CHAPTER LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

• define key terms used in the field of occupational health and safety
• identify the sources of workplace hazards
• describe the types of injuries caused by workplace hazards
• identify types of workplace hazards
• describe methods for systematically examining workplace hazards and risk
• describe the processes for controlling hazards and managing risk

NEL 81
82 PART 2: Hazards and Agents

NUCLEAR TRAGEDY

In March 2011 the world witnessed the second and accident emergency responses. A final report
worst nuclear power disaster unfold as a 15- metre into the accident makes a number of recommen-
tsunami caused by an earthquake approximately dations to ensure that Tokyo Electric is better pre-
130 kilometres off the coast of Japan destroyed pared for such natural disasters. Specifically the
the Fukushima Daiichi and Daini Nuclear Power committee made recommendations that Tokyo
Plants of Tokyo Electric Power Company. The Electric reevaluate their attitudes towards the
International Atomic Energy Agency (lAEA) classi- assessment of the risks posed by natural disasters,
fied it as a level 7 out of 7 (major accident) on the in particular the risks posed by hazards that are
International Nuclear Event Scale (lNES) due to the viewed to have a low probability of occurrence or
high amounts of radioactive material released into considered to be difficult to predict. While a final
the environment. On May 24, 2011 a committee report has been released, the tragedy emphasizes
was created to determine whether the proper the need to properly assess and control hazards
precautions were in place at Tokyo Electric. Upon and risks within the workplace, as well as maintain
investigation into the incident the committee a positive and proactive culture of safety. Hazard
determined much of the damage at the company recognition and risk assessment and control are
was the result of a number of causes, citing a lack the backbone of workplace OH&S programs and
of preventative measures, disaster preparedness, is the focus of this chapter.

Source: Secretariat of the National Diet of Japan Fukushima Nuclear Accident Independent Investigation Commission. Found at: http://
naiic.go.jp/wp-contentiuploads/2012107 INAIIC_reporchUes4.pdf; http://icanps.go.jp/eng/SaishyuRecommendation.pdf.

Almost every workplace has recognizable hazards to which people are exposed.
There are many different definitions of the term hazard however, the term is typi-
cally defined as any source of potential adverse health effects, damage, or harm
to something or someone under certain conditions at work. 1 Hazards within the
work environment pose a risk to those within that environment and in order
to manage that risk, the hazard and its potential must be properly understood,
assessed, and controlled using a systematic process known as hazard/risk assess-
ment and control.

TERMINOLOGY
Hazard identification and risk assessment and control involve very specific terms,
some of which are incorrectly used interchangeably. Though the following terms
seem similar to one another, each has a distinctive use in the OH&S field:
hazard • A hazard is any object, action, or condition that can be a source of poten-
any source of potentia l tial adverse health effect, damage, or harm to people, processes, or equip-
adverse health effect, ment within the workplace. Examples of objects that can be considered
damage, or harm on some- workplace hazards are chemicals used to disinfect a surface, or sharp
thing or someone under
certain conditions at work objects and machinery. Examples of hazardous conditions are icy steps,
or an understaffed shift rotation. Examples of hazardous actions are not
wearing personal protective equipment (e.g., gloves), or not following
safety procedures.
NEL
 Chapter 4: Hazard Recognition, Risk Assessment, and Control 83

OH&S Today
A Controversial Term

Though the term "accident" is commonly used to refer and safety professionals suggest the term accident
to an unwanted event that causes harm, more and more implies the event was unavoidable and uncontrollable
health and safety professionals avoid using it, preferring and as such there are no "accidents" in this sense. They
the term "incident." This preference is based on two reject the view that "accidents will happen," relying
observations. First, effective health and safety manage- instead on effective means of hazard recognition, risk
ment is more appropriately focused on understanding assessment, and control whereby we can prevent inci-
incidents and the root cause(s). Second, some health dents and injury from occurring.

• Generally the term incident is defined as an event or occurrence that had incident
or could have had a negative impact on people, property, or processes. an event or occurrence that
Events which could have had a negative impact are frequently referred had or could have had a
negative impact on people,
to as close calls or near-miss incidents. A close call or near-miss inci-
property, or processes
dent is any unplanned event wherein harm or equipment loss almost
occurred but was successfully prevented or mitigated. Examples of close
risk
calls include not wearing safety glasses when operating a power saw and
the probability or the
nearly being hit by flying debris, or brushing against hot objects with extent to which a hazard
unprotected hands without getting burned. Close calls or near-miss inci- is likely to cause harm
dents involve the presence of a hazard but mayor may not result in harm to people, processes, or
or loss. equipment

• Risk is typically defined in terms of the probability or the extent to which

ris k perception
a hazard is likely to cause harm to people, processes, or equipment. The
an individual's interpreta-
concept of risk perception is based on the individual's interpretation
tion of the potential for
of the potential for harm and their concern for the consequences based harm based on values,
on social, physical, political, cultural, and psychological factors that then beliefs, and experience
influence how an individual behaves in response to that hazard. 2 with a hazard

HAZARD RECOGNITION AND IDENTIFICATION

Broadly speaking, when hazards are being identified, one considers the sources:
biological, chemical, ergonomic, physical, and psychosocial (discussed in detail in
following chapters) followed by the specific type of hazard. There are five catego-
ries of hazard types: people, equipment, environment, materials, and processes
that should be considered during the hazard identification process.

People
Humans create hazards in the workplace by their actions or inactions. Proper
training, administration, leadership, and supervision are required to ensure that
unsafe act
employees engage in the appropriate workplace behaviours. Incidents involving
a deviation from standard
humans are referred to as unsafe acts. An unsafe act generally refers to a deviation job procedures or practices
from standard job procedures or practices that increases the potential for an inci- that increases a worker's
dent and harm. A human action that may cause an immediate event of any type, and exposure to a hazard

NEL
84 PART 2 : Hazards and Agents

over which the person has control, is considered a direct, unsafe act (sometimes: - - - -
referred to as a substandard practice). An example would be improper modifica-
tions to a respirator used in a paint booth to allow a cigarette to be smoked through
the filter cassette. An indirect, unsafe act is one in which the human action is only
indirectly involved. Consider the following example. A designer of a machine alters
a braking system on a punch press that allows the machine to complete its oper-
ating cycle after the emergency stop is activated instead of immediately stopping.
In this instance there is overlap between an indirect unsafe act and an unsafe condi-
tion. The machine defect started as an indirect unsafe act but resulted in an unsafe
condition for the operators using the machine.
Unsafe acts are observable behaviours that are the direct outcome of a deci-
sion made by an individual. Unsafe acts that contribute to or cause an incident are
labelled as human factors .
When a worker or another person causes an incident by commission (doing
something), poor judgment, or omission (failing to do something), the cause is
human factor labelled a human factor. However, when conducting an incident investigation and
when a person causes determining the role of human factors there is a distinction between fact finding and
an accident by commis- fault finding. A human action may have been directly or indirectly involved in the
sion, poor judgment, or event, but "human error" or blame should never be used nor implied. In a similar vein,
omission (failing to do
something)
no one would willingly or intentionally injure himself or herself, which tends to sup-
port the idea that a human action should not be considered "human error" and have
blame assigned. No matter how many backup systems are in place, some shortcut
or personal foible can cause the system to fail. The intent of hazard recognition, risk
assessment, and control is not to find a scapegoat, but to correct procedures and
behaviours so that the likelihood of the incident occurring again is reduced. Similarly;
there are techniques that can permit a professional to identify hazardous conditions
or activities and implement correct procedures before hazardous events occur.

Equipment
Under certain conditions or situations the tools, machines, or equipment people
use and work near can be hazardous. Examples of equipment that can be haz-
ardous include defective tools (broken ladder), unguarded moving machinery
(unguarded saw blades in a butcher shop). When considering the equipment in
the workplace that can be hazardous it is important to carefully consider what
falls under workplace equipment and to make sure that everyday equipment like
office, lunchroom, or kitchen equipment are considered.

Environment
Some hazards can be created by the work environment and can be either natu-
rally occurring (e.g., weather in outdoor work environments) or the result of an
unsafe condition caused by poorly maintained equipment, tools, or facilities.
The following are examples of an unsafe work environment:
• Improper illumination-too dark or too much glare
• Poor exhaust or ventilation systems-the toxic vapours from a process
hang in the air rather than being removed
• Defective equipment and materials-not to the required specifications

NEL
 Chapter 4: Haza rd Recognition, Risk Assessment, and Control 85

• Adverse temperature conditions-working around a furnace on a hot

summer day
• Poor indoor air quality-odours and stuffiness
Environmental factors, which are encompassed sources of hazards like
physical, chemical, biological factors, and ergonomic factors, can playa direct or
indirect role in incidents. For example, physical factors such as noise, vibration,
illumination, and temperature extremes have an obvious relation to safety and
exist within certain work environment. A noisy work environment may prevent
a worker from hearing approaching vehicles or may damage hearing over time.
Similarly, chemical factors such as airborne toxic gases not only may cause illness,
but also may impair a worker's reaction, judgment, or concentration. Contact
with biological agents such as viruses or parasites may cause either minor
illness-a cold-or something more serious-hepatitis B.

Materials
Materials are any workplace substance, matter, or provisions used for produc-
tion that have the potential to cause harm or loss especially if handled improp-
erly. Examples of materials include supplies and raw materials such as wood
within a carpentry shop, dry cleaning chemicals, paint, or cleaning chemicals.
When materials are improperly handled or misused or if the wrong materials
are used during production they can become a hazard or create hazardous condi-
tions. For instance certain cleaning materials such as ammonia and bleach should
never be mixed together because the mixture results in a toxic chemical reaction.
Ensuring the proper handling and use of workplace materials is very important
and requires training (e.g., WHIMIS training).

Processes
When combining people, equipment, environment, and materials with the pur-
pose of production of a good or service a process is involved. Processes involve
the flow of work and include factors such as design, pace, and organization of the
various types of work via policies, procedures, and work processes. Work pro-
cesses can result in various hazardous byproducts when combined with people,
equipment, environment, and materials. While the objects and equipment in and
of themselves are types of hazards, when combined with using a poor process or
procedure then the process or procedure itself is a hazard.

HAZARD IDENTIFICATION PROGRAMS

A hazard identification program (or hazard recognition) is simply a systematic
means of identifying and recording hazards in the workplace. They are designed
to integrate safe and healthy procedures into job tasks and procedures. The pro-
cess of hazard identification should be completed by safety experts or employees
who are trained to recognize hazards that might not be readily apparent to the
casual observer. The hazard identification process can be as simple as a visible
inspection of the workplace or as complex as taking air samples to test for sus-
pected contaminants. There are various methodologies available for conducting
a hazard identification however, it is critical that a sequential and systematic pro-
cess is used to ensure that no hazard is overlooked.
NEL
86 PART 2. Hazards and Agents

Components of the Hazard Identification Program

walk-through survey A safety professional can enter a worksite and, by walking through, note hazards.
a survey in which a safety The utility of a walk-through survey is increased when the supervisor and a
professional walks through worker member of the Joint Health and Safety Committee OHSC) accompany the
a worksite and notes
safety expert. Safety sampling, often referred to as behaviour or activity sam-
hazards
pling, is a systematic survey procedure undertaken by safety personnel, who
safety sampling record their observations of unsafe practices on a sampling document. They
a systematic survey proce-
might observe, for example, workers without hardhats where they are required.
dure undertaken by safety
personnel who record their
Actual and observable exposures to hazards are the focus of the survey.
observations of unsafe Following the walk-through survey, the safety personnel encode and count their
practices on a sampling observations. A report is then submitted to management to provide an objective
document evaluation of the type and number of unsafe acts and conditions.
Management can ask workers who represent a variety of tasks and jobs to
identify hazards and unsafe conditions. Employees might report that they are
required to adapt tools (thus rendering them potentially hazardous) in order to
meet production quotas, or that a machine is dripping oil, rendering a corridor
slippery and treacherous. Discussions with both the experts and the employees
should be supplemented by an analysis of the job site and the work performed.
The company should have a detailed layout of the plant or premises, showing
the location of processes, machinery, materials storage, shipping, and so forth .
WHMIS requires that a drawing showing the location of any toxic materials and
storage arrangement is available.

Task and Job Inventory

job description A description of the job and its associated tasks should be obtained and orga-
the content and hierarchy nized by department, operation, or product. The human resource department can
specific to a particular job assist by providing job descriptions and job specifications.
job specifications
Task analysis refers to the systematic examination of a job's many compo-
the requirements neces-
nents.lt consists ofa list of tasks and the job of which they are a part, the number
sary to perform the various of workers who perform the same or similar tasks, the time spent on each task,
functions of a job (e.g., the importance of the task to the job, the complexity and criticality of the job, the
ability to lift weight, learning curve if complicated and repetitive, and the effort required. The analysis
education level) identifies the various demands on the worker, the tasks that are susceptible to
worker error and stress, and potentially hazardous conditions. Industrial engi-
neering methods are best for performing this kind of analysis.

Reports and Audits

A review of the reports filed after an incident, accident, or injury or as part of a
safety inspection will provide valuable information on hazards. Also, OH&S depart-
ments and safety associations can provide written information about the types of
accidents in similar industries. Accident and injury rates published by governments
are another source of information. For example, most Workers' Compensation
Boards (for a complete list, see Chapter 3) publish regular reports on accident sta-
tistics. Audit information, which is obtained by reviewing records of all injuries,
accidents, incidents, workplace design changes, and environmental sampling, is an
extremely useful source for cataloguing hazards. Most large organizations use com-
puters to store, analyze, and report on hazards and incidents, thus facilitating the
identification of hazards by type or department. 3
NEL
 Chapter 4: Hazard Recognition, Risk Assessment, and Control 87

Hazard Analysis hazard analysis

Hazard analysis is used to acquire specific hazard and failure information about an orderly, ana lytical tech-
nique that examines a
a given system.4 Hazard analysis is an orderly, analytical technique that examines
system for the most prob-
a system for the most probable hazards having the severest consequences, for able hazards having the
the purpose of establishing corrective or control mechanisms. The most common severest consequences,
form of hazard analysis is the analytical tree, of which there are two types. The for the purpose of estab-
positive tree shows, graphically, how a job should be done. The more frequently lish ing corrective or control
mechanisms
used tree is the fault tree, which illustrates things that can go wrong. A typical
fault tree structure is shown in Figure 4.1. positive tree
shows, graphica lly, how a
Risk Assessment job shou ld be done
Once hazards have been identified, the risk of an incident or injury must be deter-
mined. Risk assessments are a critical aspect of occupational health and safety by fault tree
making employees aware of the hazards and risks they are exposed to and what they an illustration of things that
should be doing to manage the risk. Determining risk is difficult due to the nature of can go wrong
how it is defined and because there are various methods for assessing it. It is impor-
tant at this point to consider the concept of risk perceptions and the relationship
between the actual risk of a hazard and an individual's perception of the risk. Risk

FIGURE II
Example of a Fault Tree

Forei.gn particlel
In eye

r (metal chip) I T
I

Area visitor
~close ' B

r------~~--------,
1-_ L
A

~Chine Walk into I

operating area
~C
!~ 0

NEL
88 PART 2' Hazards and Agents

can be assessed by rating the probability of an incident followed by rating the conse-
quences and assigning a level of priority (e.g., very high risk). It can also be measured
by consulting statistics (e.g., accident statistics) and calculating the probability of an
event. Risk assessment methods that are based on numerical calculations are some-
times referred to as quantitative risk assessments while those not based on numer-
ical calculations are referred to as subjective risk assessments. An argument can be
made for choosing one type of risk assessment method over another given the sub-
jective nature of risk perceptions however, there is evidence to support that the actual
or objective level risk and an individual's interpretation are not always disparate.
Research involving offshore oil and gas platform employees showed that workers
had "reasonably accurate perceptions of risk" and suggest that the factors that influ-
ence risk perceptions are similar to those which influence more objective assessment
methods (Le., quantitative risk assessments). Regardless of the assessment method
chosen the necessity of conducting a risk assessment cannot be negated.
probability Probability refers to the chance or likelihood that an event will happen and
the chance or like lihood will result in harm or loss. Within the context of workplace safety and risk assess-
that an event wi ll occur and ments probability is typically expressed in terms describing the likelihood (e.g.,
will result in harm or loss very unlikely, likely, very likely) however there are numerous ways to express prob-
ability and it is up to the organization to ensure they are appropriate within a par-
ticular context, environment, or situation. The Canadian Centre for Occupational
Health and Safety (CCOHS) proVides the following terminology for probability:
• Very likely-Typically experienced at least once every six months by an
individual.
• Likely-Typically experienced once every five years by an individual.
• Un likely- Typically experienced once during the working lifetime of an
individual.
• Very unlikely-Less than 1 % chance of being experienced by an individual
during their working lifetime. 6 '
consequences Consequences correspond to the severity of the injury, harm, or loss and can
the results or severity of range from dust in the eye, to amputation of a finger, to death. Consequences of
the injury hazard can be expressed in various ways and can include the consequences of
harm and or the loss to equipment. It is important for organizations to select ter-
minology that is appropriate for a given job, situation, or context. Consequences
are often expressed in terms of severity of harm or loss (e.g., slight harm, moderate,
or extreme). CCOHS provides the following indicators of severity of consequences:
• Slightly harmful (e.g., superficial injuries; minor cuts and bruises; eye irritation
from dust; nuisance and irritation; ill-health leading to temporary discomfort).
• Moderate harm (e.g., lacerations; burns; concussion; serious sprains;
minor fractures; deafness; dermatitis; asthma; work-related upper limb
disorders; ill-health).
• Extremely harmful (e.g., amputations; major fractures; poisonings;
multiple injuries; fatal injuries; occupational cancer; other severely
life-shortening diseases; acute fatal diseases)'?'

