PRELIMS - CHAPTER 2

Module 2 Mathematics Language and Symbols

A.    Characteristics of Mathematical Language                                  
B.    Sentence versus Expressions
C.    Conventions in Mathematical Language 
D.    Basic Language in Mathematics
a. The Language of Sets
b. The Language of Functions and Relations
c. The Language of Binary Operations

E. Elementary Logic

F. Formality

Mathematics Language and Symbols

Language is a way of transforming information and meaning. Mathematics is a language
that is developed using symbols. To study mathematics, it is necessary to understand
the language in the way mathematics reads and writes.

1. Lesson 1 Characteristics of Mathematical Language

From the activity above, you were challenged in answering the situation because the
language used is not familiar with you. This explains the significant role of language in
communication. Communication would not be chaos if every people speak a common
language.

Language is a way in which people expressed their idea about something. Language is a
system of communication common to every locality, organization, and discipline.
Language, a system of conventional spoken, manual (signed), or written symbols by
means of which human beings, as members of a social group and participants in its
culture, express themselves. The functions of language include communication, the
expression of identity, play, imaginative expression, and emotional release. (Britain. com)
In the same note, Dictionary.com defines it as a body of words and the systems for their
use common to a people who are of the same community or nation, the same
geographical area, or the same cultural tradition. Thus, in short, it is a tool used in
communication that comprises symbols and sound be it in written or spoken. It is the
system of communication common to a group or accepted within the group.

On a further note, language is invented or developed to communicate ideas to others or

used to transmit the information we want to convey. It is also the tool to understand the
expressed ideas and emotions of others. Language is used as the identity of the
individual in terms of their ethnicity and geographical locations. A language is a tool
that unifies people. This plays a vital role in maintaining peace and cooperation among
individuals.

 Intuitively, language is a set of symbols and sounds used to communicate ideas

through written or spoken form. The English language, for instance, used the English
alphabet to organized words and sentences applying conventional rules. On a similar
note, mathematics is considered language. It is a symbolic language. For many thousand
years ago, mathematicians had developed spoken and written natural language that is
highly efficient and effective in expressing mathematical language. Centuries passed, the
symbolic system of Mathematics has evolved a lot and become more complex in this
present day scenario. Mathematics is a language because we can write something about
it through number, constant, and variables and we can do something about applying it
processes like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.  Similar to our
language, mathematics is composed of structural rules governing the use of symbols of
the mathematical objects of interest.

The symbol system of Mathematics is distinct from that of human language. Notably,
symbols in mathematical languages include the counting numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,
and 9. In the mathematics conventions, we represent nothing as zero or “0”. Be it in
word or in symbol the idea means the same. Moreover, there are lots of symbols in
mathematics and most are used as precise representation in shorthand. Memorizing and
remembering the symbolic system of mathematical language will lead us to a better
understanding of its rigors.

The system of mathematical language is used to communicate mathematical ideas. It

consists of a highly technical or mathematical term that is unique from the other
languages. The symbolic system is used to express ideas using the grammatical
conventions that are uncommon to mathematical discourse, supplemented by highly
specialized notations for mathematical formulas. Mathematics has its own grammar
different from that of the English language. The uniqueness of the mathematical
language makes it a universal language.
 The language of mathematics is constructed to be precise, concise, and powerful. The
discreteness of this language conveys that it consists of minimal units. Its grammar tells
that the language consists of rules and patterns to arrange units and productivity shows
that language can create totally novel statements that could be understood by all.
Moreover, its displacement reveals that language can convey imaginary, distant, past,
present, and future statements.

Mathematics is a precise language. Precision means it requires a culture of correctness

every time. Definitions and limits must be clearly stated and distinct from each other.
Though, concepts and ideas in Math was developed informally yet Math is done
formally, with appropriate and enough conditions stated upfront and restricting the
discussion to a particular class of objects.

Mathematics is language, in addition, must be concise or it must show simplicity. Ideas

expressed must be conveyed briefly. This characteristic is a strong part of the culture in
mathematical language. Further, conciseness means that one can express long
expositions or sentences briefly.

