Jurnal-SARS-CoV-2 Coronavirus in Water and Wastewater - A Critical Review About Presence and Concern

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Environmental Research 193 (2021) 110265
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Environmental Research
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/envres
SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus in water and wastewater: A critical review about

presence and concern
Hai Nguyen Tran a, b, *, Giang Truong Le c, Dong Thanh Nguyen d, Ruey-Shin Juang e, f,
Jörg Rinklebe g, h, Amit Bhatnagar i, Eder C. Lima j, Hafiz M.N. Iqbal k, Ajit K. Sarmah l,
Huan-Ping Chao m, **
a
Institute of Fundamental and Applied Sciences, Duy Tan University, Ho Chi Minh, 700000, Viet Nam
b
Faculty of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Duy Tan University, Da Nang, 550000, Viet Nam
c
Institute of Chemistry, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, 18 Hoang Quoc Viet, Hanoi, Viet Nam
d
Institute of Environmental Technology, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, Hanoi, Viet Nam
e
Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, Chang Gung University, Guishan, Taoyuan, 33302, Taiwan
f
Division of Nephrology, Department of Internal Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taiwan
g
University of Wuppertal, School of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Institute of Foundation Engineering, Water- and Waste-Management, Laboratory of Soil- and
Groundwater-Management, Pauluskirchstraße 7, 42285, Wuppertal, Germany
h
Department of Environment, Energy, and Geoinformatics, Sejong University, Seoul, 05006, Republic of Korea
i
Department of Separation Science, LUT School of Engineering Science, LUT University, Sammonkatu 12, FI-50130, Mikkeli, Finland
j
Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Rio Grande Do Sul (UFRGS), Av. Bento Gonçalves 9500, P.O. Box 15003, 91501-970, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
k
Tecnologico de Monterrey, School of Engineering and Sciences, Campus Monterrey, Ave. Eugenio Garza Sada 2501, Monterrey, NL, CP 64849, Mexico
l
Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, The Faculty of Engineering, The University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland, 1142, New Zealand
m
Department of Environmental Engineering & Center for Environmental Risk Management, Chung Yuan Christian University, Taoyuan, 32023, Taiwan
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: The presence of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in water and wastewater has
COVID-19 recently been reported. According to the updated literature, the stools and masks of the patients diagnosed with
SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus disease (COVID-19) were considered as the primary route of coronavirus transmission into water and
Coronavirus
wastewater. Most coronavirus types which attack human (possible for SARS-CoV-2) are often inactivated rapidly
Enveloped virus
in water (i.e., the survival of human coronavirus 229E in water being 7 day at 23 ◦ C). However, the survival
Sewage
Wastewater period of coronavirus in water environments strongly depends on temperature, property of water, concentration
of suspended solids and organic matter, solution pH, and dose of disinfectant used. The World Health Organi
zation has stated that the current disinfection process of drinking water could effectively inactivate most of the
bacterial and viral communities present in water, especially SARS-CoV-2 (more sensitive to disinfectant like free
chlorine). A recent study confirmed that SARS-CoV-2 RNA was detected in inflow wastewater (but not detected
in outflow one). Although the existence of SARS-CoV-2 in water influents has been confirmed, an important
question is whether it can survive or infect after the disinfection process of drinking water. To date, only one
study confirmed that the infectivity of SARS-CoV-2 in water for people was null based on the absence of cyto
pathic effect (CPE) in infectivity tests. Therefore, further studies should focus on the survival of SARS-CoV-2 in
water and wastewater under different operational conditions (i.e., temperature and water matrix) and whether
the transmission from COVID-19-contaminated water to human is an emerging concern. Although paper-based
devices have been suggested for detecting the traces of SARS-CoV-2 in water, the protocols and appropriate
devices should be developed soon. Wastewater and sewage workers should follow the procedures for safety
precaution against SARS-CoV-2 exposure.
* Corresponding author. Institute of Fundamental and Applied Sciences, Duy Tan University, Ho Chi Minh city, Viet Nam: Faculty of Environmental and Chemical
Engineering, Duy Tan University, Da Nang city, Viet Nam.
** Corresponding author. Department of Environmental Engineering & Center for Environmental Risk Management, Chung Yuan Christian University, Taiwan.
E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (H.N. Tran), [email protected] (H.-P. Chao).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2020.110265
Received 15 June 2020; Received in revised form 19 August 2020; Accepted 18 September 2020
Available online 1 October 2020
0013-9351/© 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
H.N. Tran et al. Environmental Research 193 (2021) 110265
1. Introduction 2. Transmission route of SARS-CoV-2 into water and wastewater
An abrupt epidemic outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID- For the coronavirus-infected communities living in apartment
19) (WHO, 2019), which was resulted from severe acute respiratory buildings, wastewater plumbing systems have been considered as a
syndrome coronavirus (abbreviated as SARS-CoV), has currently caused potential pathway for transmitting the SARS-CoV-1 coronavirus into the
enormous global concerns within the scientific and healthcare commu sewer system since 2013 (Gormley et al., 2017; McKinney et al., 2006).
nity and general population alike due to the unavailability of human Similar to SARS-CoV-1, the SARS-CoV-2 virus can be spread via aerosols
coronavirus vaccines. The causative agent of this pandemic was or microscopic water droplets (Leung et al., 2020; WHO, 2020c). In fact,
permanently named as SARS-CoV-2 (tentatively named as 2019-nCOV) van Doremalen et al. (2020) reported that the SARS-CoV-2 and
to distinguish it from the SARS-CoV-1 virus that was first recognized in SARS-CoV-1 viruses share a similarity in their stability in aerosols and
2002 (Chaudhry and Sachdeva, 2020; WHO, 2019; Zhu et al., 2020). The on surfaces. Depending on the inoculum shed, the viruses can remain
first case of infection from SARS-CoV-2 was initially identified in Wuhan viable and infectious on surfaces (up to a few days) and in aerosols (for
city, Hubei Province, China, in December 2019 (Zhu et al., 2020). hours). Similarly, Ong et al. (2020) investigated the survival of
Recently, Lam et al. (2020) identified that the SARS-CoV-2-related SARS-CoV-2 in air, surface, and personal protective equipment of dis
coronaviruses in Malayan pangolins (Manis javanica) in China. As a ease carriers and healthcare workers. They found that the samples
result, the pangolins were blamed as a possible intermediate host in the collected from air outlet fans, door handles, sinks, and toilet bowls were
emergence of COVID-19 outbreak in human population. A similar positive, which confirms that SARS-CoV-2 can be transmitted through
conclusion was also drawn by Zhang et al. (2020b) who reported that the stools of infected people. Furthermore, Hu et al. (2020) collected the
the pangolin species is a natural reservoir of SARS-CoV-2-like corona high-touch surface samples of a quarantine room (23 sites) and found
virus. The infection of COVID-19 strain has since spread from China to that the percentage of collected samples was positive for SARS-CoV-2 as
approximately 216 countries and territories around the world. This follows: 70% (in the bedroom) > 50% (bathroom) > 33% (corridor).
