = drainage area, Km2
Q = depth of runoff, mm
The unit peak discharge is obtained from the following equation, which requires the
time of concentration (tc) in hours and
the initial abstraction rainfall (Ia/p) ration as input:
2
qu = ∝ ∗ 10𝐶𝑜+𝐶1𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑡𝑐+𝐶2(𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑡𝑐)
Where Co, C1 and C2 = regression coefficients given in Table 6-5 for various Ia/p
ratios:
∝ = unit conversion factor equal to 0.000431 in SI unit.

PLC 104
(RAP) and
April 2020
Table 6- 5: Coefficients for SCS Peak Discharge Method
Rainfall Type Ia/P C0 C1

C2
0.1 2.55323
-0.61512 -0.16403
0.3 2.46532
-0.62257 -0.11657
0.35 2.41896
-0.61594 -0.0882
II
0.4 2.36409
-0.59857 -0.05621
0.45 2.29238
-0.57005 -0.02281
0.5 2.20282
-0.51599 -0.01259
The result of hydrological design / peak flood computation using SCS method and
Rational is presented in Appendix -6-1
A&B Rational and SCS Method
6.6 Hydraulic Analysis

6.6.1 General
The chief aim of this task was to determine the preliminary opening sizes of the
drainage structures from the rate of flood
runoff (discharge) and the volume of runoff that will pass through the culverts and
bridge.
This method deploys the hydraulic characteristics of the stream influencing the
maximum discharge, such as velocity of
flow, slope of the stream, cross sectional area of the stream and shape and
roughness of the stream. This method will be
used for major streams to compute the design flood levels at crossing sites after
the design discharges have been
estimated by the hydrological methods of either the SCS Unit Hydrograph Method or
modified rational methods and
compared with the observed flood marks.
6.6.2 Manning’s Formula of Hydraulic Analysis

This method deploys the hydraulic characteristics of the stream influencing the
maximum discharge, such as velocity of
flow, slope of the stream, cross sectional area of the stream and shape and
roughness of the stream. This method is used
for the design flood levels at crossing sites after the design discharges have been
estimated by the hydrological methods
of the SCS Unit Hydrograph Method. Cross-Sections of the crossing sites have been
determined by the survey.
Accordingly, the following Manning’s equation is used for high-water computations:
2 1
1
Q = n ∗ R3 ∗ S 2 ∗ A
Where:
Q = Discharge in [m3/sec]
R = Hydraulic mean depth [m] = A/P
A = Cross-sectional flow area [m2]
P = Wetted perimeter [m]

PLC 105
(RAP) and
April 2020
S = Longitudinal bed slope [%]
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient
6.6.3 Bridge Design Criteria

The following are the criteria related to the hydraulic analyses for the
sufficiency of the bridge. Simple spread sheet and
HEC-RAS software has been used for the analysis.
Design Floods: For purposes of the evaluation of backwater (afflux), clearance, and
overtopping, design floods has been
established.
Backwater: Backwater and/or increases over existing condition up to 0.5 m during
the passage of the 100-year flood, if
practicable. Further, backwater shall not significantly increase flood damage to
property upstream of the crossing.
Clearance: A minimum clearance conforming to the requirements of the Bridge Design
manual shall be provided between
the design approach water surface elevation and the low chord (soffit) of the
bridge to allow for passage of debris.
Clearance (free board) will be according to ERA’s Bridge Design Manual 2013.
6.6.4 Culvert Design Criteria

For the design of small drainage structures, i.e. culverts less than 2m, the use of
inlet control with a ratio of upstream head
and the height of culvert of 1.2 has been used, which is lower than the 1.5
recommended in the DDM,2013. This yields
approximately the optimum hydraulic section, and was used for determining the
height of embankment over the culvert
taking the norms for freeboard into account.
The following design limitations are required for the culverts.

Allowable Headwater is the depth of water that can be pounded at the upstream end
of the culvert that will be limited by
one or more of the following:
➢ Non-damaging to upstream property;
➢ No higher than the shoulder or 0.3 m below the edge of shoulder;
➢ Equal to an HW/D not greater than 1.5;
➢ Not higher than the low point in the road grade; and/or
➢ Equal to the elevation where flow diverts around the culvert.
The types of culverts considered in this concept design are reinforced concrete
pipes and slab culverts shall be used.
The hydraulic computation of culverts & cross drainage schedules has been
presented in Appendix 6-2 and Appendix 6-
3 For Minor and Major Culverts respectively.
6.6.5 Ditches-longitudinal Drainage

A roadside ditch is defined as an open channel paralleling the highway embankment
within the limits of the highway right-
of-way. Its primary function is to collect runoff from the highway and areas
adjacent to the right-of-way and to transport
this accumulated water to an acceptable outlet point. A secondary function of a
roadside ditch is to drain the base of the
roadway to prevent saturation and loss of support for the pavement.

PLC 106
(RAP) and
April 2020
Flood frequencies for the design of ditches and ditch linings for rural roadways
are given in ERA drainage Design Manual
and it recommends 10yr return period for DC5 road standard.
The Design discharges in the ditches were calculated using rational formula.
𝐴
𝑄 =𝑐∗𝐼∗
3.6
Where:
Q = Peak Discharge in m3/s for T years return period.
C = Runoff coefficient,
A = Area (km2) of the basin intercepted by the ditch
I = Rainfall intensity
The Manning formula was used for determination of ditch Size
1 2 1
𝑄= ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝑅3 ∗ 𝑆 2
𝑛
Where:
Q = Capacity of ditch for 10 years return period flood [m3/sec]
A = Cross sectional area of the ditch [m2]
V = Velocity of flow [m/sec]
R = Hydraulic radius A/P
P = wetted perimeter in m
S = Average longitudinal slope [m/m]
The design discharge (runoff) in the ditch is computed based on the following
assumptions.
6.7 Summary of Drainage Requirements from field investigation and Preliminary

analyses
6.7.1 Major River Crossing Structure
As per Detail Site Investigation and Desk study, Three Major River Stream Crossing
Which demands Bridge crossing
structure to pass the Peak Incoming 0yr and 100yr Discharge were identified. As per
the study, two of the major River
shall be replaced with the appropriate Hydraulically opt pot while the remaining at
km 14+180 shall be retained as it is,
because it is newly constructed and Hydraulically efficient. The following Table 6-
6 shows summary of Hydrological and
Hydraulic recommendation.

PLC 107
(RAP) and
April 2020
Table 6- 6:-Summary of Hydrological analysis of Major River Crossing
Location River Data Design Discharge

No. Catchment
Station Design Slope Q5yr Q10yr
Q25yr Q50yr Q100yr
Area (Km2)
1 14+180 1088.0 0.0 529.2 661.5

826.9 1033.6 1292.0
2 43+310 1261.4 0.1 19.1 24.9

33.0 39.7 46.4
3 60+800 95.2 0.0 12.0 145.1

189.3 249.8 299.8
Table 6- 7:- Summary of Hydraulically analysis of Major River Crossing
Location Design Opening Size Existing opening

Size
No. Type of
Design
Design Design Design
No. of
Station No. of Cell Structur
Clear
Span Clear Depth Span
Cell
e
Depth Remark
2*20+4
14+180 Bridge
1 60.0 3.20 1 0
>5 1 KEEP
2 43+310 24.0 4.80 1 Bridge 24

4.5 1 REPLACE
3 60+800 16.0 2.60 1
new Location
6.7.2 Minor Crossing Culvert Structures

As per thoroughly site investigation of the drainage pattern incorporating the
flood plains & the expected discharges the
number of cross drainage structures that are required to ize the project road.
Accordingly, the cross drainage structures expected to be provided are, eighteen
slab culverts, two box culverts and 120
pipe culverts. The following Table 6-8 shows summary of hydrological and hydraulic
analysis and recommendations of
Adollawayu-Bule Kero Road Project. Detail slab, box and pipe culverts have been
presented on Appendix-II-C.

PLC 108
(RAP) and
April 2020
Table 6- 8:- Summary of Hydrological analysis recommendations of Slab and Box
culvert of the Project
Location River Data Design Discharge

No. Catchment Design
Station Q5yr Q10yr
Q25yr Q50yr Q100yr
Area (Km2) Slope
1 3+677 94.5 3.8% 119.5 149.4

186.8 233.4 291.8
2 7+400 6.7 3.2% 24.7 32.3

42.7 51.4 60.2
3 10+137 3.1 4.0% 14.6 19.1

25.3 30.4 35.5
4 10+220 0.7 4.6% 5.1 6.6
8.7 10.5 12.2
6 17+280 1.3 0.3% 9.2 12.0

15.8 18.9 22.1
7 19+150 33.3 3.3% 93.8 17.3
22.9 27.6 32.3
8 23+840 2.9 5.0% 13.3 17.3

22.9 27.6 32.3
9 27+820 20.7 5.0% 58.2 76.1
100.7 121.2 141.7
10 33+700 16.5 5.0% 46.3 60.6
80.2 96.5 112.9
11 35+193 2.5 5.0% 16.1 21.1

27.9 33.5 39.1
13 45+100 4.1 5.0% 19.1 24.9

33.0 39.7 46.4
14 46+900 0.6 5.0% 4.9 6.4
8.4 10.1 11.7
15 49+350 2.9 5.0% 17.0 22.2

29.3 35.3 41.2
16 49+900 1.4 5.0% 9.2 12.0
15.9 19.1 22.3
17 50+670 3.7 5.0% 22.8 29.8

39.3 47.3 55.2
18 58+720 8.5 5.0% 27.9 36.5

48.4 58.2 68.1
19 59+100 1.6 5.0% 10.6 13.8
18.3 21.9 25.6
20 60+500 1.2 4.6% 8.7 11.4

15.0 18.0 21.1

PLC 109
Assessment (EIA) Studies, Concept Engineering Design, Resettlement Action
Plan (RAP) and
April 2020
Table 6- 9:- Summary of Hydraulic analysis recommendations of Slab and Box
culvert of the Project
Location Design Opening Size

Existing opening Size
No. Type of Design Clear No. of Type of Design

Diam. No. of
Station
Depth
Structure Span Depth Cell Structure Span
(Inch) Cell Remark
1 3+677 BC 4.0 2.00 3 SC 2

1.5 1 REPLACED
2 7+400 SC 6.0 2.50 1 SC 2

1.5 1 keep
3 10+137 SC 6.0 2.00 1 SC 2

2 1 keep
4 10+220 SC 3.0 1.75 1 SC 2

1.5 1 keep
6 17+280 SC 4.0 1.75 1
NEW
7 19+150 BC 4.0 2.50 3

NEW
8 23+840 SC 5.0 2.00 1 SC

Inaccessible Replaced
9 27+820 BC 4.0 2.00 2

NEW
10 33+700 BC 4.0 2.00 2 PC
30 2 Replaced
11 35+193 SC 6.0 2.00 1 PC

36 2 Replaced
13 45+100 SC 6.0 2.00 1 PC

30 2 Replaced
14 46+900 SC 3.0 1.75 1 PC
30 1 Replaced
15 49+350 SC 4.0 2.50 1 PC

30 1 Replaced
16 49+900 SC 4.0 1.75 1
NEW
17 50+670 SC 4.0 2.50 1
NEW
18 58+720 SC 6.0 2.50 1 SC 3

3 1 REPLACED
19 59+100 SC 5.0 1.75 1 SC 2.5
1.5 1 REPLACED
20 60+500 SC 4.0 1.75 2

NEW
6.7.3 Side Drain Recommendations

The main objective of side drain is to servers as open channel which will be
used to collect and dispose water at the side
of the road from contribute Area.
The Hydrological calculation has been done based of Rational Runoff

computations with considering the Average
Contribute area and longitudinal length and runoff coefficient.

Solutions PLC 110
(RAP) and
April 2020
Paved and Unpaved trapezoidal side ditch shall be provided along road depending
upon geometric considerations
(longitudinal slope) is less than 4% and as the longitudinal slope exceeds 4%,
paved trapezoidal side ditch provided on
the project area. and Above 6%.
Interception channels also used to intercept the incoming water from the catchment
area or the runoff from the hillside
before it reaches the roadway and dispose it to the nearby drainage outlet safely
in conditions where it may not be possible
to pass the incoming water at the natural road crossing position due to deep cut
(geometric design output).
Bench drain also consider where the drainage found on the bench of cut section
specially soil formation strata.
The following Table6-10 shows summary of side drain Vs terrain classification and
road gradient
Table 6- 10:-Summary of Side drain
longitudinal
Terrain Type Depth width
Side slope material
slope
Flat, and Rolling <4% or >4% 0.6/0.6 0.0/0.4

1H:1V Earthen/paved
Mountainous and escarpment <6% 0.6 0.4

1H:1V Grouted stone pitching
Mountainous and escarpment >6% 0.5 0.6
Concrete
Bench Ditch 0.25 1.0

Grouted stone pitching
Furrow Ditch (interceptor Ditch) 0.75 0.6

2H:1V Earthen
Town Section 0.8 Variable
Masonry
6.7.4 Recommendation
Thought detail desk study and site investigation, the following main point has been
concluded and recommended for
Adollawayu –Bule Kero Concept Design Road Project.
➢ For sections from km 3+300 to km 14+400, the road passes though the newly
constructed Road Alignment and
the Major and Minor crossing structures except at one location, all shall be
Retained, and if required widening
shall be done.
➢ Shakiso Town Section Drainage system shall be Synchronized with the Town
Development and Grid.
➢ A number of minor crossing pipe culvert with size of 30”, which have been
identified during detailed site
investigation; shall be replaced with the appropriate standard Pipe Culvert
size.
➢ Majorly the Road passes through rolling section and all Major and Minor
Crossing Structure had been easily
identified.

