Star Connection Delta Connection

1. Line current is the same as phase current, i.e., IL = IPh

1. Line current is   × the phase current, i.e.,

IL =  IPh
2. Line voltage is the same as phase voltage, i.e., VL = Vph

2. Line voltage is   the phase voltage, i.e.,

VL=  VPh

3. Total power =   VL IL cos 

When connecting in a Delta configuration, 
then Phase voltage = line voltage and Phase current = 1/sqrt 3 Line current. 
Or Line Voltage = phase voltage, Line current = sqrt 3 x phase current. 

When connected in a star configuration, 

then Phase voltage = 1/sqrt 3 Line voltage and Phase current = Line current. 
Or Line voltage = sqrt 3 x phase voltage and Line current = Phase current 

Power = V x I. 
Interposing the two formulae will result in 3 phase power (star or delta) as being :- 
sqrt 3 x Line volts x Line current (x power factor of load x efficiency of load). 
Star-Delta Connection 

1. As Primary in Star connected

2. Line voltage on Primary side = √3 X Phase voltage on Primary side. So
3. Phase voltage  on Primary side = Line voltage on Primary side / √3
4. Now Transformation Ration (K) = Secondary Phase Voltage / Primary Phase Voltage
5. Secondary Phase Voltage = K X Primary Phase Voltage.
6. As Secondary  in delta connected:
7. Line voltage on Secondary side = Phase voltage on Secondary side.
8. Secondary Phase Voltage = K X Primary Phase Voltage. =K X (Line voltage on Primary side / √3)
9. Secondary Phase Voltage = (K/√3 ) X Line voltage on Primary side.
10. There is s +30 Degree or -30 Degree Phase Shift between Secondary Phase Voltage to Primary
Phase Voltage

Advantages of Star Delta Connection

1. The primary side is star connected. Hence fewer numbers of turns are required. This makes the
connection economical for large high voltage step down power transformers.
2. The neutral available on the primary can be earthed to avoid distortion.
3. The neutral point allows both types of loads (single phase or three phases) to be met.
4. Large unbalanced loads can be handled satisfactory.
5. The Y-D connection has no problem with third harmonic components due to circulating currents inD. It
is also more stable to unbalanced loads since the D partially redistributes any imbalance that occurs.
6. The delta connected winding carries third harmonic current due to which potential of neutral point is
stabilized. Some saving in cost of insulation is achieved if HV side is star connected. But in practice the
HV side is normally connected in delta so that the three phase loads like motors and single phase
loads like lighting loads can be supplied by LV side using three phase four wire system.
7. As Grounding Transformer: In Power System Mostly grounded Y- ∆ transformer is used for no other
purpose than to provide a good ground source in ungrounded Delta system. Take, for example, a
distribution system supplied by ∆ connected (i.e., ungrounded) power source.
.
If it is required to connect phase-to-ground loads to this system a grounding bank is connected to the
system, as shown in Figure 3  below:

Figure 3 - Y-D Grounding transformer

8. This system a grounding bank is connected to the system, as shown in Figure 3. Note that the
connected winding is not connected to any external circuit in Figure 3.
9. With a load current equal to 3 times i, each phase of the grounded Y winding provides the same
current i, with the  -connected secondary winding of the grounding bank providing the ampere-turns
required to cancel the ampere-turns of the primary winding. Note that the grounding bank does not
supply any real power to the load; it is there merely to provide a ground path. All the power required by
the load is supplied by two phases of the ungrounded supply.
Disadvantages of Star-Delta Connection

In this type of connection, the secondary voltage is not in phase with the primary. Hence it is not possible to
operate this connection in parallel with star-star or delta-delta connected transformer.

One problem associated with this connection is that the secondary voltage is shifted by 30 0 with respect to the
primary voltage. This can cause problems when paralleling 3-phase transformers since transformers
secondary voltages must be in-phase to be paralleled. Therefore, we must pay attention to these shifts.

If secondary of this transformer should be paralleled with secondary of another transformer without phase
shift, there would be a problem

Application

It is commonly employed for power supply transformers.

This type of connection is commonly employed at the substation end of the transmission line. The main use
with this connection is to step down the voltage. The neutral available on the primary side is grounded. It can
be seen that there is phase difference of 30° between primary and secondary line voltages.

Commonly used in a step-down transformer, Y connection on the HV side reduces insulation costs the neutral
point on the HV side can be grounded, stable with respect to unbalanced loads. As for example, at the end of
a transmission line. The neutral of the primary winding is earthed.

