Serpa 1

The Japanese symbol for ‘Kabuki’ is represented simply by three kanji characters:

‘song’ (ka), ‘dance’ (bu), and ‘skill’ (ki); within these three elements, an enormous and

spectacular art form is contained. Stunning scenery, unearthly characters, and stylized

perfection rules every minute aspect of this theatrical genre, fusing its three main

elements into a towering artistic expression which truly transcends reality. If it is the

theater’s functioning purpose is to transport its audience into another realm, it is a role

that Kabuki dominates. One specific aspect of Kabuki stands as a uniquely

representational feature of the art: the onnagata. I wish to explore the history,

transformation, purpose and appearance of the theatrically captivating onnagata and

explore how this role stands symbolic of the “artistically first-rate vulgar beauty (Toshio,

108)” that is Kabuki Theater

In 1603, Okuni of Izumo, disputably either a young priestess or geisha miko,

began performing amateur ‘dance dramas’ outdoors in Kyoto with a small troupe of

women. These comedic performances, often depicting the ordinary lives of middle-class

citizens, were suggestively burlesque, as seen in the particularly popular plot line about a

regular customer at a brothel quarreling with the madam over the prices of her ’goods’

(Keene, 115). These early actors further shocked audiences by their breaking of strict

gender roles by often performing bare-limbed, unmasked, and in flashy costumes

(Toshio, 126). This coquettish and loose theatrical atmosphere was partially due to the

fact that many of the performing female players were selling more than just their

productions, they were also prostitutes. Understandably, Kabuki, in its very naïve

beginning state, began attracting the wrong sort of crowds who were not at all interested

in the artistic aspect of the performances, thus drawing in rowdy and testosterone-fueled
 Serpa 2

audiences. The shogunate banned women from the stage in 1629 in order to ‘restore and

maintain’ public order and to prevent the female actors from ‘perverting and degrading’

the emerging theatrical art-form (Wikipedia).

Kabuki, however, would not suffer such a slight and simply be shut down.

Theaters promptly reopened their doors featuring an all-male cast. Female roles were

taken on by wakasu (or oyama), young male actors who appeared deceptively feminine.

Wikipedia states “along with the change in the performer’s gender came a change in the

emphasis of performance: increased stress was put on the drama rather than the dance.”

This theatrical change is notable because Kabuki’s prime focus, even today, is

concentrated around glorifying the talents of its actors. However, the wakasu eventually

suffered the same scandelous fate as their female predecessors (the boys were also known

for selling their ‘favors’ to audience members, thus often creating brawls between jealous

admirers), prompting the shogunate to again set restrictions on the theater and ban young

boys from the stage in 1652 (Wikipedia). Thus, only grown men were allowed to

perform Kabuki. These actors were forced to shave their heads1 to lessen their

attractiveness and to prevent any further social disruption, therefore keeping the

audience’s attention on the art of the production rather than simply on the physical

attractiveness of its players (Keene, 116). However, with an all-male cast an obvious

dilemma arose: who would play the female roles? Thus the intriguing and alluring

Kabuki role of the onnagata was formed.

Author Donald Keene states the onnagata, ‘onna’ meaning ’woman’ and ‘kata’

meaning ’figure,’ have “contributed more than any other factor to the characteristic

1 In traditional Japanese wood-block art, onnagata players can be readily identified by a patch of purple
silk placed at the forefront of their wigs--view cover page for example (Toshio, 132)
 Serpa 3

combination of real and unreal that is at the heart of Kabuki…the presence of the

onnagata, at first a handicap, came in its time to be central to the enjoyment of Kabuki.

(116-7)” Indeed, in an art form which thrives on transforming the ordinary into

something completely extraordinary, the onnagata stand allegorically symbolic as

Kabuki’s ability to transcend realism to create perfect stylized beauty. The onnagata were

to not only theatrically imitate women, they were to embody the very essence of ideal

femininity which goes beyond realism. Author Kawatake Toshio notes that at the heart of

the “Kabuki aesthetic” is glorified presentation (139), a role the onnagata take it upon

themselves to wholly embody.

The role of the Kabuki actor is indeed a rigorous one; it demands a high level of

personal dedication and awareness. When performing, the actor must maintain an acute

level of self involvement concerning his character’s numerous elements: the sweeping

costumes and elaborate katsura (wig), important props, along with his character’s

movements, facial expressions, and lines. The onnagata actor, therefore, must take these

important essentials a step further by completely theatrically feminizing them, for they

take on the heavy task of having to personify the ideal woman. Celebrated onnagata,

Yoshizawa Ayame, once said of his theatrical role: “If an actress were to appear on the

stage she could not express ideal feminine beauty, for she would rely entirely on

exploiting her physical charm, and therefore not express the synthetic ideal. (Keene,

118)” Onnagata players were understandably not supposed simply imitate women, they

were to personify what women represent. Their expertly studied gestures, expressions,

and natures were intended to symbolize and project feminine beauty and virtue through

the lens of glorified societal expectancy. Toshio states that the complexity of the
 Serpa 4

onnagata is that they provide an “abstraction of womanhood…only an inferior onnagata

[would attempt] to persude the audience that he is actually a woman. (117-8)”

Appearance aside, Kabuki is wholly devoted to allowing the talent of its players to shine

forth; the skill and presence of the actor is the prime focus of Kabuki.

It is interesting to note the onnagata were to symbolize ultimate femininity, but

were also expected to do so without “negating [the] male body. (Toshio, 160)”

Traditionally, in European theater, men who portrayed women on stage were chosen for

their feminine appearances and falsetto abilities; the onnagata, however, were not

expected to drastically alter their voices or appear seemingly feminine. Naturally, tones

and words were softened and practiced to create a more feminine cadence, however the

natural voice of the actor was maintained. The skill of the onnagata is that they must be

able to “conjure up the beauty of a woman but with the body and voice of an adult male.