PLC 111
(RAP) and
April 2020
7. Geotechnical Concept Design
These sections of a design standard are covered under ERA Pavement design manual
-2013 Volume –I Flexible Pavement
and gravel roads, and ERA Site Investigation Manual of 2002.
For design of Embankments, Protection of the completed embankment slopes is given

importance under this section.
7.1 Design of Earth work

Geotechnical issues cover all works in connection with the protection of earth
works with regarding to the considerations
of including excavations for embankments, slopes, road bed and sub grade from the
effect of surface and subsurface
drainage especially for the road construction in escarpment and mountain areas. As
it indicated in ERA standard technical
specifications 2002, Division 4000, the earth work shall be protected from the
weather at all the times. The compacted
layers of fill and the bottom of excavations needs adequately drained and shaped to
prevent water standing on or scoring
the completed layer or the in-situ material.
All water parts of road which has been impede the free drainage of water as an
earth dam should be provided with
appropriate crossing or under drainage.
7.1.1 Embankment design along the escarpment

The construction of high fill at sag curve or approach to the structures on the
mountain side requires special techniques to
prevent the development of excessive pore water pressure and ensure the stability
of such fills during and after
construction. Bottom of the fill needs all necessary geotechnical solution.
7.2 Finishing of slopes

The slope of cutting and embankment should be designed to avoid geotechnical
problems using all techniques in ERA
manual such as loose rocks, stones, and other material on the slope.
7.2.1 Cut slope

Cuttings through sound rock can often stand at or near vertical, but in weathered
rock or soil the conditions are more
unstable. Instability is usually caused by an accumulation of water in the soil,
and slips occur when this accumulation of
water reduces the natural cohesion of the soil and increases its mass. Thus, the
design and construction of the road should
always promote the rapid and safe movement of water from the area above the road to
the area below, and under no
circumstances should the road impede the flow of water or form a barrier to its
movement.
7.2.2 The problem of cuttings

The construction of cuttings invariably disturbs the natural stability of the
ground by the removal of lateral support and a
change in the natural ground water conditions. The degree of instability will
depend on the dip and stratification of the soils
relative to the road alignment, the angle of the slopes, the ground water regime,
the type of material, the dimensions of
the cut, and numerous other variables.
An important part of a survey is to examine the performance of both natural and

manmade slopes in the soils encountered
along the length of the road, to identify the existing forms of failures, and to
make the best possible use of the empirical
evidence available in the area.

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7.2.3 Design and construction
Benching of the cut faces can be a useful construction expedient enabling the
cutting to be excavated in well defined
stages and simplifying access for subsequent maintenance. Paved drain will be
necessary to prevent the concentration of
surface water causing instability in the cutting. Control of ground water in the
cut slopes is sometimes necessary.
7.3 Slopes design

Slope stability analysis is required for the design of cut and fills slopes,
embankments and retaining structures on slopes.
The parameters will be appropriate soil strength parameters and water levels are
critical when performing the analysis. An
understanding of potential failure mechanism is also necessary in order to
investigate and determine the critical failure
surface and applicable factor of safety.
7.3.1 Cut slope design

Methods of analyzing slope stability are usually based on measurements of the
density, moisture content and strength of
the soil together with calculations of the stresses in the soil using classic slip-
circle analyses. This type of analysis assumes
that the soil mass is uniform. Sometimes failures do indeed follow the classic
slip-circle pattern, but uniform conditions are
rare, particularly in residual soils, and it is more common for slips to occur
along planes of weakness in the vertical profile.
Nevertheless, slope stability analysis remains an important tool in investigating
the likely causes of slope failures and in
determining remedial works, and such an analysis may be a necessary component of
surveys to help design cuttings in
soils. To overcome the problem of slope stability it is better to consider the
following:
For side cut in the soil section of the re-alignment the steeper front slopes shall
be provided with back slope flat like
(1V:4H). But steeper and shorter back slope is recommended at the begging of the
slope with proper narrow benching
like(2m) and proper gutter to retain falling material from the slope and to guide
water from the side into proper drainage.
7.4 Fill slope design

The design of embankments over soft and compressible soils requires the
determination of both the magnitude of
settlement and stability. If there is a problem, it is recommended to accelerate
consolidation and remove the soft soils sub
grade.
7.4.1 Expansive soil

To avoid the problem of expansive soil it recommends the minimizing of subsequent
changes in moisture content and
consequent volume changes. It also recommends replacing of the expansive material
with non-expansive impermeable
soil to the depth affected by seasonal moisture changes.
Side drains should be avoided in areas of expansive soils. Where this is not
possible, they should be placed a minimum
distance away from the toe of the side slope, as indicated in the ERA Geometric
Design Manual – 2013 and the side slope
should also be increase to a minimum of 1:6.
Fill material over the expansive soils shall be impermeable soils with a plasticity
index of greater than 15%.

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7.4.2 Embankment settlement
It recommends setting a limit for total post-construction settlements in the range
of 3 to 5 cm. Strict specifications and
monitoring of settlements (e.g. settlement platforms, piezometers) are often
essential to the success of the design and the
embankment performance.
7.4.3 Embankment stability

ERA Pavement design manual Volume-I Flexible pavements and gravel roads -2002
section 4 earth work recommends a
slope ratio for the design of embankments when no specific foundation problem is
encountered, the suitability of the side
slopes is largely determined by the internal stability of the embankment material
(provided erosion is controlled).
Cohesion less sands: 1: 3 if h <= 1 m
1: 2 if h > 1 m
Other materials: 1: 3 if h <= 1 m
1: 2 if 1m < h < 3 m
1: 1.5 if 3 m < h < 10 m
Where h is the height of the embankment.
For wet areas of Ethiopia, it recommends flatter slopes when the embankments are
silty or clayey. It also recommends a
steeper slope for urban sites in combination with reinforcement of the embankment
material. For cut section in a rock area
the manual recommends a vertical slope and with proper drainage in weathered rock.
Slope stability analysis is also
recommended.
7.4.4 Types of embankment materials

Most soils are suitable for embankment construction and the use of the majority of
available materials should be
encouraged. Some soils are however generally unsuitable: Materials with more than
5% by weight of organic materials
with a swell of more than 3% (e.g. black cotton soils) Clays with a plasticity
index over 45 or a liquid limit over 90%.
7.4.5 Placing and compaction material

When the embankment is to be placed and compacted on hillsides, or when new
embankment is to be compacted against
existing embankments, or when the embankment is to be built a portion at a time,
the slope against which the embankment
is to be placed should be benched continuously as the embankment is brought up in
layers. This applies whenever the
slopes against which the embankment is to be constructed are steeper than 1 (V) to
3 (H). Benching should be a minimum
of 2 meters in width in order to integrate the new embankment with the existing
slope. Material cut out should be
recompacted along with the new embankment
When the embankment is to be placed and compacted on hillsides, or when new
embankment is to be compacted against
existing embankments, or when the embankment is to be built a portion at a time,
the slope against which the embankment
is to be placed should be benched continuously as the embankment is brought up in
layers. This applies whenever the
slopes against which the embankment is to be constructed are steeper than 1 (V) to
3 (H). Benching should be a minimum

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of 2 meters in width in order to integrate the new embankment with the existing
slope. Material cut out should be
recompacted along with the new embankment.
For silts and clays, the moisture content at the time of compaction should not
exceed 105% of the OMC (standard
compaction).
It is recommended that the upper 25 cm of soil immediately beneath the subbase or
capping layer, i.e. the top of the
embankment fill or the natural subgrade, be compacted to a minimum of 100 % of the
maximum dry density obtained by
ASTM D 698 (standard compaction). Alternatively, 93 % of the maximum dry density
achieved by ASTM Test Method
D1557 (heavy compaction) may be specified. The same density should also be
specified for fill behind abutments to
bridges and for the backfill behind culverts. For the lower layers of an
embankment, a compaction level of 90-93 per cent
of the maximum dry density obtained by the heavy compaction is suitable, or a level
of 95-100 per cent of the maximum
density obtained by the light compaction.
7.4.6 Embankment Slope protection

Protection is required for the side slopes of the embankments, against erosion from
runoff water from rainfall and also
from wind.
7.5 Retaining wall design

Retaining wall structures are preferable at high fill or deep cut area at which
slope stakes are difficult especially in urban
area.
Retaining wall design is specific to a particular site. Wall height, requirement
for drainage and suitable foundation material
must be determined through on site investigation. The type of retaining wall can be
Concrete, Masonry or Gabions based
on site condition and height of cut or fill. The following parameters should be
considered in the design process.
✓ Height of wall
✓ Unit weight of retained soil
✓ Pour water pressure
✓ Strength of soil (angle of internal friction)
✓ Amount and direction of wall movement
✓ Other stress such as earth quake and surcharge
✓ Lateral earth pressure
✓ Horizontal footing setback slope
✓ Minimum footing embedment
✓ Recommendation on footing design in area subject to potential of water
saturation
✓ Recommendation if retaining wall foundation is based on pile foundation
7.6 Structures foundation

During preliminary design, borings will be required at the anticipated locations of
the bridge substructures, although the
geometry of the bridge is still subject to change during final design. Soil
samples, disturbed and undisturbed as appropriate,
should be retrieved for laboratory testing. The possible foundation solutions
should be identified during the preliminary
stage. During the final stage, limited exploration to verify the design assumptions
is recommended. For small culverts, a
detailed exploration with drilling rigs may not be required. Limited exploration by
way of test pits using hand augers should
be sufficient.

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7.6.1 Soil, Rock and other problem conditions
Geologic and environmental conditions can influence the performance of foundations
and may require special
considerations during design.
7.6.1.1 Soil problems

• Organic soil; highly plastic clay: low strength and high compressibility
• Sensitive clay: potentially large strength loss upon large straining
• Micaceous soil: potentially high compressibility
• Expansive clay/silt: potentially large expansion upon wetting
• Liquefiable soil: complete strength loss and high deformations due to
earthquake loading
• Collapsible soil: potentially large deformations upon wetting
7.6.1.2 Rock problems

• Laminated rock: low strength when loaded parallel to bedding
• Expansive shale: potentially large expansion upon wetting; degrades
readily upon
• exposure to air/water
• Soluble rock: soluble in flowing and standing water (limestone, gypsum)
• Cretaceous shale: indicator of potentially corrosive ground water
• Weak claystone: low strength and readily degradable upon exposure to
air/water
• Gneissic and Schistose rock: highly distorted with irregular weathering
profiles and
• Steep discontinuities
• Subsidence: typical in areas of underground mining or high ground water
extraction
• Sink holes: typical of areas underlain by carbonate rock strata (e.g.
limestone, dolomite, etc.)
7.6.1.3 Condition problems
• Negative skin friction/expansion loading: additional compressive/uplift load
on deep foundations due to
settlement/uplift of soil
• Capillary water: rise of water level in silts and fine sands leading to
strength loss
7.6.2 Subsurface exploration and testing problems

The elements of the subsurface exploration and testing programs shall be the
responsibility of the designer based on the
specific requirements of the project and experience with local geologic conditions.
Soil strata
• Depth, thickness, and variability

• Identification and classification
• Relevant engineering properties (i.e. shear strength, compressibility,
stiffness,
• permeability, expansion or collapse potential)
7.6.2.1 Rock strata

Depth to rock
• Identification and classification

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• Quality (i.e. soundness, hardness, jointing and presence of joint filling,
resistance
• to weathering, if exposed.
• Compressive strength
7.6.2.2 Local conditions requiring special consideration

Exploration logs shall include soil and rock strata descriptions, penetration
resistance for soils (e.g. Standard Penetration
Test (SPT) or Cone Penetration Test (CPT)), sample recovery and RQD (Rock Quality
Designation) for rock strata. The
drilling equipment and method, use of drilling mud, type of SPT hammer or cone
penetrometer (i.e. mechanical or
electrical), and any unusual subsurface conditions such as artesian pressures,
boulders or other obstructions, or voids
shall also be noted on the exploration logs.
7.6.2.3 Minimum depth
Where substructure units will be supported on spread footings (in the judgment of
the engineer responsible for exploration),
the minimum depth of the subsurface exploration shall extend below the anticipated
bearing level a minimum of two footing
widths (B) for isolated, individual footings where L<= 2 B, and four footing widths
for footings where L>5B (L = footing
length). For intermediate footing lengths, the minimum depth of exploration may be
estimated by linear interpolation as a
function of L between depths of 2 B and 5 B below the bearing level. Greater depths
may be required where warranted by
local conditions.
Where substructure units will be supported on deep foundations, the depth of the
subsurface exploration shall extend a
minimum of 6 meters below the anticipated pile or shaft tip elevation. Where pile
or shaft groups will be used, the
subsurface exploration shall extend at least two times the maximum pile group
dimension below the anticipated tip
elevation, unless the foundations will be end bearing on or in rock. For piles
bearing on rock, a minimum of 3 meters of
rock core shall be obtained at each exploration location to ensure the exploration
has not been terminated on a boulder.
For shafts supported on or extending into rock, a minimum of 3 meters of rock core,
or a length of
rock core equal to at least three times the shaft diameter for isolated shafts or
two times the maximum shaft group
dimension for a shaft group, whichever is greater, shall be obtained to insure that
the exploration has not terminated on a
boulder and to determine the physical characteristics of rock within the zone of
foundation influence for the design
7.6.2.4 Minimum number of boring

A minimum of two soil borings shall be made for each substructure unit
7.6.2.5 Laboratory testing
Laboratory testing shall be performed as necessary to determine the engineering
properties of samples, including unit
weight, shear strength, compressive strength and compressibility.