Finally, mathematics language must also be a powerful language. The powerfulness of

the language means that we can clearly and ably express complex thoughts with relative
ease. The abstraction on Mathematics is the desire to unify diverse instances under a
single conceptual framework and allows easier penetration of the subject and the
development of more powerful methods.

One of the famous lines of Galileo states that Mathematics is the language in which God
has written the universe. It can be attributed that mathematics is a universal language
since the cornerstones and principles of Mathematics is known everywhere around the
world.     

2. Lesson 2 Sentence versus Expression

Other significant features of the language are the objects of interest used in the delivery
of thoughts. In the English language context, a noun is an example of an object of
interest. This part of speech refers to the names of places, things, persons, or events. It
can be a proper or common noun. This is usually the subject of the study.

On similar notes, mathematics has its own object of interest which includes numbers
(constant and variables), set, functions, matrix, and ordered pairs. These objects of
interest are called expressions in mathematics. From these sentences are made.
Technically speaking, sentence and expression are basic foundations of language. These
are utilized in conveying ideas with or without complete thoughts. A group of words
that do not express a complete thought is called expressions. A sentence on the other
hand is a group of words that conveys a complete thought. In addition, a sentence can
be determined whether it is true or not. Expressions are not.

Mathematical expressions are the finite combination of symbols that is well-defined

according to the rule that depends on the context. This expression is usually the object
of interest like a number, set, function, and others. Moreover, an expression is the
correct arrangement of mathematical symbols used to represent the object of interest
and it does not contain any complete thought.  This expression cannot be identified as
true or false.

A mathematical sentence, on the other hand, makes a statement about two or more
expressions, either with the use of numbers, variables, or the combination of both.
Additionally, this statement can be identified as true or false but not both. This
statement also used symbols like equals, greater than, less than, and the basic arithmetic
operators. Generally, mathematical sentences require the correct arrangement of
mathematical symbols that will state a complete thought.  

One other factor that may confuse us is the uses of numbers in a statement. At some
point, poor understanding of the different uses of numbers may lead us to poor
performance in math. Numbers are used in three different forms – cardinal, ordinal, and
nominal. Cardinal numbers are used in identifying counts and measurements. Like for
instance, there is an average of 15 patients admitted in a day, or a fired bullet from a
short firearm can reach up to 15 meters. Ordinal numbers are used to identify orders of
occurrence of things. Rank 1 in the board examination in Custom Administration this
year is from ISAP. The number 1 is used to identify the position of the student in the
board examination. Nominal numbers are numbers used to identify or to name
something. For example, the well-known athlete Alyssa Valdez is popular with her jersey
number 2 in women’s volleyball. Postal code 3500 refers to the Province’s capital
Tuguegarao City. Your student’s number also is an example of a nominal number.

Hence, proper knowledge of the different used of the objects of interest in mathematics
will lead us to better understand the rigors of it.  

3. Lesson 3 Conventions in Mathematical Language

Intuitively, mathematical language is a symbolic language. Symbols are used to

represent ideas following the set of conventional rules which is common in all parts of
the world. It was mentioned previously that we can write something about mathematics
through the numbers like 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 and 9. Moreover, we can also do something
about mathematics through some processes like basic arithmetic. So when we say the 5
is added to 5 is equal to ten is the same when we symbolically represent it as 5 + 5 = 10.
This convention in mathematics is accepted around the globe. Mathematical
conventions for that matter are facts, names, notations or usage agreed upon by the
grouped of mathematicians of the world. The use of the PEMDAS rule is an example.

Similar to other systems of knowledge, Mathematics has its own unique symbolic
system and conventions. Sirug (2018) pointed out that in some cases, word of general
usage has a different and specific meaning in mathematics, - some examples is group,
ring, field, term, factors, etc. In other cases, special terms have been introduced – some
examples are tensor, fractal functors, etc.  He added also that the language of
mathematics has its own taxonomy like an axiom, conjecture, theorems, lemma, and
corollaries. There are also some mathematical phrases or jargons used with specific
meanings, such as “if and only if”, “necessary and sufficient”, and “without loss of
generality”.

Mathematical language maintains its own vocabulary and grammar. Some of the
vocabularies in mathematics are the use of the English alphabet. The first letters of the
alphabet usually denote a constant term, letters from I to n,  represent positive integers
of counting numbers, and the end letters of the alphabet like x, y, and z,  connotes
variables. In addition, the counting numbers are the main symbols used in
Mathematics, 0, 1, 2,3, 4,5,6, 7, 8, and 9.   