*CCOHS, "Risk Assessment." Found at: http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/hsprograms/risk_assessment.html.

NEL
 Chapter 4' Hazard Recognition, Risk Assessment, and Control 89

Determining the risk level of hazard is done by gauging likelihood and the
consequence of a hazard and assigning it a rating. Risk can be rated as very low,
moderate, high, or very high. The rating or priority of risk can be determined by
an organization however, it is extremely important that each ranking or priority
rating of risk be clear to all those who conduct risk assessments. In other words,
employees conducting risk assessments should be clear on what is defined as "low
risk." CCOHS provides guidance on defining risk and is a useful resource that is
based on the British Standards Institute (UK equivalent of ISO) (see Table 4.1). For
example, very low risk is defined as acceptable and does not require further action
other than ensuring existing controls are maintained. CCOHS (see Table 4.2) pro-
vides a sample layout that can be used for hazard inventory and risk evaluation,
which is also based on the British Standards Institute.

Follow-Up
The information obtained through hazard identification and risk assessment should
be communicated to the appropriate manager, the immediate supervisor, and the
health and safety committee. Some reports may be forwarded to the Ministry of
Labour (if the substance is under assessment) or the Ministry of Environment, or

TABLE

•
Risk Assessment
Likelihood of Harm Severity of Harm
Slight Harm Moderate Harm Extreme Harm

Very unlike ly Very low risk Very low risk High risk
Unlikely Very low risk Medium risk Very high risk
Likely Low risk High risk Very high risk
Very likely Low risk Very high risk Very high risk

Source: CCOHS, "Risk Assessment," Tab le 2. Found at: http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/

hsprograms/risk_assessment.htm I.

TABLE

•
Sample Hazard Inventory and Risk Evaluation

EXAMPLE OF RISK ASSESSMENT

Task Hazard Risk Priority Control
De livering product Drivers work alone May be unable to ca ll for he lp
to customers if needed
Drivers have to occasiona lly Fatigue, short rest t ime
work long hours between shifts
Drivers are often in very Increased chance of collision
congested traffic
Longer working hours

Drivers have to lift boxes Injury to back from lifting,

when delivering product reaching, carrying, etc.

Source: CCOHS, "Risk Assessment," Tab le 1. Found at: http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/hsprograms/risk_assessment.html.

NEL
90 PART 2· Hazards and Agents

to the corporation's lawyers. Safety professionals and supervisors who do not pass
on information about unsafe conditions to a responsible manager could be charged
under the jurisdiction's occupational health and safety act.
When presented with information about hazards, management may decide to
(1) take no action, (2) take corrective action, or (3) consider a cost-benefit anal-
ysis to determine whether the anticipated losses are worth the cost of correcting
the problem.

TYPES OF INJURIES
injury
A look at the nature of workplace injuries will help us identify the types of work-
any trauma, physical or
place hazards we are concerned with. There are at least two broad classes of
mental, direct or indirect,
acute or chronic, experi-
injuries in workplaces. Overt traumatic injuries (e.g., cuts, fractures, burns)
enced by a human being typically result from coming into contact with an energy source (e.g., falling, being
struck by material). In contrast, overexertion injuries (e.g., sprains, back pain,
overt traumatic inj uries
tendonitis, carpal tunnel syndrome) typically are caused by excessive physical
injuries resulting from
coming into contact with
effort, repetitive motions, and, possibly, awkward working positions. From this
an energy source observation it follows that hazard identification and control should focus on iden-
overexertion inju ries
tifying and controlling sources of energy that can result in injury as well as in
injuries resulting from
conditions of work that may lead to overexertion.
excessive physical effort,
repetitive motions, and,
Overt Traumatic Injuries
possibly, awkward working One of the most common causes of workplace accidents is individuals coming
positions into contact with objects and equipment. For example, individuals may be struck
by objects that are falling from overhead or may drop materials on themselves,
resulting in crush injuries. Material may be flying through the air because of
grinding or cutting operations. The use of compressed air in many industrial set-
tings is a particular hazard, as the stream of compressed air may cause small par-
ticles of material to accelerate rapidly through the work environment. Individuals
may also be struck by moving equipment (e.g., vehicles, forklifts).
Another form of contact with equipment occurs when individuals become
caught in, under, or between (CIUB) machinery. Industrial presses, for example,
are often associated with crush injuries when individuals who are feeding the
machine stock get their hands caught in the machinery as it presses. Conveyer
belts and other power transmission systems (e.g., belts, pulleys) may have "pinch
points" in which individuals can become entangled.
Falls are another significant source of workplace injury. This category includes
falls from a height (e.g., off a ladder, or down a set of stairs) as well as falls on the
same level (e.g., slipping on the floor). As we might expect, falls from a height are
common in construction, where ladders and other temporary structures (e.g., scaf-
folding) are frequently used. Falls on the same level often result from spilled material
(e.g., oil) or from tripping over poorly placed material, uneven surfaces, and so on.
Overt traumatic injuries also result from coming into contact with sources of
energy such as electricity, chemicals (e.g., chemical burns), and heat (e.g., touching
a hot surface results in a burn). Prolonged kneeling and the use of abrasives can
result in abrasive injuries in which the skin is torn or rubbed raw.
In all situations, prevention focuses on (1) recognizing the source of the hazard (Le.,
the potential energy source), (2) eliminating the hazard, and (3) protecting workers
from exposure to the energy source (e.g., through personal protective equipment).
NEL
 Chapter 4. Hazard Recognition, Risk Assessment, and Control 91

Overexertion Injuries
There are many types of overexertion or repetitive strain injuries. Most of them,
though, have one of three basic causes: lifting, working in an awkward position,
or repetition.
Materials handling, which involves lifting, carrying, and lowering, is an often-
performedoperationinmanyorganizationsthatcanresultinhigh-riskinjuriesthrough
overexertion and poor posture, both of which are the primary cause oflow back pain.
Lifting tolerances can be estimated using formulae developed by the National Institute
for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) in the United States.8 Back injuries
-from stabbing pain to total disability-can have far-reaching effects for the worker,
the worker's family, and the company. Low back pain, often associated with materials
handling, accounts for more than 50% of all musculoskeletal complaints and is the
fastest growing category of disability (see OH&S Notebook 4.1).9

1. Size up the load and check the overall conditions: 7. Avoid any unnecessary bending: Do not place
Is the load being picked up in the open, or is it sur- loads on the floor but on a platform or rack if
rounded by other boxes? Is it too large to grasp? they have to be picked up again later. Bend the
How far does it have to be carried? How high does knees, and do not stoop.
it have to be lifted? Is the floor dry or slippery? 8. Avoid unnecessary twisting: No twisting is accept-
2. Choose the lifting position that feels the best: able. Turn the feet, not the hips or shoulders.
The~e are several "correct" ways to lift a load. 9. Avoid reaching out: Keep all loads as close to
Figure 4.2 illustrates two of the more common the body as possible. The farther away from
ones: the straight-back leg lift and the stoop lift. the body centre, the greater the disc load and
3. Check for slivers, nails, sharp edges, and so on: hence the greater the stress (see Figure 4.3).
Sustaining a penetration injury while lifting is 10. Avoid excessive weight: If the load is too heavy
both painful and awkward. or too awkward, get help. The definition of
4. Lift by gripping the load with both the fingers "excessive" will depend on the individual and
and the palms of the hand: The more the hand his or her physical condition and training .
is in contact with the object, the better the con- 11. Lift slowly and smoothly: Use your body weight
trol and the more positive the application of the to start the load moving, and then lift using your
lifting force. legs and arms.
5. Keep the back straight: A straight back (not a
12. Keep in good physical shape: The better your
vertical back) will reduce stress on the spine and
physical condition, the easier lifting will be and the
make the load distribution on eacb vertebral disc
lower the risk of sustaining a lower-back injury.
uniform.
6. Maintain good balance: If you are not steady on
your feet, an off-balance motion can impose sig-
nificant stress on the discs.

Sources: WorkSafe Alberta, "Lifting and Handling Loads." Found at http://www.hre.gov.ab.ca/doc;;umentsIWHSIWHS-PUB_bd001.

pdf (Accessed Feb. 7, 2(07); North American Occupational Safety and Health, "Preventing Back Injury in Manual Materials Handling."
Found at http://W\MN.n.aosh.o(g!english/documents/mmh.html(Accessed Feb. 7, 2(07); WorkSafeBC, "Top Seven Dangers for Young
Workers." Found at: http://youngworker.healthandsafetycentre.org/slTop-Seven-Dangers.asp ?ReportID533144 (Accessed Feb. 7, 2007).

NEL
92 PART 2: Hazards and Agents

FIGURE

Lift Positions

When lifting activities are identified as a workplace hazard, materials han-

dling can be mechanized through the use of conveyors and forklift trucks or other
lifting devices; or it can be automated through the use of guided vehicles, which
follow sensor lines on the floor, stopping as required to transfer their loads; or
inventory systems can be installed that allow computer-controlled machines
to pick up or stock inventory. In these ways, many of the risks associated with

NEL
 Chapter 4: Hazard Recognition, Risk Assessment, and Control 93

FIGURE
II
Relationship between Load Position and Lower Back Stress

LOWER BACK STRESS = (A + B) x C

where A = distance from front of body to rotation point of spine, approximately 20 cm
B = distance in front of body to load centre of mass
C = load weight

(20 + 15) X 10 (20 + 22.5)X 10 (20 + 30) X 10

= 350 kg/cm = 425 kg/cm = 500 kg/cm

lifting can be greatly reduced. Some workers use supports that force the back to
remain straight but do not prevent the worker from lifting or handling heavier
loads. Though the logic of using back supports is appealing, agencies such as NIOSH
in the United States have suggested that there is no scientific evidence in favour
of the use of such devices. The Canadian Task Force on Preventive Health Care found
that randomized control trials did not support the use of back supports. 10 Of the
five trials reviewed, three found no effect and the remaining two found marginal
effects.

Repetitive Strain Injuries

Tennis elbow, golfer's elbow, telephone operator's elbow, writer's cramp, and
postal worker's shoulder are well-known examples of what is known as repeti-
tive strain injury (RSI). More recently named conditions include carpal tunnel
syndrome, thoracic outlet syndrome, and white fingers disease or Raynaud's
syndrome (see OH&S Today 4.2).
RSI is fast becoming the most common occupational injury. Data from the
Canadian Community Health Survey suggest that 1 in 20 Canadians over the age

NEL
94 PART 2: Hazards and Agents

of 20 have experienced RSI.n This translates into 2.3 million cases, most ofwhicn
result from work activities. The origins of RSI can be traced to the following four
general conditions:
• Unnatural joint position or posture. Whenever a joint is forced to work in
a position that is unnatural or stressed, the risk of RSI is increased. For
instance, during keyboarding the wrists are forced out of axial alignment
with the arm. The use of a hand tool such as a pair of pliers can force the
wrist-arm axes out of line, creating a stress condition that could eventu-
ally cause joint irritation.
• Force application to hinge joints. When hinge joints are forced to carry
applied loading, particularly when flexed, the joint load distribution of the
cartilage is uneven, causing excessive stress in a small area of the joint.
The wrist is a good example of a hinge joint. When performing a task such
as lifting while bent, this joint can begin to ache. Repetition of the activity
can result in a loss of strength.
• Activity repetition. Tasks such as keyboarding (computer operator) or
using a hammer (carpenter) involve a repetitive flexing of the fingers
and wrists. The action of typing applies low-load repetition to the fin-
gers (touching the keys) and medium loading to the wrist (supporting
the hand). The action of hammering applies a high-impact loading to the
wrist, which is flexed into a nonaligned axis on impact. The shock effect
increases the potential risk of tissue damage.
• Pre-existing conditions. Ailments such as arthritis and circulation dis-
orders can have a synergistic effect on RSI conditions. For example,
arthritis-an inflammation condition of the joints-can be aggravated by
the stress associated with hammering or keyboarding.

Artistic Occupations at Risk

If you search for RSI on the Web, you will mostly find hand or body positions. Intense preparation for a per-
articles focused on the hazards of computer work and formance, learning new pieces (requiring extensive
industrial jobs that involve repetitive motions. It may practice and repetition), changes in techniques or instru-
surprise you to know that people in other occupations- ments, and prolonged performances are all risk factors
such as dancers and musicians-are also at risk for RSI. for performing artists. Dancers are at risk because of
These occupations involve considerable repetition these factors but also because forceful exertions can
(practice, practice, practice) and often involve awkward lead to stress fractures and similar injuries.

Source: Safety and Health in Arts, Production, and Entertainment, "Preventing Musculoskeletal Inju ry (MSI) for Musicians and
Dancers." Found at http://www.shape.bc.ca/resources/pdf/msi.pdf(Accessed Feb. 7, 2007); NOASH, "Health, Preventing Back Injury
in Manual Materials Handling." Found at: http://www.naosh.org/english/documents/mmh.html(Accessed Feb. 7, 2007); WorkSafeBC,
"Top Seven Dangers for Young Workers." Found at: http://youngworker.healthandsafetycentre.org/slTop-Seven-Dangers.
asp?ReportID533144 (Accessed Feb. 7, 2007).

NEL
 Chapter 4: Hazard Recognition, Risk Assessment, and Control 95

Awkward Working Positions

Strains and sprains can result from bending, twisting, and working in a variety
of awkward positions. Frequently, the work position may compound or interact
with other factors. For example, an individual may be lifting a load that normally
would present no problem but be working in a confined space that prohibits
following safe lifting procedures, resulting in an injury.
Perhaps the most common types of injury result from bending or twisting
the torso, extending the reach beyond the body, and working overhead with the
hands and arms. As a general guideline, individuals should not have to reach
below the knees or raise their arms above the shoulder for any length of time.
Workstations and work procedures should be designed to ensure that individuals
work in a comfortable position. Moreover, equipment and machinery should be
adjustable to accommodate differences in body size.

HAZARD CONTROL
Hazard control refers to the program or process used to establish preventive hazard control
and corrective measures as the final stage of hazard recognition, risk assess- the program or process
ment, and control. The goal is to eliminate, reduce, or control hazards so as to used to establish pre-
minimize injuries and losses, including accidents, property damage, and time ventative and corrective
measures
lost. It is useful to think of hazard control as comprising three levels of in terv en-
tion (1) precontact control (addressing issues before an incident or accident p recontact control
occurs), (2) contact control (identifying ways in which a hazardous situation addressing issues before an
can be prevented from becoming worse and harming workers), and (3) post- incident or accident occurs
contact control (putting in place medical and cleanup operations and ensuring contact cont ro l
that the event cannot be repeated). Controls at each of these levels could com- identifying ways in which a
prise engineering controls, administrative controls, and control through per- hazardous situation can be
sonal protective equipment. prevented from becoming
worse and harming workers
Precontact Control postcontact contro l
Precontact control is the first method of controlling hazards by preventing putting in place medical
hazards from reaching individuals within the workplace. Precontact control and cleanup operations
means using methods such as isolation, housekeeping, safe work poliCies and and ensuring that the event
cannot be repeated
procedures, machine guarding, and replacing or retrofitting hazardous equip-
ment. Precontact control of hazards involves various engineering, adminis-
trative, and personal protective equipment based controls. It is important
that organizations consult with their provincial occupational health and
safety act and regulations because many precontact controls are legislated,
for example the Nova Scotia Department of Labour and Advanced Education
provides information within the general occupational health and safety reg-
ulations for housekeeping and other methods for preventing contact with
various hazards.
When precontact control measures are not feasible or practical given the
work environment then employers must engage point of contact controls that
mitigate the risk associated with that hazard (e.g., using personal protective
equipment). In some situations hazards result in an incident in which case con-
tact control must be implemented.

NEL
96 PART 2: Hazards and Agents

Contact Control
If workplace, equipment, machines, or buildings are damaged as a result of an
incident or if a hazard results in an emergency, then control of the hazard site is
necessary so that the worker can be protected. Many contact controls fall under
the engineering, administrative and PPE categories.
The main purpose of contact control is to ensure that the workers and emer-
gency crews-fire fighters-are not added to the injury list. Steps to be taken can
be grouped into the five following categories:
• Suppression. Reduce or eliminate the ongoing hazard condition by using
standard fire fighting techniques: install fans to help clear the contami-
nants from the surrounding air, and turn off the power and utilities to the
area. Another example: dust from an explosion in a mining operation can
be controlled by spraying water at the rock surface.
• Barriers. Install barriers between workers and sources of the emergency
to keep unauthorized personnel out of the area.
• Modifications. Identify and modify equipment or structures that need to
be strengthened in order to prevent further damage from occurring, such
as adding shoring to weakened walls to prevent collapse.
• Substitution . Eliminate potentially harmful energies that have been
unleashed by the event and replace them with safer, independent devices.
For example, use portable floodlighting to replace the existing plant
lighting if there is a possibility that damaged electrical equipment could
cause a fire.
• Isolation. Isolate energy sources from the emergency personnel and
plant workers. Shut off all energy sources in the plant to prevent addi-
tional problems, and replace with outside equipment if possible, such as
a portable air compressor to replace the one in the damage area. Shut
down any expensive equipment that could be damaged by energy surges.