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8. GEOMETRIC DESIGN
8.1 Introduction
The overall process of the road alignment (horizontal and vertical) design in
different terrain condition to meet the need of
the road users is generally known as geometric design. The main geometric features
are:
➢ The horizontal alignment;

➢ Vertical alignment; and
➢ Cross Section
Besides these main features, geometric design involves design of road furniture and
safety enhancing structures and
elements.
The process of geometric design usually encompasses multi-disciplinary dimensions

that need thorough assessment,
investigation, analysis and optimizations. Considering these, each project needs
unique studies following Context
Sensitive Design Approach.
Context Sensitive Design is a collaborative, interdisciplinary approach that

involves all constituents to develop a
transportation facility that fits its physical setting and preserves scenic,
aesthetic, historic and environmental resources,
while maintaining safety and mobility to all road users, and enhancing the
economic, social and other needs of the society.
In terms of this concept, it is assumed that every project is unique which requires
designers to address the needed roadway
improvements while safely integrating the design into the unique surrounding
natural and built environment.
Thus, geometric design must aim at combining various geometric design elements to
produce a sound and harmonious
design which:
➢ Provide the simplest geometry attainable, consistent with the physical

constraints;
➢ Provide a design that has a reasonable and consistent margin of safety at the
expected design speeds;
➢ Provide a facility that is adequate and convenient to all the road users at
the expected traffic conditions;
➢ Provide a facility that is Stable and Sustainable;
➢ Provide a facility that is in harmony with the community and preserves
environmental, scenic, aesthetic;
historic, and built and natural resources of the area.
➢ Provide a facility that has acceptable economic returns
The hallmark of professionalism in highway design is the ability to foresee and
optimize the conflicting objectives that are
inherent in any project. Many of the design controls and criteria of highway design
are often conflicting in nature. Good
highway design is the art of combining and balancing the various controls in a
perceptive fashion and is not merely an
exercise in three-dimensional geometrics. These different objectives of road
engineering should be prioritized initially
according to their importance to the specific project. For instance, a section of
high standard road that has to pass through
a deep reserved forest may have to be designed to the lowest design standard
possible to minimize negative impacts to
the forest.
Geometric design standards often define parameters and limiting values considering
the following three main objectives:
-
➢ it shall ensure safety and comfort of drivers;

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➢ it shall ensure that the road is designed economically; and
➢ it must ensure uniformity of the alignment.
Geometric design standards often try to define acceptable level of service, and
margin of safety with limited emphasis on
roadway aesthetics. However, they barely define acceptable level of stability,
acceptable level of social and environmental
impacts. So, often locally compromising geometric design standards to fulfil these
other important objectives of highway
design in an optimal manner becomes imperative especially in difficult topography.
These geometric elements have important bearing on how the road will function, its
capacity, driver behavior and safety.
The traditional approach in geometric design considers the three views of layout
plan, longitudinal section and cross-
section. The road user sees the road as a constantly changing continuum as he
drives along, and the appearance of the
road influences the driver's behavior. It is therefore important to provide the
motorist with reasonable clues as which
provide guide and inform him as to what to expect as he drives along the road; such
clues should be clear messages,
which are unlikely to mislead him.
Applying standard and practice without considering the prevailing circumstances is

no substitute for judgment, and brings
no assurance of acceptable end product. Equally, design prepared without referring
to general accepted standard and
practice are not likely to serve the travelling public as intended. Design based on
a combination of sound professional
judgment, applicable standards and current practices will generate the most
effective road.
It is also good to note that standards usually give guidance whenever the terrain,
geology, environmental, ROW and other
associated factors are in favor of the selected geometric design standard. Nowadays
the name “manual” is being replaced
with “Guideline”. This manifest that “manuals” are sensed as more restricting to
the designer to use his judgment and
experience. The purpose of this replacement is thus to give the designer more space
and flexibility to arrive at balanced
design in reconciliation of the different contrasting objectives of road facilities
at selected localized sections. Therefore,
the geometric design standards summarized in ERA manual are intended to provide
guidance for designers rather than to
be considered as rigid minima.
Departures from standard used to optimize the design considering the contrasting
multi-objectives of highway facilities
including safety, stability, serviceability, economy, environmental and social
compatibility, and practicality of the design for
construction and maintenance are therefore often required especially in roadways
that traverse through difficult terrain
conditions, difficult geological and geotechnical conditions, and sensitive social
and environmental areas.
With these considerations in mind, the consultant team of experts has carried out
detailed assessment of the project road
corridor which is mostly the existing alignment and geometric design standards have
been established.
The designer has attempted to provide appropriate design standards that confirms to
the existing road terrain condition
and combinations of these elements are defined in relation to the following
controls factors:
➢ Anticipated road users, their volumes and characteristics

➢ Towns and villages and their master plans
➢ Functional classification of the project road
➢ Topography
➢ ROW obstructions
➢ Geotechnical considerations

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➢ Flood plains and swampy areas
➢ Traditional irrigation between km 65 and 80
➢ Design speed and other speed controls
➢ Road safety considerations
➢ Environmental considerations
➢ Economic and financial considerations
Thus, the Consultant has emphasized and attempted to arrive at a final design,
which:
➢ Fits into the existing natural condition, terrain by making a balance with
the physical and social environment,
➢ Fulfils the projected traffic requirements, and
➢ Encourages consistency and uniformity of operation.
➢ Is economical for implementation
➢ Has a reasonable and consistent margin of safety at the expected design
speeds,
➢ Is adequate and convenient to all the road users at the expected traffic
conditions,
➢ Is in harmony with the community and preserves environmental, scenic,
aesthetic, historic, and built and natural
resources of the area.
8.2 Design Control and Criteria
8.2.1 Functional Classification
The hierarchy of administrative classification broadly reflects the traffic levels
observed but anomalies are common where,
for example, traffic can be lower on a road higher in the hierarchy. It is
recommended that the standards selected
should be appropriate to the task or traffic level of the road in question, but a
minimum standard for each administrative
class can also be defined if it is policy to do so.
The classification in Ethiopia comprises five functional classes.
➢ Trunk Roads (Class I): These roads usually have a design AADT ≥ 10,000,
although they can be as low as
AADT of 150.
➢ Link Roads (Class II): A typical link road has an AADT greater than 300
although values can range between 75
and 10,000 AADT.
➢ Main Access Roads (Class III): The AADTs are typically between 150 and 300
but can range from 25 -1000.
➢ Collector Road (Class IV): AADTs are between 25and 300.
➢ Feeder Roads (Class V): AADTs are less than 150.
From Appendix A, of ERA 2013 Geometric Design Manual we can note that the project
in its broader sense will provide
the shortest connection between Adolawayu-shakiso and shakiso to Reji and further
to Bule Kero and its surrounding. A
road connecting Class of Traffic Generating Areas (TGAs) of class II with each
other and with TGA of class III, the minimum
functional class is Link road. Accordingly, we have classified the project road as
Link Road.
8.2.2 Design Standards
The geometric design standard for the project road has been determined in
accordance with ERA Geometric design
manual, 2013 as outlined below.

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8.2.2.1 Traffic Volume
Traffic counts and analysis was carried out for the project road with the aim to
assess the benefits from road investment
program. It is well established practice that detailed profile on volume and
composition (AADT by vehicle types) are
important for the purpose of geometric design and pavement design and also to
establish the design standard of the road.
In this case, the number of vehicles in terms of AADT at the mid-year of the design
period is considered to determine the
design standard of the road. In accordance with Table 2-1 of the ERAs Flexible
Pavement Design 2013, the design period
for Link road is 20 years. For the design period of 20 years, Tables below
summarizes forecast levels of traffic in the
various sections of the project road.
Table 8- 1: Traffic forecast from Km 0 to Km 23(Section 1) for the years 2024 –

2043
Fluctuated
Years Cars 4wheel S/Bus L/Bus S/Truck M/Truck
H/Truck Total
(T&T)
2024 27 473 406 164 256 184

222 34 1766
2025 29 502 430 174 271 195

235 36 1872
2026 31 531 455 184 271 206

249 38 1965
2027 32 562 481 194 271 231

278 42 2091
2028 34 595 509 205 271 231

278 42 2165
2029 36 629 538 217 271 244

294 45 2274
2030 38 665 570 230 271 259

311 47 2391
2031 40 695 595 240 283 270

325 49 2497
2032 42 727 622 251 296 283

340 52 2613
2033 44 760 651 263 309 295
356 54 2732
2034 46 795 680 275 324 309

372 56 2857
2035 48 831 711 287 338 323

389 59 2986
2036 50 863 739 298 352 336

404 61 3103
2037 52 898 768 310 365 349

420 64 3226
2038 54 933 799 322 380 363

436 66 3353
69
2039 56 970 830 335 395 377
454 3486

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Fluctuated
Years Cars 4wheel S/Bus L/Bus S/Truck M/Truck
H/Truck Total
(T&T)
2040 58 1008 863 348 410 392

472 71 3622
2041 60 1048 897 362 427 407

490 74 3765
2042 62 1083 927 374 441 421

507 77 3892
2043 64 1120 959 387 456 435

524 79 4024
Table 8- 2: Traffic forecast for Section two for the years 2021 - 2043
Fluctuated
Cars 4wheel S/Bus L/Bus S/Truck M/Truck
H/Truck Total
Years
(T&T)
2024 31 86 154 118 129 140
71 28 757
2025 33 91 163 125 137 149
75 29 802
2026 35 96 172 132 137 157
79 31 839
2027 37 102 182 140 137 166
84 33 881
2028 39 108 193 148 137 176
94 37 932
2029 42 114 204 157 137 186
94 37 971
2030 44 121 216 166 137 197
99 39 1019
2031 46 126 225 173 143 206
104 41 1064
2032 48 132 236 181 149 215
108 42 1111
2033 50 138 246 189 156 225
113 44 1161
2034 53 144 257 198 163 235
118 46 1214
2035 55 150 259 207 170 246
124 48 1259
2036 57 156 280 215 177 256
129 50 1320
2037 59 163 291 224 184 266
134 52 1373
2038 62 169 302 232 191 276
139 54 1425
2039 64 176 314 242 199 287
145 57 1484
2040 67 183 327 251 207 299
150 59 1543
2041 69 190 340 261 215 310
156 61 1602
2042 71 196 351 270 222 321
161 63 1655
2043 74 203 363 279 230 332
167 65 1713
From the traffic volume analysis, the AADT at the mid-life of the design period,
2033, is 2732 for section one and 1161 for
section two. In accordance with Table 2-1 of the ERA’s Geometric Design Manual,
2013, the design standards become
DC6 for the section from Km 0 to Km 23 (section one) and DC5 for the section two.

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8.2.2.2 Terrain Classification
Topography and physical features play an important role in the location and design
of a road. To design a road
economically and adequately and to entertain the different factors, the design
elements must be related to topographic
features. The classification of terrain is normally done based on subjective
description of the general cross slope of the
area through which the road traverses vis-à-vis the slope approximately
perpendicular to the center-line of the road.
ERA Geometric Design Manual, 2013 has recommended the following terrain
classification.
Table 8- 3: ERA GDM,2013 Terrain classification
Flat 0 to 10 five-meter contours per km. The natural

ground slopes perpendicular to
the ground contours are generally below 3%.
Rolling 11 to 25 five-meter contours per km. The natural
the ground contours are generally between 3 and 25%.
Mountainous 26 to 50 five-meter contours per km. The natural

the ground contours are generally above 25%.
Escarpment Escarpments require special geometric standards
because of the engineering
risks involved. Typical gradients are greater than
those for mountainous terrain
Based on the criteria set by ERA’s design manual different sections of the project
road are distinguished among the terrain
types. The following Table 8-4 indicates the available terrain types along the road
alignment.
Table 8- 4: Terrain Classification
Station
Length (m) Terrain
Type
From To
0+000 3+000 3000 Urban
3+000 7+840 4840 Rolling
7+840 9+200 1360 Village
9+200 10+920 1720 Rolling
10+920 11+260 340 Village
11+260 13+800 2540 Rolling
13+800 19+000 5200 Urban
19+000 21+300 2300 Rolling
21+300 22+800 1500 Village
22+800 25+720 2920 Rolling
25+720 26+360 640 Village
26+360 26+900 540 Rolling
26+900 27+900 1000
Mountainous

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Station
Length (m) Terrain
Type
From To
27+900 29+300 1400
Rolling
29+300 30+900 1600 Village
30+900 32+100 1200
Escarpment
32+100 32+800 700
Mountainous
32+800 33+500 700
Escarpment
33+500 33+800 300 Village
33+800 34+980 1180
Mountainous
34+980 35+600 620 Village
35+600 37+700 2100
Mountainous
37+700 38+400 700 Rolling
38+400 42+660 4260
Mountainous
42+660 46+100 3440 Town
46+100 46+600 500
Mountainous
46+600 48+580 1980 Rolling
48+580 51+300 2720 Village
51+300 51+900 600 Rolling
51+900 52+360 460 Village
52+360 53+780 1420 Rolling
53+840 54+280 440 Village
54+280 55+200 920 Rolling
55+420 56+100 680 Village
56+100 57+600 1500 Rolling
57+640 57+940 300 Village
57+940 59+120 1180 Rolling
59+120 62+040 2920 Town
62+040 63+580 1540 Rolling
63+580 64+080 500 Village
64+080 66+540 2460 Rolling
66+540 67+140 600 Village
67+140 67+600 460 Rolling
67+600 71+000 3400
Mountainous
71+000 71+700 700 Rolling
71+700 72+500 800 Town
72+500 72+724 224 Rolling
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Table 8- 5: Percentage distribution of terrain
Terrain Total Length (km) Proportion (%)

Categorized Proportion (%)
Flat 11.7 12.6
81.8
Rolling 64.0 69.2
Mountainous 16.8 18.2
18.2
Escarpment 0 0
As can observed in the table above, the project road is dominated by easy
topography (flat and rolling) which make up
about 81.8% of the project length. Relatively difficult mountainous terrain
comprises 18.2% while the most difficult
escarpment terrain is non-existent.
8.2.3 Type of area Classification

Sections of roads are also classified on the basis of the type of area (surrounding
built and natural environment) generally
as “Rural”,” Rural foot path”, “Developing towns”, “villages” and “developed towns”
based on the consultations with the
local government administrations at kebele, woreda and zone levels. The types and
characteristics of roads differ in
relation to the type of area as the characteristics of road users differ depending
on the type of area. The identified towns
are all Towns with municipalities, developing towns are kebele seats, kebele seats,
village/ kebele seat and most of the
villages are kebele seats.
Rural footpaths are defined as rural areas where non- two axle motorized vehicle
and non-motorized vehicle transport are
observed to be very high having AADT in excess of 300 PCUs. In accordance with
Table 2-4 of ERA Geometric design
manual 2013, in such areas shoulders shall be widened up to 2.75m and 3.0m for DC5
and DC6 design standards
respectively. The station wise classification of the types of areas indicated in
the Table 8-6 below.
Table 8- 6: Area classification along the route
Station
No Length (m) Name
Type of Settlement
From To
1 0+000 3+000 3000 Adola-

Wayu Town
2 3+000 7+840 4840
Rural
3 7+840 9+200 1360
Abalo( Gunacho) Village
4 9+200 10+920 1720

Rural

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Station
No Length (m) Name
Type of Settlement
From To
5 10+920 11+260 340 Gido Chima

Village
6 11+260 13+800 2540
Rural
7 13+800 19+000 5200 Shakiso
Town
8 19+000 21+300 2300
Rural
9 21+300 22+800 1500 Kela
Village
10 22+800 25+720 2920
Rural
11 25+720 26+360 640 Sodu Meleya
Village
12 26+360 26+900 540

Rural
13 26+900 27+900 1000

Rural
14 27+900 29+300 1400

Rural
15 29+300 30+900 1600 Reji

Village
16 30+900 32+100 1200
Rural
17 32+100 32+800 700
Rural
18 32+800 33+500 700
Rural
19 33+500 33+800 300 Dolovia
Village
20 33+800 34+980 1180
Rural
21 34+980 35+600 620 Welena
Reji Village
22 35+600 37+700 2100
Rural
23 37+700 38+400 700
Rural
24 38+400 42+660 4260
Rural
25 42+660 46+100 3440 Megado
Developing Town
26 46+100 46+600 500
Rural
27 46+600 48+580 1980
Rural
28 48+580 51+300 2720 Bore-