Below is a table that shows some of the symbols used in Mathematics

Apart from the identified, there are other symbols used in constructing mathematical
sentences. These symbols are distinct and are highly technical. Moreover, notations in
Mathematics includes the use of the letter, Capital letters are used to indicate set
notations. There are also symbols which indicate constant values such as

Translating Verbal statements to the mathematical statement

One important factor in a poor understanding of the language of mathematics is the

fact that one may not be able to write properly verbal statements into the appropriate
mathematical statement equivalent. Say, a total of 5 and any number. Interpreting and
writing it into its equivalent math statement would be that easy if we do not know the
equivalent of the clue word in symbols.  Our clue word in the example is the word
”total”, and it indicates that we need to add 5 by any number and we represent any
number by n. So the mathematical statement for the given verbal statement is 5 + n.   

Illustrative Example 3 Verbal to Mathematical Statement

   Write the following verbal statements to Mathematical statements. Let m = to any

number.   

1. The product of 3 and a number is 15  - 3m = 15

9
2. Fifteen more than the quotient of 9 and any number - +15
m
3. A number is lesser than or equal to the sum of six and eight – m ≤ (6 + 8)
4. For all real number x, there exists a real number y such that their difference is 3 – x – y= 3
5. A number is double – 2m

4. Lesson 4 Basic Language in Mathematics

The foundation of being good in Mathematics lies in the factor of having a good
understanding of its language. Language serves as the tool in the study of Mathematics.
Mathematically speaking, the language of mathematics will show us the different
structural components of ideas as our pedagogical tool in understanding how what and
why things are said. To better understand the language of mathematics, we need to
familiarize ourselves with the four basic concepts about it.

A. The Language of Sets.

One of the fundamental disciplines in Math is the Set theory introduced by Georg
Cantor (1845 -1918), a German Mathematician. This discipline of Mathematics focused
on the studies of sets. It is often dubbed as the mathematical science of the infinite.
Nonetheless, set theory focused on sets, which is one of the basic concepts in
mathematical language.

A set is a collection of distinct objects or what we call the elements which have a
common property. Further, the set speaks about well-defined collections of items in the
universal discourse. Say, nurses, medical technologist, doctors, pharmacist, radiologic
technologist, and physical therapist. The common thing about them is that they are all
allied health workers. Hence, when we talked about the language of a set, we simply say
the set is a well-defined collection of objects.

Illustrative Example 4

            The following are examples of sets

1.    A = {Ateneo, Adamson, UE, de LaSalle, UP, UST,  FEU, NU}

2.    B = {San Beda, San Sebastian, JRU, Arellano, St. Benilde , Mapua, Letran}

3.    C = { x /x is a multiple of 5 less than 50}

4.    D = {x / x is the consonant letters of the alphabet}

 Intuitively, set is about the collections of objects in the universal discourse. These
objects are what we called the elements or members of the set.   We often use the
symbol , to indicate that an object belong to the set. A set is usually denoted by capital
letters and elements are denoted by small letters.

            
 Now, observed how the set in illustrative example 4 are written. Items number 1 and 2,
the elements of the set are listed individually. Item 1 is the schools that comprise the
UAAP, while item number are the schools that belong to the NCAA. The type of
presentation is called the roster method. Roster method  is when we list the elements of
the set individually and separated by coma. It is often times called the tabular method.

Items 3 and 4 illustrate the other form of writing a set. In the example what we can see
only is the general idea about the set or the common description of the elements of the
set.  This method is what we called the set builder notation method.     It is the method
of presenting a set by mentioning the description or the commonality of the members
or elements of a set. It is denoted as { x / P(x)}.

Let say, the roster method notation {a, e, i, o, u}, when written in set builder notation
method is E = { x/ x is the vowel letters of English alphabet}. The set builder notation
method is also known as rule method. 

 Types of Set

1. Finite set

This type of set has limited or countable elements and the last element can be identified
easily. 