(Toshio, 160)” Keene notes that actors were not chosen for their feminine features either,

that it was often apparent the onnagata characters were male, and how, nonetheless,

Kabuki-lovers will continue to sing the praises of onnagata actors as “ravishingly

beautiful, though photographs do not confirm such views. (118)” What was deemed

beautiful was the learned talent and execution of feminine traits, not merely the

immediate superficial appearance.

Indeed, the onnagata demand a significant level of respect as class of actors; they

must possess an excellent level of self control and awareness. For example, an onnagata

simply standing or walking across the stage must do so in a very specific and learned

manner. Walking is done with the knees held tightly together to produce fluid and dainty

steps while the actor is simultaneously ‘toeing in.’ Standing requires the actor to ‘slope’
 Serpa 5

his shoulders by constantly pulling the blades downward and together (Kabuki) to

enhance the base of the neck, which traditionally in Japanese cluture is a very erotic

portion of the female body.

Kabuki is most easily recognizeable through its distinctive character kesho

(makeup) and costuming. These two important elements are specific to the stock role

types employed in Kabuki, which are divided into the three following yakugara, or

character categories: tachiyau (heroes), katakiyaku (villains), and the onnagata.

Onnagata roles can then be subcategorized into four personalities: okujochu (noble-

women from samurai families), akahime (red princesses), sewa-nyobo (virtuous wives),

and fukeoyama (the wise elderly woman) (Kabuki).

Colors are very particular to individual character types and are used purposely in

costuming and makeup so the audience could immediately differentiate between and

identify various personalities. The most vibrantly prominent is the usage of red to

symbolize heroicism, passion, and other virtuous traits, whereas blues and black represent

villainy and jealousy. Lesser used, but still incredibly important, are shades of green

which are used for supernatural characters, and purple to distinguish royalty roles

(Toshio, 110). Though female roles do not call for the stylized lined makeup as many of

the male roles do, however the onnagata still don a heavy cosmetic face. Generally for

onnagata roles, rice powder is used to create the stark oshiroi white base (Wikipedia), red

lips are then applied along with matching liner in the corners of the eyes, which

traditionally symbolizes a romantic character continence (Toshio, 110). Such simplistic,

yet powerful makeup reinforces Kabuki’s overall aesthetic of ideal stylized naturalism.

Costuming and katsura (wigs) for the onnagata stands in direct opposition of the
 Serpa 6

makeup: elaborate, flashy, complex and glamorous. Red plays a significantly important

role for onnagata outfits, invoking unsubtle eroticism and sensuality. The akahime, or

‘red princess roles,’ are consequently called so because of its constant use of distinct red

kimonos (Toshino, 109). For specific ‘revelation’ roles, layers upon layers are worn by

characters which are later removed on stage, in a process called hayagawari, by kuroko

(stage-hands all in black and traditionally seen as invisible) to reveal and underlying

costume which represents a character’s true nature (Wikipedia). Costuming colors are

also symbolic of a character’s personality (employing the color classification discussed

above) and are currently nearly always based on the Edo period fashions, which was

renown for its over-the-top elegance and exaggeration, or the Kamigata fashions, which

stands in oppositional stark simplicity; both of these elements allow characters to be

recognized almost immediately (Kabuki) and (in the case of Edo stylization) give the

actors a larger-than-life stage presence thus amplifying their dramatic persona.

There are approximately 400 different variations for onnagata wigs (which is a

modest number compared to the 1,000 variations of tachiyaku styles) which also serve as

important character indicators. The wigs are made up of four separate parts: bin (the hair

on either side of the face), mage (hair at the crown of the head), maegami (forelock), and

tabo (hair on the back of the head). Character types and ranks can be determined by the

level of ornamentation and embellishment, ranging from intricate styles with dozens of

hair accessories and extensions, to a simple low ponytail (Kabuki). Onnagata wigs, much

like costuming, are exaggerated to contribute to the actor’s overall superior stage

presence, granting them further substantial visibility and importance.

A Kabuki actor’s character is further glorified through the unique Kabuki element
 Serpa 7

of mie. This is a series of picturesque movements reserved for, and performed by an

important character; Toshio describes the action as “an acting technique in which the

actor strikes a pose at important points in action and holds it for several seconds…the

moving body traces a smooth, continuous line that ends at the precise moment the

movement has reached its climax. (113-4)” Such precise and fluid movement allows the

actor to showcase his total control over his character and further establish Kabuki’s theme

of perfectionist stylization and dramatic flair, thus heightening the character’s magnitude.

Characters are able to further enhance their celebrity by using hanamachi, translating to

’flower path,’ which stands as a theatrical showcase and “cinematic close-up” for the

performer. An obvious audience-pleaser, the hanamachi, a raised walkway which extends

from stage-right down the length of the theater, allows the actor to completely shatter the

Western notion of a theatrical ‘fourth wall’ and provides eager spectators with an intimate

chance to closely examine the detail and talent of the actor and feel like a member of the

performance (Toshio, 39-40).

Kabuki stands as a beautifully juxtaposing art form: realistic yet wholly fantastic,

opulently exaggerated yet simplistic, traditional yet innovative. Though women are now

allowed to participate in Kabuki, many troupes choose to keep their casts traditionally all

male; if the role of the onnagata was lost, it would take away with it an indescribably

essential element of the Kabuki theater. The onnagata stand allegorically symbolic of

what Kabuki theater represents: a thrilling presentation which knowingly transcends the

norm, something beautifully stylized that stands admirably just out of reach .
Serpa 8