Shet(1) Village
29 51+300 51+900 600

Rural
30 51+900 52+360 460 Bore-
Shet(2) Village
31 52+360 53+780 1420
Rural
32 53+840 54+280 440 Ebecha
Village
33 54+280 55+200 920
Rural
34 55+420 56+100 680 LegeBuna
Village

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Station
No Length (m) Name
Type of Settlement
From To
35 56+100 57+600 1500

Rural
36 57+640 57+940 300 Key-Afer
Village
37 57+940 59+120 1180
Rural
38 59+120 62+040 2920 Haya Dima
Town
39 62+040 63+580 1540
Rural
40 63+580 64+080 500 Badime
Village
41 64+080 66+540 2460
Rural
42 66+540 67+140 600 Kokobe
Village
43 67+140 67+600 460
Rural
44 67+600 71+000 3400
Rural
45 71+000 71+700 700
Rural
46 71+700 72+500 800 Bule
Kero Town
47 72+500 72+724 224
Rural
It is recommended that the traffic count during Design stage shall include
Pedestrian, Bicycle, Motor Cycle, Bicycle with
trailer, Motor cycle taxi (Baja), Motor cycle with trailer, small animal drawn cart
and Bullock cart. The count shall be used
for PCU adjustment as presented in ERAGDM,2013 Table 2-4 &2-5, in case it deviates
from 250, which the AADT during
the Concept Design stage.
8.2.4 Road users and their characteristics

Road users
➢ Vehicles (having two and more axle)
➢ Motor cycles and three wheel “Bajajs”
➢ Non-motorized traffic such as pedestrians, cyclists and carts
To fulfil the fundamental objective of safety and efficiency of the road, the
types, composition, characteristics and
interaction of all expected road users are studied.
The space, safety, access and mobility requirements of all types of road users are
typically considered in the design by
➢ Classifying the project into different areas (Town, Village and rural areas),
developing different types of typical
sections for each area and assigning appropriate design speed
➢ Classifying the project road into different terrain classes and assigning
different design speeds
➢ Designing the geometry considering the road users characteristics and
expectations (especially driver
expectations) throughout the project road

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8.2.4.1 Vehicular Traffic
The vehicular traffic volumes and composition at the mid-life are as indicated in
Table 8-1 & 8-2 above. The section
between sta. 0+000 and sta. 23+000 is has the highest traffic volume while the
second section has relatively lower volume.
The weighted average traffic volume for the whole project is derived and included
in the Table 8-7 below.
Table 8- 7: Weighted average traffic at mid-life of 2034 and percentage proportions
Fluctuated
Cars 4wheel S/Bus L/Bus S/Truck M/Truck
H/Truck (Truck Total
&Trailer)
50 470 469 237 244 272

245 51 2038
2% 23% 23% 12% 12% 13%

12% 3% 100%
Table 8-7 above indicates that the traffic in the project road is primarily
dominated by 4wheel and s/Bus, followed by
medium truck and S/truck, L/Bus and Heavy truck. Cars and T&T are negligible in the
traffic composition while heavy
trucks, medium & small truck constitutes 37% of the traffic composition and Large
bus, small bus and 4wheel constitute
58%. Generally, the traffic is not dominated by heavy trucks.
The selected design vehicle for DC5 and DC6 standards in accordance with ERAGDM,
2013, Table 5-2 and 5-3, which is
DV4 vehicle represents the most restrictive truck type identified by the traffic
study, which is truck trailer, which represents
3% of the project traffic composition.
8.2.4.2 Design Vehicle

The size of the largest vehicle that is expected to use the road dictates many
aspects of the geometric design. The
selection of the appropriate design vehicle is a key element related to lane width,
vertical clearance, and minimum radius
and turning paths at switch back curves and intersections. It also affects design
elements such as curve widening,
maximum gradient, critical length of maximum gradient, and provision of climbing
lanes.
For the project road, the selected design vehicle is DV4 (Semi trailer combination)
with the following physical
characteristics.
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Table 8- 8: Design vehicle characteristic (ERAGDM,2013, Table 5-2)
Dimensions (m)
Overhang(m) Min.
Wheel
Design Vehicle Designation
Turning
Height Width Length Front
Rear base (m)
Radius(m)
Semi-Trailer
DV4 4.1 2.6 15.2 1.2
1.8 13.2 13.7
Combination
As it is presented in Table 8-8 above, the minimum turning radius of DV4 vehicle is
13.7m, which is the absolute minimum
internal radius used in the design of hair-pin bends. The minimum offset of the
rear wheel path is 0.5m as shown in ERA
Geometric standard. The design vehicle template is shown on Figure 8-1 below.
Figure 8- 1: Design Vehicle template, (ERADGM, 2013 Figure 5-3)
8.2.4.3 Non-Vehicular Traffic

The non-vehicular traffic observed in the project area include motor cycles,
pedestrians, pack animals, hand carts, animal
drawn carts and bicycles. The Non-motorized average daily traffic volume is
indicated in the Table 8-9 below.

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Table 8- 9: Non- Motorized Average Daily Traffic Volume
Location Bicycle Pedestrians Pack

Animal Carts Total
Section one (km 23) 24 3160 3

67 3254
Section two (Km 62) 89 3410 247
250 3996
`Weighted Average (ADT) 57 3285 125
159 3625
Proportion (%) 1.6% 90.6% 3.4%
4.4% 100.00%
As observed in the above table, cycling is insignificant in the project area while
carts and animal packs are dominant
components of the NMT representing almost 7.8%. Pedestrians dominate the NMT
traffic composition representing almost
90.6% of the total NMT.
The non-vehicular traffic volume and activities are observed to be high in the
identified towns, developing towns and village
sections as well as identified rural footpath areas. In the rural areas, non-
vehicular traffic volumes and activities are
generally low. Accordingly, non-vehicular traffic as one of the major road users
are considered in towns, developing towns,
villages and rural footpath areas. Cycles are observed to be insignificant in the
project area.
The non-vehicular traffic has slower speed and lesser mass as compared to vehicular
traffic. Passengers and drivers of
the non-vehicular traffic including pedestrians themselves don’t have protections
against injury as compared to the body
of the vehicle for motorized traffic and often don’t wear protective helmets and
are thus the most vulnerable road users.
The space and safety requirements of these non-vehicular traffic are thus tried to
be well considered in the design of the
project road.
8.2.5 ROW obstructions

There are three towns, one developing town and fifteen villages crossed by the
proposed road alignment. Adolawayu,
Shakiso and Haya Dima towns has selected a new route apart from the existing road
alignment in which it may inquire an
entire width of road construction.
The available ROW widths clear of obstruction in most sections of most of these
towns and villages is not adequate and
a widening of the road section to attain the required standard width is inevitable,
and ROW compensation costs are
expected to be grander on those sections.

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On all rural sections, except the section from km 35+000 to 42+500, are
characterized with scattered cultivations, bushes,
scattered eucalyptus trees, patches of grazing lands, and scattered settlements
along the alignment. Thus, ROW
compensation costs are expected to be moderate on those sections.
The ROW obstructions are serious along road sections from project start to about km
35 and km 42.5. Therefore, ROW
management at these sections will be critical and construction methods should be
conscious about at all cases and at
those critical sections in particular. In the rural sections, the ROW widths are
covered with extensive long plantations
including coffee plantations. In this section, the ROW obstructions are dominated
by well-developed long-standing
plantations including Coffee plantation with a variety of species, including Enset
which are planted as intercropping with
coffee. These plantations will result in high costs of ROW compensation costs.
Considering the foregoing, the geometric design of the project road in the section
from 35+000 to Km 42+000, which is
characterized with very dense coffee plantation, the Contractor shall give due
attention to minimize the negative impact
on the coffee plantations. Consequently, the Contractor shall clearly compare the
ROW impacts on different alternatives
and select & design the one with the lowest likely ROW impact among the
alternatives.
8.2.6 Geotechnical considerations

The major geotechnical consideration used in the geometric design of the project
road are the locations of unsuitable
(expansive) soil sections. The identified expansive soil locations included in the
soils and materials section of this report
are re-indicated in the Table 8-10 below.
Table 8- 10: Expansive Soil Stretches
Stretch
Length (m)
From To
Remark
0+000 2+500 2500
Expansive Soil
4+500 7+500 3000
Expansive Soil
14+500 15+500 1000
Expansive Soil
23+500 25+500 2000
Expansive Soil
28+500 34+500 6000
Expansive Soil
43+500 44+500 1000
Expansive Soil
58+500 59+500 1000
Expansive Soil
67+500 70+000 2500
Expansive Soil
As can be observed from the above Table, the section from km 0 to km 7.5 (6kms),
from km 23.5 to km 34.5 are the major
stretches containing expansive soils. The expansive soils shall be treated as per
the typical drawings attached as Annex
8-1 at the end of this report.
8.2.7 Seasonally wet ground

Short stretches of seasonally wet ground/water logged sections have been observed
along the existing road between at
km 3+640 to 3+900and km 27+680 to 27+820. The wet land at km 27+680-27+82 is mainly
a Legedembi Gold mining

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induce swampy area. The wet ground is characterized by light brown to dark brown
silty clay soil covered with green grass
throughout the year. These seasonally wet grounds are mostly left preserved as
farmlands.
Absence of adequate drainage structure has contributed to the formation of water

logged areas at some locations.
Table 8- 11: Seasonally Water logged stretches along proposed route
From To Description Proposed

remedial measures
3+640 3+900 Seasonally water logging stretch Provide
high rock fill and relief structure
27+680 27+820 Seasonally water logging stretch Provide

high rock fill and relief structure
In these seasonally wet ground/water logging areas, the vertical alignment is

mostly in fill sections in excess of 2.0m to
enable for the provision of the high rock fill and relief structures.
8.2.8 Mining and Dense coffee plantation

There is a dense coffee plantation from section 35+000 to 42+000, thus the
contractor shall propose at least three
alternatives including the existing road. Consequently, the contractor shall
clearly compare the ROW impacts on all
alternatives and select the one with the lowest likely ROW impact among the three
alternatives. Moreover, a half way width
construction shall be applied in this section to minimize the ROW compensation
costs.
The section from km 20+000 to the end of the project, is a potential mining area,
and local peoples do mine on and near,
the existing road sections. Thus, proper consultation shall be made with all
respected stakeholders before excavation is
commenced.
8.3 Selection of Design Standard Parameters and their Limiting Values

On the basis of the design controls and criteria and the objective of the project
discussed in the above sections, a design
standard consisting of limiting design values for the design of the different
features of the road is selected.
The design standard provided in the next sections is mostly derived from ERA
Geometric design standard, 2013 with a
few contextual modifications of some design element parameters to suit project
conditions and objectives.
8.3.1 Geometric Design Elements
Table 8-12 & 8-13 below summarizes all the pertaining geometric design elements,
parameters and limiting design values
(minimum or maximum) for design controls, horizontal alignment and vertical
alignment.

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Tender Document Preparation for Bule Hora-Shakiso –Kibremengist
Road Project.
April 2020
Table 8- 12: Design Standards
(AADT 1,000-3,000, as per ERA’s 2013 Geometric Design Standard)
Table 6-3: Geometric Design Parameters of DC-6
Design controls and elements of

Item
Limiting values for design
design
Road Functional Classification

Link Road
Geometric Design standard

DC6
Design Vehicle
DV4
Rural
Terrain and land use
Village Town
Flat
Rolling Mountainous Escarpment
Design speed (km/hr) 100 85

70 60 50 50
G=0% 210 155

110 85 65 65
Stopping sight
G=5% 240 175
120 90 70 70
Design Controls
distance (m)
G=10% 285 205
140 105 75 75
Minimum Passing sight distance

375 330
270 230 180 180
(m)
Percent passing opportunity (%) 50 33

25 0 20 20
Length adequate
Length adequate for
Minimum Tangent Length for
Length adequate for
for independent
independent super
consecutive curves in opposite
independent super elevation
super elevation
of elevation of both
direction (m)
of both curves
both curves
curves
Minimum Horizontal SE=4%

95 95
curve radius (m) SE=8% 410 280

175 120 - -

Consultancy services for the Route Selection and Survey, Feasibility
and Environmental Impact, Ethiopian Roads Authority
Project.
April 2020
Item
design
Transition (spiral) curve

Yes Yes
Yes No No No
requirement
Table 8.5 (ERA

Transition (spiral) curve length
Geometric Design
N/A
(m)
Manual 2013)
Isolated Curves Radius (m)
(section 8.5 of ERA Geometric

Increase minimum radius by 50%
Design manual, 2013)
Minimum length of horizontal
curves with deflection angle less As per paragraph 3 of

section 8.6 of ERA Geometric Design Manual 2013
than 5 degrees (m)
Maximum super elevation (%) 8 8

8 8 4 4
Design super elevation (%)

Table 8.6 (ERA
Table 8.5 (ERA

Geometric Design Manual 2013) Geometric Design
Design runoff length (m)
Manual 2013)
Widening on curves and high fills

Table 8.3 (ERA
Geometric Design Manual 2013) None
(m)
Limiting Middle ordinate for As per section

7.6 of ERA Geometric Design Manual 2013
stopping sight distance in
horizontal curves with cut back
slope sight obstruction (m)

Alignment
Vertical
Maximum Gradient (%) 5 7

9 9 9 8

Road Project.
April 2020
Item
design
Maximum length of the maximum

400 with relief gradient <6%for minimum of
N/A 600
500
gradient (m)
200m
Minimum Gradient (%) 0.5 0.5

0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Climbing lane requirements No No

No No No No
Minimum K-factor for crest
vertical curves (stopping sight 100 55

30 17 10 10
distance)
Minimum K-factor for sag vertical

25 18
12 9 7 7
curves (stopping sight distance)
Minimum length of vertical curves
for gradient change less than 200 200

200 200 200 200
0.5% (m)
Normal Cross fall (%) 2.5 2.5

2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
Cross section
Shoulder Cross fall 4 4

4 4 4 4
Right of way(m) 50 50
50 50 50 50
Note- Other considerations in designing of the project road include

the following points:
The Contractor shall adopt slope ratios in cut and fills (Back and
Side slopes) in accordance with ERA’s 2013 Geometric
Design Manual unless the Contractor come up with other proposals
supported by adequate engineering analysis and
evidence for the Employer’s Representative review and approval.
In cuts, a berm having a minimum width of 3 m shall be provided
when depth of cut exceeds 7 m for soils and decomposed
rocks and 10 m for weathered and strong rocks in order to ensure
the stability of the slopes. Details of cut benching shall
be referred to the attached Typical Drawings.