 Illustrative Example 6

The following are examples of finite sets.

a.    S = {1, 2, 3}

b.    T = { x / x is the General Education Mathematics Instructors}

c.    A = { x / x is the multiple of 8 between 10 and 40}

2. Infinite set

A set with have infinite number of elements. It is not countable and the last element is
difficult to identify

 Illustrative Example 7
The following are examples of finite sets.

a.  M= {1, 2, 3 …}

b.  I = {x / x is Real Number}

c.  A = {x / x is the multiple of 8 }

3. Unit Set

It is a set with only one element. It is also called the singleton set.

 Illustrative Example 7

The following are examples of finite sets.

a.  G= {1, 2, 3, …}

b.  L= {x / x is the capital city of Philippines}

4. Equivalent sets

Two sets are said to be equivalent sets if they have same number of elements.

Illustrative Example 7

The given sets illustrates an equivalent set

A = {a, b, c, d}

B = {e, f, g, h}

 Here, A and B are equivalent sets because both sets have 4 elements.

5. Equal Sets

Two sets are said to be equal sets if they both have exactly same elements.
Illustrative Example 8

The given sets illustrate equal sets. Although the two sets have the same number of
elements as the equivalent set, the unique characteristics in equal set is that all elements
are the of the same kind. 

A = {1, 2, 3, 4}

B = {2, 4, 3, 1}

 Here, A and B are equal sets because both set have same elements (order of elements
doesn't matter).

 Note that not all equivalent set are also equal set. Always remember that in equals set,
the sets have the same cardinality and the same type of elements regardless of their
sequence.

6. Overlapping Sets

Two sets are said to be overlapping sets if they have at least one element common.

 Illustrative Example 9

A = {1, 2, 3, 4}

B = {3, 4, 5}

 Here A and B are overlapping sets because elements 3 and 4 are common in both sets.

7. Disjoint Sets

Two sets are said to be disjoint sets if they don't have common element/s.

Illustrative Example 9

A = {1, 2, 3, 4}

B = {5, 6}
 Here A and B are disjoint sets because these two sets don't have common element.

8. Empty or Null Set ( )

Any set that has no element is considered as null set. Also, it is always a subset of a
given set.

Subset and Cardinality of a Set

A set P is a subset of set Q if every element of set P is also the member of set Q.  Simply,
if set P is contained in set Q, P is called subset of superset Q. It is denoted by P ⊆ Q.

Illustrative Example 10

P = {1, 2, 3}

Q = {1, 2, 4, 3, 9}

Here, all three elements 1, 2, and 3 of set P is also member of set Q. Hence, P is subset
of Q. Moreover, we can also say ∅ ⊆ Q.  Remember, empty set is always a subset of a
given set.

 Some ideas about Subsets

The symbol ⊂ stands for ‘is a subset of’ or ‘is contained in’

• Every set is a subset of itself, i.e., A ⊂ A, B ⊂ B.

• Empty set is a subset of every set.

• Symbol ‘⊆’ is used to denote ‘is a subset of’ or ‘is contained in’.

• A ⊆ B means A is a subset of B or A is contained in B.

• B ⊆ A means B contains A.

 
 

Super Set

 Whenever a set A is a subset of set B, we say the B is a superset of A and we write, B ⊇

A.

 Symbol ⊇ is used to denote ‘is a super set of’

Illustrative Example 11

 L= {0, 2, 4, 6, 8 }

 A = {0, 1, 3, ............., 9}

 Here L ⊆ A i.e., L is a subset of A but A ⊇ L i.e., A is a super set of L

Proper Subset:

 If L and M are two sets, then L is called the proper subset of M if L ⊆ M but M ⊇ L i.e., L
≠ M. The symbol  ‘⊂’  is used to denote proper subset. Symbolically, we write L ⊂ M.

 Illustrative Example 12 

1. L = {apple, orange, citrus}

 Here n(L) = 3

 M = {apple, orange, citrus, lemon}

 Here n(M) = 4

 We observe that, all the elements of L are present in M but the element ‘lemon’ of M is
not present in L.

 So, we say that L is a proper subset of M.

Symbolically, we write it as L ⊂ M

 Notes:
No set is a proper subset of itself.

Null set or ∅ is a proper subset of every set.