In this system, line voltage ratio is 1/√3 Times of transformer turn-ratio and secondary voltage lags behind
primary voltage by 30°. Also third harmonic currents flow in the to give a sinusoidal flux.

CT & PT

CT is used to measure a current, and PT is used to measure voltage, CT can be used for metering and protection
purpose in substations while Pt is used to measure voltage. CT & PTs are called as INSTRUMENT RANSFORMERS
as these are used to measure Currents (CT) and Voltages (PT it is also called as VT) in circuit mainly in HT lines.
There are nothing but Ammeter/Voltmeters. But the difference is... Ammeter/Voltmeter are used to measure
the quantities (Current/Voltage) in a 220V line or house hold applications as these instruments are insulated upto that 
level only. But how to measure the I or V in High Voltage Lines... there CTs/VTs are used... These have mainly 2
advantages...There are Primary & Secondary coils in CTs/VTs as in case of a normal transformer...
1. These Ammeter/Voltmeters can't be used there.... because they are insulated for 230V only (or 3kV at most)... in
we connect these in HT lines... they will burn out and also dangerous to the persons who are handling these
instruments... So these will give the I or V values at a reduced voltage levels...
2. As the I or V in the HT lines are heavy... (i.eupto some thousands of Amps/Volts) we can't manufacture the general
Ammeters/Voltmeters up to that level.. as it makes costlier.. so we reduce the line values to a measurable 
limits (i.e. 5A or 1A or 110V or 100V) by using Induction principle. we connect the primary to HT lines and we will get
the I or V at the secondary with a reduced current/voltage level... so we can connect our normal Ammeters/Voltmeters
directly to measure the I or V in HT Lines...
Ex.: 
A CT of 200/1A shows that.. if ammeter connected in Secondary of a CT indicates 1A that means there 200A is 
flowing in the Primary of CT (i.e. in HT line)in a 132kV / 110V VT, if voltmeter in the secondary of a VT indicates 110V
that means there is 132kV in the primary. And then these can be used for different purposes like metering, Protection,
Special Protection etc.. 
PT
Introduction to Electric Motors

 Magnets both attract and repel each other. Like poles repel, opposite poles attract.  An electric current produces a
magnetic field. The strength and direction of themagnetic field varies according to the strength and direction of the
electric current.Simply winding a wire that carries an electric current around an iron bar creates amagnet that can be
switched on and off. Also, the strength and direction of themagnetic poles can easily be controlled by changing the
strength and direction ofthe electric current.
‹ Principles of Magnetism

Magnetism is a force of nature that attracts and repels. Unlike gravity, which only attractsand which affects all objects,
only some types of materials can be magnetized so that theyexert magnetic force, and only some materials are
affected by that force—mostly metalslike iron and nickel. When an object becomes magnetized and exerts magnetic
force, it iscalled a magnet. A magnet has a magnetic pole at each end, one called the north poleand one called the
south pole. Like poles repel, and opposite poles attract. That is, a northpole attracts another magnet’s south pole but
repels a north pole, and south attractsnorth but repels south. The Earth is actually a giant magnet, which is why it has
north anda south magnetic poles, and why the south pole of a small magnet (such as the tip of theneedle on a
magnetic compass) will always point north. The magnetic force around amagnet forms a magnetic field. The field is
made up of lines of force that run from thenorth pole to the south pole. When opposite poles are brought together,
their lines offorce join, but when like poles are brought together the lines of force push each otheraway.

‹ Electromagnets

Scientists long wondered if the attractive and repulsive forces of electricity and magnetismwere related. In 1820
Danish physicist Hans Christian Øersted discovered that a wire withan electric current flowing through it produced a
magnetic field. In fact, wrapping a wirearound an iron core and running a current through it produces a strong
magnetic effect;this is called an electromagnet. British scientist Michael Faraday then discovered that awire moving
through a magnetic field developed a current running through it. This iscalled induction.Applying Magnetic and Electric
Principles Into Motor DesignThese discoveries led to the invention of electric generators and electric motors.
Anelectric generator turns motion (which could be caused by a steam engine, by windpower, or whatever) into
electricity. An electric motor turns electricity back into motion.These two machines are the basis of modern electric
power.
History of Electric Motors

Most people would say that they don't see an electric motor every day, like they do a light bulb or a telephone. That
is because electric motors aren't like that. They are simpler things that are found within many appliances. A motor's
purpose is to turn electrical energy into mechanical energy. It takes electricity and turns it into energy that can be
used by us.