outbreak is estimated to cause more than 1,115,000 deaths and 40,000, They also concluded that the most contaminated sites with the highest
000 coronavirus-infected cases (data were updated until October 19th, viral loads were identified at the inner walls of the toilet bowl and the
2020) (WHO, 2020a; Worldometer, 2020). sewer inlet of the room (Hu et al., 2020). Such a transmission pathway,
Similar to the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS- through the sanitary (or wastewater) plumbing system, might be likely
CoV; identified in 2012), the SARS-CoV-1 and SARS-CoV-2 viruses responsible for environmental contamination and spread of COVID-19 in
mainly transmit through the small respiratory droplets of disease car the communities (Fig. 1). Therefore, Gormley et al. (2020) recently
riers generated from sneezing and coughing by humans. Such a route is provided several recommendations to ensure that transmission through
recognized as human-to-human transmission (Chan et al., 2020) or the wastewater plumbing system is minimized. Fig. 2 summarizes some
respiratory transmission (Wu et al., 2020b). This means that super valuable suggestions to avoid the risk of spreading the pathogen through
spreaders (SARS-CoV-2) can rapidly transmit the infection to many wastewater plumbing system in the buildings.
others, especially through routine international travel or mass gather
ings in public places. Although the faecal-oral transmission of
SARS-CoV-2 is possible (Arslan et al., 2020; Heller et al., 2020; Wu et al.,
2020b), there are not any experimental data or robust evidences to
confirm the faecal-oral hypothesis. In essence, three kinds of coronavi
rus (i.e., MERS-CoV, SARS-CoV-1, and SARS-CoV-2) share a similarity in
their biochemical and physical properties (Chaudhry and Sachdeva,
2020; Race et al., 2020; Zhu et al., 2020). In addition, they are classified
as an enveloped virus that contains the bits of protein and genetic
material enclosed by a lipid host cell membrane (Chan et al., 2020;
WHO, 2020c). Therefore, to some extent, previous studies on
SARS-CoV-1 and MERS-CoV coronavirus and other enveloped viruses
can give a close reference for SARS-CoV-2 (van Doremalen et al., 2020).
Traces of SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus (its nucleic acid fragments) have
been recently detected in wastewater treatment plant-derived sludges
(Alpaslan Kocamemi et al., 2020), municipal sewage (Ahmed et al.,
2020a; Medema et al., 2020) or wastewater (Haramoto et al., 2020;
Pineda, 2020), medical wastewater (Zhang et al., 2020), wastewater
from commercial cruise ship and commercial passenger aircraft (Ahmed
et al., 2020b), non-potable water (Monde, 2020), secondary-treated
wastewater (Haramoto et al., 2020), and river water (Guerrero-Latorre
et al., 2020; Haramoto et al., 2020; Rimoldi et al., 2020); thus, further
investigations are necessary and must be given more priority (Chaudhry
and Sachdeva, 2020; WHO, 2020b). In order to assess the effectiveness
of wastewater treatment technological solutions for the current
pandemic scenario, this review focused on the following key questions:
(1) what the transmission routes of the SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus into
sewage or wastewater are, (2) what methods are suggested for the
detection of SARS-CoV-2 in sewage or wastewater, (3) where
SARS-CoV-2 in raw sewage or wastewater is found (case report) in
sewage or wastewater, (4) how long it can survive in sewage or waste
water, (5) what the main factors affecting the survival of SARS-CoV-2 in
water are, (6) whether coronavirus can survive after drinking water Fig. 1. A transmission route of SARS-CoV-1 virus (possible for SARS-CoV-2
disinfection process, and (7) how to protect people working around virus) at the buildings through the sanitary (or wastewater) plumbing system.
wastewater from COVID-19 infection. Figure was adapted from Gormley et al. (2017) with some modifications.
2
treatment systems/plants (Ahmed et al., 2020a; Collivignarelli et al.,

2020; Qu et al., 2020). This can be considered as the primary route of
SARS-CoV-2 transmission to water and wastewater (Barcelo, 2020;
Collivignarelli et al., 2020; Chaudhry and Sachdeva, 2020) because
SARS-CoV can remain its infectious in the tool specimens for >7 days at
20 ◦ C (Lai et al., 2005). Schematic route of transmission for the
SARS-CoV-2 virus is presented in Fig. 3 (Wigginton et al., 2015).
Because the novel COVID-19 pandemic causes severe respiratory
illness and related causalities, people are always encouraged or enforced
to follow a compulsory policy to wear face masks (i.e., cloth, surgical, or
even self-made masks) in public places as a precaution against the
spread and infection of SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus (Alizargar, 2020;
Chaib, 2020; Feng et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2020). Interestingly, Ho et al.
(2020) reported that there was not significant difference between the
commercial surgical mask and self-designed triple-layer cotton mask for
preventing droplets during coughing. Therefore, cotton masks can serve
as a promising substitute for medical surgical in inhibiting the trans
mission of respiratory droplets in micro-environments (Ho et al., 2020).
A recent study demonstrated that surgical face masks can inhibit the
direct transmission of influenza viruses and human coronaviruses from
Fig. 2. Suggestions to mitigate the pathogen spread through the wastewater the virus-borne airborne particles, droplets, and body fluids of infected
plumbing system in the building proposed by Gormley et al. (2020). people (Leung et al., 2020). In contrast, Bae et al. (2020a) concluded
that “surgical and cotton masks seem to be ineffective in preventing the
Some recent studies have showed that the stool specimens collected dissemination of SARS–CoV-2 from the coughs of patients with COVID-19 to
from infected patients (including asymptomatic children) had the SARS- the environment and external mask surface”. However, this study has been
CoV-2 virus (Holshue et al., 2020; Tang et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020; retracted as requested by the editor (Bae et al., 2020b) because their
Wu et al., 2020b; Xiao et al., 2020; Yeo et al., 2020). This is attributed to interpretation of experimental results was misleading. Notably, Chin
the existence of COVID-19 infection in the gastrointestinal tract of pa et al. (2020) reported that the SARS-CoV-2 virus can still exist at a
tients and can be excreted from the gastrointestinal tract via their faeces detectable level of infection on the outer layer of a surgical face mask for
(Xiao et al., 2020). This suggested that the SARS-CoV-2 virus is usually up to a week. If approximately 20% of the total world population wears
excreted in the stools of an infected person. A recent investigation face (cloth or surgical) masks daily, it can be estimated that approxi
demonstrated that the median lifespan of SARS-CoV-2 in the stool the mately 1.6 billion of masks (especially surgical masks) are used per day
specimens of the patients was up to 22 days (interquartile range of 17 (Ho et al., 2020). In the United States, if each person wears one surgical
and 31 days) (Zheng et al., 2020), which was remarkable longer than mask per day, it will be necessary to supply more than 100 billion of
that of SARS-CoV-1 (only 4 days) (Lai et al., 2005). The study also masks (Liu et al., 2020). A similar estimation that reported the urgent
indicated that SARS-CoV-2 can survive longer in the stool specimens (22 global shortage of face mask during the coronavirus pandemic outbreak
days, 17–31 days) than that in respiratory (18 days, 13–29 days) and was published by other scholars (Wu et al., 2020a). To meet the global
serum (16 days, 11–21 days) ones (Zheng et al., 2020). In general, the rising demand of using surgical masks during the COVID-19 outbreak,
faeces and urine from some COVID-19-infected patients are discharged the World Health Organization (WHO) has encouraged the relevant in
into sewer systems and subsequently enter wastewater and sewage dustries to increase manufacturing by approximately 40% (Chaib,
Fig. 3. A route of transmission for coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2). Figure was adapted from Wigginton et al. (2015) with some modifications.