  

2.       G = {2, 3, 4}

 L = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

 Here G is a proper subset of L as all the elements of set G are in set L and also G ≠ L.

 Power Set:

 The collection of all subsets of set A is called the power set of A. It is denoted by P(A).
In P(A), every element is a set.

 Illustrative Example 13

 If A = {p, q} then all the subsets of A will be

 P(A) = {∅, {p}, {q}, {p, q}}

 Number of elements of P(A) = n[P(A)] = 4 = 22

 In general, n[P(A)] = 2m where m is the number of elements in set A.

Universal Set

 A set which contains all the elements of other given sets is called a universal set. The
symbol for denoting a universal set is ∪ or ξ.

 Illustrative Example 14

 1. If L= {a, b, c}      E = {b, c, d}      V = {c, e, g} then U = {a, b, c, d, e, g}

 [Here L ⊆ U, E ⊆ U, V ⊆ U and U ⊇ L, U ⊇ E, U ⊇ V]

 
 2. If W is a set of all whole numbers and T is a set of all negative numbers then the
universal set is a set of all integers.

 3. If P = {a, b, c}      C= {d, e}      A = {f, g, h, i} then U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i} can be

taken as universal set.

The cardinal number of a set refers to the number of elements that contains in a set.  It

is denoted by n(A).

Operations on Set

Set just like in simple arithmetic has its own sets of operations like union, intersection,
complement, symmetric and symmetry differences of sets. One of the best ways to
illustrate the operations of sets is through the use of Venn diagram.

1. Union of Two Sets

Let A and B are two distinct sets. The union of A and B is the smallest set which contains
all the elements of both the sets (A U B). The symbol for denoting union of sets is ‘∪’

To find the union of two given sets A and B is a set which consists of all the elements of
A and all the elements of B such that no element is repeated.

 Illustrative Example 16

 Given sets A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} and B = {2, 3, 4, 6, 8,}, find A U B.

 Solution:

A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}

B = {2, 3, 4, 6, 8,}

A U B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}

Note: Although the element “3” appears in both set, when we write the elements of A U
B, we take it as one element only. Subsequent operation will discuss about the common
elements of two sets.

2. Intersection of Sets

 Let A and B are two distinct sets. The intersection of A and B is the smallest set which
contains all the elements that is common to both the sets (A  B). The symbol for
denoting union of sets is ‘ ’

 To find the intersection of two given sets A and B is a set which consists of all the
elements that is common to both sets A and B respectively.     

3. Complement of a Set
This is also called as the absolute complement. It is denoted as A’  read as the
complement of A. Let A be a set and the complement of set A or A’ is the set of all
elements in the universal discourse that is not in A. In symbol,  A’  = {x   U, x  A}.

 Illustrative Example 17

    Given U  = {a, b, c, d, e, f g, h, i} and K = {a, c, d, e}, find K’?

Solution

Set K = {a, c, d, e} and U = {a, b, c, d, e, f g, h, i}, from the given Set K there are 4
elements. To get the K’  we less the elements in K from the elements in the universal set
and whatever remaining element will comprise the set K’

  Therefore, K’ = {b, f, g, h, i}

4. Difference of a Set

Let A and B are two distinct sets. The difference of A and B is denoted as A~B, is the set
v
of all elements x in U  such that x is in  A  and x  is not in B.    In symbol, A~B = {x/x ⋲ A
x not ⋲ B).   It is also called the relative complement of B with respect to A.   

  Illustrative Example 18

Given sets A = {2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9} and B = {2, 3, 4, 6, 8,}, find A  B.

Solution

From the given situation, we observe that the elements of A which is also in B  are 2, 3,
and 6. So, all other elements of A  will comprise the difference of set A and set B.

  A  B = {5, 7, 9}

5. Symmetric Difference of Sets

Let A and B are two distinct sets. The symmetric difference of set A and B is the set
consisting of all elements that belongs to A or to B, but not both to A and B. It is
denoted as . In symbol, 
 Illustrative Example 18

Given sets A = {2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9} and B = {2, 3, 4, 6, 8,}, find A Ꝋ B.

 Solution

 From the given situation, we observe that the elements of A which is also in B  are 2, 3,
and 6. So, all other elements of A  will comprise the difference of set A and set B.     