Postcontact Control
The following are some steps that should be taken in the aftermath of an event:
1. Ensure that any injured worker receives immediate and thorough emer-
gency care. The injury could be anything from a blow to the head to expo-
sure to a hazardous chemical. Provisions for first aid and emergency care
should have been made during the precontact control process. The extent of
these provisions will depend on the number of workers in an organization
and the types of hazards they face.
2. Lock out the machinery involved until the accident investigation is complete
and the damage is repaired.
3. Keep unauthorized people out of the area.
4. Determine what can be salvaged and what waste must be disposed of.
Environmental regulations may prohibit the easy removal of certain
hazardous wastes (e.g., PCB-contaminated oils from a damaged power
transformer).

NEL
 Chapter 4: Hazard Recognition, Risk Assessment, and Control 97

s. Apprise the JHSC, affected managers, and government agencies of the

event-fire, police, and paramedics will probably already know.
6. Complete all accident reports to determine what happened. Use report rec-
ommendations to ensure that the accident will not be repeated.
7. Review all company procedures and revise where appropriate.
8. Communicate with workers about the event. If necessary, implement safety
retraining and possibly trauma counselling depending on the seriousness of
the event.
Points 2 to 5 are requirements of the Ministry of Labour in most provinces and
territories, and the Workers' Compensation Board in B.C.

ENGINEERING CONTROL
Engineering control refers to the modification of work processes, equipment, eng ineering control
and materials in order to reduce exposure to hazards.12 Hazard control should be modification of work
built into the design of the work itself. Before equipment and materials are pur- processes, equipment,
and materials to reduce
chased, specifications for efficient and safe operations should be determined. For
exposure to hazards
example, noise emission limits for noisy equipment can be specified before the
equipment is purchased, thus reducing possible worker exposure. Engineering
control also refers to the installation of auxiliary equipment, such as physical
barriers and ventilation systems, in order to reduce hazards dealing with the
source and path. Because engineering controls avoid hazards or eliminate them
entirely, they are always the first (Le., most preferred) way to deal with hazards.
The redesign of common hand tools is a good example of engineering control.
The common in-line screwdriver configuration, for example, requires that
the hand and wrist be forced out of line. In contrast, the T-bar handle in the ergo-
nomic screwdriver allows the hand and arm to be kept in alignment by producing
a lower wrist-arm angle (see Figure 4.4). The key to effective hand tool design
is to maintain natural joint alignment such as that illustrated by the ergonomic
hammer in Figure 4.5.
Safety professionals can sometimes replace hazardous equipment or materials
with those that are less hazardous. For example, replacing a light, fluffy powder
with the same material in granular form will result in a reduction of airborne dust
levels. Lead paints can be replaced with less toxic materials such as water-based
coatings. Similarly, electric trucks can be substituted for gasoline-powered ones,
with a resultant decrease in exposure to carbon monoxide. The substitute should,
of course, be checked for other types of hazards. The introduction of electric trucks
will reduce the serious risk of carbon monoxide exposure but increase less serious
exposure to flammable hydrogen or electric shock from batteries.
Controls and displays can be designed to reduce confusion. Automobile
instrument panels and machine operating panels should exhibit the following
four characteristics:
• Visibility. The display must be within the worker's field of vision, with no
obstructions. Characters should be of a readable size, with high contrast .
• Legibility. Characters must be adequately spaced as well as distinguish-
able (a "3" should not look like an "8"). No more than one line or pointer
should appear on each display.
NEL
98 PART 2: Hazards and Agents

FIGURE

Screwdriver Configurations

a) conventional screwdriver

wrist axi:s--.;?-::::::-:-~:t:S::::--:: _ _ __

b) ergonomic T-bar screwdriver

• Interpretability. The displays must be interpreted in the same way by all

observers. Universal symbols help but can lead to misunderstandings.
For example, the red exit symbols may be confused with the red glow that
means "stop:' In Europe, exit symbols are green .
• User-friendliness. Each control must be a different shape and have a
different operating direction in order to be easily distinguished from
adjacent controls. Picture the controls in your car: the radio volume
rotates, while the station change button is pushed; the most important
controls-the fuel gauge and the speedometer-are displayed most
prominently.
Engineering controls can also be applied in the office environment. Many
employees spend long periods seated at their workstations. A poor sitting posi-
tion or posture can restrict blood circulation, increase blood pooling in the legs
and feet, and add to the compressive load on the spine. Correct chair design will
minimize the concentration of pressures under the thigh and the back of the

NEL
 Chapter 4: Hazard Recognition, Risk Assessment, and Control 99

FIGURE
II
Hammer Configurations

A_oc__
-----
~
-~rm axis

~
wrist axis
a) conventional hammer

b) ergonomic hammer

knee. Work seating must be completely adjustable in all directions and planes. A
forward-tilting seat may be preferred by employees who must lean over a work-
station. (Interestingly, a study by Ontario Hydro revealed that only 5% of users
adjust their furniture. 13 ) Seat cushions should have about a 2.5 cm compression,
with minimal contouring to allow ease of position shift. Permeable fabrics allow
ventilation and absorption of perspiration.
The backrest should be curved on the vertical and horizontal planes. It
should also be vertically adjustable (so that the point of contact fits the small of
the back in the lumbar region) as well as horizontally adjustable. Armrests are
recommended unless a wide variety of arm movements are required. The chair
base should provide stability and mobility. Five casters with a wide spread will
prevent tipping.14 Visit http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/ergonomics/sitting/
sitting...position.html for illustrations and information on recommended chair
settings and body positions.
Lighting within an office environment is also extremely important and has
two main purposes: to illuminate the tasks, and to increase the safety and com-
fort of the worker. Bright overhead lighting can produce glare and annoying
reflections on a computer screen, resulting in eyestrain and headaches. Choosing

NEL
100 PART 2: Hazards and Agents

the correct lighting for a workplace will involve consideration of the following
factors:
• Intensity: the amount of light given off by a source
• Luminance: the amount of light uniformly reflected or emitted from a
surface and the background
• Reflectance: the amount of light reflected from a surface (luminance) and
the amount of light falling on the surface (illuminance). A dull black sur-
face has 9% reflectance, while a shiny white surface has closer to 100%
reflectance.
• Luminaire: a complete lighting device
• Contrast: the relationship between the amount of light from a surface and
the background
• Glare: the reduction of visibility caused by brightness differences between
an object and its background
Both the quantity and the quality of light must be considered. In the context
of workstation design, quantity refers to the correct amount of light needed to
perform a task. Quality is more complex and includes measures of distribution
(or spread), glare, diffusion, shadows, contrast, and colour.

Process Modification
Sometimes changing the manner in which the work is done can increase safety.
Moving from a manual operation to an automated one, or from batch processes to
continuous processes, may result in fewer hazards.
Effective job design is key to worker safety and efficiency. Frederick Taylor
(1856-1915), the founder of industrial engineering, tried to increase both by
breaking a job into its basic components and then assigning to each task specific
times and methods (motions). Taylor's ideas were applied to the shovelling of coal
at the Bethlehem Steel Company in what was to become a classic motion study.
This application demonstrated that a stoker could shovel more coal into the blast
furnace by using a larger shovel and engaging in fewer work cycles. Decreasing
the repetition of the task reduced fatigue and back strain.
Subsequent efficiency experts addressed the tedium associated with simple
task repetition. Inspired by the Hawthorne studies of the 1920s, the socio-
technological approach to work design was concerned with enhancing worker
involvement and satisfaction. What has this to do with health and safety? The
more interested and motivated the worker, the lower the probability of a serious
accident or injury.

Isolation or Segregation
In this approach, the hazardous job or task is isolated from the employees in
order to reduce their exposure. Isolation strategies may be as simple as putting
a physical barrier around a chemical or noise source, or it can involve removing
a hazardous operation to a separate facility. Robots can handle tasks that are too
dangerous for humans.

NEL
 Chapter 4 Hazard Recognition, Risk Assessment, and Control 101

Segregating the hazardous operation in time as well as space is also advis-

able. Cleanups, maintenance, and especially hazardous tasks such as spray
painting can be done on weekends or at night, when fewer workers are present.

Machine Guarding
Machine guarding is necessary to protect a worker from the hazards and machine guarding
energies created by moving machinery. According to Ontario's Ministry of protection for workers
Labour, more orders citing problems are written for nonexistent or improper from the hazards and
guarding than for any other. 1S The problem is serious enough to have prompted energies created by
moving machinery
the Canadian Standards Association to issue standard Z432-94, Safeguarding
of Mach inery, 16 which thoroughly covers the topic of machine guarding.
The following basic guidelines for machine guarding apply, regardless of the
type or operation of the equipment:

• The guard must be sturdy enough to resist external source damage that
would interfere with the operation of the machine, such as being struck
by a forklift truck.
• The guard must permit required maintenance tasks without excessive
dismantling or reassembly labour.
• The guard must be properly and securely mounted to prevent rattling,
which is a distraction, or part interference, which can cause snags and
force the operator to attempt to free them, possibly without proper
precautions.
• There should be no parts that, if removed, would compromise the protec-
tion provided by the guard-there should always be some guarding left.
• Construction should be relatively simple so that problems can be immedi-
ately identified and corrected during an inspection.*
Thoroughness in guard design is essential. An incomplete guard may be as
much of a hazard as no guard at all. The guard must not create a false sense of
security that may cause accidents and possible injuries. When the guard is in
operation, all parts of the body must be excluded, and no access is permitted.
The barrier or guard will prevent a worker from being caught in, on, or between
moving equipment (kinetic energy), or from being struck by flying, sliding, or
falling objects (gravity energy).
Floor barriers installed around pumps and other hazardous equipment
must be strong enough to resist damage by, for example, forklift truck impact
(mechanical energy), and high enough that a worker will not trip or fall over
them. Expanded metal should fill the open spaces to prevent parts from rolling
into the hazard area and fingers from being poked through.
Several devices can be used to control pOint-of-operation hazards. Barrier
or enclosure guards prevent workers from entering a hazardous area. The bar-
rier may be mechanical (a cage that covers the work action) or electrical (a pho-
tocell that will not permit the machine to cycle while the beam is broken). The

*CCOHS, "Risk Assessment," Table 2. Found at: http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/hsprograms/risk_

assessment.htm l.

NEL
102 PART 2 Hazards and Agents

emergency stop button is another form of guard; for it to be effective, the machine'- - -
must be equipped with a braking system that will stop the machine in mid-cycle.
Guarding by distance involves keeping workers physically removed from
the machine hazard. One of the most common methods is the two-handed trip
guard or control, which is located near but not in the midst of the hazard site.
Both hands are required to press each button simultaneously for the machine
to cycle.
Hand-removal devices are designed to physically remove the worker's hands
and arms from the activated machine. The "hand pullout" is a harness-like system
fastened to the worker's wrists at one end and to the machine at the other end.
When the machine (say a punch press) is activated, the harness mechanism phys-
ically pulls the worker's hands out of the way. Short of removing the harness, the
worker cannot win the ensuing tug of war.
The sweep away is a device with one or two arms (single sweep or double
sweep) that, when activated by the machine cycle, will swing across in front of the
worker, forcibly removing his or her hands from the danger area. A small panel
attached to each arm screens the swept area to keep the worker's hands from
re-entering the danger zone after the sweep arm passes. The sweep-away device
is not a recommended guard.
The photoelectric eye is a light beam that, when broken, will not allow the
machine to cycle. This type of device has the advantage of not adding to the
machine any obstructions that can make maintenance difficult. It is generally
expensive to install and maintain but very effective.
Feeding tools include hand-held tongs, push sticks, or clamps that allow the
operator access to the machine while keeping his or her hands out of the way.
Metal tools are usually made of aluminum or magnesium, which will crush easily
if caught in the machine, thereby saving the die sets and not allowing the type of
kickback kickback that could direct the worker's hands into the machine. A press forge
action of having a work operator will use a set of special tongs to hold a red-hot piece of metal in place in
piece suddenly thrown the dies while the machine forms the part. In a similar manner, a set of handles
backward into the operator
secured to sheet glass or metal by vacuum will permit a worker to handle the
material without being cut by sharp edges.

ADMINISTRATIVE CONTROL
administrative control Administrative control is the use of management involvement, employee
management involvement, training, employee rotation, environmental sampling, and medical surveillance
training of employees, to protect individualsY Administrative control is the second level of priority
rotation of employees,
for worker protection, after engineering controls but before personal pro-
environmental sampling,
and medical surveillance to
tective equipment. Against some negative attitudes, administrative controls
protect individuals can have some effect in minimizing hazardous conditions. The most serious
failure of this method relates to a company's reluctance or lack of apprecia-
tion. Using administrative controls, the HR practitioner can be effective by (1)
introducing preplacement examinations so that employees are chosen who
have suitable characteristics for the job (e.g., the ability to lift materials), (2)
scheduling job rotations so that workers spend time in less hazardous jobs,
thereby reducing exposures (e.g., working with toxic materials in the morning
and with nontoxic materials in the afternoon) , (3) moving workers to other

NEL
 Chapter 4' Hazard Recognition, Risk Assessment, and Control 103

permanent jobs after exposure to toxic materials, and (4) performing periodic
monitoring,
Some common examples of administrative control include safety awareness
programs, incentive programs, housekeeping programs, preventive maintenance,
and the development of policies and training modules for unique situations such
as confined space entry.

Safety Awareness
Safety awareness refers to programs that attempt to inform workers about health
and safety issues and to remind them of the importance of health and safety,

Visible Reminders
Posters and signs at worker entrances and other points of entry are one way
to promote safety awareness. A company-designed booklet dealing with
health and safety issues can be issued to employees. Safety message inserts
can be added to paycheques. Place mats and napkins in the dining area can
be imprinted with safety messages. Decals (self-adhesive or magnetic) can
be applied to specific objects as safety reminders. In addition, safety displays
can be set up at entrances and in cafeterias. These displays can feature photo-
graphs of the Safe Employee of the Month or brief statements by workers who
were saved from injury by, for example, correct use of personal protective
equipment (e.g., safety glasses). Newsletters, bulletin boards, and billboards
are other vehicles for promoting safety awareness. Finally, safety campaigns
can be used to target specific hazards or unsafe practices. These efforts and
presentations, though, will not be effective unless the senior managers are
fully behind the programs.

Special Events
Numerous special events and campaigns have been developed to promote safety
awareness in the workplace (e.g., National Safe Driving Week). In general, the
intent of these special events is to increase awareness of safety issues in the
workplace by focusing on safety or a specific element of safety in the workplace
(see OH&S Today 4.3).

Young Worker Awareness Program

In response to the high rate of injuries among Insurance Board and is delivered through various
young workers, almost ev.ery jurisdiction has begun agencies. The intent of the program is to increase
to address the issue of young workers' health and young people's awareness of health and safety
safety. The Young Werker Awareness Program in issues, the importance of health and safety, and their
Ontario is funded by the Workplace Safety and rights under the law.

Source: Workplace Safety and Insurance Board of Ontario, "Young Worker Awareness Program. " Found at: http:ttywap.ca/english -
(Accessed Feb. 7, 2007).

NEL
104 PART 2' Hazards and Agents

Awards and Incentives

Safety awards are another vehicle for increasing awareness of safety. By estab-
lishing an award, the sponsoring agency or company creates an "event" com-
prising a presentation and a media announcement. The resulting publicity can
be used to raise safety awareness. Safety award programs have been created by
industrial associations, governments, and agencies to recognize achievements in
safety (see the Weblinks section at the end of the chapter).
Within organizations, individual employees can be given incentives to maintain
good safety performance. These incentives can range from individual payments to
team rewards. For example, DuPont Canada employees were given special scratch-
and-win lottery tickets. 18 Other organizations recognize good safety performance
through incentives such as private parking spaces or dinners (see Chapter 10 for
a discussion of behaviour-based safety programs, which often involve incentives).
In addition, supervisors may receive rewards based on the number of employees
who attended safety talks or the number of safety deficiencies that were corrected
expeditiously. Contests can be held in which employees compete to produce the
best safety slogan. Finally, safety records can be used as a criterion when evaluating
supervisory and managerial performance. Care must be taken with this approach,
since some supervisors may be tempted to hide problems and serious hazards.

Housekeeping
Ensuring that the worksite is clean and that workers have access to cleaning
facilities will contribute to the control of hazards. A clean, orderly workplace can
reduce hazards and at the same time increase efficiency. Every worksite contains
potentially hazardous tools and equipment. For example, a plant site may have
containers of chemicals such as solvents, tools such as drills, and processes that
generate dust or scrap material. Maintaining a clean and orderly job site reduces
the risk of injury due to falls, fires, and so forth. Furthermore, it is easier to locate
first aid equipment or exits in an environment in which all tools and equipment
are in their assigned places (see OH&S Notebook 4.2).
Housekeeping is not just a good practice-it is a legal requirement under
most health and safety legislation. Though legislation varies across jurisdictions,

Good housekeeping practices are perhaps the simplest • Keeping floors free of debris or spills
and most effective way to prevent slips and falls in the • Marking hazards (e.g., spills, debris) until they
workplace. These include the following: can be cleaned up
• Keeping walkways and stairwells clear of clutter • Ensuring adequate lighting
• Closing drawers, doors, and storage bins after use

Source: CCOHS, "Why should we pay attention to housekeeping at work?" Found at: http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers
Ihsprograms/house,html (Accessed Feb. 7, 20(7).