Road Project.
April 2020
8.3.1.1 Geometric Parameters for Design Class DC5
(AADT 300-1,000, as per ERA’s 2013 Geometric Design Standard)
Table 6 3: Geometric Design Parameters of DC-5

Item
design
Road Functional Classification

Link Road
Geometric Design standard

DC5
Design Vehicle
DV4
Rural
Terrain and land use
Village Town
Flat Rolling
Mountainous Escarpment
Design speed (km/hr.) 85 70

60 50 50 50
G=0% 155 110

85 65 65 65
Stopping sight
G=5% 175 120
90 70 70 70
Design Controls
distance (m)
G=10% 205 140
105 75 75 75
Minimum Passing sight distance

330 270
230 180 180 180
(m)
Percent passing opportunity (%) 25 25

15 0 20 20
Length adequate
Length adequate for
Minimum Tangent Length for
Length adequate for
for independent
independent super
consecutive curves in opposite
independent super elevation
super elevation of
elevation of both
direction (m)
of both curves
both curves
curves
Minimum Horizontal SE=4%

95 95
curve radius (m) SE=8% 280 175

120 80 - -

Consultancy services for the Route Selection and Survey, Feasibility
and Environmental Impact, Ethiopian Roads Authority
Project.
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Item
design
Transition (spiral) curve

Yes Yes
No No No No
requirement
Table 8.5 (ERA

Transition (spiral) curve length
Geometric Design
N/A
(m)
Manual 2013)
Isolated Curves Radius (m)
(section 8.5 of ERA Geometric

Increase minimum radius by 50%
Design manual, 2013)
Minimum length of horizontal
curves with deflection angle less As per paragraph 3 of

section 8.6 of ERA Geometric Design Manual 2013
than 5 degrees (m)
Maximum super elevation (%) 8 8

8 8 4 4
Design super elevation (%)

Table 8.6 (ERA
Table 8.5 (ERA

Geometric Design Manual 2013) Geometric Design
Design runoff length (m)
Manual 2013)
Widening on curves and high fills

Table 8.3 (ERA
Geometric Design Manual 2013) None
(m)
Limiting Middle ordinate for

stopping sight distance in
As per section
7.6 of ERA Geometric Design Manual 2013
horizontal curves with cut back
slope sight obstruction (m)
8
Alignment
Maximum Gradient (%)

Vertical
4 6
8 8 8
(desirable)

Road Project.
April 2020
Item
design
Maximum Gradient (%) (absolute) 6 8

10 10 9 9
Maximum length of the desirable

N/A N/A
500 500 500 500
maximum gradient (m)
Maximum length of the absolute

N/A 500
400 with relief gradient <6%for minimum of 200m
maximum gradient (m)
Minimum Gradient (%) 0.5 0.5

0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Climbing lane requirements No No

No No No No
Minimum K-factor for crest
vertical curves (stopping sight 55 30

17 10 10 10
distance)
Minimum K-factor for sag vertical

18 12
9 7 7 7
curves (stopping sight distance)
Minimum length of vertical curves
for gradient change less than 200 200

200 200 200 200
0.5% (m)
Normal Cross fall (%) 2.5 2.5

2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
Cross section
Shoulder Cross fall (%) 4 4

4 4 4 4
Right of way(m) 50 50
50 50 50 50

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Note - Other considerations applied in designing of the project road include the
following points:
The Contractor shall adopt slope ratios in cut and fills (Back and Side slopes) in
accordance with ERA`s 2013 Geometric
Design Manual unless the Contractor come up with other proposals supported by
adequate engineering analysis and
evidence for the Employer`s Representative review and approval.
In cuts, a berm having a minimum width of 3 m shall be provided when depth of cut
exceeds 7 m for soils and decomposed
rocks and 10 m for weathered and strong rocks in order to ensure the stability of
the slopes. Details of cut benching shall
be referred to the attached Typical Drawings.
8.3.2 Typical Cross sections

Various types of typical cross section suitable for the different contextual
requirements are prepared and included:
• Rural areas over flat /rolling terrain

• Rural areas over Mountainous/Escarpment
• Built up areas for rural footpaths, villages, developing towns and towns
The typical cross sections are included in Appendix 8-1.
8.3.3 Side slopes for cuts and fills

Side slopes and back slopes are an integral part of cross section design. The
following table indicates the recommended
side slopes and back slopes based of height of slopes and type of embankment fill
or cut slope material.
Table 8- 13: Slope Ratio Table – Vertical to Horizontal
Slope Ratio Table

Slope Height (m) Material description Side slope (V:H)
Cut Fill
Back slope (V:H)
0 -2 4:5
2:1
2-10 Slightly weathered to 1:1
4:1
Sound Rock
Benched with 4:1 slope every 10m
>10 1:1
with 3m wide benches
0-2 2:3
2:1
2-10 Moderately Weathered 1:2 1:1
2:1
Rock
>10
Benched with 2:1 slope every 10m
1:1
with 3m wide benches
0-1 Highly Weathred to 1:3
1:3
1-2. Decomposed Rock and 1:2
1:2
2-10 Earth or Soil 2:3
1:1.5

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Slope Ratio Table
Slope Height (m) Material description Side slope (V:H)
Cut Fill
Back slope (V:H)
Benched with 1:1 slope every m

>10 2:3
7with 3m wide benches
0-2 1:6
Expansive soil
>2 1:4
8.3.4 Climbing lanes

The Employer has cancelled the provision of climbing lane stipulated in the ERA
Geometric Design Manual 2013 for the
full stretch of the project road.
8.3.5 Medians and median openings

Medians will form an integral part of the cross section in town and developing town
section areas as indicated in the typical
sections. A median width of 2.0m and 2.5m are provided for developing town and town
sections.
Median breaks shall be designed at appropriate locations to create connections with

other connecting roads and to serve
important abutting facilities. However, medians should not be broken too frequently
to give balanced emphasis to through
traffic movements and crossing and turning traffic shall be managed to minimize
conflict points. Considering the forgoing
and in accordance with AASHTO, a preferred spacing at 400 to 800 m is suitable in
most instances. Fixed spacing is not
necessary, nor is it fitting in all cases because of variations in terrain and
local service needs.
A minimum median opening width of 22m and 44m for semi-circular nose for mid-block
median openings and for junction
median openings with near 90 degrees angle of turn shall be provided in accordance
with AASHTO – Geometric Design
of Highways and Streets, 2001. The effect of skew shall be considered as per the
same manual.
8.3.6 Phasing of horizontal and vertical alignment

The following major considerations in phasing of horizontal and vertical alignment
as extracted from AASHTO Geometric
Design of Highways and Streets, 2001 shall be considered:
➢ Sharp horizontal curvature should not be introduced at or near the top of

a pronounced crest vertical curve. This
condition is undesirable because the driver may not perceive the
horizontal change in alignment, especially at
night. The disadvantages of this arrangement are avoided if the horizontal
curvature leads the vertical curvature
(i.e., the horizontal curve is made longer than the vertical curve).
Suitable designs can also be developed by
using design values well above the appropriate minimum values for the
design speed.

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➢ Somewhat related to the preceding guideline, sharp horizontal curvature
should not be introduced near the bottom
of a steep grade approaching or near the low point of a pronounced sag
vertical curve. Because the view of the
road ahead is foreshortened, any horizontal curvature other than a very
flat curve assumes an undesirable
distorted appearance. Further, vehicle speeds, particularly for trucks,
are often high at the bottom of grades, and
erratic operations may result, especially at night.
➢ On two-lane roads and streets, the need for passing sections at frequent
intervals and including an appreciable
percentage of the length of the roadway often supersedes the general
guidelines for combinations of horizontal
and vertical alignment. In such cases, it is appropriate to work toward
long tangent sections to assure sufficient
passing sight distance in design.
The horizontal alignment and vertical alignment shall be phased as much as possible
giving due considerations to the
above guidelines and specially to avoid defects that may endanger the safety of
road users by concealing hazards on the
road ahead. In all cases drivers shall be able to anticipate changes in both
horizontal and vertical alignment well within the
safe stopping sight distance.
8.3.7 At Grade Intersections

The types of at grade intersection expected in the project road section can be
categorized in to four types
➢ Private access which include driveways to road side houses and facilities
➢ Minor junctions which are Intersections with Local/Feeder roads
➢ Moderate junctions which include Intersections with Collector roads
➢ Major junctions which include Intersections with Main Access/Link and Trunk
roads
The following table indicates the identified list of moderate and major at grade
intersections in the project road sections.
Table 8- 14: List of major and moderate intersections
No. Station Intersection/Junction

Direction Type
1 0+000 Intersection with Awassa –Negele Road

Major
2 1+780 Junction to industry Zone

LHS Moderate
3 18+940 Junction to Midroc Gold Mining

RHS Moderate
4 22+600 To Kenticha, Mining
LHS Moderate
5 26+200 To Derme
LHS Major
6 30+100 To Finticho
LHS Major
7 37+500 To Cheketa
LHS Major

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No. Station Intersection/Junction
Direction Type
8 38+800 To koremeti-Negele Iba

RHS Major
9 45+940 To Adola Gold Mining

RHS Moderate
10 69+200 To Dega Kole

LHS Major
Private and minor at grade intersections can be designed based on typical at-grade
intersections layouts designed to
accommodate at least single unit truck.
Moderate and major junctions however require site specific detailed at grade
intersections based on ERA Geometric
Design Manual, 2013 and AASHTO – Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2001.
The following are major considerations in the design of moderate and major at grade
intersections:
➢ The design of at grade intersections must consider safety, operational

comfort, capacity and economy.
➢ Since the angle of intersection influences the safety and operation of the
intersection, the angle of intersection
shall be limited to 75 to 120 degrees.
➢ The layout of the intersection shall fulfil intersection sight distance
requirements in accordance with ERA
Geometric Design Manual, 2013.
➢ Approach horizontal alignment shall have a minimum radius curvature for the
class of road and specific terrain
and urbanization condition.
➢ The gradients of all the intersecting roads shall be desirable be less than
3% and absolutely less than 6%.
➢ Appropriate channelization islands shall be designed specially at major
intersections.
➢ Auxiliary left turn lanes and right turn lanes shall be designed especially
for major intersections as appropriate.
In addition of the aforementioned major and moderate intersections, roundabouts
shall be designed in Haya Dima town in
accordance with the master plans of the town at the following location.
Table 8- 15: Roundabouts as per the master plan of town
No. Easting Northing Town

1 479052 611463 Haya Dima
The identified roundabouts shall be designed as single lane roundabout primarily as

per NCHRP report 672, Roundabouts:
An informational guide, second edition in addition to ERA Geometric Design manual,
2013.
The asphalt pavement work (with similar pavement structure as the main road) shall
extend 50m into the approach roads
for major, moderate and roundabout intersections while it shall extend to 20m for
minor intersections. For private access,
base course and asphalt surfacing shall extend to 10m and the extent of the
driveway whichever is lesser. If there is a

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realignment of the intersecting road with approach distances in excess of 50m for
major, moderate, roundabout and minor
intersections, the section beyond the asphalt work shall be constructed to the
design standard and pavement structure of
the intersecting road.
8.3.8 Departures from standard

Departures from standard proposed to arrive at an optimum design considering the
contrasting and conflicting design
objectives of highways which includes safety, stability, serviceability, economy,
environmental and social compatibility,
and practicality of the design for construction and maintenance are sometimes
required especially in difficult terrain
conditions, difficult geological and geotechnical conditions, sensitive social and
environmental areas and sensitive ROW
obstructions.
Based on the concept geometric design of the project road, the anticipated
departures from standard is departure from
Maximum gradient only.
The road section of the road project from Adola-Wayu to Bule Kero follows
relatively gentle horizontal curvatures with a
reasonable volume of earthwork. Hence, the Design-Builder shall not face a problem
in fulfilling the minimum requirements
for minimum Horizontal Radius of the Geometric Design Standard of DC-6 (Km 0+000 to
Km 23+000) and DC-5 (Km
23+000 to Km 72+724). Therefore, no departure is allowed for minimum horizontal
radius for this Contract.
The departure from the maximum gradient is elaborated in the sections here below
I. Departure from maximum gradient (Section from Km 0+000 to Km 23+000)

Departures from maximum gradient are allowed only in the sections from Km 18.2
(E=490157, N=636501) to Km 19.3
(E=490156, N=635503), which is currently a densely populated segment in Shakiso
town section. These departures are
allowed mainly to avoid deep cuts in Shakiso town which would result access
problems to residents in the town and make
difficult the harmonious linking of other intersecting roads in the town with the
project road. In all other sections along the
Section from Km 0+000 to Km 23+000, departure from maximum gradient is not allowed.
The following listed sections may be considered for departure based on the concept
design.
Table 8- 16: Departure based on the concept design
from to Gradient Max.

Departure against
No Terrain Type
maximum gradient
Station Station (%)
Gradient %
1 18+298.27 18+698.27 -10.0 Urban 8

Departed
2 18+898.27 19+298.27 -10.0 Urban 8

Departed
The above listed departure will be applicable if the Contractor is going to adopt
the centerline of the concept design
alignment. However, if the Contractor proposes a different alignment, the
Contractor is allowed to depart only at two
locations with a maximum length of 400m (I.e. a total of 800m for a maximum
gradient not greater than 10% with a relief
gradient of 6% for a minimum distance of 200m).