 A  B = {4, 5, 7, 8, 9}

         

The Cartesian product  a  sets A and B,  written as A x B, is A x B = {(a, b)/ a ⋲ A and b
⋲ B.

 Illustrative Example 18

Given sets A = {2, 3, 5} and B = {a, b}, find A x B.

 Solution

 In able to get A x B,   we pair all elements of A with the elements of B. So the Cartesian
product of A and B is

  A x B = {(2,a), (3, a), (5, a), (2, b), (3, b), (5, b)}

  The answers in the above example of Cartesian product are set in ordered pairs.
In ordered pairs (a, b),  a is called the first component and b  is called the second
component.  

  4.1. B. The Language of Functions and Relations

Another important concept in mathematical language is the function and relation.
Relation and function are the most important concepts in the study of Algebra. In the
context of Mathematics, a relation is  a set of ordered pairs. It is the set of relationships
between the independent variable, x, and the dependent variable, y.  Elaborately, it is the
correspondence between the elements of the domain of the independent variable and
the element of the range or the dependent variables. In many aspects of our daily
activities, we apply the concept of relations and functions.
Intuitively, the relation is a set of ordered pair defined by the Cartesian product of sets,
A x B, if set R  is an ordered pair. We say that a is related to b and it is denoted a R b.

  For example, let L = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} be the set of architects and A  = {a, b, c, d, e} be the
sets of architectural works.  Then L x A  gives all the possible pairing of all elements
in L  and A,  let the relation from L to A  given the set R = {(1, a), (2, a), (3, a), (4, a), (5, a),
(1, b), (2, b), (3, b), (4, b), (5, b), (1,c), (2, c), (3, c), (4, c), (5, c), (1,d), (2, d), (3, d), (4, d), (5, d),
(1,e), (2, e), (3, e), (4, e), (5, e)}.

The resulting set R  defines the domain of R,  dom of R,   as the set dom R = { a  A|(a,
b)  ∈ R for some b    B}.     The image or range of R, im R or ran R,   is defined by  im R =
{ b  B|(a, b)  ∈ R for some a    A}.

From the given definition of domain and range, a special type of relation is derived
which is described as the correspondence of every element in the domain to a unique
element in the range or image. The special type of relation is called the function. This
concept is one of the most common concepts studied in Mathematics. Its application is
most common in the fields of business and finance, economics, medicine, and even in
our daily ordinary activities.

 Function is a special type of relation characterized by the sets of ordered pairs in which
the first component is paired exactly to one and only one element of the second
component.  A function is more formally defined given a set of inputs x (domain) and a
set of possible outputs y (codomain) as a set of ordered pairs (x, y) where x  ∈  X and y ∈
Y, subject to the restriction that there can be only one ordered pair with the same value
of x. We can write the statement that f is a function from X to Y using the function
notation f: X→Y.

 A function can be expressed as correspondence or mapping from one set to another.

The figure below shows the different mapping of relations and describes the mapping
of a function.
                   Figure 32 Mapping of the Different Types of Relations

From Figure 32, we derive that a function is a relation that is one-to-one and/or onto.
These illustrate the definition that a function is a correspondence between the domain
and its codomain, such that each element of the domain is paired to a unique element
in each codomain. Items (a) to (d) in the figure are the mapping of a function while item
(e) is just a mere relation.

Illustrative Example 19 

Determine which of the following set of ordered pairs a function or not.

 1. A = {(-1, 2) (0, 1), (1, 2), (2, 4)}

2. B = {(3, 0), (3, 1), (2, 3),}

3. C = {a, 4), (b, 5), (c, 6), (d, 7)}

Solutions:

 1. It is a function. Its mapping is neither one-to-one not onto because the codomain 2
has two domains -1 and 1.

2. It is not a function. The domain is not paired with a unique element but rather with
two codomains.

3. It is a function; there is a one-to-one mapping between the domain and codomain.  

4.2. C. The Language of Binary Operations
Illustrative Example 20 

Consider the following statements

1. If is a binary operation such that a  ∗  b = a2+b2 then 3 ∗ 5 is equal to 34.  

2. If a binary operation is defined a  ∗  b = ab then 2 ∗ 2 is 4.

 Solutions:

1. If is a binary operation such that a  ∗  b = a2+b2 then 3 ∗ 5 is equal to 34.

Proof: In the statement a  ∗  b = a2+b2 and 3 ∗ 5. We denote a = 3 and b = 5.