3
2020), especially in China, in which accounts for approximately 50% of COVID-19. Similarly, viral nucleic acid detection using RT-PCR has been
the global production of face masks (Wu et al., 2020a). Therefore, the widely used as the standard for detecting genetic traces of SARS-CoV-2
management of discarded face masks that might offer a highly potential virus from patient specimens (Fang et al., 2020). A similar finding was
transmission route of SARS-CoV-2 into water must be given priority for reported by other scholars for the detection of coronavir
investigation. This is especially important because none of the masks us—SARS-CoV-1 (Wang et al., 2005a; Wang et al., 2005b) and
used are collected and treated as hazardous wastes, especially in SARS-CoV-2 (Young et al., 2020)—in water and wastewater samples. In
developing countries or countries overloaded with infected patients. It addition, those methods have been successfully applied for detecting
has been reported that some of them might have been thrown away or adenovirus and enterovirus in river water and sewage (Girones et al.,
disposed carelessly into the surface water (Kalina and Tilley, 2020). The 1995). Although the RT-PCR and RT-qPCR techniques have been applied
presence of coronavirus-carrying masks discarded into water can create as gold standard for the detection of pathogens including SARS-CoV-2,
a new transmission pathway (Fig. 3). However, the further studies they are not able to distinguish between infectious and inactive frac
should recheck such high assumption. tions (WEF, 2020a). This is also a current challenge that needs to be
As aforementioned, one of the transmission routes of COVID-19 into addressed in further studies.
water and wastewater is through the large amount of face masks used Recently, an overview of the approach utilizing paper-based devices
worldwide by general public, patients and health workers. Following (PADs) for the detection of infectious diseases and pathogens in water
their use, those face masks have been disposed without treatment or and wastewater was suggested by Mao et al. (2020). According to the
disinfection, thus raising concerns about the potential health risks and authors, such devices can quickly and accurately detect various patho
threatening to the environment. Some methods have been recom gens and infectious diseases such as malaria, Escherichia coli, HIV, Zika
mended to disinfect the used masks for reusing or before disposing to virus, and bovine infectious reproductive diseases at each point of the
minimise the hazardous wastes (Doan, 2020; Li et al., 2020a; Liu et al., collected wastewater. Therefore, the authors assumed that PADs can be
2020; Mechler, 2020; Xiang et al., 2020). For example, Doan (Doan, also applied to accurately detect the presence of SARS-CoV-2 in water
2020) suggested to use the microwave technique for sanitising the environments. Similarly, Yang et al. (2020) recommended to use the
disposable medical and used cloth masks. The method involves an paper-based diagnostic device for detecting the presence of SARS-CoV-2.
antiseptic solution (i.e., 0.9% physiological saline) being sprayed on the However, the sensitivity and selectivity of PADs for various sensing
mask to maintain the moisture. The moist masks were then transferred applications are a big challenge that should be continuously improved in
into a microwave oven with a default capacity of 800 W and subse the future (Liu et al., 2019).
quently heated for around 1 min. This disinfection protocol has been Currently, researchers at Cranfield University are developing an
found to effectively kill 99.9% of viruses (Doan, 2020). innovative PADs for detecting SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater from com
Another physical method (dry heat pasteurization) for disinfecting munities infected with the virus (Yang, 2020). Such a device should be
the surgical face masks and N95 respirators used has been recently re inexpensive (less than US$1.3), portable, disposable, and easily oper
ported by Xiang et al. (2020). Six species of respiratory bacteria ated even by non-expert or laymen. In essence, the method involves
(Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsi filtration of the nucleic acids of pathogens from the samples collected
ella pneumonia, Acinetobacter baumannii, and Corynebacterium pseudo from wastewater/water by such a paper-based device. After that, a
diphtheria), one fungi species (Candida albicans), and one H1N1 indicator common biochemical reaction can be carried out with certain reagents
virus (an RNA-enveloped virus similar to SARS-CoV-2) were selected as to detect the presence of SARS-CoV-2 viral nucleic acid. A result of such
target pathogens. The authors concluded that the dry heat of used sur a method can be observed macroscopically, for example, as a green
gical face masks and N95 respirators at 70 ◦ C for 1 h in an electric oven circle (confirming positive) and a blue circle (demonstrating negative)
can warrant the effective disinfection of them. The sterile masks and (Yang, 2020). Furthermore, a recent review on nanoscale analytical
respirators can be consecutively used at least three rounds of the heating tools and biosensors for identifying some important prognostic features
without significantly changing their filtering efficiencies and physical of pathogens (i.e., SARS-CoV-2) was published by Bhalla et al. (2020).
features (i.e., shape) (Xiang et al., 2020). Although the existing tools (i.e., biosensors) have been widely used for
A shorter steam treatment has been also reported as effective method characterizing and detecting SARS-CoV-2 virus in different environ
for the rapid decontamination of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus mental samples (i.e., blood, water, food, etc.), PADs has strongly rec
aureus and bacteriophage MS2 on the surface of the N95 respirators and ommended for in-situ quantitatively analysing SARS-CoV2 in water
medical face masks (Li et al., 2020a). Briefly, the inoculated N95 res environments because of its quickness, low cost, accuracy, simplicity,
pirators and medical masks were placed into a steamer (100 ◦ C) for and sensitivity.
different steam times of 2, 10, or 30 s. The results indicated that the Earlier, Teengam et al. (2017) demonstrated that a PADs (Fig. 4a)
steam times of 10 and 30 s were sufficient for decontaminating Staph can serve as a simple, fast, sensitive, and selective method for detecting
ylococcus aureus and bacteriophage MS2 on both respirators and medical the DNA of MERS-CoV, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and human papillo
masks, whereas the opposite was true for the 2-s steam treatment. mavirus. The authors developed a multiplex colorimetric PADs using
However, the method of steam treatment did not effectively decon silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) as a target colorimetric reagent for
taminate to Geobacillu stearothermophilus spores in the surface of respi detecting DNA based on the pyrrolidinyl peptide nucleic acid (acpcP
rators and medical face masks. NA)-induced nanoparticle aggregation. The process of acpcPNA-induced
AgNP aggregation in the presence of complementary and
3. Suggested methods/devices for detecting SARS-CoV-2 in non-complementary DNA is briefly summarised in Fig. 4b. Such a
water and wastewater multiplex paper-based colorimetric DNA sensor was successfully applied
for screening and simultaneous detection of the oligonucleotides of
The most common methods for the detection of SARS-CoV-2 in MERS-CoV virus, human papillomavirus, and Mycobacterium tuberculosis
different kinds of samples (including river water, sewage, and waste (Fig. 4c). However, whether PADs accurately detects the SARS-CoV-2
water) are the reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT- virus in water and wastewater (concentrated and trace sources) is
PCR) and the reverse transcriptase quantitative polymerase chain re challenge and should be confirmed by continuous experiments.
action (RT-qPCR) (Ahmed et al., 2020a; Guerrero-Latorre et al., 2020; To summarize, some methods/devices have been applied for
Haramoto et al., 2020; Medema et al., 2020; Sherchan et al., 2020). For detecting the presence of SARS-CoV-2 in different water environments
example, Wang et al. (2020) applied RT-PCR to detect SARS-CoV-2 in a (i.e., river and wastewater), but the detailed and standardized protocols
variety of specimens from multiple sites (i.e., faeces, urine, sputum, and validations for such methods/devices are not yet available in the
blood, and nasal discharge) of 205 hospitalized patients diagnosed with public domain.