NEL
 Chapter 4: Hazard Recognition, Risk Assessment, and Control 105

the Canadian Health and Safety Regulations under the Canada Labour Code (see
the Weblink) are typical:
1. Every exterior stairway, walkway, ramp, and passageway that may be used
by employees shall be kept free of accumulations of ice and snow or other
slipping or tripping hazards.
2. All dust, dirt, waste, and scrap material in every workplace in a building
shall be removed as often as is necessary to protect the health and safety
of employees and shall be disposed of in such a manner that the health and
safety of employees is not endangered.
3. Every travelled surface in a workplace shall be
a. slip resistant; and
b. kept free of splinters, holes, loose boards and tiles, and similar defects.
(SOR/2000-374, s. 2; SOR/2002-208, s. 6.)*
The cleaning process itself should be evaluated. Besides the obvious hazards
posed by solvents used for cleaning, other hazards may be involved in operations
such as dust removal. Workers using compressed air may be tempted to blow
dust off work surfaces and even clothing; however, compressed air can be forced
through the skin, enter the bloodstream, and cause death.
Organizations that employ workers who handle toxic materials should
ensure that washing facilities are located close to the work area. Workers should
wash before drinking or eating to prevent the ingestion of toxic materials. No
food or drink should be permitted at the worksite. Workers exposed to chemi-
cals should have showers and change clothes before leaving the worksite. Where
appropriate, hazardous material (hazmat) suits should be available and workers
should be trained in their use.

Preventive Maintenance
Preventive maintenance refers to the orderly, continuous, and scheduled pro- preventive maintenance
tection and repair of equipment and buildings. The primary goals of preventive the orderly, continuous,
maintenance are to determine potential problems and to implement corrective and scheduled protection
and repair of equipment and
actions. The main benefits of this process are uninterrupted production and the
buildings
reduction of potential hazards caused by equipment failure.
Generally speaking, equipment failures do not happen without warning. We
are all familiar with the atypical noises that our cars or air conditioners produce
as signals that something needs to be fixed. However, maintenance should enter
the picture before warning signs emerge. It is more cost effective to perform main-
tenance routinely while the equipment or machines are still operating than it is
after they have failed, necessitating shutdown of the entire operation. Checking
the level of oil in your car at every second fuel stop is preventive maintenance. To
let the oil level drop and the engine seize is expensive and unnecessary.
Recordkeeping is essential to any preventive maintenance program. Maintenance
information should be recorded at the time the maintenance work is done. Pertinent
data will include part replacement and frequency, lubrication, bearings and drive
repairs, electrical failures, and cleanliness. Once the historical information is

* Canada Occupational Health and Safety Regulations {SOR/86-304J. Found at: http://laws-Iois.justice.
gc.ca/eng/ regulations/ SOR-86-304/ page-7 .html#h-20.
NEL
106 PART 2: Hazards and Agents

To reduce injuries attributable to falling objects: To reduce "caught in, under, or between" (ClUB)
• Provide and require the use of safety injuries:
helmets. • Use lockout procedures that require the
• Provide safety signage and warning where operator or maintenance provider to turn the
overhead hazards are present power off and to lock the switch in the off
• 'Train and ensure the use of safe-rigging and position using a persona l padlock. Because
safe-storage procedures. each worker is the on ly one with the key to his
• Provide and require the use of safety or her lock, it is impossible to inadvertently
shoes. start the machine during maintenance.

Source: CCOHS. Found at: http:Nwww.ccohs.ca (Accesse d Oct. 10, 2004).

available, failure trends can be anticipated and addressed. (This approach is often
referred to as failure mode analysis or maintenance hazard analysis.)

Work Permits
Before any high-risk work is undertaken, a series of work permits must be in
place, one for each type of activity. These permits are, in effect, in-house licences
to perform dangerous work. Permits are required for confined space entry, elec-
trical work, excavation work, safety valve work, scaffolding work, radiation work,
and equipment-disconnecting work (lockout procedures). "Hot work" permits
may be required for activities such as cutting, welding, and soldering wherein the
heat involved may trigger the fire alarm system or present a fire hazard. A sample
work permit for scaffolding is shown in Figure 4.6.

Lockout Procedures
When maintenance or adjustment is performed on any machine, the machine
must be shut off and locked out. For example, replacing the signal light on a resi-
dential stove involves accessing the appliance's interior. Shutting off the stove
entails turning off the switches; locking it out entails turning off the power at the
main fuse box or circuit breaker and removing the appropriate fuses in either the
power panel or the stove. With these precautions, no one can turn the stove on
and cause an electrical shock or burn injury. For a more complicated appliance
such as a furnace, not only must the fuses be removed, but also the fuel lines must
be shut off, and the supply flange joint must be disassembled.
The following are some of the precautions that must be taken during the
lockout process:
• Only one person should be in charge of the lockout procedure .
• The worker must ensure that the machine is shut off completely, that
all internal pressure sources (hydraulic, air, steam) are bled off to atmo-
spheric levels, that the valves are locked open, and that any movable
parts, such as flywheels or rams, are immobilized.
NEL
 Chapter 4' Hazard Recognition, Risk Assessment, and Control 107

FIGURE

SIRTE OIL
COMPANY
•
Example of Scaffold Use Permit

SCAFFOLDING PERMIT CHECKLIST FOR THE AUTHORIZED CRAFTSMAN

PREPARATIONS
DATE
I FROM:
TIME
TO:
D
D
SPECIFICATIONS/DRAWING PROVIDED?
FOUNDATIONS/FOOTING PREPARED?
PLANT:
D LIFTING DEVICES NEEDED?
EQUIPMENT & LOCATION: D ERECTION PERSONNEL EXPERIENCED?
D SUPERVISION APPOINTED? COMPETENT?
DESCRIPTION OF WORK TO BE DONE: D ERECTION D AREA HAZARDS/SAF. RULES KNOWN?
D REMOVAL
D ADDITIONAL JOB DEMONSTRATION NEEDED?

D STRUCTURE INSPECTION/APPROVAL BY A COMPETENT PERSON

SCAFFOLD DUTY: o LIGHT o GENERAL o HEAVY NEEDED?

HEIGHT =- M WIDTH =- M o CONSULT CIVIL ENG. GROUP

STABILITY & CONSTRUCTION
ANSWER WITH (X) WHERE APPLICABLE: YES D ANCHORING POINTS SELECTED? APPROVED? SUFFICIENT?
1. FAMILIAR WITH AREA HAZARDS/SAF. RULES? c:::::J D SCAFF. MATERIAL INSPECTED? SELECTED?
2. SCAFFOLD TYPE/MATERIAL AGREED TO? c:::::J IN GOOD CONDITION?
3. SCAFFOLD ANCHORING POINTS APPROVED? c:::::J
4. FOUNDATION/FOOTING PREPARED? c:::::J D FOOTING FIRM?
5. HAZARD CREATED TO/FROM TRAFFIC? c:::::J D STANDARDS SPACING ADEQUATE?
6. AREA FREE OF COMB./TOXIC GAS? c:::::J
7. ACCEPTANCE APPROVAL NEEDED? c:::::J D BRACING USED? SUFFICIENT?

SPECIAL PROTECTION REQUIRED D PLATFORMS FULL? TRIPPING? OPENINGS?

D MONITOR FOR D SAFETY BELTS/LINE D GUARDRAILS? TOE BOARDS?
D LIFTING DEVICE APPROVAL D STANDBYS D ACCESS ADEQUATE? LADDERS FIXED?
D BARRIERS/ROPING OFF D (SPECIFY)

THE EQUIPMENT AND/OR LOCATION WHERE THE WORK IS TO BE DONE HAS BEEN IN USE
INSPECTED & POINTS 1-7 ABOVE HAVE BEEN INVESTIGATED TO MY SATISFACTION. o-STRUCTURE INSPECTED DAILY?
D TRAFFIC HAZARDS?
SIGNATURE OF PERSON AUTHORIZING THIS PERMIT D OVERLOADING?

I UNDERSTAND THE HAZARDS INVOLVED IN THE ABOVE PERMITTED WORK D USE OF PERSONAL PROTECTION?
AND THE LIMITATIONS REQUIRED HAVE BEEN EXPLAINED TO ME. D RESPONSE TO EMERGENCY KNOWN?

7-3 SHIFT 11-7 SHIFT

I
SIGNATURE OF AUTHORIZED CRAFTSMAN
I DISMANTLING
D METHOD AGREED TO?

PERMIT CLOSED OUT WORK COMPLETED

D HAZARD CREATED TO SURROUNDING?

DATE TIME c:::::J NO c:::::J D FINAL SITE CLEARING ENSURED?

AUTHORIZED CRAFTSMAN OPERATING SUPERVISOR SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS

APPROVAL FOR USE

OF COMPLETED SCAFFOLD
NAME ISIGNATURE I DATE

SIDE 1 SIDE 2

• After the machine has been shut down, all the disconnect points, such as
the electrical panel, must be left open.
• Before work begins, complete testing must be undertaken to ensure that
all energy sources are inoperative.
• The worker must use an approved lockout tag and single-key padlock to
secure the equipment.
• Only the workers who installed each lock are permitted to remove that
lock, in the reverse order to the lock installation, beginning and ending
with the project manager.
• Each worker must sign off the work permit as his or her lock is
removed.
When the project is finished, the equipment will be activated in the reverse
sequence to the shutdown. Checks must be made to ensure that guards are in
NEL
108 PART 2. Hazards and Agents

place, isolation devices have been removed, all tools are accounted for, energy
controls have been closed and put back into operating condition, and tags and
locks have been removed. The last lock removed is that of the manager of the
project from the shift on which the lock was applied.

Confined-Space Entry
confined space Confined space refers to a space that is potentially deficient in oxygen and that
a space that is poten- could contain toxic aerosols. Sewers, tanks, and boilers are all examples of con-
tially deficient in oxygen fined spaces. Other examples include any long, small tunnel, a shower stall, and
and could contain toxic
some specialty rooms such as computer equipment rooms that are completely
aerosols
independent from any adjacent spaces.
At home, cleaning the bathroom shower stall with the door closed and using
a tile cleaner will trap the vapours from the cleanser. These vapours may accu-
mulate near the floor where the work is being done, displace oxygen, and cause
drowsiness or fainting.
Entry into industrial confined spaces is addressed in various OH&S regula-
tions. One of the first things to determine is whether the space to be entered is in
fact a confined space. CCOHS provides helpful information on identification of a
confined space, how to manage the space, and how to develop a confined-space
safety program.
Once it has been established that a confined space exists, the follOWing steps
should be taken:
1. Issue a proper work permit and follow all the lockout procedures.
2. Determine the ease of access to and from the space and develop appropriate
contingency plans for worker emergencies.
3. Make sure that all the proper tools and equipment are on hand to do the job.
4. Communicate to workers that no smoking or open flames are to be per-
mitted at or near the worksite.
5. Purge the space of all contaminants and test the air quality several times to
ensure that all impurities have been removed.
6. Ensure that a constant forced airflow into the space is provided.
7. Clean the interior of the space to ensure that no hazardous scale or deposits
are present.
S. Post a trained safety lookout outside the space. (The inside workers should
be kept in full view at all times.)
9. Attach a lifeline to each worker in the space. (The free end should be con-
trolled by the safety lookout.)
On completion of the confined-space work, equipment start-up can be under-
taken in the reverse order to the shutdown. The permit and lockout systems
should be followed without deviation.

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQU IPMENT

In some cases it is not possible to fully protect individuals by applying engi-
neering and administrative controls. The third line of defence in occupational
health and safety is the use of personal protective equipment (PPE). PPE consists
of clothing, helmets, goggles, and other devices designed to protect the individual

NEl
 Chapter 4: Hazard Recognition, Risk Assessment, and Control 109

from specific hazards. A construction worker, for example, might wear steel-
toed safety boots (typically with a nonconductive, nonslip sole), a helmet, safety
glasses or goggles, work gloves, and hearing protection.
It is relatively easy to control the wearing of some PPE. For example, in many
industries the use of steel-toed safety boots/shoes is a standard policy. Since
most of us don't remove or change our shoes during the working day, a worker
who puts on safety boots is likely to continue to wear them. The use of other PPE
can be more variable. Safety goggles or glasses (for example) can steam up on a
hot day, and workers may find that they are uncomfortable. Hearing protection
can make it difficult to converse with coworkers. Moreover, workers can simply
forget. For example, when working on a construction site it is easy to "forget"
to put on your safety glasses before using a saw. Individuals may opt for "style"
that reduces the effectiveness of some PPE. One often sees construction workers
wearing helmets with the peak to the back or perched improperly on the head.
Helmets worn in an improper position do not provide the same level of protec-
tion as when properly worn.
Though PPE offers protection to workers, its use can be highly variable
because of factors like this. As a result, the use of PPE is recognized as the least
preferred means of controlling hazards. Though PPE of one sort or another is
required in many workplaces, it is most properly considered to be an adjunct
or "backup" to other methods of control. It should never be the sole means of
protecting workers from hazards.

SOURCE-PATH-HUMAN CONTROLS
Hazards can be controlled or eliminated by identifying and attacking the source
of the hazard, the path it travels, and the employee or recipient of the hazard.
The strategies discussed in this chapter can be regrouped along these lines, as
shown in Figure 4.7. This schematic provides a useful summary of the informa-
tion on hazard control. Placing control strategies in categories is less important
than having a thorough understanding that hazard control is necessary and
possible.

FIGURE

Source-Path-Human Controls

NfL
110 PART 2: Hazards and Agents

MONITORING / AUD ITING

Monitoring is an important part of hazard control. Audits are done to ensure that
hazard controls are functioning effectively and to identify new hazards. Monitoring
can be done daily by supervisors and maintenance personnel, weekly by depart-
ment heads, monthly by health and safety committees, and as needed by compliance
officers. 19 The auditing process itself affects safety. A 50% decrease in accidents in
one organization over a two-year period was attributed to the fact that managers
began to audit. 2o
An audit program can be used to evaluate health and safety performance in the
workplace. A number of audit methods are available. One very effective technique,
which involves applying total quality control methodologies and trend analysis,
relates the number of incidents to some predetermined goal. If it seems from the
number of events in a particular time frame that a safety goal failure is imminent,
steps can be taken to prevent the occurrence. The audit program should:
a. ensure that safety programs are being carried out without restrictions;
b. ensure that safety programs are up- to-date and that deficiencies are
documented;
c. be carried out by people with some understanding of both the audit
methods and the material being examined (the various members of the
JHSC should be able to carry out this inspection);
d. stimulate discussion among all managers and workers, and ultimately
produce conclusions and recommendations;
e. be conducted at least annually by companies with high-risk hazards; and
f. include all documentation (WSIBjWCB statements, Ministry of Labour
citations, air sampling results, first aid and incident reports, hazard
analyses, discipline records, cost-benefit studies, etc.).

RECORDKEEPI NG
Information obtained at all stages of the hazard control process should be stored
in a database. These records are used to identify frequency of events as well as
trends in hazards. They are also a source of information on worker training and
equipment maintenance. The provision of monthly updates to managers will
assist them in their efforts at ongoing hazard control. The length of time that
records should be kept varies with the nature of the record. Records on individual
employees should be kept for as long as that individual is with the company. In
some cases (e.g., individual records of exposure to radiation) records may have
to be kept for the length of employment plus an additional period (e.g., 10 years).

SUMMARY
In this chapter we introduced the concept of hazard recognition, risk assessment,
and control. A hazard was defined as any source of potential damage, harm or
adverse health effects on something or someone under certain conditions at work.
Hazards typically involve exposure to some kind of energy, and hazard recognition
involves the systematic identification of the hazards and risks associated with them.
We discussed various tools for hazard recognition. Risk assessment refers to the
evaluation of the likelihood of harm posed by the hazard. Such an assessment needs
NEL
 Chapter 4. Hazard Recognition, Risk Assessment, and Control 111

to consider the probability of an adverse event, and the potential consequences. If

the decision is made to control the hazard, there are three basic approaches: engi-
neering, administrative, and PPE. Engineering controls typically involve redesigning
the work (e.g., the tools, machines, or substances) so as to reduce or eliminate the
hazard. Administrative controls involve strategies such as training, education, and
management techniques to reduce exposure to the hazard. In this case the hazard
is still present but the exposure of the individual worker is substantially reduced
or controlled. PPE includes items such as helmets, safety glasses, and hearing pro-
tection. These devices do not reduce exposure but do reduce the probable conse-
quences of being exposed to a hazard. There is a hierarchy of hazard control such
that engineering controls are the preferred solution (Le., reduce or eliminate the
hazard), administrative controls are the second line of defence (Le., reduce expo-
sure to the hazard), and PPE is the last option (Le., reduce the consequences). That
said, all three forms of control have a place in OH&S programs and can be thought
of as providing multiple layers of protection for workers.