Since: a  ∗  b = a2+b2  we substitute the value of a= 3 and b = 5

  That is 3  ∗  5 = 32+52

Simplifying it 3  ∗  5 = 9 + 25

Finally, 3  ∗  5 = 34          Prove

2. If a binary operation is defined a  ∗  b = ab then 2 ∗ 2 is 4.     

Proof: The binary operation a  ∗  b is defined by ab. From the given 2 ∗ 2, we denote a = 2
and b = 2. Applying the definition a  ∗  b = ab, we have 2  ∗  2 = 22  and finally 2∗  2 = 4.
Prove

The situation presented is an example of binary operations. What are these binary
operations all about? We can say that it is a way of getting a number when two numbers
are either added or subtracted or multiplied or are divided. The binary operations
associate any two elements of a set. The resultant of the two are in the same set. Binary
operations on a set are calculations that combine two elements of the set (called
operands) to produce another element of the same set. Operand includes simple
arithmetic operations, exponentiation, and the likes.

Technically, let G  be a set, a binary operation on G  is a function that assigned each
ordered pair of element of G.  In symbol, a  ∗  b = G, for all a, b, c    G.
  A group is a set of elements, with one the operation, that satisfies the following
conditions:

          i. the set is closed with respect to the operations;

          ii. the operation satisfies the associative property;

          iii. there is an identity; and

          iv. each element has an inverse.

 Meaning that a group is the paring of (G, *),  where G is a set and * is a binary operation
on G satisfying the following properties:

     

1. Closure property

An operation * on a non-empty set A has closure property, if a  ∈  A, b  ∈  A  ⇒  a * b  ∈  A.

 Note: Additions are the binary operations on each of the sets of Natural numbers (N),
Integer (Z), Rational numbers (Q), Real Numbers(R), Complex number(C). The additions
on the set of all irrational numbers are not binary operations.

Multiplication is a binary operation on each of the sets of Natural numbers (N), Integer
(Z), Rational numbers (Q), Real Numbers(R), Complex number(C). Multiplication on the
set of all irrational numbers is not a binary operation.

 Subtraction is a binary operation on each of the sets of Integer (Z), Rational numbers
(Q), Real Numbers(R), Complex number(C). Subtraction is not a binary operation on the
set of Natural numbers (N).

 A division is not a binary operation on the set of Natural numbers (N), integer (Z),
Rational numbers (Q), Real Numbers(R), Complex number(C).

 Exponential operation (x, y) → xy is a binary operation on the set of Natural numbers

(N) and not on the set of Integers (Z).
2. Commutative Property (ADDITION & MULTIPLICATION – SWAP OK)

A binary operation * on a set A is commutative if a * b = b * a, for all (a, b) ∈ A (non-

empty set).

 Let addition be the operating binary operation for a = 8 and b = 9, a + b = 17 = b + a.

3. Associative Property (ADDITION & MULTIPLICATION – ANY ARRANGEMENT)

The associative property of binary operations hold if, for a non-empty set A, we can
write (a * b) *c = a*(b * c).

 Suppose N be the set of natural numbers and multiplication be the binary operation.
Let a = 4, b = 5 c = 6. We can write (a × b) × c = 120 = a × (b × c).

4. Distributive Property

Let * and ◦ be two binary operations defined on a non-empty set A. The binary
operations are distributive if a*(b ◦ c) = (a * b) ◦ (a * c) or (b ◦ c)*a = (b * a) ◦ (c * a).

 Consider * to be multiplication and ◦ be subtraction. And a = 2, b = 5, c = 4. Then, a*(b

o c) = a × (b − c) = 2 × (5 − 4) = 2. And (a * b) o (a * c) =  (a × b) − (a × c) = (2 × 5) − (2
× 4) = 10 − 6 = 2.

5. Identity – additive (0) & multiplicative (1)

If A be the non-empty set and * be the binary operation on A. An element e is the

identity element of a ∈ A, if a * e = a = e * a. If the binary operation is addition (+), e = 0
and for * is multiplication (×), e = 1.