4
Fig. 4. (a) Design of a typical paper-based analytical device; (b) the process of pyrrolidinyl peptide nucleic acid (acpcPNA)-induced AgNP aggregation in the
presence of complementary DNA and non-complementary DNA; and (c) brief operation of such device. Figure was adapted from Teengam et al. (2017) with some
modifications.
4. Case report for detecting SARS-CoV-2 in raw sewage, river positively for SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus. This was an important and
water, and wastewater interesting finding in the context of the whole pandemic that is
spreading across the globe (Medema et al., 2020). An analogous obser
The most popular route of COVID-19 transmission into sewage and vation was reported by other researchers (Xiao et al., 2020). Those au
wastewater is through the excreta from disease carriers as discussed thors collected stool specimens from 73 SARS-CoV-2-infected
earlier (Section 2). In the past, Wang et al. (2005b) concentrated and hospitalized patients (aged between 10 months and 78 years). Their
detected the SARS-CoV-1 coronavirus in sewage samples collected from result showed that the stool sample tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 were
two hospitals (the 309th Hospital of the Chinese People’s Liberation detected during the initial 12 days. Importantly, approximately 23.3%
Army and Xiao Tang Shan Hospital) in China, where the patients with of stool specimens remained COVID-19 positive although their respira
SARS were identified. They found that the SARS-CoV-1 coronavirus was tory samples were found to be negative (Xiao et al., 2020).
detected in the raw sewage (before disinfection) of the two hospitals. Similarly, Sherchan et al. (2020) collected six grab and nine com
However, the low concentration of disinfectants used might not be posite samples from two WWTPs at a four-month period (from January
enough to completely destroy the coronavirus; therefore, the presence of to April 2020). Those collected samples included the untreated waste
SARS-CoV-1 was still detected in some samples from the 309th hospital water (influent), secondary-treated effluent wastewater (before chlori
after the disinfection process. They concluded that the virus could sur nation), and final effluent (after chlorine disinfection). The results
vive for 2 days in sewage at 20 ◦ C and for 14 days at 4 ◦ C. In particular, demonstrated that the SARS-CoV-2 RNA was detected in approximately
although the virus was inactivated, RNA could still be detected in the 13% (2/15) of the untreated wastewater samples (positive) using with
sewage after 8 days (Wang et al., 2005b). two reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction
The first study on the presence of SARS-CoV-2 in sewage in the (RT-qPCR) assays. However, the secondary-treated effluent wastewater
Netherlands was conducted by Medema et al. (2020). Sewage water and final effluent samples were negatively detected for SARS-CoV-2
samples were collected from the wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) RNA. The results suggested that the SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus was
(i.e., Amsterdam, Den Haag, Utrecht, Apeldoorn, Amersfoort, Schiphol, removed through the wastewater treatment processes to undetectable
and Tilburg) of six cities and Schiphol airport within the Netherlands. levels.
The results indicated that the SARS-CoV-2 virus was detected in un In addition, Haramoto et al. (2020) investigated the existence of
treated wastewater in the Amsterdam Schiphol Airport in Tilburg WWTP SARS-CoV-2 virus in different water matrixes from March 17th to May
and the wastewater treatment plant in Kaatsheuvel. The wastewater 7th, 2020. The water samples were collected from WWTP (influent and
samples from the municipal wastewater treatment plants were collected secondary-treated wastewater) and a local river (surface water) in
and monitored because the wastewater was treated in the town where Yamanashi Prefecture, Japan. The result of RT-qPCR analysis demon
first case (person with COVID-19) in the Netherlands lived. The results strated that the concentration of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in five
indicated that the SARS-CoV-2 virus was detected in the water samples secondary-treated wastewater samples (before chlorination) was 2.4 ×
collected from two places. Notably, the authors also reported that the 103 copies/L. In contrast, the fragments of SARS-CoV-2 RNA was not
first water sample containing the virus was monitored for four days after detected in the influent wastewater (n = 5) and reviewer (n = 3) sam
the first person in Amsterdam Schiphol Airport had been tested ples. On the basis of the limit of detection (LOD), the authors explained
5
reasons why SARS-CoV-2 was quantitatively detected in the SARS-CoV-2 titers from the RT-qPCR) indicated the presence of the
secondary-treated wastewater samples but not in the influent ones fragments of SARS-CoV-2 (positively-tested results) in the influent water
(Haramoto et al., 2020). The LOD value for the influent (4.0 × 103–8.2 samples (83%) and the secondary-treated water samples (11%), whereas
× 104 copies/L) was remarkably higher than that for the the opposite was true for the tertiary effluent water samples (0%). They
secondary-treated wastewater (1.4 × 102–2.5 × 103 copies/L). This is also found that the water samples had been detected positively 12–16
because the former (200 mL) had a lower filtration volume than the days before the COVID-19 infectious cases were announced in the Cieza,
latter (5000 mL). Totana, and Lorca municipalities (Randazzo et al., 2020).
A recently daily news/sources in France informed that minuscule Finally, the first occurrence of SARS-CoV-2 in river water from the
traces of virus was found in the Paris’ non-potable water supply Quito city in Ecuador (a low-sanitation country) was confirmed by
(Lesté-Lasserre, 2020; Monde, 2020). The non-potable water network Guerrero-Latorre et al. (2020). The authors explained the existence of
that was drawn from the Ourcq canal and Seine river without intensive SARS-CoV-2 in the urban river derived from directly discharging
treatments was only used for a myriad of other activities, such as wastewaters of the city into the natural streams. A similar result was
cleaning streets, watering the city’s parks, gardens, and wood, and reported by Rimoldi et al. (2020) for detecting the SARS-CoV-2 virus in
supplying to ornamental public fountains. The staffs from the Paris water samples in the Lambro River, Italy. In contrast, the SARS-CoV-2
water authority’s laboratory collected the 27 multiple water samples RNA was not detected in the water samples of one river (Yamanashi
around the Paris’ capital. The result demonstrated that the small Prefecture, Japan) (Haramoto et al., 2020) and two rivers (Vettabbia
amounts of SARS-CoV-2 virus (infinitesimal traces) were detected in the and Lambro Meridionale, Italy) (Rimoldi et al., 2020). The findings
four samples (~15%). The authors, however, also noted that the trans suggested the important role of sanitation in preventing the pandemic
mission route of SARS-CoV-2 into non-potable water was unclear. dissemination of COVID-19. Notably, although the viral RNA of
However, they assured that drinking water is currently consumed SARS-CoV-2 was found in rivers, the infectivity experiment on culture
without any potential health risk because the supply source of cells demonstrated that the infectivity of the coronavirus was null
non-potable and potable waters to the city was from a completely (Rimoldi et al., 2020). This confirmed a low potential health risk from
different source (Monde, 2020). Two independent water networks the infection of SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus in river waters.