Terms
administrative control 102 kickback 102
confined space 108 machine guarding 101
consequences 88 overexertion injuries 90
contact control 95 overt traumatic injuries 90
engineering control 97 positive tree 87
fault tree 87 postcontact control 95
hazard 82 precontact control 95
hazard analysis 87 preventive maintenance 105
hazard control 95 probability 88
human factor 84 risk 83
incident 83 risk perception 83
injury 90 safety sampling 86
job description 86 unsafe act 83
job specifications 86 walk-through survey 86

Weblinks
Association for Mineral Exploration in British Columbia, "Canadian Mineral
Exploration Health & Safety Awards"
http://www.amebc.ca/policy/health-and-safety/ame-bc-health-and-safety-awards.aspx
Canada's Occupational Health and Safety Magazine
http://www.ohscanada.com/ news/ alberta-worker-suffers-finger-injuries-in-press-
accident/1 001 059825
Canada Safety Council 2012 Safety Campaigns
https://canadasafetycouncil.org/campaigns
Canadian Centre of Occupational Health and Safety, OHS Answers, Confined Space
http://www.ccohs.ca/ oshanswers/hsprograms/confinedspace_intro.html
Canadian Construction Association, '~wards"
http://www.cca-acc.com/ en/ about-cca/ awards
NEL
112 PART 2: Hazards and Agents

Canadian Society of Safety Engineering, "National Safety Awards Programs"

http:// csse-Imc. org/wp/ nationa I-safety-awards-program
Infrastructure Health and Safety Association "Auditing"
http://www.ihsa.ca/auditing/ index.dm
Infrastructure Health and Safety Association, "Heavy Equipment"
http://www.ihsa.ca/topics_hazards/heavy_equipment.dm
Infrastructure Health and Safety Association, "New and Young Workers"
http://www.ihsa.ca/new_experienced_workers/new_young_workers.dm
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, "Back Belts: Do They
Prevent Injury?"
http://www.cdc.gov/ niosh/ backbelt.html
Nova Scotia Department of Labour and Advanced Education, "General Occupational
Health Safety Regulations"
http://www.gov.ns.ca/just/regulations/regs/ohsgensf.htm
Shelter Online, "Online RSI Resources"
http://www.shelterpub.com/_fitness/_office_fitness_dinic/OFC_dinic.html
WorkSafeBC, "Injury Prevention Resources for Performing Arts and Film-Music"
http://artsandfilm.healthandsafetycentre.org/ s/ Music.asp
WorkSafe Saskatchewan, "Fall Arrest Systems"
http://www.worksafesask.ca/ Fall-Arrest-Systems

uired Professional Ca abilities (RPCs)

The folloWing RPCs, listed by their CCHRA number, are relevant to the material
covered in this chapter. All RPCS can be found at http://www.chrp.ca/rpc/
body-of-knowledge.
RPC: 170 Develops, implements, and ensures the application of policies, regula-
tions, and standards relating to occupational health and safety.*
RPC:171 Ensures compliance with legislated reporting requirements.*
RPC:179 Ensures that mechanisms are in place for responding to crises in the
workplace, including critical incident stress management.*
RPC:183 Analyzes risks to employee health & safety and develops preventive
programs.*
RPC: 185 Ensures that security programs and policies minimize risks while con-
sidering the obligation of the employer and the rights of employees, union, and
third parties. *

Discussion Questions
1. Explain why hazard control at the precontact stage is better than hazard
control at the other stages.
2. In recent years there has been a move to make ergonomic design and
ergonomic standards mandatory in workplaces. Should your jurisdiction

*Canadian Council of Human Resources Associations, Human Resources Professionals in Canada:

Revised Body of Knowledge and Required Professional Capabilities (RPCs ®), 2007.
NEL
 Chapter 4: Hazard Recogn ition, Risk Assessment, and Control 113

implement legislation requiring ergonomic analysis and design of work pro-

cesses? Why or why not?
3. A maintenance crew has been hired to enter an underground sewer line to
do some minor repair work. They call and ask you for advice about neces-
sary equipment and procedures. Briefly outline your response.
4. When a worker does not wear PPE or wears it incorrectly, who is respon-
sible? The company? The individual?
5. Examine available literature and catalogues to determine how many
methods and accessories are available to prevent keyboard-related RSl.
How many of these devices do you have in your own workstation?
6. Outline all of the methods that a manager of a small plant could use to iden-
tify hazards. What could a safety professional add to this manager's hazard
identification program?
7. Choose any operation in your workplace or at school and identify the haz-
ards associated with it. Perform a risk assessment to determine whether
these hazards are dangerous. Outline the changes that could be made to
reduce the level of risk associated with the hazards.

Using the Internet

1. Human resources managers are responsible for ensuring that workplace
safety inspections take place regularly. Using your text and online resources,
describe how you would conduct an effective safety inspection program.
(Hint: Go to http://www.worksafebc.com/publications/health_and_safety/
by_topic/assets/pdf/safetyjnspections.pdf).
2. Using the Web, determine (a) how safety awareness events are celebrated
or implemented in your local area, and (b) what other safety awareness
events are held in your area.
3. Lifting limits can be established by calculations developed by the National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) in the United States. An
online calculator for the equations is found at http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/
ergonomics/niosh/calculating"rwl.html. Use the calculator to assess the lifting
limits for a worker who has to lift a package weighing approximately 16 kg onto
a shelf that is 60 em from where he or she is standing. The worker picks up the
load from a point 30 em from the floor; the final position on the shelf is 170 cm
from the floor. The lift is repeated once each minute. Calculate the AL and the
MPL, and determine the acceptability of the operation.

Exercises
1. In law, the "thin skull argument" refers to a perfectly healthy person whose
minor trauma resulted in serious injury. Were it not for the trauma, the
individual would not have been hurt. However, other individuals who
experience the trauma are not hurt. Imagine, for example, four workers
who are struck on the head by flying objects. Three workers suffer no
injury whatsoever; the other (perhaps because of an abnormally thin skull)
suffers serious brain damage. Is the damage a result of the hazard or the
NEL
114 PART 2 Hazards and Agents

individual's pre-existing condition? How should health and safety programs- - - -

account for individual variability like this?
2. IdentifY a hazard at your workplace (or a workplace with which you are familiar).
List all the approaches you could undertake to control or minimize the hazard.

Uti.' INDUSTRIAL HAZARD ASSESSMENT

The plant is experiencing some difficulties with a clamping device on a holding
fixture that keeps a metal part in position while it is fed into an automatic
stamping machine. The clamp does not always allow the metal part to be fed into
the machine properly aligned. The worker who was operating the machine had
32 years' experience with this type of equipment. While attempting to make the
necessary adjustments for smooth operation without shutting off the power, she
had to reach into the machine. She placed her left hand between the feed-in mech-
anism levers while her right hand was positioning the misaligned part between
the open clamps of the fixture.
Unfortunately, the one-button actuating control was located immediately to
the left of the worker's body, about hip level. The worker inadvertently depressed
the button with her leg while reaching into the machine. The machine cycled-the
feed mechanism slid forward while the fixture clamps closed. The worker had a
portion of her left middle finger amputated.
List the following:
a. the unsafe acts
b. the unsafe conditions
c. the energies involved
d. the steps to be taken to prevent this situation from recurring

Ut'A DANGER IN THE GROCERY STORE

Tadao works as a butcher in a large chain grocery store. His primary responsibility
is cutting up meat using large (and very sharp) knives. He's been on the job now for
four years and has never had a health and safety complaint. Lately, though, he's been
experiencing some difficulties. Actually, it started a couple of years ago when Tadao
noticed that his right hand was painful at the end of the day and that he was unable
to use the hand for several hours after work The pain and fatigue didn't last long, and
Tadao assumed that he was just overworking the hand (Tadao is right-handed). In the
past month or so, the pain has escalated-it often lasts all night and makes sleep dif-
ficult. Tadao also experiences numbness and tingling in the hand. Tadao has begun to
avoid activities that require using his right hand, including shaking hands with people.
Last Tuesday, Tadao came to work and could not pick up the knife in his right
hand-he had to pick up the knife with his left hand and place it in his right hand to
begin work Watching him go through this procedure, a coworker observed, 'Well, it
looks like you've developed butcher's claw-it comes from doing the same motion over
and over again. It happens to us all and there's not much you can do about it." As an HR
professional responsible for health and safety, do you have a better answer for TadaoT

NEL
 Chapter 4: Hazard Recognition, Risk Assessment, and Control 115

HAZARD CONTROL

A new plating machine had been installed and was being checked for proper
operation. During this check it was discovered that the bearings on the caustic
solution circulating pump were defective and had to be replaced. The pump was
removed and repaired and was being reinstalled. An electrician was assigned to
make the electrical connections, while a plumber performed the necessary pipe
connections on the same pump.
The electrician finished the assignment except for checking the direction of
shaft rotation. Since the plumber was out of the area, the electrician asked the
company representative supplying the equipment if the pump was ready to be
tried out. The representative stated that it was. The electrician walked to the
end of the plater to start the motor, just as the plumber appeared. The plumb-
er's shouts to the electrician not to start the pump were too late-the pump
had already been turned on. At that moment, hot caustic solution showered
out of the pipe flange, which had not been tightened after reassembly. The solu-
tion splashed onto the plumber; two engineers in the area, another plant engi-
neering employee, and the vendor representative. The plumber received burns
requiring immediate hospitalization and was off work for about two months.
One engineer required subsequent hospitalization for eye burns and was off
work for more than a week. The other three involved received minor burns. The
accident occurred at 10:45 a.m. on a Wednesday.
What would you recommend for contact and postcontact control?

NOTES
1. Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety, OHS Answers, "Hazard and Risk,"
accessed September 19, 2012, http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/hsprograms/hazard_
risk.html.
2. M. Fleming, R. Flin, K. Mearns, and R. Gordon, "Risk Perceptions of Offshore Workers on
UK Oil and Gas Platforms," Risk Analysis 18: 103-1 O.
3. G. Rampton, I. Turnbull, and G. Doran, Human Resources Management Systems, (Toronto:
Nelson, 1996).
4. R.J. Firenze, The Process of Hazard Control (Dubuque: Kendall/Hunt, 1978).
5. M. Fleming, R. Flin, K. Mearns, and R. Gordon, "Risk Perceptions of Offshore Workers on
UK Oil and Gas Platforms," Risk Analysis 18: 103-10.
6. Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety, OHS Answers "Risk Assessment,"
accessed September 19, 2012, http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/hsprograms/risk_
assessment.html.
7. Ibid.
8. National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, A Work Practices Guide for Manual
Lifting: Technical Report 81-122 (Cincinnati: U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services, 1983).
9. P. Kim, J.A. Hayden, and S.A. Mior, "The Cost-Effectiveness of a Back Education Program
for Firefighters: A Case Study," Journal of the Canadian Chiropractic Association 48, no. 1:
(2004): 13-19.

NEl
116 PART 2: Hazards and Agents

10. C. Ammendolia, M.S. Kerr, and C. Bombardier, "The Use of Back Belts for Prevention
of Occupational Low Back Pain: Systematic Review and Recommendations," CTFPHC
Technical Report 02-1, London, ON, 2002.
11. Statistics Canada, Canadian Community Health Survey (Ottawa : 2001) .
12. C.W. Pilger, "Hazard Control Procedures," presentation to the 23rd Intensive Workshop in
Industria l Hygiene, September 27, 1994.
13. H. McDonald, "Know Thy Users," Accident Prevention, March-April 1995, 11-12.
14. Canad ian Standards Association, "Office Ergonomics," CSA Standard, CAN/
CSAZ412-M89, section 5, 1995.
15. S. Somasunder, "Machine Safeguarding," OH&S Canada 9, no. 5 (September-October
1993): 30-31.
16. Canadian Standards Association, "Safeguarding of Mach inery," Standard Z432-94, 1995.
17. S. DiNardi, ed ., The Occupational Environment-Its Evaluation and Control, 2nd ed .
(Fairfax: American Industrial Hygiene Association, 1997).
18. S.L. Dolan and R.S. Schu ler, Human Resources Management: A Canadian Perspective
(Toronto: Nelson, 1994).
19. P.M. Laing, ed., Accident Prevention Manual for Business and Industry: Administration and
Programs, 10th ed. (Washington : National Safety Council, 1992).
20. J . Taylor, "Guide to Health and Safety Management: 20 proven programs," Safety Auditing
(Toronto: Southam Business Communications, 1991).

NEL
 CHAPTER LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• identify common physical agents within the workplace
• explain how and when many of the commonly found physical agents can be
considered hazardous
• identify methods of controlling physical agents within the workplace

NEl 117
118 PART 2: Hazards and Agents

ARE CELLPHONES SAFE?

Look around your workplace, the bus you take to there is research to support that brain cancer rates
school, the supermarket where you shop, and count "may be elevated in long term/heavy cell phone
the number of people you see with a cellphone. users," while at the same time there are studies that
Health Canada indicates that by the end of 2010 do not support tnese findings.
the number of cell phone users in Canada reached Health Canada also indicates that while health
24 million people. In 1987 the number of users in risks associated with the non-ionizing radiation
Canada was 100,000. Now, consider how much time emitted from cell phones is debated, there are
during the day those 24 million users spend on other risks associated with using them. Cellphones
their cellphone talking, texting, surfing the Internet, can be a distraction, and can interfere with impor-
or even playing games. What, if any impact does tant equipment (e.g., pacemakers and hearing
using a cellphone have on your health? Cellphones aids) as well technology (e.g., aircraft communica-
give off what is referred to as non-ionizing radia - tion and navigation systems). The risks associated
tion, which does not break down chemical bonds in with many of the physical agents we are exposed
your body unlike other forms of radiation but, does to on a daily basis, such as cellphones, is complex.
that mean there are no harmful effects? According Consequently, mitigating the risks associated with
to the Canadian Centre for Occupational Health them can also be complex. The first step in man-
and Safety (CCOHS) and Health Canada, the jury aging these risks is ensuring that all employees are
is still out on whether the radiation emitted from able to identify physical agents within the workplace
cell phones is hazardous. Health Canada indicates and the danger they pose to their health and safety.

Sources: Health Canada, "Safety of Cell Phones and Cell Phone Towers," It's Your Health, October 2011 . Found at: http://www.hc-sc.
gc.ca/hl-vs/aICformats/pacrb-dgapcr/pdf/iyh-vsv/prod/celI-eng.pdf; CCOHS.

In this chapter we consider the effects of physical agents in the workplace and
physical agents how best to control them. Physical agents are sources of energy that may cause
sources of energy that may injury or disease if they are not controlled or managed properly. Examples include
cause injury or disease noise, vibration, radiation, and extremes in temperature and pressure. Each of
ambient
these agents may be ambient or acute (Le., resulting from a single exposure).
all-encompassing condition
associated with a given NOISE
environment, being usually
a composite of inputs from Noise is defined as any unwanted sound and is often referred to as the most
sources all around us common workplace hazard. Technically, it refers to "the auditory sensation
evoked by the oscillations in pressure in a medium with elasticity and viscosity,"
such as air.l Sound and noise differ by definition in that that noise is unwanted
sound. It would be difficult to find a profession where employees are not exposed
to some type of sound or noise; however construction workers, cafeteria workers,
and farmers are among some of the professions most at risk for hearing damage,
early warn ing change
specifically, early warning change, as a result of noise. One Canadian study
a deterioration of hearing
reported that approximately 95% of construction workers were exposed to high
in the upper frequency-
the earliest detectable sign levels of noise on a daily basis. 2 Even in office settings and computer labs, annoy-
of noise-induced hearing ance, stress, and interfering with communicating are some of the concerns asso-
loss ciated with noise.

NEL
 Chapter 5' Physical Agents 119

What makes the issue of noise within the workplace so complex, is the fact
that a sound considered to be noise by one individual, may not be considered to
be noise by another, meaning various circumstances can change whether a sound
is considered to be noise and therefore harmful. Furthermore there are char-
acteristics about the ear which add to the complexity of managing noise in the
workplace. For instance, one major characteristic of the human ear and hearing
is that we do not hear everything in a nice, neat fashion. If sound were measured
electronically, the sound spectrum might appear more or less as a straight line.
However, what the human ear hears or perceives is significantly different. Sound
is often assessed using a unit of measurement known as Hertz or Hz (equal to
one cycle per second). The human hearing range of frequencies is approximately
20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. Thus, a person can hear a bass note from a tuba or a shrill
note from a piccolo, but not a dog whistle. This has direct implications for human
hearing problems. Just because we cannot hear the sound does not mean that it is
not present and possibly causing hearing damage.
The response of the human ear to sound is usually represented as a graph
that illustrates the threshold of hearing. The term threshold of hearing refers to
the envelope or range of sound that the human ear can perceive or hear. The stan-
dards for the measurement of noise use the unit of a decibel, or dB (also referred
to as sound pressure level). Decibels are measured on a logarithmic scale so that
very small differences in the numbers can translate into very large actual differ-
ences. For example, a 3 dB difference (e.g., going from 80 to 83 dB) represents
a doubling of the "loudness" (83 dB is twice as loud as 80 dB), and a 10 dB dif-
ference represents a tenfold difference (90 dB is 10 times louder than 80 dB).
A 20 dB difference is a 100-fold increase (90 dB is 100 times louder than 70 dB).
Thus what may seem to be a very small numeric difference actually represents
a very large difference in loudness. When the human response is involved, the
unit becomes dB (A) or A-weighted decibel. This response is built into the sound
meters used for measuring noise exposure in the workplace.
Human hearing response is conditional on three characteristics: frequency,
duration, and loudness. Any noise level investigation must take into account
these three elements. Most noise sources and sounds, such as music, are made
up of a variety of frequencies, which the ear blends to create a pleasant or
not-so-pleasant sound. As noted previously, noise beyond the range of human
hearing response can be damaging even though not "heard." Similarly, certain
frequencies in a noise that is made up of a variety of frequencies can be extra-
loud and thus damaging without being noticed, even within the human range.
It is important to consider frequency response when dealing with hearing
protection.
The duration of the sound is one of those conditions that the human ear
responds to in a strange way. A loud noise of very short duration, like a gunshot,
is perceived to be "quieter" than the same sound level heard for a longer dura-
tion. They can both be damaging, but only the latter one "sounds" like it. The
short-duration noise is referred to as impact or impulse noise, which has a dura-
tion of about 1 millisecond (1/1000th of a second). The third characteristic of
human response is loudness. This term is self-explanatory. The louder (volume)
the noise, the more problems it can cause.