6. Inverse – additive (-a) & mulplicative (1/a)

If a binary operation * on a set A which satisfies a * b = b * a = e, for all a, b ∈ A. a-1 is

invertible if for a * b = b * a= e, a-1 = b. 1 is invertible when * is multiplication.
5. Lesson 5 Elementary Logic

One of the major skills in the study of Mathematics is to have the right knowledge in
reasoning.  The discipline of Logic will guide us through our journey in evaluating our
correct thinking and reasoning. In mathematics, one of the prerequisite skills to have a
better understanding of its concept is to have developed correct appropriate thinking
and reasoning. Logic, therefore, is the “science or study of how to evaluate arguments
and reasoning”. Through logic, we may be able to discern properly good reasoning from
that of poor reasoning. Mathematics allows us to provide correct reasoning all the time.

Logic, as define by other disciplines, deals with the methods of reasoning. In our journey
of perfection in Math, we always apply logical reasoning in proving theorems and/or
conjectures.

In proving theorems, we always provide a propositional statement that would support

our ideas regarding the theorem. Proposition, in logic, is any declarative statement that
can be expired as true or false but not on the same ends. The truth value  of any
proposition is the truth and falsity of the proposition.

When we talked about mathematics logic, we consider it a symbolic logic. Propositions

are expressed in terms of the propositional variables, p, q, r, s, t, and so on.  The variable
used to represent any proposition is written in small letters. Moreover, we can also form
a compound logical statement by combining two or more simple propositions using the
different logical connectives. The compound proposition is composed of two or more
propositions connected using the logical connectives “and”, “or”, “not”,  “if, then”, “if and
only if”, and “exclusive – or”.

 The first three mentioned connections are the main connectives. The disjunction (or),
conjunction (and), and negation (not) refer to the main connectives.

 The conjunction of the propositional statement p and q is the compound

proposition “p and q”.  Symbolically, it is , where ˄represents the word “and”. It is also
referred to as the process of conjoining two or more propositional statements. A
conjunction statement, p ˄ q, is true if and only if propositions p and q,  respectively is
true. Meaning when both propositions are true then the whole conjunction statement is
true.

Another statement is what we called the disjunction of the proposition p, q is the

compound proposition “p or q”.  In symbol, it is p ˅ q,  where ˅ represents the word “or”.
This refers to the process of disjoining two simple propositional statements. It is true if
one of the two-component propositions is true, otherwise, it is false. Generally, it is false
if both propositions p and q are false.

 The negation of proposition p is denoted as not p, in symbol . However, most authors

used the symbol  It is called the process of denying the truthfulness of a given
proposition. That is, when p is true, the negation is false or the other way around, when
p is false its negation is true.

The conditional or implication of the proposition p and q is the logical statement “if p,

then q”. Moreover, it can also be read as p implies q.   In symbol,   p    q, where     is the
symbol for “if, then.” The proposition p is called the explanatory or the hypothesis
statement. It is also called as the antecedent or premise statement. The proposition q is
known as the conclusion or consequent statement.   The compound proposition p    q  is
false when p is true and q is false. Other than this, the logical statement is true.

The bi-implication or bi-condition of proposition p and q is the compound

proposition “ p if and only if q”. Symbolically,  p    q,  where ↔ is the notation for the
phrase “if and only if.” The bi-implication statement is true when p and q are both true
and both false. Meaning, when one of the component propositions is false then bi-
implication is false.  

Lastly, the exclusive – or of the proposition p and q is the logical statement “p exclusive
–or q”. In symbol, it is denoted as p ⊕ q, where ⊕ is the symbol for the word “exclusive-
or”. If p and q are both true and both false then p ⊕ q is false, if p and q have an
opposite truth value, then p ⊕ q is true. From the given conditions, we can denote that
p ⊕ q is the negation of p ↔ q.

For instance, “Laiza will have her snack at Jollibee or she will take it at McDonald”, it can
be noted that we cannot have snacks at the same place at the same time, thus it is
considered false. If Laiza will have her snack at Jollibee or at McDonald meaning, she has
to determine which food company she wishes to have her snack, then the statement is
true.
6. Lesson 6 Formality