which supply for drinking water (2000 km from Paris) and non-drinking In general, several case studies (Ahmed et al., 2020a; Medema et al.,
water (1800 km) in Paris were a unique legacy inherited from Baron 2020; Xiao et al., 2020) did not confirm that the SARS-CoV-2 virus could
Haussmann in the 19th century. survive after water and wastewater disinfection using common disin
Similarly, the fragments of viral RNA from SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus fectants. However, to some extent, the surveillance of SARS-CoV-2 RNA
have been detected in untreated wastewaters (sewage) from WWTPs at in sewage and wastewater (before disinfection), which is also known as
two cities (Milan and Rome), Italy (La Rosa et al., 2020). The authors wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE), may be an early important in
reported that the six per twelve samples collected from the influent dicator of the appearance of SARS-CoV-2 virus and its spreading in the
sewage had a positive result with SARS-CoV-2 (its genetic material being population (Ahmed et al., 2020a; Ahmed et al., 2020b; Barcelo, 2020;
detected). Although the viral RNA in wastewater was detected in Chaudhry and Sachdeva, 2020; Medema et al., 2020; Orive et al., 2020;
wastewater, it did not imply that SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus was current Randazzo et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2005b). In other words, routine
active and caused an infection transmission. Notably, the SARS-CoV-2 wastewater monitoring can help identify a non-invasive early warning
fragments in one sewage sample (the Milan city) were detected a few sign to alert communities to new SARS-CoV-2 infections (Ahmed et al.,
days after Higher Institute of Health had affirmed the first case of 2020a; Collivignarelli et al., 2020; Mallapaty, 2020; Orive et al., 2020;
SARS-CoV-2 infection. This also suggested that the daily epidemiolog WHO, 2020b). This is because of a large number of SARS-CoV-2 carriers
ical monitoring of wastewater can become an indicator of the circulation without specific symptomatic symptoms (i.e., fever, cough, dyspnoea,
the virus (i.e., SARS-CoV-2), its recurrence, and its epidemic outbreaks fatigue, sore throat, and myalgias) (Al-Tawfiq, 2020) or undocumented
to communities (La Rosa et al., 2020). Another confirmation of the infection (Li et al., 2020b).
SARS-CoV-2 genome detected in the raw wastewater samples from three
WWTPs in Italy was investigated by Rimoldi et al. (2020). However, 4.1. Survival period of coronaviruses in water and wastewater
according to the infectivity test, the authors confirmed that the patho
genicity of SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus in wastewater was worthless due to To date, no study on the persistence and survivability of SARS-CoV-2
the absence of cytopathic effect (CPE). In fact, viruses are often killed or in water or wastewater is available in the public domain (Race et al.,
inactivated during water treatment or purification processes. 2020; WHO, 2020b). However, the survival period of the SARS-CoV-1
Furthermore, Ahmed et al. (2020a) initially reported the detection of and MERS-CoV coronaviruses previously investigated in the literature
SARS-CoV-2 in untreated wastewater (sewage) samples (accounting for can be considered for reference and comparison purpose.
22.2% of the total investigated samples). The samples were collected at For example, Wang et al. (2005a) investigated the resistance of
one suburban pumping station and two wastewater treatment plants SARS-CoV-1 in different water matrices at 4 ◦ C and 20 ◦ C. The results
(representing urban catchments) in South east Queensland, Australia. In demonstrated that SARS-CoV-1 only survived for two days in dechlori
addition, the authors applied the Monte Carlo simulation to estimate the nated tap water, hospital wastewater, and domestic sewage at 20 ◦ C
number of infections. The simulation will be conducted if the water (Table 1). This clearly highlights the fact that SARS-CoV-1 was rapidly
samples are scored to be a positive result with SARS-CoV-2. The result of inactivated in water at ambient temperatures. A similar conclusion was
simulation indicated that the number of SARS-CoV-2-infected in made by other scholars (Gundy et al., 2008). The authors (Gundy et al.,
dividuals in the catchment basin with the population of 600,000 ranged 2008) reported that coronaviruses (human coronavirus 229E and animal
from 171 to 1090 infected persons. Therefore, the existence of feline infectious peritonitis coronavirus) died off very rapidly in
SARS-CoV-2 in untreated wastewater can serve as an early warning wastewater samples (primary effluent filtered, primary effluent unfil
signal for COVID-19 infections in communities (Ahmed et al., 2020a). tered, and secondary effluent), with a 99% reduction in approximately
A first detection of SARS-CoV-2 RNA virus in untreated wastewater two days and 99.9% reduction in two to 4 day at 23 ◦ C (Table 2). In
from six WWTPs (located in Murcia, Cartagena, Molina de Segura, addition, Ye et al. (2016) estimated the survivability of the two human
Lorca, Cieza, and Totana) in Spain has recently reported by Randazzo enveloped viruses (murine hepatitis coronavirus and Pseudomonas phage
et al. (2020). The water samples, which included 42 influents, 18 cystovirus) in untreated municipal wastewater. They also found that the
secondary-treated effluents, and 12 tertiary-treated effluents), were estimated time for reaching 90% inactivation of two model enveloped
collected early in the morning from March 12th to April 14th, 2020 for occurred very rapidly at 25 ◦ C, with more than 0.5 days for murine
monitoring the existence of this coronavirus. The results (detected hepatitis coronavirus and two days for Pseudomonas phage cystovirus
6
Table 1
Persistence of the SARS-CoV-1 virus in different water matrixes at 4 ◦ C and 20 ◦ C (data were adapted from Wang et al., 2005a,b).
Water samples Detection time (day)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 14
1. Water temperature at 4 ◦ C
309th hospital wastewater Post. Post. Post. Post. Post. Post. Post. Post. Post.
Domestic sewage Post. Post. Post. Post. Post. Post. Post. Post. Post.
Dechlorinated tap water Post. Post. Post. Post. Post. Post. Post. Post. Post.
PBS Post. Post. Post. Post. Post. Post. Post. Post. Post.
2. Water temperature at 20 ◦ C
309th hospital wastewater Post. Post. Post. Neg. Neg. Neg. Neg. Neg. Neg.
Domestic sewage Post. Post. Post. Neg. Neg. Neg. Neg. Neg. Neg.
Dechlorinated tap water Post. Post. Post. Neg. Neg. Neg. Neg. Neg. Neg.
PBS Post. Post. Post. Post. Post. Post. Post. Post. Post.
Note: Post. (positive for SARS-CoV) and Neg. (negative for SARS-CoV); phosphate-buffered saline (abbreviated as PBS).