NEL
120 PART 2 Hazards and Agents

TYPES OF HEARING LOSS

Noise can affect humans in three ways: by causing physiological damage that
affects hearing, by causing more general physiological effects in some cases
referred to as sociological, and by causing psychological effects. In terms of the
first effect, physiological damage, there are two basic types of hearing loss. The
first is conductive, and restricts the transmission of sound to the cochlea or inner
ear (see Figure 5.1); the second is sensorineural (sometimes referred to as nerve
deafness), and affects the cochlea and is usually irreversible. Conductive hearing
loss can be caused by wax buildup, infection, or trauma. From an industrial stand-
point, it can be caused by the nonhygienic application of hearing protectors or the
improper cleaning of these devices.
More prevalent in industry, however, is the sensorineural type of hearing loss.
Two indications of exposure to excessive noise levels at work are ringing in the
ears (tinnitus) and raising the volume on the radio or television after work. The
volume of the radio or television will seem very high the next morning because
temporary hearing loss diminishes with rest and removal from exposure.
Gradual hearing loss, known as temporary threshold shift (TTS), can some-
times be reversed by removal from the noise source. Permanent threshold shift
(PTS) identifies a hearing disability that is permanent and may not be correct-
able. In many cases, a hearing aid can bring about some improvement. However,

FIGURE

•
The Auditory System

bone eardrum ear canal

cochlea

nerves

inner ear middle ~r"'''''_- outer ear

NEL
 Chapter 5: Physical Agents 121

Noise e~posure standards vary across provinces noise absorbed by OF impinged on an organ (the
and territories in terms of their relative stringency. ear or the body) in a given unit of t ime. The expo-
the standards are based on worker exposure sure limits in Canadian jurisdictions are available
during a defined time frame. This relationship is at: http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/phys_agents/
referred to as dose, which describes the amount of exposure_can.html.

Sources: CCOHS, "Noise - Occupational Exposure Limits in Canada." Found at: http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers
Iphys_agents/exposure_can.html.

such a device is of little assistance when the hearing loss has been caused by
noise exposure or sensorineural loss, because the hair cells in the cochlea have
been destroyed.
The second effect of noise is also physiological but a slightly different cat-
egory of physiological in that it is more general. It is sometimes referred to as
sociological hearing loss and causes extra-auditory effects such as a startled
response to a loud, unexpected noise; cardiovascular, neurologic, endocrine, and
biochemical changes; and nausea, malaise, and headaches. 3 Other laboratory and
field studies have demonstrated vasoconstriction, hyperreflexia, fluctuations vasoconstriction
in hormonal secretions, and disturbances in equilibrium and visual functions. In the process of causing a
the past companies would hire workers with hearing loss to work in high noise constriction of the blood
environments on the notion that the damage was done, however it is now known vessels

that noise can cause more general physiological effects. hyperreflexia

The third effect deals with human psychology. Many people are affected and the cond ition of unusu-
disturbed by certain sounds that are not loud enough to present any serious ally quick reaction by the
physiological problem. These are day-to-day noises that tend to bug us, such as nerves to some external
a patron talking during a movie, a helicopter flying overhead, or a tap dripping. stimulus

Though the actual noise level may be well below acceptable standards and may
not be measurable with a sound level meter, it is nonetheless very real (often
referred to as "selective hearing") and can cause stress and other possible non-
auditory effects.

NOISE CONTROL
Noise can be controlled by using various methods, but the process for control
follows the source- path- human strategies used by health and safety profes-
sionals, The first strategy for reducing noise is to make the source quieter.
There are a number of possible approaches. If the problem consists of a noisy
machine, for instance, it may be possible to make the machine quieter by adding
sound-absorbing materials, placing vibration padding under it, redesigning the
operation so that the machine performs in a different manner, isolating the
machine in a separate room or sound-deadening enclosure, or purchasing a
new machine.

NEL
122 PART 2: Hazards and Agents

Though nothing will replace accurate measurement If any of the above statements are true, a noise
of noise levels in the workplace, the Canadian Centre assessment or survey of the workplace should be
for Occupational Health and Safety suggests that a undertaken. Noise exposure tests can be done by
workplace might be too noisy if an outside specialist or by a trained person on staff
using various pieces of equipment including:
• people have to raise their voices to be
understood • sound pressure level meter-measures gross
• employees have ringing in the ears at the end noise levels
of the workday • octave band analyzer-measures noise level
• employees find that they have to turn their in each frequency range
radio up on the drive home (compared with • a dosimeter-measures a person's exposure
the volume on the way to work) to noise as a percentage for one shift
• individuals who have worked in the workplace • or an audiometer-determines the sensitivity
for years have difficulty understanding con- of a person's hearing or degree of hearing
versations at parties or restaurants loss

Source: CCOHS, "Noise - Basic Information." Found at: http://www.Gcohs.ca/oshanswers/phys_agents/noise_basic.html#_L3.

The second strategy-path-involves moving the worker away from the

source or erecting sound barriers between the noise and the worker, or both.
Based on the physics of noise, as the distance from the sound source is dou-
bled, the noise level will drop by a fixed amount. For example, if a noise level
of90 dB is measured 5 metres away from a machine (a point source) and the
attenuated or attenuation distance is increased to 10 metres, the noise level will be attenuated or low-
reduction of noise at one ered by 6 dB. This is called a "free field effect," which simply means that
location compared to nothing like a wall is around to reflect the sound back on the worker. Objects
another farther from the
such as the walls of the building and other machines will cause reflections
source
that can reduce the amount of attenuation from this fixed amount. Nevertheless,
the principle is still valid, and this process is usually less costly than the source
approach.
The third strategy-human-involves the use of personal protective equip-
ment (PPE). This approach is the least costly and the one that is most commonly
used. It is not always the best method, but in many cases some companies are not
well enough informed to undertake other approaches such as job rotation, reloca-
tion, isolation, automation, rest periods, and site design. The two basic classes of
hearing protection available are earplugs, which are inserted into the ears, and
circumaural muffs or earmuffs, which are worn over the ears. A description of
the various types of industrial hearing protection is provided in Table 5.3 in the
chapter appendix. Note that whatever strategies are used to decrease noise expo-
sure, personal protective devices may still be necessary in conjunction with other
methods (see OH&S Notebook 5.3).

NEL
 Chapter 5: Physical Agents 123

CHOOSING HEARING PROTECTORS

For each application and to be properly fitted for max- showing attenuation by octave band frequencies.
imum protection, there are 10 factors to consider when Generally, the higher the number, the greater
deciding on the most effective hearing protection. the level of attenuation. A good rule of thumb

1. Comfort: Earmuffs in particular can be hot in relationship is expressed with the equation

warm conditions. The spring band can generate below:

a feeling of the head being squashed. Workers

who are claustrophobic may experience feelings
NRR = Lactual- Lstandard + 7
of confinement. where Lactual is the noise level measured in the
workplace and Lstandard is the noise standard for an
2. Visibility: It is important that hearing protection
eight-hour period . Thus, if a worksite has a noise
be visible so that supervisors can ensure that the
level of 97 dB(A) and the standard is 90 dB(A) for
worker is wearing the protection and using it in
eight hours, the reqUired NRR for hearing protec-
the reqUired manner.
tors would be 97 - 90 + 7, or 14 dB(A).
3. Size: People have heads of different sizes and
8. Hygiene: This requirement is the most critical
shapes. It is imperative that hearing protective
and most abused. It is not uncommon to observe
devices be fitted properly. Additional types of par-
a hearing protection device hanging from a hook
aphernalia such as face shields used in conjunction
in a dirty environment. Care must be taken to
with hearing protection must also be examined.
keep the personal item clean and stored in a
4. Weight: Generally, the lighter the protection, sanitary location to avoid ear infections, which
the greater the comfort. could cause more damage than the noise does.
5. Ease of donning: A device that is easy to put on 9. Useful life: Disposable plugs or inserts do not
will gain more acceptance among workers. last long but require no maintenance; muffs last
6. Cost: The actual dollar cost will depend on the longer but require maintenance.
application, the reqUired degree of attenuation, 10. Maintenance: All nondisposable hearing protec-
and the style of device. Earmuffs are more costly tion devices require ongoing maintenance and
than earplugs. The specific noise protection care. They must be cleaned regularly with soap
required could necessitate both plugs and muffs. and warm water, not alcohol, and checked peri-
7. Effective attenuation: Most modern hearing odically for wear. The foam seal pads on circum-
protection devices use a noise reduction rating aural units must be regularly maintained because
(NRR) system to indicate the degree of attenu- skin oils and sweat will cause embrittlement and
ation based on laboratory evaluation. The surface failure. Once the seal is damaged, the
NRR value is usually accompanied by a chart attenuation effectiveness is reduced.

Sources: E.H. Berger, W.D. Ward, J.e. Morrill, and l.H. Royster, eds., Noise and Hearing Conservation Manual, 4th ed. (Akron:
American Industrial Hygiene Association, 1988); CCOHS, "What Is Personal Protective Equipment?" Found at: http://www.ccohs.
ca/oshanswers/prevention/ppe/designin.html (Accessed May 29,2010).

VIBRATION
Another physical agent within the workplace that can be hazardous, but may not
be thought about as often, is vibration. Vibration refers to the oscillating motion
of a particle or body moving about a reference position.4 Vibration is measured

NE L
124 PART 2. Hazard s and Agents

by examining the frequency, amplitude, and acceleration of an object. Vibration

has a number of mechanical causes, including the dynamic effects from machine
tolerances, clearances, rolling or rubbing contact, and out-of-balance conditions
with rotary or reciprocating parts.
Vibrations are often easily detectable but determining the amount that is
hazardous is difficult and because of that, vibration exposure must be measured
and carefully monitored. Vibration enters the body from the part in contact with
the vibrating equipment. Vibrations are classified into two categories: low fre-
quency (discussed above) and high frequency. Vibrating effects fall into two sepa-
rate conditions. As noted, the first concerns low-frequency vibrations. The second
deals with higher frequency vibrations, which can happen so fast that the body
cannot respond. When the higher frequencies occur, the effects of wave velocity
and acceleration take precedence. Vibratory effects are evaluated using measure-
ments of velocity and acceleration caused by the source, with a vibration meter,
which is often a variation on a sound-level meter.

Health Effects of Vibration

An employee who is required to operate a handheld piece of equipment that
vibrates (e.g., jackhammer) typically feels it in the hands and arms. This is often
segmental vibration known as segmental vibration or in many situations hand-arm vibration. An
affects only parts of the employee who is required to sit or stand on a vibrating floor area such as a seat or
body piece of equipment will experience vibration in their entire body; known as
whole-body vibration whole-body vibration. The impact on health is largely dependent upon the
affects the whole body average amount of exposure and must be properly assessed. An evaluation takes
as a unit into account the intensity and frequency of the vibration, the duration (years) of
exposure, and the part of the body that receives the vibration energy.
Vibration can be a health hazard for three reasons. As mentioned above, it
can cause whole body-vibration, segmental vibration, and noise. Similar to noise,
vibration is transmitted through a medium, though in this case the medium is
usually solid (e.g., steel or brick). The health effects will vary with the frequency
and amplitude of the vibration. At low frequencies-say, up to 15 Hz-the body
will experience whole-body vibration. In this instance, the complete human body
will "shake" with the source. We have all experienced or witnessed this condition
in an automobile or on board a ship when an individual experiences motion sick-
ness. Whole-body vibration can also result in fatigue, nausea, stomach problems,

O"&S Today
When Vibrations Help

Can you think of an object you use on a daily basis that along the centre line to warn drivers of when they are
vibrates and when it does, it is helpful to you? Consider dangerously close to the edge or middle of the roads.
when you put your cellphone on vibrate; this allows Have you ever played a video game and had the con-
you to take phone calls without requiring the use of the troller vibrate, warning that you are about to go off
ringer thus minimizing any annoyance or disturbance course or lose control? All these are ways in which vibra-
to others. On some highways in Nova Scotia "rumble" tions can be helpfl!l; the difficult aspect is_kno.win.g how
strips have been cut along the sides of highways and much vibration is too much.

NEL
 Chapter 5: Physical Agents 125

headache, and "shakiness" and some situations may be connected to bowel, respi-
ratory, circulatory, and back disorders. s Additionally, health effects of whole-body
vibration can also include inhibition of muscular reflexes, impaired or blurred
vision, and alterations of brain electrical activity. Whole-body vibration effects
can result from driving a motorcycle, truck, or tractor, or from working near large
machines such as air compressors or punch presses.
As the frequency of vibration increases, parts of the body-not the whole
body-will be affected by a process called segmental vibration. Segmental vibra-
tion effects include sore neck and shoulder muscles and sore joints; Raynaud's
phenomenon, or white fingers, caused by restricted blood circulation in the
fingers; neuritis and degenerative alterations of the central nervous system;
fragmentation, necrosis, and decalcification of the carpal bones; and muscle necrosis
atrophy and tenosynovitis (see OH&S Notebook 5.4). death or decay of tissue
One term that often arises in discussions of vibration is resonance, which
decalcification
refers to the effect that occurs when an object reacts strongly to some particular
loss of lime salts (calcium)
frequency. If you sing in a tiled shower stall, you will occasionally hear a note that in the bones
sounds louder than most, which means that the space is resonant to that note.
Parts of the human body can resonate when exposed to some lower frequencies. resonance
For instance, the head and shoulders can resonate at 20 Hz to 30 Hz, while the the effect that occurs when
an object reacts strongly to
eyeballs resonate at 60 Hz to 90 Hz.6 If your vision becomes blurry when you have
some particular frequency
been working with a power tool such as a belt sander, you are experiencing minor
levels of eyeball resonance, which is harmless unless prolonged.

Controlling Vibration
The first step in controlling vibration in the workplace is being knowledgeable
about the standards or exposure limits. The CCOHS website contains information
about exposure limits and can be found at: http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/
phys_agents/vibration/vibration_effects.html.

Working with handheld power tools (particularly in • whitening (blanching) of the fingers when
cold weather) can result in vibration-induced white exposed to cold;
finger 0/WF)-or, more generally, hand-arm vibra- • loss of grip strength; and
tion syndrome (HAVS). HAVS results from changes in • development of cysts in fingers and wrists.
blood circulation and the nervous system associated
HAVS is a progressive disorder and is also known
with vibration and is characterized by
as Ray,naud's phenomenon. Prevention efforts fOGUS
• tingling in the fingers; on reducing vibration, using ergonomically designed
• loss of sensation in the fingers (numbness); tools, keeping hands warm and dry, and taking ~est
• loss of sense of light touch; breaks.

Sources: J. Mason, " Bad Vibrations," Occupational Health, Vol. 55, No.7 (2003) Pg. 24; E. Weir and L. Lander, "Hand-Arm
Vibration Syndrome," Canadian Medical Association Journal, Vol. 172, No.8 (2005) Pg. 1000-1.

NEL
126 PART 2: Hazards and Agents

Being knowledgeable of the standards helps you to determine which con~-- - - -

trol mechanisms are required for minimizing any negative impact. By using the
proper engineering and administrative controls as well as the correct personal
protective equipment the impact of vibration, whether it be whole body or seg-
mental can be greatly reduced.
One example of an engineering control includes ergonomically designed
equipment or equipment features such as special grips or properly designed
seating that helps to absorb or decrease the vibrations felt by the worker. The fre-
quency response associated with vibrating systems is directly related to the sys-
tem's mass. In the simplest terms, vibration can be dampened by increasing mass
or weight. An example: the increased weight on the outer flange of a flywheel
(typically a large wheel designed to regulate the speed of machinery) smoothes
out much of a machine's vibration. A flywheel is one method for reducing health
effects of vibrations. Segmental vibration effects are caused by vibrating tools
such as riveters, sanders, saws, air hammers, or hammer drills. The most serious
segmental effects are those associated with hand-arm vibrations. Vibrating hand
tools produce a Catch-22 situation. To properly control a vibrating hand tool, one
must grip it securely; but the tighter the hand grips the tool, the more severe the
effects of segmental damage from vibration. The human resource professional
should also be aware that vibration has chronic effects that must be managed.
Examples of administrative controls include policies or rules around the
duration and amount of exposure (e.g., shift rotations) as well as regular main-
tenance of equipment. Finally personal protective equipment like padding,
gloves, or floor mats can help to reduce the amount of vibration that is felt by
the individual. For more specific methods for controlling vibrations see OH&S
Notebook 5.5.