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II. Departure from maximum gradient (Section from Km 23+000 to End of
Project)
Departures from maximum gradient in the section from Km 23+000 (E=490469, N=632882)
to Km 43+500 (E=478327,
N=626949) is allowed in order to minimize ROW impacts on the well-cultivated long
life plantations like Coffee plantation
and to decrease the excessive earth works resulted due applying desirable maximum
gradient. Accordingly, the Contractor
is entitled to use the Absolute maximum gradient only in the section from Km 23+000
(E=490469, N=632882) to Km
43+500 (E=478327, N=626949). The list of departures from the concept design
presented with Table 8-17 below:
Table 8- 17: The departures from the concept design
Grade
No. From To Length (m)
(%)
1 33+678 34+078 400 10.00%
2 35+273 35+663 390 9.41%
5 37+630 38+130 500 8.00%
7 39+310 39+665 355 -9.85%
8 39+835 40+286 451 -7.98%
9 40+615 40+917 301 -7.67%
10 41+233 41+633 400 -10.00%
11 41+844 42+039 195 -10.00%
12 42+239 42+619 380 -10.00%
13 42+819 43+219 400 -9.00%
Furthermore, from Km 35+000 to Km 42+000, which is characterized with very dense

coffee plantation, the Contractor
shall give due attention to minimize the negative impact on the coffee plantations.
Consequently, the Contractor shall
clearly compare the ROW impacts on different alternatives and select & design the
one with the lowest likely ROW impact
among the alternatives.
In all other sections along the Section from Km 23+000 to End of Project, departure
from maximum gradient is not allowed.

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9. STRUCTURES DESIGN
The Contractor shall perform structural analysis and design of bridges and other
structures included in the project.
9.1 General
ERA’s bridge design manual Part-1, Part-2, Part-3 with 2013 edition is adopted
along with ERA Standard of Specification
2014 edition and AASHTO LRFD bridge design specification 2007 4th edition and ERA’s
2013 Standard Drawings for the
structural design of bridges recommended to be designed along the project route
alignment.
The Contractor shall use ERA’s 2013 Standard Drawings, ERA’s 2013 Drainage Design
Manual and ERA’s 2013 Standard
Technical Specifications and Method of Measurement for Road works for the selection
of pipe class. The more
conservative (safe) detail prevails whenever there is discrepancy between the
different details of the standard drawings,
like discrepancy of diameter and/or spacing of reinforcing bars. The Contractor
shall not allow to use Type–A end wall and
Type-A inlet shown in ERA 2013 Standard drawings. If Type-A (drop inlet) inlet is
mandatory, use wider drop inlet size.
New Type-C end wall for pipe culverts design are attached in the ER.
9.2 Design Methodology
The bridges must be designed using the ULS and SLS methods set in ERA BDM 2013.
However, Bridge Superstructure
Design AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 4th Edition, 2007; using finite
element computer programs, together
with spreadsheets and specific software for concrete and pre-stressed structures,
all based on the ULS (Ultimate limit
state) & SLS (Service limit state) theory shall be adopted. Also, EBCS (Ethiopian
Building Code Standard - 1995) and
European Eurocodes could be considered in comparison with the code to achieve the
most probable seismic design loads
conditions applicable and the most severe conditions.
9.3 Loading
In general, structures shall be designed for the loads of loading conditions
specified at “Section 3 (SI): LOADS & LOAD
FACTORS” in ERA Bridge Design Manual 2013 and AASHTO LRFD Specification for
Bridges. The minimum standard
loading to be adopted shall be HL-93 and AML.
Seismic loads combinations must be checked according with Global Seismic Hazard
Assessment Program (GSHAP)” and
AASTHO 2007 4th Edition LRFD.
9.4 Materials
The following Construction material shall be used in the project
a. Steel Reinforcement:
The steel industries available in the country produce grade 60-reinforcement steel
for diameter of bar equal to and greater
than 20mm, and grade 40 steel for those less than 20mm diameter. The minimum yield
strength of grade 60 reinforcement
steel is 420Mpa, while that of grade 40 is 300Mpa. These and other strength
parameters are used in the design of
structures.
b. Concrete:
Design parameters of C-30/20 Concrete for RC Slab, RC Deck girder, RC box Girder
superstructure, RC abutment, RC
Pier, masonry abutment and wing wall footing pad, RC Slab culvert, RC Box culverts,
Curb stone, C-25/20 used for
masonry retaining wall footing pad, concrete ditch, ditch cover, kilometer post and
C-15/40 for Lean Concrete under footing
pad of bridges, culverts and retaining wall.

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In addition to this C-35/20 Concrete is used for RC Pipe as per ERA Standard pipe
culvert drawings of 2013 edition.
These strength parameters are specified on design drawings and technical
specifications to be attained during construction
stage.
Resistance factors are recommended on the design manuals to account the

imperfection in production of these
construction materials. Accordingly, the appropriate resistance factors for shear
and bend, the critical factors contributing
to the durability of concrete structures are:
• Adequate cover over reinforcement;
• Thorough consolidation of concrete;
• Adequate cement content;
• Low W/C ratio; and
• Thorough curing, preferably with water.
c. Masonry:
The unit weight of stone masonry used in the design of substructure components has
to be taken from Table 3.5.1-1: of
ERA bridge design manual 2013.
As per ERA's Standard Specification cement mortared stone masonry walls shall be
constructed with mortar of 3:1 cement
sand ratio. Therefore, sand cement ratio of 3:1 is recommended to be used for major
and minor drainage structures of the
subject project.
9.5 Structure Type Selection

For structure site(s) identified provide a Structure Selection Report as part of
the Draft Structural Report. Prepare the
selection report with supporting drawings, tables, and discussion as needed.
Include the following (as a minimum):
(1) Review the structure site data to determine the requirements that will
control the structure size, layout, and
type.
(2) Propose recommended superstructure and substructure alternative(s).
Propose foundation alternative(s).
Determine the structure length, width, and span configurations that
satisfy horizontal and vertical clearance
criteria. Consider hydraulic opening and potential scour requirements.
For walls, propose wall type and
foundation alternatives.
(3) Consider environmental constraints.
(4) Consider restrictions due to site access and transport limitations, and
local material availability.
(5) Recommend proposed adjustments to profile alignment and grade necessary
to accommodate bridge location
and freeboard requirements.
(6) Recommend a structure layout, type and rehabilitation alternative(s) as
applicable. Include a preliminary
sketch(s). More than one alternative may be recommended. State
criteria used to evaluate each alternative.
For the items listed below (as a minimum) provide a summary of the preliminary
structural design criteria and submit to
Employer’s Representative for approval.
• Geometric Layout:

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a) Bridge spans, horizontal and vertical alignment, typical
section, and hydraulic information per
Structure Preliminary Layout
b) Bridge and transition railing
c) Abutment pitching or slope protection
d) Clearance for under through
• Design Loads
• Materials
• Superstructure Design
a) Railings and parapets/median barriers
b) Concrete Deck Design
c) Approach Slab
d) Precast Girders
• Substructure Design
a) Piers
b) Abutments
c) Deep and shallow Foundations
• Wall Design
• Miscellaneous
a. Abutment and Deck Drainage
b. Bearings
c. Expansion joints and seismic dumpers
For the items listed below (as a minimum) prepare design calculations. Design
calculations shall be annotated with specific
references to the applicable design specification sections.
1. Superstructure
2. Connections
3. Substructure
4. Foundations
9.6 Structural Evaluation of Existing structures
Strength Evaluation of Existing Structure has to be executed using ERA Bridge
Design Manual 2013 sec. 5 for bridge
where structural evaluation is required.
The condition of an existing structure component has to be checked based on ERA

bridge maintenance manual 2103. A
bridge component with seriously/major damages, defects and deterioration which
further causes reduction of load carrying
capacity that needs urgent intervention/replacement as categorized to Damage
Ranking A. Those bridge with major
damages, defects and deterioration observed in any of the bridge components that
affecting reduction of durability which
need urgent repair is categorized as Damage Ranking B. If there is any bridge which
has a damage rating with Damage
Ranking A and B has to be replaced.
Deflection of the existing bridge has to be checked. The limiting criterions of

visible sag/deflection of existing
superstructures are: -
• Live Load deflection should be should be checked by HL-93 live load and
if the deflection passes the limit of
S/800, where S is length in meter unit measured between center to
center of support.

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• If Sag on superstructure (dead load deflection beyond limit) is
measured greater than 15mm.
9.6.1 Detail Design
The contractor has to prepare detailed design of bridge for the selected types of
structures, culverts and other road
appurtenance structure along with its computation sheet for getting approval before
construction of structural works
commenced.
9.6.1.1 Bridges
The Contractor shall perform structural analysis and design of bridges based on the
output of the Hydraulic Design and
prevailing topographic conditions. In fulfilling the requirements for drainage, the
Contractor shall abide by and fulfil the
requirements related to drainage features while at the same time meeting
requirements of other required design elements
on the project. The detailed design of bridge consists of superstructure design for
vehicular and non-motorized traffic
crossing, substructure design for vehicular and non-motorized traffic, bearing
design, railing design, False work and
formwork design, stair case design for pedestrian high cut and high fill section
for accesses and also cattle crossing at
high fill section.
The detailed design of Bridge consists of the followings: -

1) Deck & Superstructure Design
The Contractor may propose different types of superstructure in structural
selection stage in line with standards provided
in this section and get approval to precede the detail design of deck and
superstructure component. The detailed design
computation of deck and superstructure components has to be submitted in design
document.
2) Acceptable Bridge
The bridge may be a one, two or three span structure. Minimum span length shall be
determined by carrying out detailed
Hydrological & Hydraulic analysis along with subsurface investigation and
considering on the geometry of the road. The
span combination of the bridge has to get acceptance in structural selection stage
before proceeding the detailed design
of the bridge superstructure components.
3) Substructure
The contractor has to prepare detailed design of substructure components of the
bridge such as abutments, wing walls
and pier for the selected and approved structure type. The designed computation
sheet and drawings has to be submitted
and get acceptance by the client representative and client to proceed construction
works.
The Contractor may propose and design different types of substructure in line with
standards provided in this section if
their proposal is accepted by the client representative and the client.
The proposed designed of the bridge substructure components has to be submitted to
the client representative consisting
of acceptable structural computation sheet, detailed design drawings, detailed
construction methods along with false and
form work design if formwork and false work required for its construction.
4) Bridge Foundation Design

All bridge foundations shall be designed as described in ERA Bridge Design Manual
2013. The Contractor shall use
standards listed in this section for all works related with Bridge Foundation
Construction. The Contractor is responsible for
developing any special provisions required to address work not covered by the
standards. All special provisions developed
or modified by the Contractor require ERA’s approval prior to application during
construction.

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5) False and formwork Design

The Contractor has to prepare formwork and false work design and get approval
before proceeding superstructure
construction activities
6) Structural drawings
The designed bridge superstructure and substructure components has to include the
followings.
a. Prepare structure drawing(s) that show all details necessary for
construction of the bridge.
b. The following (as a minimum) is an estimate of the contract plan sheets
required for typical structure:
Table 9- 1: List of compulsory structural drawings

Sheet Description Sheet
Description
A Plan View, Elevation View, General Notes, L
Deck Plan
Profile Grade Diagram
B Foundation Plan, Subsurface Profile, Estimate M
Bridge Railing
C Slope Protection N
Bridge Railing End block
D Abutment 1 O
Transition Railing
E Abutment 2 P
Rebar List
F Wing walls Q
Deck Drainage
G Girder Framing Plan R
Abutment Drainage
H Girder S
Bearing
I Girder Details T
Expansion Joint
J Typical Section U
Approach Slab
K Pier and Abutments layout, geometry and detail V
Backfill Details
drawings
Among the existing three bridges the first existing bridge recommended to be
retained with additional pedestrian bridges
beside the existing bridge while those two existing bridges along the project rout
alignment have to be replaced by new
bridge structure. Basing the findings of site reconnaissance survey and preliminary
hydrology/hydraulic recommendation,
provision of additional new bridges might be recommended by hydrologist during
detailed design period of the project.
9.6.1.2 Culverts
The Contractor shall provide a well-drained corridor and a safe environment for the
individuals who use and maintain the
road. The design and construction of all drainage structures and appurtenances
shall adequately address functionality,
durability, ease of maintenance, maintenance access, safety, aesthetic and
protection against vandalism according to
contract specifications and standards. In fulfilling the requirements for drainage,
the Contractor shall abide by and fulfil the
requirements related to drainage features while at the same time meeting
requirements of other required design elements
on the project.
Reinforced concrete shall be used for all pipe and box culverts crossing the
roadway. Reinforced concrete with Class C-
30/12.5 for pipe, C-30/20 for Slab and Box culverts and Class ‘B’ or Class ‘A’
stone masonry abutments and wing walls
shall be used for all slab culverts crossing the roadway. Class B masonry shall be
used for inlet/outlet and end wall
structures for pipe culverts. Cement-Sand ratio for mortar shall be 1:3.

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The Contractor shall provide sufficient justification as to how selection between
slab and box culverts is made, based on
geotechnical investigation findings and other considerations, for each and every
major culvert to be designed and
constructed within the project.
9.6.2 Structures in the Project

Condition survey of existing major and minor drainage structures is performed in
view of investigating ways in which it
might be possible to incorporate existing drainage structures in the new design of
the road so as to utilize the asset value
of these drainage structures during the upcoming design and built road project.
Accordingly, the condition of major and
minor drainage structures was investigated to decide on the type and extent of
maintenance measures that shall be taken
or the way they are to be replaced by new ones, if replacing these structures is
justifiable based on objective realities.
During the project site assessment period it was found out that there are three
existing major drainage structures and there
are around 91 minor drainage structures along the project route corridor. The
preliminary conditions of major drainage
structures available along the subject road are as presented in the next sub-
section of this report.
9.6.2.1 Major Structures

Existing drainage structure inspection is an action to assess correctly the
structure conditions in a standardize manner
and the most important element in the structure management cycles that is the
systematic maintenance/rehabilitation
process of inspection, assessment, selection of rehabilitation measures and repair
to keep the existing structure in a
satisfactory level if the assessed damage is maintainable without any further
aggravation of the noticed damages. It is a
general truth that existing structure cannot be kept in a good condition forever.
It is important to understand that drainage
structures consist of lots of members and elements that have different durability
in nature, accident happened and loads
imposed on it etc. This indicates that in order to keep the appropriate functions
of drainage structure expected in the
design, timing maintenance is among the essential response to its actual
deteriorations. For example, a minimum expected
service life of a bridge structure designed and constructed with ERA and AASHTO
manual is usually expected as long as
fifty years and above.
As per ERA drainage structures/bridges maintenance manual all of the existing

structure components have to be rated to
its damages, so that the fate of a bridge will be decided based on the actual
damage observed on the existing bridge
components. A bridge component with serious or major damages, defects and
deterioration which further causes reduction
of load carrying capacity that needs urgent intervention/replacement as categorized
to Damage Ranking A.
Those structure/bridge with major damages, defects and deterioration observed in

any of the structure/bridge components
that reduces its durability which need urgent repair is categorized as Damage
Ranking B.
Furthermore, structure/bridge components with minor/no damages, defects and

deterioration which need only routine
maintenances are categorized as Damage Ranking C.
According to ERA’s bridge design manual, drainage structures with 6m or above clear
span are defined as Major drainage
structures or Bridges, while those below 6m are considered as minor drainage
structures.