Table 2 Table 4
The time (day) required for infectivity reduction of viruses in different water The time (day) required for infectivity reduction of viruses in reagent-grade
samples at 23 ◦ C and 4 ◦ C (data were adapted from Gundy et al., 2008). water (pH 6.0, turbidity 0.1 NTU), pasteurized settled sewage (obtained from
Reduction (99%)
drinking water treatment plant), and lake water (pH 7.5, turbidity 1.73 NTU) at
25 ◦ C and 4 ◦ C (data were adapted from Casanova et al., 2009).
HCoV FIPV PV-1
Experimental Estimated result
1. Temperature (23 C)◦
result
Tap water (filtered) 6.76 (10.1) 6.76 (10.1) 43.3 (64.9)
Tap water (unfiltered) 8.09 (12.1) 8.32 (12.5) 47.5 (71.3) Reduction Reduction Reduction
Primary effluent (filtered) 1.57 (2.35) 1.60 (2.40) 23.6 (35.5) (99%) (99.9%) (99.99%)
Primary effluent (unfiltered) 2.36 (3.54) 1.71 (2.56) 7.27 (10.9) TGEV MHV TGEV MHV TGEV MHV
Secondary effluent (unfiltered) 1.85 (2.77) 1.62 (2.42) 3.83 (5.74)
2. Temperature (4 ◦ C) 1. Temperature (25 ◦ C)
Tap water (filtered) 392 (588) 87.0 (130) 135 (203) Reagent-grade water 22 17 33 26 44 35
Pasteurized settled 9 7 14 10 19 14
Note: Human coronavirus 229E (HCoV), (animal) feline infectious peritonitis sewage
virus (FIPV), and poliovirus 1 (PV-1); Data in parenthesis (day) represents the Lake water 13 10 – – – –
reduction rate of 99.9%. The Primary effluent was collected after settling; 2. Temperature (4 ◦ C)
meanwhile the secondary effluent was collected before chlorination. Reagent-grade water 220 >365 330 >365 330 >365
Pasteurized settled 79 70 73 105 98 139
sewage
Table 3 Note: transmissible gastroenteritis (TGEV) and mouse hepatitis (MHV) coro
The estimated time (hour) for reaching 90% inactivation of two model envel naviruses settled human sewage.
oped viruses (MHV and φ6) in unpasteurized and pasteurized wastewater at
25 ◦ C and 10 ◦ C (data were adapted from Ye et al., 2016).
considered. Those include aqueous temperature, the concentration of
Estimated inactivation (90%) suspended solid and organic matter, solution pH, and the dose of
MHV φ6 disinfectant used.
The details of effect of water temperature on the survival of coro
1. Temperature (25 C)◦
Untreated wastewater 13 7 navirus in water are provided in Tables 1–4. Clearly, temperature is an
Pasteurized wastewater 19 53 extremely important factor influencing the survival of coronaviruses.
2. Temperature (10 ◦ C) The coronavirus often tends to be rapidly inactivated at high tempera
Untreated wastewater 36 28 tures (i.e., 20 ◦ C) rather than at low temperatures (i.e., 4 ◦ C). For
Pasteurized wastewater 149 146
example, Table 1 shows that in the same experiment, SARS-CoV-1 can
Note: Two human enveloped virus: murine hepatitis coronavirus (MHV) and survive in different types of water samples (hospital wastewater, do
Pseudomonas phage (φ6) cystovirus. mestic sewage, and dechlorinated tap water) at 4 ◦ C for 14 days, while it
only persists in water samples for 2 days at 20 ◦ C (Wang et al., 2005a).
(Table 3). Furthermore, Gundy et al. (2008) investigated the survival of three types
Furthermore, a previous study on the survival and persistence of two of coronaviruses (HCoV, FIPV, and PV-1) in filtered tap water at 4 ◦ C and
surrogate human coronaviruses—transmissible gastroenteritis (TGEV) 23 ◦ C. The authors proposed that human 229E coronavirus can survive
and mouse hepatitis (MHV)—in reagent-grade water, lack water, and for approximately 7 day at 23 ◦ C, but up to more than 1 year at 4 ◦ C
pasteurized settled sewage (or settled human sewage) at 25 ◦ C and 4 ◦ C (Table 2). A similar observation was reported by other investigators
has been conducted by Casanova et al. (2009). They concluded that (Casanova et al., 2009), although the TGEV and MHV coronaviruses
approximately 99% of the two kinds of coronaviruses from the water survived and remained infectious at 4 ◦ C and 25 ◦ C. The titer of the
died at 25 ◦ C after 22 days for TGEV and 17 days for MHV; meanwhile, infectious coronaviruses decreased more rapidly at 25 ◦ C than at 4 ◦ C
their die-off percentage in the sewage was approximately 99% after 9 (Table 4). Therefore, it can be concluded that the coronaviruses
days of TGEV and 7 days of MHV (Table 4). (possibly including SARS-CoV-2) in water are more sensitive to
temperature.
The effect of suspended solids and organic matters on the survival of
4.2. Main factors affecting the survival of coronavirus in water and
coronaviruses has also been studied (Gundy et al., 2008). The authors
wastewater
reported that coronaviruses can survive longer in primary wastewater (i.
e., ~11 days for PV-1) than in secondary (activated sludge) wastewater
The existence of coronavirus in water is possible. Thus, several fac
(~six days for PV-1). This is because the latter contained a higher level
tors affecting its survival in the aqueous environment should be
7
of suspended solids (110–220 mg/L) in water than did the former disinfectants (10 mg/L), the rates of SARS-CoV-1 inactivation using
(5.5–22 mg/L). This suggested that the suspended solids can protect ClO2 and NaClO were found to be 99.999% and 68.38%, respectively
coronaviruses (also known as solids-associated coronaviruses) from after 10 min of contact time. However, under the same experimental
inactivation (Table 2). This finding is consistent with the literature data conditions, both disinfectants were less effective in killing bacteria (i.e.,
(Tables 3 and 4). Similarly, Zhang et al. (2020a) reported that the Escherichia coli) with the low inactivation rates of 17.4% for ClO2 and
organic matters in the patient’s stools can protect the SARS-CoV-2 virus 14.3% for NaClO. This confirmed that SARS-CoV-1 coronavirus was
from the disinfection process of medical wastewaters. In other words, more sensitive to disinfectants than E. coli (Wang et al., 2005a).
the survival of coronaviruses in water is strongly dependent on the Therefore, the treated water was suggested to be safe for the consumers.