TH ERMAL STRESS
Thermal stress conditions involve cold and hot temperature extremes. The human
homeostasis body can be seen as a machine that takes in chemical energy (food) and converts
the balance of heat it to mechanical energy (muscles) and heat (see Figure 5.2). The balance of this
generation heat generation, referred to as homeostasis, is the basis for examining the effects

Strategies for whole body and segmental vibration • adding dampening devices to equipment to
control include reduce vibrations;

• avoiding tbe source by rev:ising the task; • decreasing w0rker exposure time; and

• using equipment that produces lower • isolating the worker from the source.
vibrations;

Source: CCOHS, "How can you measure vibration?" Found at: http://www.ccoMs.ca/oshanswers/ phys_agents/vibration
/vibration_ measure.html (Accessed Feb. 7, 2007).

NEL
 Chapter 5. Physical Agents 127

FIGURE

•
The Body as a Machine System

HUMAN
• a constant
temperature
INPUT ENERGY process OUTPUT ENERGY
Chemical (thermoregulatory) Mechanical
• internal energy
• heat generated
• food • sit, stand
(metabolism)

/J
• air • walk, run, jump
• water • work - push
- pull
Heat rejected
to environment
(loss)

of heat and cold on the body. Simple thermodynamic theory shows that tempera-
ture, like water, flows from the high point to the low point. Thus, in cold climates,
heat will flow from the body into the surrounding environment, making the
person feel cold. Similarly, in hot climates, heat will be absorbed by the body,
making the person feel hot. Adding physical work to either of these situations will
increase body heat and shift the thermal balance. When an imbalance occurs, the
body is stressed thermally. This body thermal balance can be illustrated by the
mathematical model below: 7
s = (M - W) ± R ± C ± V - E
where S is the body heat storage or loss, M is the metabolic heat production of the
body, W is the work output, R is the radiative heat gain or loss, Cis the convective heat
gain or loss, V is the respiratory heat gain or loss, and E is the evaporative heat loss.
When there is heat, the body will gain heat if R, C, and Vare positive; similarly,
when there is heat loss, then R C, V, and E are negative. In medical terms, heat
gain is referred to as hyperthermic; heat loss is referred to as hypothermic; and a
condition of neither gain nor loss is known as balance (see OH&S Notebook 5.6).
There are three methods of heat transfer that apply to the body, as well as
to any other thermal condition. The first method, conduction, occurs when two conduction
surfaces are in contact (e.g., the skin touches a hot stove, resulting in a local burn). heat transfer occurring
The second method, convection, occurs when one surface adds heat to the sur- when two surfaces are in
contact
roundings (e.g., the skin is close to air flow emanating from a flame or a heater).
The third method, radiation, occurs when energy is transmitted by electromag- convection
netic waves (e.g., the skin is exposed to sunlight). heat transfer occurring
The body has remarkable temperature control, with the blood system and when one surface adds
the skin being the major players. As body heat increases, blood flow increases, heat to the surroundings
capillaries move closer to the surface of the skin (they actually open up), and radiation
sweating increases, thereby allowing increased heat exchange to the atmosphere. heat transfer occurring
As body heat decreases, blood flow slows and the capillaries withdraw from the when energy is transmitted
skin surface, thus reducing the amount of heat transferred to the atmosphere. by electromagnetic waves
NEL
128 PART 2: Hazards and Agents

STRESS

Thermal stress is measured using the wet bulb Humidex Range (0e) Comfort
globe temperature (WBGT) index. This index
20-29 Comfortable
measures the effect of heat and humidity on a
30-39 Varying degrees of
worker.
discomfort
40-45 Uncomfortable
46 and over Many types of labour
must be restricted

Source: CCOHS, "Humidex Rating and Work," Table 1. Found at: http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/phys3gents/humidex.html.

The effects of heat and cold on health are well recognized by anyone who
spends a lot of time outside in summer and winter. The focal point of most
thermal stress and control is at the body core-from the neck to the groin and
between the shoulders. The body core temperature range is 35°( to 38.5°(,
with "normal" being 37°(, Fluctuations in the body's core temperature typically
stay within 1°( and occur during various times of the day or when engaged in
a physical activity or an emotionally arousing situation. In some situations the
environment can cause the body's core temperature to increase more than 1°(,
We typically see greater changes in the body's core temperature when an indi-
vidual is ill. When the core temperature goes outside the normal range, serious
problems can result.

Heat-Related Illnesses
There are a number of factors that influence the risk that heat poses to an indi-
vidual. For instance health, weight, age, low fitness level, and medical condi-
tions such as high blood pressure are factors that influence the risk that heat
poses to an individual. s There are a number of heat-related illnesses. Heat
edema occurs most often in individuals who are not acclimatized to working
in hot environments and typically results in parts of the body swelling (e.g.,
ankles). Heat rash is one ofthe first signs of the body's intolerance to heat and
results in the sweat glands becoming swollen and plugged. Small red spots
appear on the skin and cause an individual to feel a tingling sensation or itchi-
ness. Heat cramps occur in the muscles of the body and mayor may not occur
in conjunction with other heat-related illnesses such as heat rash. Heat cramps
are the result of an imbalance of salt in the body and are often felt in the arms
and legs first. Heat syncope or fainting is the result of an inadequate amount
of blood in the brain due to lowered blood pressure and often occurs while
an individual is standing or working. Fainting as a result of heat often occurs
in individuals who are not acclimatized however, recovery is typically rapid
after a period of rest in a cool area. Heat exhaustion occurs when an individual
NEL
 C ha pter 5' Ph YS ica l Agents 129

is sweating excessively and loses too much body water. Individuals suffering
from heat exhaustion exhibit one or more of the following symptoms: exces-
sive sweating, dizziness, blurred vision, nausea, headache, vomiting, heart
palpitations, and numbness in the hands and or feet. Heat stroke and heat
hyperpyrexia occur when the body is unable to control its thermal balance
resulting in a dangerous rise in core temperature (above 41°C) . Symptoms of
heat stroke include either a partial or complete loss of consciousness while
the symptoms of heat hyperpyrexia are similar but the skin remains moist or
wet. Heat stroke and heat hyperpyrexia are the most serious of heat-related
illnesses and require immediate first aid and if left untreated can result in
damage to the brain, kidneys and heart.

Controlling Heat
Provincial legislation requires that employers take every reasonable precaution
to prevent heat-related illnesses and the risks of heat exposure. If employees are
at risk for heat-related illnesses the employer is required to conduct heat assess-
ments and implement the proper controls. 9 Engineering controls are the most
effective method for controlling heat exposure however, they are often imprac-
tical in certain environments such as outdoors. Examples of engineering con-
trols include reducing worker activity, insulating heat sources or hot surfaces,
shielding or protecting workers, providing air conditioning, or increased venti-
lation. When engineering controls are not feasible then administrative controls
should be put into place. Administrative controls include proper supervision,
arranging for work-rest cycles, and implementing work methods or require-
ments that help to acclimatize workers (e.g., physical fitness, water drinking).
Personal protective equipment including proper clothing, such as proper eye
protection, cooling vests, hats, and sunblock are also useful and effective methods
for minimizing the risk of heat- related illnesses however, they should be used in
combination with other administrative and engineering control mechanisms.

Cold Environments
Cold environments can be very hazardous to an individual's health and require
similar precautions as hot environments. Cold work environments include not
only outdoor environments exposed to weather but also environments that are
refrigerated such as large industrial freezers and pools.

OH&S Today
Men and Women in the Cold

How we react to cold temperatures varies not only slowly than men's, they are not able to create as much
from person to person but varies between men and body heat through activities like exercise and shivering.
women. 10 CCOHS studies have demonstrated that This is an important consideration for both employees
wh ile wom en's core body temperature decreases more and employers.

Source : Adapted from: CCOHS, "Cold Environments - GeneraL" Found at: http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/phys_agents/cold_generaL
html (Accessed Jan. 19, 2013).

NEL
130 PART 2: Hazards and Agents

Cold-Related Injuries and Illnesses

Similar to heat-related illnesses there are a number of factors or conditions
that influence the extent to which you are at risk for cold-related illnesses. For
example, age, gender, fatigue, diseases, health conditions such as Reynaud's syn-
drome, consuming drugs, alcohol, or smoking are all factors that increase the risk
of suffering from a cold-related illness. Interestingly, the human body does not
become acclimatized to the cold in the same way it does in hot environments how-
ever, certain body parts are able to develop a tolerance to the cold (e.g., hands).l1
Furthermore there are key factors that influence the human body's response to
the cold: air temperature, wind speed, humidity, physical activity, work schedule,
and protective clothing.
Cold-related injuries are labelled as nonfreezing injuries or freezing injuries.
Nonfreezing injuries happen when body parts such as hands and feet cool but
do not freeze. Nonfreezing injuries can occur in temperatures above the freezing
mark and include chilblains, immersion foot, and trench foot. Chilblains are
a mild injury caused by reduced circulation in the extremities after prolonged
exposure to temperatures above freezing. Chilblains result in redness, swelling,
and tingling in the hands and feet. Immersion foot is an injury that occurs after
an individual's foot or feet have been wet but not frozen for prolonged periods of
time (e.g., days, weeks). Similar to chilblains, immersion foot results in tingling,
numbness, itching, pain, swelling in the feet and legs, and the skin may turn blue
or purple. Trench foot is similar to immersion foot and is caused by prolonged
exposure to colder (up to 10°C) wet conditions. The onset of symptoms can be
hours or days and are similar to immersion foot and if left untreated can result in
muscle tissue or nerve damage,12
Freezing injuries occur in colder temperatures and are caused by local
freezing of muscles and tissues. Examples of freezing cold injuries include frostnip
and frostbite. Frostnip is the mildest form of a cold injury and can affect the ear
lobes, nose, cheeks, fingers, and toes after exposure to temperatures below the
freezing mark. Symptoms of frostnip include the top layer of skin freezing, which
results in numbness, tingling, and the skin turning white and hard. Frostbite is
similar to frostnip except the underlying tissues freeze in addition to the outer
layer of skin. Frostbite occurs after exposure to freezing temperatures, frozen
objects, or cold compressed gases. Frostbite results in restricted blood flow to the
tissue and in severe cases can cause permanent tissue damage, blisters, infection,
and gangrene if left untreated.
Hypothermia occurs when cold causes the body's ability to regulate its
thermal temperature fails and is not able to compensate for the loss of heat.
Hypothermia sets in after the body's core temperature falls below 33°C and is a
life-threatening illness if left untreated. Hypothermia requires immediate first
aid and treatment of symptoms. The first signs and symptoms of mild hypo-
thermia include an overall feeling of cold and pain in exposed extremities. As
time passes moderate hypothermia sets in and feelings of cold and pain sub-
side due to an increase in numbness. This is followed by muscle weakness and
drowsiness. Eventually, severe hypothermia sets in resulting in heart and respi-
ratory failure and eventually death. See Table 5.1 for the signs and symptoms
of hypothermia.

NEL
 Chapter 5: Physical Agents 131

TABLE

Stage
•
Signs and Symptoms of Hypothermia

Core
Temperature Signs and Symptoms
Mild 37.2-36.1°C Normal, shivering may begin.
hypothermia (99-97° F)
36.1-35°C Cold sensation, goose bumps, unable to perform complex tasks with
(97-95°F) hands, sh ivering can be mild to severe, hands numb .
Moderate 35-33.9°C Shivering, intense, muscle incoordination becomes apparent, move-
hypothermia (9S-93°F) ments slow and laboured, stumb ling pace, mild con fusi on, may appear
alert . Use sobriety test, if unable to walk a 9-metre (30-foot) straight line,
the person is hypothermic.
33.9-32ZC Violent shivering persists, difficulty speaking, sluggish thinking, amnesia
(93-90°F) starts to appear, gross muscle movements sluggish, unable to use hands,
stumbles frequently, difficulty speaking, signs of depression, withdrawn .
Severe 32.2-30°C Shivering stops, exposed skin blue or puffy, muscle coordination very
hypothermia (90-86°F) poor, inability to walk, confusion, incoherent/irrational behaviour, but
may be able to maintain posture and appearance of awareness
30-27.8°C Muscle rigidity, semiconscious, stupor, loss of awareness of others, pulse
(86-82° F) and respiration rate decrease, possible heart fibrillation.
27.8-25.6°C Unconscious, a heartbe at and resp iration erratic, a pulse may not be
(82-78°F) obvious.
25.6-23.9°C Pulmonary edema, cardiac and respiratory failure, death . Death may
(78-75°F) occur before this temperature is reached.

Source: CCO HS, "Cold Environments - Health Effects and First Aid." Found at: http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/ phys_agents
Ico ld_health .html.

Controlling Cold
Similar to heat there are engineering, administrative, and PPE mecha-
nisms that reduce the risk of suffering from a cold-related injury or ill -
ness. Engineering controls include equipment like heaters and shields that
protect an individual from the cold environment or object. Administrative
controls include work and rest schedules and cold weather procedures such
as shut down or closure requirements . Clothing is one of the most effective
methods for reducing the risk of a cold-related injury or illness. Protective
clothing should be carefully selected based on what is required by legisla-
tion, the conditions of the environment, as well as the nature of the work
being performed.

RADIATION
Radiation is divided into two distinct groups-ionizing and non-ionizing.
These two types of radiation are identified primarily by wavelength range-
short for ionizing and long for non-ionizing-and by their action on tissue.
This section will be general since any worker employed by a company

NEL
132 PART 2. Hazards and Agents

involved in radiative processes or materials must undergo extensive, special-

ized training.

Ionizing Radiation
Ionizing radiation is any form of electromagnetic energy capable of producing
ions through interaction with matter. Types of ionizing radiation include X-rays,
gamma rays, alpha particles, beta particles, and neutrons. X-radiation is most
commonly found in medical facilities. The other forms of ionizing radiation are
commonly found in nuclear operations or research companies. All ofthese forms,
except X-rays, occur naturally as well as in manufactured states. Natural radia-
tion is found in ground-grown food, cosmic bombardment, building materials
such as concrete, and fertilizers such as phosphorus. Most of these sources are
measurable with very sensitive instruments but are insignificant from a health
standpoint. Some harmful ionizing radiation, which might occur in basements
and mines, is radon gas.
Radiation exposure or dosage is usually measured in a unit called a rem
(roentgen equivalent man). Natural radiation is approximately 125 mrem (mil-
lirem) per year. A dose of approximately 75 rem (75,000 mrem) per year can
cause serious health effects.
Manufactured ionizing radiation can be found in a number of products or
operations other than nuclear energy. Most home smoke detectors use a source
that emits alpha particles, which are harmless; older "glow in the dark" watch
faces were painted with very low radioactive paint. In industry, ionizing radiation
can be found in bulk-material measuring devices, high-voltage electronic devices,
and medical equipment such as X-ray machines or scanners; none of these poses
a health hazard to the general population.
The biological effects of equal amounts of different radiations depend on
several factors, including whether the exposure is whole body or local (for
example, the arm), acute, or chronic. Genetic effects can include cell mutation,
burns, and radiation sickness. Control of exposure will include regular moni-
toring, shielding, job rotation, protective equipment, and extensive training.
This is why the dentist places a lead apron over your body and neck when
taking X-rays.

Non-Ionizing Radiation
Non-ionizing radiation refers to electromagnetic radiation that does not
have energies great enough to ionize matter. Types of non-ionizing radiation
include ultraviolet radiation, visible (white light) radiation, infrared radia -
tion, microwave radiation, and radio waves. The sun can be a source of all
these radiations. The eye is the primary organ at risk from non-ionizing radia-
tion (see Figure 5.3).
Control of non-ionizing radiation exposures usually includes isolation
or separation, protective equipment, and training. With respect to separa-
tion, a pregnant computer worker should be offered another job where she
is not exposed to a VDT. Even though there is no hard evidence of fetal risk,

NEl
 Chapter 5. Physical Agents 133

FIGURE

•
General Absorption Properties of the Eye for Electromagnetic
Radiation

I
- " High-energy X-rays, gamma rays;
•• 99% pass completely through the eye.
1% is absorbed.
" /

Short UV; absorption principally at

cornea . (Intermediate UV; absorption
at cornea and lens.)

Long UV; visible; transmitted through

eye and focused on retina.

Near IR; partially absorbed by lens, iris,

and media; partially focused at retina.

Far IR; absorption localized at cornea

for sharp H20 absorption wavelengths; other
wavelengths absorbed also by lens and iris.

\' .•" /
" Microwave; generally transmitted with
partial absorption in all parts of the eye.

and such a move may be impractical in a small firm, the company should
not put itself in the position of subjecting one of its employees to a possible
health risk.