An electric Motor uses magnetism and electric currents to work. There are two different kinds of
motors, Alternate Current (AC) and Direct Current.(DC) Motors. These kinds of motors use the same
parts as a basic electric motor, only using two different kinds of current. Motors began with
electromagnets. In 1831, Michael Faraday succeeded in building the first electric motor. Joseph Henry
was working with motors at that time. Henry and Faraday are both credited with building the first
experimental electric motors. In 1837, Charles Grafton Page worked on improving the electric motor
and created a model of his own. In 1887, Nikola Tesla introduced the Alternate Current (AC) motor. All
other motors up to that time had been using direct current. Now, alternate current motors are easier to
use than direct current ones. Today, motors are used everywhere. They are used in cars and many
household appliances. Even though many people don't recognize what all it does, the electric motor has
become a very useful invention.
Electric motors and generators

DC motors

A simple DC motor has a coil of wire that can rotate in a magnetic field. The current in the coil
is supplied via two brushes that make moving contact with a split ring. The coil lies in a steady
magnetic field. The forces exerted on the current-carrying wires create a torque on the coil.

The force F on a wire of length L carrying a current i in a magnetic field B is iLB times the sine
of the angle between B and i, which would be 90° if the field were uniformly vertical. The
direction of F comes from the right hand rule*, as shown here. The two forces shown here are
equal and opposite, but they are displaced vertically, so they exert a torque. (The forces on the
other two sides of the coil act along the same line and so exert no torque.)
* A number of different mnemonics are used to remember the direction of the force. Some use the right hand, some the
left. For students who know vector multiplication, it is easy to use the Lorentz force directly:  F  =  q v X B , 
whence F  =  i dL X B . That is the origin of the diagram shown here.
The coil can also be considered as a magnetic dipole, or a little electromagnet, as indicated by
the arrow SN: curl the fingers of your right hand in the direction of the current, and your thumb
is the North pole. In the sketch at right, the electromagnet formed by the coil of the rotor is
represented as a permanent magnet, and the same torque (North attracts South) is seen to be that
acting to align the central magnet.
Throughout, we use blue for the North pole and red for the South. This is just a convention to make the orientation clear:
there is no difference in the material at either end of the magnet, and they are usually not painted a different colour.

Note the effect of the brushes on the split ring. When the plane of the rotating coil reaches
horizontal, the brushes will break contact (not much is lost, because this is the point of zero
torque anyway – the forces act inwards). The angular momentum of the coil carries it past this
break point and the current then flows in the opposite direction, which reverses the magnetic
dipole. So, after passing the break point, the rotor continues to turn anticlockwise and starts to
align in the opposite direction. In the following text, I shall largely use the 'torque on a magnet'
picture, but be aware that the use of brushes or of AC current can cause the poles of the
electromagnet in question to swap position when the current changes direction.

The torque generated over a cycle varies with the vertical separation of the two forces. It
therefore depends on the sine of the angle between the axis of the coil and field. However,
because of the split ring, it is always in the same sense. The animation below shows its variation
in time, and you can stop it at any stage and check the direction by applying the right hand rule. 

Motors and generators

Now a DC motor is also a DC generator. Have a look at the next animation. The coil, split ring,
brushes and magnet are exactly the same hardware as the motor above, but the coil is being
turned, which generates an emf.

If you use mechanical energy to rotate the coil (N turns, area A) at uniform angular velocity ω in
the magnetic field B, it will produce a sinusoidal emf in the coil. emf (an emf or electromotive
force is almost the same thing as a voltage). Let θ be the angle between B and the normal to the
coil, so the magnetic flux φ is NAB.cos θ. Faraday's law gives:

emf = − dφ/dt = − (d/dt) (NBA cos θ)

= NBA sin θ (dθ/dt) = NBAω sin ωt.

The animation above would be called a DC generator. As in the DC motor, the ends of the coil
connect to a split ring, whose two halves are contacted by the brushes. Note that the brushes and
split ring 'rectify' the emf produced: the contacts are organised so that the current will always
flow in the same direction, because when the coil turns past the dead spot, where the brushes
meet the gap in the ring, the connections between the ends of the coil and external terminals are
reversed. The emf here (neglecting the dead spot, which conveniently happens at zero volts) is |
NBAω sin ωt|, as sketched.

An alternator
If we want AC, we don't need recification, so we don't need split rings. ( This is good news, because the
split rings cause sparks, ozone, radio interference and extra wear. If you want DC, it is often better to use an alternator and rectify
with diodes.)

In the next animation, the two brushes contact two continuous rings, so the two external
terminals are always connected to the same ends of the coil. The result is the unrectified,
sinusoidal emf given by NBAω sin ωt, which is shown in the next animation.