properties of the respective water matrices. Recently, Zhang et al. (2020a) investigated the effective deactivation
Notably, Chin et al. (2020) investigated the stability of SARS-CoV-2 of SARS-CoV-2 in medical wastewater from the (influent and effluent)
under different environmental conditions and concluded that septic tanks of the Fangcang hospital by the disinfectants (i.e., sodium
SARS-CoV-2 was extremely stable in a wide pH range from 3.0 to 10 at hypochlorite). Although the study and wastewater samples were con
room temperature. In contrast, Lai et al. (2005) found that SARS-CoV-1 ducted and collected at the hospital, the results can be considered as a
in stool specimens can survive for 1 day at pH 8.0, 5 days at pH 9.0, but close reference to evaluate the effect of disinfectants on the survival of
only for 3 h at pH 6. Moreover, the dose of disinfectant used also plays an SARS-CoV-2. The results indicated that using free chlorine >0.5 mg/L
extremely important role in inactivating coronaviruses as demonstrated (contact time of 1.5 h) cannot secure a complete disinfection of the
by Wang et al. (2005a). The authors found that an increase in the dose of SARS-CoV-2 virus in medical wastewaters, whereas the opposite was
chlorine dioxide (5, 10, 20, and 40 mg/L) resulted in an increase in the true for using 6700 g/m3 dosage of sodium hypochlorite. Although the
inactivation rate of SARS-CoV-1 in wastewater (0%, 94.38%, 82.22%, SARS-CoV-2 viral RNA was not detected within the over-dosage of so
and 99.9999%, respectively). dium hypochlorite used, a high level of disinfection by-product residuals
To sum up, the survival period of coronavirus (also for SARS-CoV-2) can cause some risks to ecological system and threats to human health
in water is strongly dependent on water temperature, water property, (Zhang et al., 2020a).
solution pH, and the presence of disinfectant. Fig. 5 represents the disinfection efficiency of various pathogenic
microorganisms in water by chemical disinfectant (chlorination) and
5. Consideration whether SARS-CoV-2 exists after the non-chemical disinfectant (UV light). Clearly, non-enveloped viruses (i.
disinfection process of drinking water e., poliovirus, Coxsackievirus, and Rotavirus) can be inactivated by two
methods. In particular, non-enveloped viruses can be inactivated at a
According to WHO (WHO, 2020c), there are no available evidences chlorine dose (Ct) of less than 15 mg×min/L. Therefore, it is expected
which confirm the survival of SARS-CoV-2 virus after the disinfection that the enveloped SARS-CoV-2 virus will be effectively inactivated by
process for both wastewater and drinking water. This assumption is also chlorination even at a lower chlorine Ct dose of 15 mg×min/L (EPA,
consistent with the reports of the Water Environment Federation (WEF, 2011; HPSC, 2020). Similarly, a previous study demonstrated that
2020a,b) and several recent studies (Sherchan et al., 2020). Similarly, enveloped viruses (i.e., Pseudomonas virus φ6) were more susceptible
the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA, 2020) re than non-enveloped viruses (i.e., bacteriophage MS2) under free chlo
ported that SARS-CoV-2 virus has not been detected in drinking-water rine disinfection (prepared from NaClO) and UV254 radiation (Ye et al.,
supplies after disinfection process. Recently, researchers from the Uni 2018). Similarly, Lénès et al. (2010) found that H5N1 (an enveloped
versity of Arizona collected wastewater samples from the County virus) was very sensitive to UV radiation (>5.5-log inactivation obtained
Wastewater Treatment Plant and explore whether SARS-CoV-2 virus is within a low UV fluence of 25 mJ/cm2), whereas the opposite was true
tracked in the samples (Pineda, 2020). The results indicated that the
RNA gene fragments of the SARS-CoV-2 virus were not detected in the
treated wastewater.
In general, the virus is divided into two groups: enveloped virus and
non-enveloped virus (large and small non-enveloped viruses). SARS-
CoV-2 is a typical enveloped virus (surrounded by a fragile outer lipid
membrane) that has been acknowledged as the easiest virus to be killed
when comparing with large or small non-enveloped virus (WHO,
2020c). Because the MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV-1 viruses are derived
from the same family of the SARS-CoV-2 coronaviruses, they exbibit
similar biochemical and physical properties. Therefore, to some extent,
they can be considered as a typical example, and this has been discussed
below within this section.
Among the existing methods (i.e., adsorption, ozonation, chlorina
tion, membrane, ultraviolet light, and advanced oxidation processes)
which are applied for inactivation of coronaviruses (Naddeo and Liu,
2020) or enveloped viruses (Lénès et al., 2010), the UV (ultraviolet)
radiation and chlorination are the most common methods used for dis
infecting water supplies, especially in developing countries (HPSC,
2020). Wang and co-workers (Wang et al., 2005a) applied chlorine di
oxide (ClO2) and sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) as the target disinfec
tants to explore the inactivation of SARS-CoV-1 in wastewater. They
found that SARS-CoV-1 was extremely sensitive to selective disinfec
tants. A similar conclusion was highlighted by Lénès et al. (2010) who
assessed the removal and inactivation of two enveloped viruses (H5N1
and H1N1) by different disinfectants (i.e., chlorine, chlorine dioxide, Fig. 5. Synergistic utilization of the common disinfection systems: UV (ultra-
and ozone). Although both disinfectants can inactivate SARS-CoV-1 violet) light and chlorination. Figure was adapted from EPA, 2011 with some
virus in water, NaClO was better than ClO2 in terms of inactivation modifications. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure
(Wang et al., 2005a). For example, in the same low-concentration legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)
8
for bacteriophage MS2 (1.87-log inactivation). Although each disinfec of different pathogenic coronaviruses from aqueous suspensions. The
tion method is efficient for inactivating the enveloped virus (also for target coronaviruses included two human coronaviruses (HCoV-NL63
SARS-CoV-2), the combination of such methods is always recommended and HCoV-OC43) and mouse hepatitis coronavirus (MHV). Their results
(EPA, 2011). This is because chlorination-based disinfection is not effi demonstrated that the biopolymeric material can adsorb the
cient in inactivating protozoan parasites (i.e., Cryptosporidium), HCoV-NL63 (strongly) and MHV (moderately) coronavirus from water,
whereas the opposite is true for UV light-based disinfection (Fig. 5). but cannot adsorb HCoV-OC43 coronavirus. The desorption study using
Notably, some researchers recently reported that the RNA of SARS- 2.0 M NaCl indicated that the desorbed HCoV-NL63 coronavirus can be
CoV-2 virus was detected in untreated wastewaters in WWTP such as desorbed from the laden biopolymeric material. The number of viral
influents (Randazzo et al., 2020; Rimoldi et al., 2020) and RNA copies that was desorbed from the laden biopolymeric material was
secondary-treated water samples (Randazzo et al., 2020). However, its 2.4 ± 0.9 × 106 (copies/mL). Notably, the HCoV-NL63 particles des
RNA was not detected in tertiary effluent samples of WWTPs after the orbed were still infectious (i.e., the retention of virus virulence) (Ciejka
current disinfection process with alone NaClO (Randazzo et al., 2020), et al., 2017). However, whether the biopolymeric material can effec
the combination of NaClO and UV (Randazzo et al., 2020), peracetic tively adsorb SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus in water is a current challenge
acid (Randazzo et al., 2020), or high intensity UV lamps (Rimoldi et al., that should be confirmed by further studies.
2020). Although the current disinfection process from WWTPs in Spain To sump, although until now, there is no evidence on the survival of
Randazzo et al. (2020) and Italy (Rimoldi et al., 2020) killed totally SARS-CoV-2 virus in treated water, future studies should be conducted
SARS-CoV-2 virus, the researchers did not report the detail conditions of to thoroughly approve this supposition. As aforementioned discussion,
the disinfection process (i.e., the used disinfectant dosage and contact the treatment processes of existing disinfection might be sufficient to kill
time) and the effects of those conditions on the survival of such coro SARS-CoV-2 in water. However, the protocols for disinfecting the SARS-
navirus (Randazzo et al., 2020; Rimoldi et al., 2020). CoV-2 virus in drinking water treatment are missing.