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There are three existing bridges along the project rout alignment. All of them are
made of RC Slab and RC deck girder
superstructures which are simply supported on RC abutments, RC piers and masonry
abutments.
From our visual observation the existing three bridge structures located across the
major streams around km14+360,
km43+310 and Km60+800 within the project rout corridor.
The preliminary description of the existing three bridges presented below.
I. Aweta River Bridge (around Km 14+360)

This river is the first major perennial river within the project route alignment
and flows to the left side of the road and named
as Aweta River by the local people. There are one old and one new existing bridge
across Awata river crossing. Both of
the existing bridges are made of triple span reinforced concrete superstructures
supported on two reinforced concrete
abutments and wing walls.
Currently the old bridge was used for some vehicles that stays near the bridges for
longer periods, non motorized traffics
and also used for pedestrian crossing. While the new triple span bridge in the new
double surface treatment road (DBS)
road realignment currently used for traffic crossing.
The newly constructed existing bridge is located in a geographical location of

X=492225, Easting and Y=639523 Northing
at around km14+360 from Adola town. It was constructed across Aweta River within
the last three year period. This Bridge
across this river has a triple span superstructure consisting of two 10m clear span
RC Slab superstructure at its approaches
and one 20m clear span reinforced concrete deck girder superstructure at the middle
parts of the bridge. The triple span
superstructure combination consists of 10m clear span RC slab at Adola side, 20m
clear span RC deck girder in the middle
and 10m RC slab superstructures in Bule Kero side of the road. Its superstructure
is further supported on two reinforced
concrete abutments and two reinforced concrete piers. Independent 8.0m long masonry
wing wall has been constructed
next to 6.0m Reinforced concrete wing wall constructed integrated with its two RC
abutments at four corners of the bridge
as retaining structure.
The new bridge has 7.30m carriage way and 0.80m walkway including RC Railing width
at both left and right side of the
bridge having a total bridge width of 8.90m. The existing bridge with 8.90m bridge
width doesn’t satisfy the current 2013
ERA geometric requirement of the subject road alignment.
From visual observation the existing newly constructed bridge total opening span
and clear height seems adequate to
accommodate the incoming flood. Its opening size is further checked for its
hydraulic adequacy. The existing bridge is new
and recommended to be maintained to be part and parts of the new design and built
road.
As an initial finding we proposed additional new separate bridge for non-motorized

traffic and pedestrian crossing at one
side of the existing new bridge across Aweta River. The designed pedestrian bridge
width must have a minimum of clear
2.0m wide baggage lane and 2.50m walkway at both side of the road.
II. Mormora River Bridge (around Km 43+310)

This river is the second major perennial river within the project route alignment
and flows to the left side of the road and
named as Mormora River by the local people. There are two old bridges across
Mormora river crossing. The oldest existing
bridge is a Baily bridge made of steel structure supported on steel substructure
component. Currently the older steel bridge

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is neglected for traffic crossings. As requested by the local people the oldest
double span steel bridge had been overtopped
a number of times and replaced by 24m reinforced concrete deck girder
superstructures before 20 years ago. This concrete
bridge with 24m reinforced concrete deck girder superstructure has been supported
on two masonry abutments and wing
wall.
The existing 24m bridge is located in a geographical location of X=478386, Easting

and Y=627313 Northing at around
km43+9310 from Adola town. The 24.00m clear single span reinforced concrete deck
girder superstructure has been
constructed before 20 years ago as inquired from the local people near the bridge
location. Currently the 24m clear span
reinforced concrete deck girder bridge is used for traffic crossing of this river.
The abandoned and overtopped older double span steel bridge is currently used for
pedestrian and non-motorized traffic
as noticed during our site visit period.
The existing 24m single span superstructure has 7.30m carriage way width and 0.80m
walkway including RC Railing width
at both left and right side of the bridge having a total bridge width of 8.90m. The
existing bridge with 8.90m total bridge
width doesn’t satisfy the current 2013 ERA geometric requirement of the subject
road alignment.
From visual observation the existing newly constructed bridge total opening span
and clear height seems adequate.
Considering the existing total 8.90m superstructure width and age of the 24m
reinforced concrete deck girder bridge across
Mormora river, we proposed as an initial finding to replace this bridge by new
bridge structure that satisfy the current
geometric width requirement of the road as stated in ERA 2013 geometric design
manual.
The existing 24m RC Deck Girder Bridge at Mormora river crossing recommended to be
replaced by new bridge having a
total bridge width of 12m to fit the recommended total road width of the approach
roads in the geometric design parts of
the Employer requirement and concept design report.
III. Bridge at (around Km 60+800)

This river is the third major river within the project route alignment and flows to
the left side of the road. It is constructed
across a seasonal river. It has an old single span reinforced concrete existing
Slab Bridge across a seasonal river located
around km 60+800 from Adola town. As inquired from the local people the existing
single 10m clear span reinforced
concrete slab bridge had been constructed before 20 years ago. It is supported on
two masonry abutments and wing wall.
The bridge is located in a geographical location of, X=478866, Easting and Y=611379
Northing at around km60+800
from Adola town.
The existing 10m single span RC slab superstructure has 7.30m carriage way width
and 0.80m walkway including RC
Railing width at both left and right side of the bridge having a total bridge width
of 8.90m. The existing bridge with 8.90m
bridge width doesn’t satisfy the current 2013 ERA geometric requirement of the
subject road alignment. Moreover, the
bridge crossing is located in Haya Dima wereda town section with proposed 21.50m
road typical section.
Considering the existing bridge total width of 8.90m superstructure, age of the
exiting bridge and 21.50m geometric width
requirement of Haya Dima wereda town section, this bridge is recommended to be
replaced by new bridge structure that
satisfy the current geometric width requirement of the road as stated in ERA 2013
geometric design manual. The opening
size of the bridge will be decided during detailed design period.

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9.6.2.2 Minor Structures

A number of minor drainage structures also identified consisting of RC pipe, RC
slab and RC box culvert structures with
the project route corridor. From our site assessment, there are around six
reinforced concrete box culvert, two reinforced
concrete slab culverts and eighty three reinforced concrete pipe culverts
consisting of single cell and double cell culvert
structures.
From our site observation, most of the newly constructed culverts including RC box
culverts within Adola –Shakisso section
of the road corridor show high siltation problems and need to be check for its
hydraulic adequacy.
The observed common defects on minor drainage structures during our inception phase
site reconnaissance period are
summarized below:
• Siltation of inlet and outlet channel of the structures.
• Scouring of upstream and downstream of some major culvert structure are
observed
• Displacement and erosion of road embankment near some culvert has been
noticed.
• The openings of some drainage structures are clogged with silt and
transported debris.
• Overtopping of road embankment at dwarf fill section of the road corridor
• Aging of RC pipe culvert end wall
• Total siltation/clogging and overtopping of existing structure is also
noticed
• Gully formation of side ditch due to inadequacy of some culverts
• Most of the existing pipe culverts consist of dia. 750mm RC pipes.
The above mentioned common damages are among the observed defects on minor drainage
structure along the road
corridor under consideration.
Based on our preliminary site inspection it is proposed to replace all slab and
pipe culvers structures within the project.
Those Culvert within the first fourteen kilometers (km0+000-Km14+0000) shall be
retained if it is confirmed for its hydraulic
adequacy by hydrologist while those culverts in the other section of the road
corridor has to be demolished and replaced
with new ones.
The Contractor shall not allow using ‘Type–A end wall and Type-A inlet shown in ERA
2013 Standard drawings for new
pipe culvert recommended to be furnished in the road corridor of this project. If
Type-A (drop inlet) inlet is mandatory, use
wider drop inlet size. New Type-C end wall for pipe culverts design are attached in
the ER.
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10. ROAD SAFETY
10.1 Review of Existing Accident Data
Since Ethiopia millennium the number of road traffic accident in Ethiopia was in
alarming state. In the past eleven years
the number of road traffic accident were estimated around 291577. From those
traffic accidents 36796, 54731, 58987 and
141063 road traffic accident were fatality, serious injuries, light injuries and
property damage respectively. The road
network development and motorized vehicles also in increasable way in the past
eleven year. Even if; the government
construct road and other infrastructure the severity of traffic accident in the
country still in distressing stage. In the past
eleven year the Ethiopia government also construct around 912,956km road network in
the country to reduce road traffic
accident in the country for having mobile and accessible road for the user. In
case; growth of motorized vehicle was
another issue that causes traffic accident in respect to road network coverage.
Similarly, in the past eleven year around
5,592,358 motorized vehicles were introduced in the country (Jima, 2019).
Another study conducted by WHO in 2018 the reported death shows an overall increase
through years 2008 to 2016. The
Following Figure 10-1 was excerpted from WHO report.
Figure 10- 1: Trends in Reported Road Traffic Death , Source ( (WHO, 2018)

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According to Addis Ababa Traffic Police Report (AATPR, 2011), the following were
depicted as major causes of road traffic
accident in 2011. Nearly 74% of the accident was attributable to the driver (WHO,
2015). Six percent of the accidents in
Addis also occur by Pedestrian 8% by condition of car, 3% by condition of road &
the remaining 9% is by other causes
(WHO, 2015).
Figure 10- 2: Major causes of traffic accident (WHO,2015)
The data presented below will show accident data of the previous year’s 2004-2008,
from different stakeholders.
Table 10- 1: Severity of traffic accidents in Ethiopia
Severity of Accidents Severity of

Injuries
Ethiopian Fatal Total % Fatal Total
Total Fatalities as %
Fiscal Year Accidents Accidents Accidents Fatalities
Injuries of injuries
2003/4 1,630 15,346 10.6 2,111

10,618 19.9
2004/5 1,801 17,722 10.2 2,188
11,073 19.8
2005/6 2,029 18,911 10.7 2,522
11,916 21.2
2006/7 2,047 17,147 11.9 2,517
12,070 20.9
2007/8 1,802 15,086 11.9 2,161
9,301 23.2
Data Source: Federal Police Commission
Interstate and city roads accounted for 70.5% of fatal crashes for most of which
ERA is responsible. Most of these are
paved two-way two-lane roads.
Table 10- 2: Road Traffic Fatality Crashes by Road Type and Road Pavement July
2005-June 2011

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Road Type Twelve Month Periods (July-June)
2005/6 2006/7 2007/8 2008/9 2009/10
2010/11 Total %
Interstate 728 758 768 606 473
1027 4360 35.9
Collector 211 237 238 300 375
509 1870 15.4
Access 237 327 351 224 360
215 1714 14.1
City 625 707 690 672 1003
499 4196 34.6
Total 1801 2029 2047 1802 2211
2250 12140 100
Road Traffic Fatality Crashes by Road Pavement (Surface) Type
Asphalt roads 1237 1429 1208 1242 1534
1494 8144 67.1
Asphalt roads
with some 76 65 66 75 221
354 857 7.1
distress
Gravel roads 379 416 471 314 356
397 2333 19.2
Earth roads 109 119 302 171 100
5 806 6.6
Total 1801 2029 2047 1802 2211
2250 12140 100
The absence of median strips or barriers also has a significant effect in

increasing crashes. Usually, rural two-lane roads
lack these physical barriers which separate opposing the incoming and outgoing
traffic flows. Two-way, two-lane roads
constitute the major proportion in of the road network in Ethiopia.
Table 10- 3: Fatal and Injury Crashes in the Six Year Period by Lanes/Medians, Road
Alignment, Junction Type and
Illumination Conditions
Road Alignment
Fatal Crashes %
Injury crashes %
Lanes/Medians
One way 3020 24.88
6391 21.7
Undivided Two way 7278 59.95
16631 56.46
Double carriageway (median) 1482 12.21
5335 18.11
Two-way (divided with solid lines road marking) 236 1.94
727 2.47
Two-way (divided with broken lines road marking) 124 1.02
259 0.88
Total 12140 100.00
29454 100
Road Alignment
Tangent road with flat terrain 7,913 65.18
19832 67.33
Tangent road with mild grade and flat terrain 1,166 9.60
2797 9.50
Tangent road with mountainous terrain and 348 2.87
816 2.77
escarpments
Tangent road with rolling terrain 337 2.78
909 3.09
Gentle horizontal curve 587 4.84
1,325 4.50
Sharp reverse curve 525 4.32
1,069 3.63
Steep grade upward with mountainous terrain 515 4.24
990 3.36

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Steep grade downward with mountainous terrain 669 5.51
1,478 5.02
Other 80 0.66
238 0.81
Total 12,140 100.00
29,454 100.00
Illumination conditions
Daytime with sufficient daylight 7,581 62.5
20,094 68.22
Twilight 871 7.17
2,004 6.80
Sun rising 874 7.20
1,590 5.40
Night with sufficient light 1,293 10.7
2,470 8.39
Night with insufficient light 542 4.46
1,519 5.16
Night without light 781 6.43
1,407 4.78
Other 198 1.63
370 1.26
Total 12,140 100.00
29,454 100.00
Road junction type
Midblock 8,565 70.55
21,977 74.61
Y-junction 1,570 12.93
2,030 6.89
T-junction 742 6.11
2,367 8.04
Roundabout 371 3.06
848 2.88
Four leg junctions 539 4.44
1,600 5.43
Five leg junctions 95 0.78
111 0.38
Rail crossing 34 0.28
68 0.23
Other 224 1.85
453 1.54
Total 12,140 100.00
29,454 100.00
There are also links between different land use types and the occurrence of
crashes. Analysis indicates that most fatal
and injury crashes occurred in and around cities, particularly in central business
districts and residential areas. Table below
shows that 27.7% fatalities and 33.4% of serious injuries occurred in central
business districts and residential areas in the
six ear period.
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Table 10- 4: Crashes by Land Use
Land use Fatal % Injury %

Property %
Crashes Crashes
Damage
Rural village 3041 25.0 4737 16.0

4334 7.1
areas
Agriculture areas 1948 16.1 3584 12.1

4360 7.1
School areas 892 7.4 1903 6.5

2379 3.9
Industrial 355 2.9 929 3.2

1554 2.5
Church areas 462 3.8 1369 4.7

2855 4.7
Market areas 820 6.8 3147 10.8
6720 10.9
Recreational 562 4.6 1908 6.4

4505 7.3
areas
Hospital areas 342 2.8 617 2.1
2552 4.2
CBD 1765 14.5 6290 21.4

24039 39.1
Urban Residential 1597 13.2 4234 14.3

6955 11.3
Other 356 2.9 736 2.5

1183 1.9
Total 12140 100 29454 100

61436
Summing up all the data presented in this section as a table above, it is possible
to conclude that Design consistency is
the conformance of geometry of a highway with driver expectancy, and its importance
and significant contribution to road
safety is justified by understanding the driver–vehicle–roadway interaction. The
roadway geometry, traffic conditions, and
roadside environment are the primary inputs to the driving task that determine the
workload requirement of the driver. How
quickly and how well these inputs are handled depend on driver expectancy and other
human factors. Once these inputs
are processed, they are translated into vehicle operations. When an inconsistency
exists that violates driver’s expectation,
the driver may adopt an inappropriate speed or inappropriate maneuver, potentially
leading to accidents. In contrast, when
design consistency is ensured, all abrupt changes in geometric features for
contiguous highway elements are eliminated,
preventing critical driving maneuvers and minimizing accident risk.