Controlling Radiation
Controlling or mitigating the health risks of radiation using specially
designed equipment that prevents access to radiation include various types
of engineering controls. Engineering controls include specially designed
equipment such as shields, walls, locked doors, warning indicators, dis-
plays, and ventilation systems. Typically in an environment wherein the
risk of exposure is high there are mUltiple engineering controls in place
in order to protect a worker should one of those control mechanisms fail
or be bypassed. Administrative controls include regular inspections and

NEL
134 PART 2: Hazards and Agents

Specific health effects of nom-ionizing radiation forms • Micmwave radiation (originating from micro-
can be itemized as follows: wave ovens, radar, induction heating equip-
ment, and diathermy equipment): deep tissue
• Ultraviolet radiation (originating from mercury
damage (cooking), surface skin rash, cataracts
vapour lamps and fluorescent tubes): con-
and eye lens opacities, biochemical changes
junctivitis and keratitis (inflammation of the
and central nervous effects, pacemaker
cornea), reddening of the skin (sunburn), skin
interference.
cancer.
• Radio waves (originating from radio and
• Infrared radiation (originating from incandes-
television broadcasting, most electronic
cent, fluorescent, high-intensity discharge
devices-e.g., video-display terminals [VDTsl
lights, and hot metals and glass): corneal and
and power lines): a mumber of conditions,
retinal burns, overheating of the iris, cata-
imduding tumours, none of which have been
racts, skin burns.
conclusively proven .

Source: Ontario Ministry of Labour, "Radiofrequency and Microwave Radiation in the Workplace." Found at: http://www.labour.
gov.on.ca/english/hs/guidelines/radiation/index.html (Accessed Feb. 7, 2oo7).

maintenance schedules, operating procedures, as well as proper labelling

and inventory of any radioactive devices or materials. Personal protective
equipment includes lead aprons, vests or air purifying respirators as well as eye
protection. In the event that an incident has occurred and an employee is
exposed to a radioactive source, it is important to consider how that source
remains a hazard. The intensity of a radioactive source diminishes over time
and as a result radioactive atoms decay and eventually form more stable
atoms. To measure the amount of time that is required for the intensity of a
radiation from a radioactive source to be reduced in half is referred to as
radiation half-life. This measure tells us the amount of radioactivity that is
left in a substance or object thereby indicating the level of risk or danger that
is associated with it.

SUMMARY
This chapter has focused on four physical agents that are commonly encountered
in industry-noise, vibration, thermal stress, and radiation. Industries in which
agents such as ionizing radiation are encountered have implemented extensive,
specialized training programs and procedures. In most situations, however,
simple prevention policies and programs are adequate for reducing and control-
ling worker exposure to phYSical agents.

NEL
 Chapter 5: Physical Agents 135

Key Terms
ambient 118 necrosis 125
attenuated or attenuation 122 physical agents 118
conduction 127 radiation 127
convection 127 resonance 125
decalcification 125 segmental vibration 124
early warning change 118 vasoconstriction 121
homeostasis 126 whole body vibration 124
hyperreflexia 121

Weblinks
Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety Answers "Cold
Environments-Health Effects and First Aid"
http://www.ccohs.ca/ oshanswers/ phys_agents/ cold_health.html
Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety Answers "Hearing Protectors"
http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/prevention/ppe/ear_prot.html
Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety Answers "Working in the Cold"
http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/phys_agents/cold_general.html
CBC News Marketplace, "How Loud Is Your House? A Look at the Dangers of 'Noise'"
http://www.cbc.ca/marketplace/pre-2007/files/home/noise
Hearing Center Online, "Name That Sound-What Does Hearing Loss Sound Like?"
http://www.hearingcenteronline.com/sound.shtml
Radiation Safety Institute of Canada, "Issues in Radiation Safety"
http://www.radiationsafety.ca/commu nitytissues
WorkSafeBC, "Part 7: Noise, Vibration, Radiation, and Temperature"
http:// reg ulation. healthandsafetycentre. org/s/Part7 .asp

Required Professional Ca abilities (RPCS)

The following RPCs, listed by their CCHRA number, are relevant to the mate-
rial covered in this chapter. All RPCS can be found at http://www.chrp.ca/rpc/
body-of-knowledge.
RPC:172 Ensures due diligence and liability requirements are met.*
RPC: 174 Develops and implements policies on the workplace environment.*
RPC:183 Analyzes risks to employee health & safety and develops preventive
programs.*

*Canadian Council of Human Resources Associations, Human Resources Professionals in Canada:

Revised Body of Knowledge and Required Professional Capabilities (RPCs ®), 2007.

NEL
136 PART 2: Hazards and Agents

Discussion Questions
1. Workers in a manufacturing division in your jurisdiction have made a
formal complaint that three machines are too noisy. Noise measurements
are taken: the results are 83 dB, 87 dB, and 88 dB. Do the workers have a
legitimate complaint?
2. What are the health risks associated with vibrations?
3. All jurisdictions in Canada have access to the same science. Yet jurisdictions
vary in legislated standards. Why might different standards apply in dif-
ferent jurisdictions?
4. Many occupations involve inherent exposure to a physical agent resulting
in excessive exposure to noise, vibration, thermal conditions, and so on.
Outline the steps an employer can take to protect employees when avoiding
the exposure is not possible.

Using the Internet

Working outside in the Canadian winter can be a hazard for many workers. Using
Internet resources, determine the health and safety regulations and guidelines
for outdoor work in your jurisdiction. Compare regulations across several prov-
inces or territories. Which jurisdictions have developed the most extensive sets
of guidelines for outdoor work?

Exercise
OH&S legislation establishes standards for exposure to various forms of physical
agents in the workplace. Think of common forms of after-work entertainment
(e.g., movies, bars, restaurants, malls). What physical agents are present in these
settings? What risks do they pose for customers? What about the employees of
these establishments?

MONTY'S PROBLEM

The newly appointed corporate medical director, a physician, paid an initial visit
to one of the company's branch plants. For the first time, he met the occupational
health nurse, an RN and recent CCOHN, who had been appointed from the local
community some years previously. Occupational hygiene and safety at the plant was
the responsibility of one of the senior production engineers, a P.Eng. who had been
at the plant for many years. Neither of these individuals had received any formal
instruction in occupational health nursing or occupational health and safety, respec-
tively, since such training had not been available when they were appointed to these
positions. The director was disturbed to note that medical records maintained by

NEL
 Chapter 5. Physical Agents 137

the nurse appeared to be available to the personnel department and that there
was no defined OH&S program. The plant manager was absent on the day of the
director's visit and unavailable to discuss these concerns.
On returning to corporate headquarters, the physician sent a directive to
the occupational health nurse instructing her that medical records were to be
regarded as private and that information was not to be released without his
express permission. He also asked the OH&S person to purchase a simple class 2
sound level meter and to carry out a survey of noise levels at the branch
plant. This information was to be available for discussion when the director
next visited the operation.
Unfortunately, these requests caused considerable difficulties. The nurse
had an argument with the personnel department over the availability of med-
ical records, and this led to strong internal friction. The production engineer /
health and safety specialist resented the physician's interference and com-
plained to the plant manager, whom he had known personally for many years.
The plant manager, Monty James, called head office to ensure that the director
did not visit the plant without his permission or without at least giving notifi-
cation so that Monty would be available.
In reply, the physician pointed out that the noise levels at the site were
clearly excessive and that the so-called OH&S specialist was not capable of car-
rying out his duties.
When Monty James heard this response, he telephoned his superior, the
general manager at corporate. If you were Monty, what would you say to your
superior and how would you go about resolving the situation?

EXPENSIVE JEWELLERY

As a newly hired HR specialist, you are touring the floor of the manufacturing
plant. You are surprised to see that many workers are wearing their hearing pro-
tectors around the neck like a necklace instead of covering their ears. Moreover,
the style seems to be to wear safety glasses perched on top of the head rather
than in a position that would protect eyes. Employees working with acids are
doing so in street clothes and barehanded even though rubber gloves and safety
aprons are hanging on hooks next to the workstations. Even from your brief
tour, it is clear that the company has invested in the best personal protective
equipment available. Yet workers do not seem to be using the equipment to
protect themselves. One of your new responsibilities is health and safety pro-
gramming. What do you do?

NEL
 This appendix illustrates some of the techniques some hearing problems. Any other ambient noise in
and calculations for noise and hearing protection this workplace could cause the noise level to exceed the
that could prove useful to the HR practitioner when safety standards. This calculation can be used for deci-
examining workplace conditions, adding new noise- bels (dB) as above, or for A-weighted decibels (dB[A]).
generating equipment, or working with a consul- An easier way to make this same calculation is
tant, government inspectors, or certified members shown in Table 5.2. In our example, the difference in
of the JHSC. Noise calculations are pertinent to the noise level between the two machines is 88 - 85, or 3
combining of noise levels from various operating dB. Using the table, find the line that shows a difference
machines or the purchase of new equipment. Some of of 3. The line at which the difference ranges from 2.8
this material may be required by the student's specific to 3.0 gives a factor of 1.8, which is to be added to the
course of study. highest noise level. Thus, 88 + 1.8 gives a total of 89.8,
or 90 dB, as before. 13
CALCULATING NOISE LEVELS This table can be used for more than two sound
sources. When there are more than two, the sound
Noise level is measured in decibels or dB. This is a sources must be dealt with in pairs. For example,
unit of measure for sound pressure level (SPL), which
there are four machines in an area that are running
is the technical name for noise level or the "amount" and causing noise. The ratings are 82, 85, 88, and
of noise we hear. This relationship can be mathemati- 88 dB. Take these noise levels in pairs, 82 and 85,
cally expressed as
88 and 88. In the first instance, the difference is 3
dB = 20 log (p/pO) (equation 5.1) dB, which from the table, as above, gives a factor
of 1.8, which is added to the highest value. Thus
where dB is the sound pressure level (SPL), P is the
85 + 1.8 = 86.8. Perform this same operation with
sound pressure, and Po is a reference pressure, usually
the second pair, 88 and 88. The difference between
0.00002 Pascal (N/m2) or 0.0002 microbars.
these is O. From the table for 0.00 to 0.1, the factor
Though equation 5.1 has little practical application
is 3.0, which when added to the highest value gives
other than to identify the basics of noise, a variation of
88 + 3.0 = 91.3. Now we have two new pairs-86.8
it can assist in noise level evaluation. The variation is
and 91.3. The same operation is again performed.
expressed as
The difference is 4.5. From the table for 4.4 to 4.7,
total dB = 10 log (10 dBl/l0 + 10 dB2/10 the factor is 1.3, which is added to the higher of the
+ ... + 10 dBn/l0) two values. Thus 91.3 + 1.3 = 92.6. The total noise
(equation 5.2) level in this example becomes 92.6 dB, which by any
standard is too high.
where the various dB values are for any number of
If equation 5.2 is used, then
machines or noise sources in an area. For example,
one manufacturer had a machine with a noise level, or total dB = 10 log (1082/10 + 1085/10
SPL, of 88 dB. The manufacturer decided to purchase + 1088/10 + 1088/10)
an additional machine. The supplier insisted that the
noise level of the new machine was 85 dB, below the
=92.4 dB
current noise standard. However, when the values for
each of these machines were entered into the relation- SHI FT ADJUSTMENT FOR NOISE
ship expressed in equation 5.2, the result was a total EXPOSURE
dB = 10 log (10 88 / 10 + 1085 / 10) = 89.8 or 90 dB, which All of the TLV values for chemical and noise exposure
reached the current limit and could possibly create are based on an eight-hour shift. If the shift is longer,
138 NEL
 Chapter 5. Physical Agents 139

TABLE
II
Measuring Noise Levels

Difference between Amount to be Difference Amount to be

High and Low Added to Higher between High and Added to Higher
Noise Level Noise Levels Low Noise Level Noise Level
0.0 to 0.1 3.0 4.1 to 4.3 1.4
0.2 to 0.3 2.9 4.4 to 4.7 1.3
0.4 to 0.5 2.8 4.8 to 5.1 1.2
0.6 to 0.7 2.7 5.2 to 5.6 1.1
0.8 to 0.9 2.6 5.7 to 6.1 1.0
1.0 to 1.2 2. 5 6.2 to 6.6 0.9
1.3 to 1.4 2.4 6.7 to 7.2 0.8
1.5 to 1.6 2.3 7.3 to 7.9 0.7
1.7 to 1.9 2.2 8.0 to 8.6 0.6
2.0 to 2.1 2.1 8.7 to 9.6 0.5
2.2 to 2.4 2.0 9.7 to 10.7 0.4
2.5 to 2.7 1.9 10.8 to 12.2 0.3
2.8 to 3.0 1.8 12.3 to 14.5 0.2
3.1 to 3.3 1.6 14.6 to 19.3 0.1
3.4 to 3.6 1.5 19.4 to 00 0.0
3.7 to 4.0 1.5

say 12 hours, or shorter, say four hours, then the time In a similar fashion, if the worker spent only four
weighted average (TWA) should be adjusted. This hours at the job, then the new TWA will become
adjustment for noise uses the equation:
Leq.4 = 85 - 10 log 4/8 = 88.0 dB(A)
(equation 5.3)
These calculations are mathematically correct.
where Leq is the noise exposure level limit for an However, conditions such as long-term exposure, physical
8-hour shift; L eq , t is the noise exposure level limit for condition, and a 40-hour workweek must be considered.
the time exposure t; Tl is the time period worked; and
T is the nominal time period. HEARING PROTECTION TYPES OR
Example: If a worker works a 12-hour shift at a CLASSIFICATIONS
location where the limit for an eight-hour period is 85
The early part of this chapter noted that there are two
dB(A), then the exposure limit for the 12-hour shift
basic styles of hearing protection devices-plugs and
will be
muffs. Table 5.3 shows a more detailed breakdown of
Leq .12 =85 - 10 log 12/8 =83.2 dB(A) the styles and their designations.

NE L
140 PART 2: Hazards and Agents

TABLE
II
Types of Industrial Hearing Protection

Class Type Description

Earp lugs A1 Preformed earp lug, the fitting of which should be done
professionally.
A2 User-formable earp lug made of soft sponge li ke mate-
ria ls that the user rolls between the fingers for insertion
into the ear canal.
B1 A stethoscope configuration with the spring head-
band holding earp lugs in posit ion in the ears. Easy to
observe, and the band may be worn in several positions
on the head.
Circumaura l D1 An earmuff that surrounds the comp lete ear with a
headband that sits only on the top of the head. Often
best for comfort and optimum attenuation .
D2 An earmuff sim il ar to D1 b ut with a headband system
that can be worn in many positions on the head.
Attenuation may vary with headband position.
D3 An earmuff attachment for a hardhat, which can be
permanently attached or fie ld app lied. Usua lly used in
construction settings .
Nonlinear protectors F1 A specialty device with an electronic amp lifier. A system
that all ows on ly certain sound leve ls and frequencies to
pass unimpeded.
F2 A specia lty device with a mechanica l " ear valve" on
each ear that responds to impact noise and causes
attenuation.
Combination Many of the above types may be used in combination.

NOTES
1. E.H. Berger, W.O. Ward, J.e. Morrill, and L.H. Royster, eds., Noise and Hearing
Conservation Manua l, 4th ed . (Akron: American Industrial Hygiene Association, 1988).
2. A. Tidsskrift, "Hearing Loss Among Construction Workers in Edmonton," Journal of
Occupational and Environmenta l Medicine 42 (2000): 57-63; WorkSafeBC Health and
Safety Centre, Hearing Conservation in British Co /umbia-2003, http://www2.worksafebc.
com/PDFs/hearing/stati stics/annua l_update_2003 .pdf.
3. M.M. Key, A.F. Henschel, J. Butler, R.N. Ligo, I.R. Tabershaw, and L. Ede, Occupational
Diseases: A Guide to Their Recognition, rev. ed. (Cincinnati: U.S . Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare, 1977).
4. J.T. Broch, Mechanical Vibration and Shock Measurements, 2nd ed . (Naerum: Bruel and
Kj<er, 1980).
5. "Vibration Health Effects," Canadian Centre for Occupational Hea lth and Safety Answers,
accessed January 19, 2013, http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/phys_agents/vibration
Ivibration_effects. htm I.

NE L
 Chapter 5: Physical Agents 141

6. R.D. Soule, "Vibration," in The Industrial Environment-Its Evaluation and Control

(Cincinnati: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1973).
7. W. Hammer, Occupational Safety Management and Engineering, 4th ed . (Englewood
Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1989).
8. "Hot Environments: Health Effects," Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety
Answers, accessed January 19, 2013, http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/phys_agents
IheaChealth .html.
9. "Hot Environments: Control Measures," Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and
Safety Answers, accessed January 19, 2013, http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/phys_agents
IheaCcontrol.html.
10. "Cold Environments-General," Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety
Answers, accessed January 19, 2013, http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/phys_agents
Icold_general.html.
11. "Cold Environments-General ," Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety
Answers, accessed January 19, 2013, http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/phys_agents
Icold_general.html.
12. "Cold Environments-Health Effects and First Aid," Canadian Centre for Occupational
Health and Safety Answers, accessed January 19, 2013, http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers
Iphys_agents/ cold_health .html .
13. P.L. Michael, "Physics of Sound," in The Industrial Environment-Its Evaluation and
Control, 2nd ed . (Cincinnati: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1988).

NEL