Membrane technology has been widely employed as a conventional
disinfection method for drinking water (Bodzek et al., 2019; Lénès et al., 6. Suggestion for protecting the health of wastewater plant
2010). In this method, the size of the viruses plays an important role in operators
selecting the appropriate kinds of membranes. Each virion (particle) of
coronaviruses (i.e., SARS-CoV-1 and MERS-CoV related to the Corona The protection of the health of the wastewater plant operators is
viridae family in the Nidovirales order) varied from 80 nm to 220 nm in imperative given the potential health risk that could be posed by COVID-
diameter (Burrell et al., 2017; Lénès et al., 2010). Recently, Zhu et al. 19 if the wastewater contains the virus. As recommended by Casanova
(2020) reported that the diameter of SARS-CoV-2 virion ranged from 60 et al. (2009), the coronaviruses (i.e., TGEV and MHV) can remain in its
nm to 140 nm (Race et al., 2020), which is similar to that of SARS-CoV-1 infectious state a for long period in pasteurized settled sewage, lake
from 80 to 140 nm (Ksiazek et al., 2003). A comparison of microor water and reagent-grade water (Table 4). Therefore, the
ganisms’ sizes with the pore sizes of the membranes is illustrated in coronaviruses-contaminated water can be considered as a potential
Fig. 6. According to the diameter of each SARS-CoV-2 virion and vehicle for human exposure if aerosols or microscopic water droplets are
membranes, it is highly recommended that the ultrafiltration (UF), produced (Barcelo, 2020; Casanova et al., 2009). Although epidemio
nanofiltration (NF), and reverse osmosis (RO) membranes are appro logical study or evidence to confirm that wastewater is a route of
priate for inactivating (or rejecting) the coronaviruses in transmission is missing (Arslan et al., 2020; Collivignarelli et al., 2020;
SARS-CoV-2-contaminated water (Hai et al., 2018; Lénès et al., 2010; WEF, 2020a), the employees involved in wastewater management op
Zhu et al., 2020). erations should be specifically protected from such virus (Ahmed et al.,
For adsorption method, Ciejka et al. (2017) developed the bio 2020a). Fig. 7 provides a summary regarding some suggestions for
polymeric material (i.e., the cations-modified chitosan-based nano/ protecting the health of relevant workers during the COVID-19 outbreak
microspheres) and applied it for the selective and reversible adsorption as recommended by World Health Organization (WHO, 2020c), Water
Fig. 6. Comparison of micro-organisms sizes including SARS-CoV-1 (Ksiazek et al., 2003) and SARS-CoV-2 (Zhu et al., 2020) coronaviruses with the pore size di
ameters of membranes. Figure adapted from Hai et al. (2018).
9
2 in water, sewage, and wastewater samples. Current disinfection

methods used in the drinking water treatment process highly inactivate
and efficiently destroy SARS-CoV-2 in water. Frequent monitoring of
sewage and wastewater can provide an early warning medium for the
emergence of the SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus a population (i.e., neither
city nor smaller municipality), which results in mitigating the pathogen
transmission and threat to public health. If the SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus
is detected in wastewater, the water workers should be specifically
protected from such virus (especially following the safety procedures).
In addition, some training courses for those workers should be routine
opened to prevent their exposure to wastewater. Appropriate disinfec
tants against enveloped SARS-CoV-2 virus should be confirmed by future
studies.
An important point to consider here is that studies have shown that
SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus has been detected in river water, sewage, and
wastewater samples, but the risk posed to the human health and the
Fig. 7. Recommendations for protecting wastewater treatment plant operators environment is minimal. The persistence of the virus is also negligible
and sewer workers from the potential exposure of SARS-CoV-2 (WEF, 2020; and mostly gets destroyed in the ambient temperature and climatic
WHO, 2020c; WRU, 2020). conditions. However, the occurrence and distribution of the virus in
wastewater plants across the cities around the world would enable us to
Research Australia (WRU, 2020), and Water Environment Federation identify the source and location that people are being infected. There
(WEF, 2020a). fore, early warning signs in terms of detection of the virus would go a
Furthermore, studies on which disinfectants against enveloped long way to manage the epidemic better and help alert the respective
SARS-CoV-2 virus are appropriate have been lacking and hitherto government authorities to take precautionary measures before the issue
neglected. However, the effective disinfectants for other coronaviruses becomes serious.
(e.g. SARS and MERS) can be still used for the reference. For example, a
recent review on the disinfection of coronavirus in histopathology was CRediT author statement
provided by Henwood (2020). The authors collected data from various
coronaviruses (i.e., SARS-CoV-1 and MERS-CoV) similar to SARS-CoV-2 Hai Nguyen Tran: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software,
and they concluded that coronaviruses can be effectively deactivated by Validation, Visualization, Writing-Original Draft. Giang Truong Le:
70% ethanol or 0.1% sodium hypochlorite. A similar finding was re Funding acquisition, Conceptualization. Dong Thanh Nguyen: Funding
ported by Kampf et al. (2020) who reviewed the inactivation of coro acquisition, Methodology. Ruey-Shin Juang: Formal analysis, Writing-
naviruses (i.e., SARS-CoV-1 and MERS-CoV) by different types of Review & Editing. Jörg Rinklebe: Formal analysis, Validation, Writing-
biocidal agents. It was found that using 62%–71% ethanol, 0.5% Review & Editing. Amit Bhatnagar: Formal analysis, Validation,
hydrogen peroxide, or 0.1% sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) as surface Writing-Review & Editing. Eder C. Lima: Formal analysis, Writing-
disinfection rapidly reduced the infectivity of such coronaviruses (also Review & Editing. Hafiz M. N. Iqbal: Formal analysis, Writing-
possible for SARS-CoV-2) on different surfaces within 1 min exposure Review & Editing. Ajit K Sarmah: Formal analysis, Validation,
time (Kampf et al., 2020). However, recently, WHO (WHO, 2020c) Writing-Review & Editing. Huan-Ping Chao: Funding acquisition,
recommended to use a higher concentration of NaOCl (i.e., 0.5%; Formal analysis, Writing-Review & Editing.
equivalent to 5000 ppm or 1-part household bleach with 5% NaOCl to 9
parts water) or 70% ethyl alcohol for disinfecting surfaces. Therefore, Declaration of competing interest
the ethanol and sodium hypochlorite are highly recommended for
killing SARS-CoV-2 and protecting water workers from COVID-19 The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
infection (Fig. 7). interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
7. Conclusions
References
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Jurnal-SARS-CoV-2 Coronavirus in Water and Wastewater - A Critical Review About Presence and Concern

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free information in English and Mandarin on the novel coronavirus COVID-

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SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus in water and wastewater: A critical review about

1. Introduction 2. Transmission route of SARS-CoV-2 into water and wastewater

treatment systems/plants (Ahmed et al., 2020a; Collivignarelli et al.,

2 in water, sewage, and wastewater samples. Current disinfection

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