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10.2 Road Safety Design
10.2.1 Road safety Philosophy
Road safety philosophies generally express a long-term vision of an ideal road
traffic system where accidents and serious
personal injury are virtually eliminated. Road "accidents" are not considered
accidental events that are the inevitable
consequence of our demand for mobility; they are seen as events that can be
prevented. The main elements of road safety
philosophies reflect generally well known safety principles. People are fallible
and make errors. Furthermore, people are
physically vulnerable and can only withstand a limited amount of external forces.
Therefore, road safety measures based
on these philosophies and principles take account of these limitations and aim to
develop a road system that:
✓ Minimizes the chances of human error;
✓ Is forgiving of errors when they do occur;
✓ Prevents conflicts among road users with large differences in speed, mass
and direction.
The WHO world report on traffic injury prevention (WHO, 2004) sets out a number of
guiding principles for road safety
work which are based upon this line of thinking. It says, among other things, that:
"Road crash injury is largely preventable and predictable; it is a human-made

problem amenable to rational analysis.
Common driving errors and common pedestrian behavior should not lead to death and
serious injury – the traffic system
should help users to cope with increasing demanding conditions. The vulnerability
of the human body should be the limiting
design parameter for the traffic system."
In line with these principles, a road traffic system that is safe and sustainable
will have the following features:
➢ its infrastructure will have been adapted to take into account human
limitations, using proper road design;
➢ its vehicles will be equipped to make the task of driving easier and to
provide a high standard of protection in
crashes;
➢ Its road users will be provided with adequate information and education and,
where appropriate, will be deterred
from undesirable or dangerous behavior.
10.2.2 Risk factors influencing crash involvement

Understanding the major risk factors influencing crash involvement is important in
arriving at proper roadway design for
safety. The following are the major risk factors.
10.2.2.1 Speed
The speed of motor vehicles is at the core of the road injury problem. Speed
influences both crash risk and crash
consequence.
“Excess speed” is defined as a vehicle exceeding the relevant speed limit;
“inappropriate speed” refers to a vehicle
travelling at a speed unsuitable for the prevailing road and traffic conditions.
While speed limits only declare higher speeds
to be illegal it remains for each driver and rider to decide the appropriate speed
within the limit.
The speed drivers choose to travel at is influenced by many factors. Modern cars
have high rates of acceleration and can
easily reach very high speeds in short distances. The physical layout of the road
and its surroundings can both encourage
and discourage speed. Crash risk increases as speed increases, especially at road
junctions and while overtaking – as
road users underestimate the speed, and overestimate the distance, of an
approaching vehicle.

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Speed has an exponentially detrimental effect on safety. As speed increase, so do
the number and severity of injuries.
Studies show that the higher the impact speed, the greater the likelihood of
serious and fatal injury.
The speed limit in village sections in Ethiopia is 30kph; however, most drivers
operate on these road environments at a
higher speed as they approach from open and agricultural areas, and then do not
reduce their speed sufficiently (National
Road Safety Coordination Office, 2006). A probable contributor to this behaviour is
the lack of provision of transitional
speed zones. For instance, the speed limit on paved, rural, two-lane roads is
80kph, but villages and towns along the
roads have a speed limit of 30 kph without any transitional speed zones in between.
As a result of the lack of transition,
geometric parameters and roadside features can change abruptly and motorists may
encounter heavy workload (e.g.
pedestrian and animal traffic) which creates safety risks (Fitzpatrick et al.,
1999).
10.2.2.2 Pedestrians and cyclists

A disproportionately large number of pedestrian crashes and cyclist crashes occur
in low-income countries. In accordance
with the Global status report on road safety, 2009, in Ethiopia, pedestrians
constitute about 55% of fatalities. Pedestrian
casualties also represent a huge cost to society in industrialized nations, where
the risks (measured in distance travelled
or time spent travelling) are many more times higher for pedestrians and cyclists
than for car users.
In terms of collision types in the six-year period from 2005 to 2011, pedestrian
crashes are the dominant types of collision,
as motorized traffic and pedestrians share the same facilities. Failing to observe
pedestrian priority and speeding are the
likely root causes for the high level of crashes in the country. As suggested
previously, the separation of non-motorized
traffic from highways—through both hard-scape and soft-scape measures--may
represent a viable solution for protecting
pedestrians.
10.2.2.3 Driver fatigue

Fatigue or sleepiness is associated with a range of factors, including long-
distance driving, sleep deprivation and the
disruption of circadian rhythms.
10.2.2.4 Road-related factors

While road engineering can greatly help in reducing the frequency and severity of
road traffic crashes, poor engineering
can contribute to crashes. The road network has an effect on crash risk because it
determines how road users perceive
their environment and provides instructions for road users, through signs and
traffic controls, on what they should be doing.
10.2.2.5 Safety defects in existing roads

Defects contributing to crash risk can appear in road designs, especially if they
have not been subject to a safety audit by
experienced safety personnel. Such defects are frequently caused by the poor design
of junctions or by design that allows
for large differences in the speed and the mass of vehicles and in the direction of
travel.
For example, according to ERA design standard, the typical urban cross-section is
four lanes (the outer lanes for parking).
Commonly, this is provided without any physical means of delineating parking lanes
and sidewalks from the travelled
ways. Such wide cross-section without any types of self-enforcing physical means of
reducing speed encourages the
through traffic to pass urban areas with a speed higher than the speed limits. This
unsafe road environment creates
conflicts between the through and local traffic which coupled with unsafe attitude
and behavior of road users creates the
worst traffic safety situation in built -up areas.

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The absence of median strips or barriers also has a significant effect in
increasing crashes. Usually, rural two-lane roads
lack these physical barriers which separate opposing the incoming and outgoing
traffic flows. Two-way, two-lane roads
constitute the major proportion in of the road network in Ethiopia. According to
the six years of data considered as
described above, 59.95% of fatal crashes occurred on undivided roadways with two
lanes. Dual carriageway and one-way
roads accounted for 12.21% of fatal crashes. In the case of injury crashes, the
former types accounted for 56.46% of the
total injuries and the latter were responsible for 18.11%. The provisions of median
barriers are dependent on traffic volume,
which means there are few kilometers of such roads, almost all in Addis Ababa.
Medians separate traffic flows in opposing
directions and can also be used as a recovery area for errant vehicles and a refuge
for pedestrians. The absence of
medians contributed to crashes in Ethiopia.
Most crashes occurred on paved two-way two-lane roads (in cities and on interstate
highways), particularly in central
business districts; and residential areas. As a developing country, the
transportation systems in urban areas cater to mixed
traffic including high speed vehicles, pedestrians, animals, and animal drawn
carts. The speed can vary from 5km/hr to
80km/hr and these speed differentials have been recognized as risk factors for road
traffic crashes. Moreover, the
complexity of land use, lack of comprehensive transportation planning, and many
social activities along or on the roads in
urban areas may have contributed to the rise in road traffic crashes. The urban
road environment is not conducive to the
safety of road users and could be addressed by implementing sound transport
planning which in turn minimizes activities
in and along roads. The separation of non-motorized traffic from roadways could
assist in the reduction of road traffic
crashes. Inconsistencies of speed zoning could be addressed through the
implementation of a road safety audit process
during the planning, construction and operation stages of roads.
Midblock road sections had a considerable share of fatal and non-fatal crashes in
the six years, probably because much
pedestrian crossing takes place in these sections. Overall, 70.55% of fatalities
and 74.61% of non-fatal injury crashes
occurred on midblock road sections. By comparison, intersections were safer, which
is contrary to the findings usually
reported in the research literature (Tay & Rifaat, 2007). Marked and other crossing
facilities are rare in midblock areas,
which might result in increased fatal and non-fatal crashes.
10.2.2.6 Inattention to safety in designing roads

Where road layouts are self-explanatory to their users – through the use of
markings, signs and physically self-enforcing
measures to reduce speed – engineering can have a beneficial influence on behavior.
Engineering design, though, can
often have negative influences on behavior – when there is incompatibility between
the function of the roads, their layout
and their use, this creates risk for road users.
10.2.3 Road safety design principles and strategies

Road safety design principles and strategies employed in the project road are
described in the sections below.
10.2.3.1 Incorporating safety features into road design
A key objective of safety engineering is to make drivers naturally choose to comply
with the speed limit. Through the use
of self-explanatory road layouts, engineering can lead to safer road user behavior,
as well as correcting defects in road
design that otherwise may lead to crashes. In line with this, a range of
engineering measures are designed to encourage
appropriate speed and make hazards easily perceptible. These measures include:
✓ improved vertical alignment;
✓ advisory speed limits at sharp bends;

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✓ regular speed-limit signs;
10.2.3.2 Safer routes for pedestrians and cyclists
The creation of networks of connected and convenient pedestrian and cyclist routes,
together with the provision of public
transport, can lead to greater safety for vulnerable road users. The routes will
typically consist of footpaths or cycle paths
separate from any carriageway, pedestrian-only areas with or without cyclists being
admitted, footpaths or cycle tracks
alongside carriageways, and carriageways or other surfaces shared with motor
vehicles. Where pedestrian or cycle routes
cross significant flows of motor vehicle traffic, the location and design of the
crossing point needs special attention. Where
routes are not separated from carriageways, or where space is shared with motor
vehicles, the physical layout will need
to manage speeds.
Section 5.12 of ERA Geometric design manual, 2013 also states that wherever
possible, non-motorized traffic should be
segregated by physical barriers, such as raised kerbs (through villages and peri-
urban areas).
The project road is classified according to areas: Towns, Developing Towns,

Villages, Rural Footpaths and Rural area. In
all but rural areas, pedestrian movements are moderate to high and appropriate
safety provisions are proposed for each
type of area. In Towns, Developing Towns and Villages, separate walkways are
designed to safely accommodate
pedestrians. In Villages and Developing Towns, 2.5m shoulder on each side of the
road are provided while in towns, 3.5m
wide on street parallel parking lanes are provided on each side. In addition, in
towns, 2.5m wide medians are designed
which separate opposing traffic, and provide refugee for crossing pedestrians, and
provide space for plantation to enhance
aesthetics of the towns. Similarly, in developing towns, 2.0m wide medians are
provided.
Furthermore, 2.5m wide shoulders for identified rural footpath sections on both
sides are designed to accommodate
pedestrians that often travel between towns and villages in large numbers
especially on market days.
10.2.4 Road Safety Audit

The purpose of detailed road safety audit is to:
➢ Identify and address any design issue prior to the construction stage;
➢ Evaluate whether departures from standards will significantly impact safety;
➢ Evaluate the safety of road features not previously made available to the
audit;
➢ Determine if the needs of all road users have been adequately and safely met;
➢ Review the interaction of the various design elements with each other and
with the surrounding road network;
➢ Identify anything missed during a previous audit.
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Consultancy services for the Route Selection and Survey, Feasibility and

Environmental Impact, Ethiopian Roads Authority

As well, to minimize discrepancies related to unanticipated departures from the

Pure Consulting Engineers PLC in Sub-Consultancy with Sound Engineering Solutions

• Ensuring that the resulting design meets the requirements as specified in

Pure Consulting Engineers PLC in Sub-Consultancy with Sound Engineering Solutions

1.1 Introduction and

1.3.2 Scope of the

2.3.2 Traffic Variation: Day and

2.3.3 Seasonal Variation in Traffic and Estimation of Seasonal

2.3.4 Estimation of Average Annual Daily

2.3.5 Recommended Road Section and Estimation of Average Annual

2.4 Conversion of Non-moterable Traffic to Moterable

2.5.2 Generated Traffic Factor

2.6 Origin and Destination

Pure Consulting Engineers PLC in Sub-Consultancy with Sound Engineering Solutions

2.7.4 Analysis of Past Traffic

2.8 Elasticity of Transport

2.9.2 Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in

2.9.4 Transportation Demand

3.1 Identification of alternative

4.1 Sampling of stretches for

4.5.2 Tying with National Coordinate

4.5.5 Data Processing and

4.6.2 Geometric Level-

4.7 Collection of Cross-section

Pure Consulting Engineers PLC in Sub-Consultancy with Sound Engineering Solutions

5.2.3 Design Traffic Loading

5.3 Existing Road

5.4.2 Subgrade Soil

5.5 Pavement Structure

5.6 Source of Construction

5.6.2 Rock Sources for Asphalt Aggregate and Base

5.6.3 Borrow Material

5.6.4 Natural Sand Sources /Fine

5.6.5 Water Sources for

6. HYDROLOGY / HYDRAULIC DESIGN STANDARDS AND DATA

6.2.2 Vegetation and Land

6.2.4 Site Visit

6.3 HYDROLOGICAL AND HYDRAULIC TASKS CARRIED

6.4.2 Departures from

6.5.2 Watershed area

6.5.3 Rainfall - Runoff Models and Flood Estimation

6.5.4 Runoff Curve

6.6.2 Manning’s Formula of Hydraulic

6.6.3 Bridge Design

6.6.4 Culvert Design

6.7 Summary of Drainage Requirements from field investigation and

6.7.2 Minor Crossing Culvert

6.7.3 Side Drain

7.1 Design of Earth

7.2.2 The problem of

7.2.3 Design and

7.4 Fill slope

7.4.4 Types of embankment

7.4.5 Placing and compaction

Pure Consulting Engineers PLC in Sub-Consultancy with Sound Engineering Solutions

7.6.2 Subsurface exploration and testing

8.2.3 Type of area