This is an AC generator. The advantages of AC and DC generators are compared in a section

below. We saw above that a DC motor is also a DC generator. Similarly, an alternator is also an
AC motor. However, it is a rather inflexible one. (See How real electric motors work for more
details.)

Back emf

Now, as the first two animations show, DC motors and generators may be the same thing. For
example, the motors of trains become generators when the train is slowing down: they convert
kinetic energy into electrical energy and put power back into the grid. Recently, a few
manufacturers have begun making motor cars rationally. In such cars, the electric motors used to
drive the car are also used to charge the batteries when the car is stopped - it is called
regenerative braking.

So here is an interesting corollary. Every motor is a generator. This is true, in a sense, even

when it functions as a motor. The emf that a motor generates is called the back emf. The back
emf increases with the speed, because of Faraday's law. So, if the motor has no load, it turns
very quickly and speeds up until the back emf, plus the voltage drop due to losses, equal the
supply voltage. The back emf can be thought of as a 'regulator': it stops the motor turning
infinitely quickly (thereby saving physicists some embarrassment). When the motor is loaded,
then the phase of the voltage becomes closer to that of the current (it starts to look resistive) and
this apparent resistance gives a voltage. So the back emf required is smaller, and the motor turns
more slowly. (To add the back emf, which is inductive, to the resistive component, you need to
add voltages that are out of phase. See AC circuits.)

Coils usually have cores

In practice, (and unlike the diagrams we have drawn), generators and DC motors often have a
high permeability core inside the coil, so that large magnetic fields are produced by modest
currents. This is shown at left in the figure below in which the stators (the magnets which are
stat-ionary) are permanent magnets.
'Universal' motors

The stator magnets, too, could be made as electromagnets, as is shown above at right. The two
stators are wound in the same direction so as to give a field in the same direction and the rotor
has a field which reverses twice per cycle because it is connected to brushes, which are omitted
here. One advantage of having wound stators in a motor is that one can make a motor that runs
on AC or DC, a so calleduniversal motor. When you drive such a motor with AC, the current in
the coil changes twice in each cycle (in addition to changes from the brushes), but the polarity of
the stators changes at the same time, so these changes cancel out. (Unfortunatly, however, there
are still brushes, even though I've hidden them in this sketch.) For advantages and disadvantages
of permanent magnet versus wound stators, see below. Also see more on universal motors.

Build a simple motor

To build this simple but strange motor, you need two fairly strong magnets (rare earth magnets
about 10 mm diameter would be fine, as would larger bar magnets), some stiff copper wire (at
least 50 cm), two wires with crocodile clips on either end, a six volt lantern battery, two soft
drink cans, two blocks of wood, some sticky tape and a sharp nail.

Make the coil out of stiff copper wire, so it doesn't need any external support. Wind 5 to 20 turns
in a circle about 20 mm in diameter, and have the two ends point radially outwards in opposite
directions. These ends will be both the axle and the contacts. If the wire has lacquer or plastic
insulation, strip it off at the ends.

The supports for the axle can be made of aluminium, so that they make electrical contact. For example
poke holes in a soft drink cans with a nail as shown. Position the two magnets, north to south, so that the
magnetic field passes through the coil at right angles to the axles. Tape or glue the magnets onto the .
wooden blocks (not shown in the diagram) to keep them at the right height, then move the blocks to put
them in position, rather close to the coil. Rotate the coil initially so that the magnetic flux through the
coil is zero, as shown in the diagram.

An alternative relisation of the simple motor

Now get a battery, and two wires with crocodile clips. Connect the two terminals of the battery to the
two metal supports for the coil and it should turn.

Note that this motor has at least one 'dead spot': It often stops at the position where there is no torque on
the coil. Don't leave it on too long: it will flatten the battery quickly.

The optimum number of turns in the coil depends on the internal resistance of the battery, the quality of
the support contacts and the type of wire, so you should experiment with different values.

As mentioned above, this is also a generator, but it is a very inefficient one. To make a larger emf, use
more turns (you may need to use finer wire and a frame upon which to wind it.) You could use eg an
electric drill to turn it quickly, as shown in the sketch above. Use an oscilloscope to look at the emf
generated. Is it AC or DC?

This motor has no split ring, so why does it work on DC? Simply put, if it were exactly symmetrical, it
wouldn't work. However, if the current is slightly less in one half cycle than the other, then the average
torque will not be zero and, because it spins reasonably rapidly, the angular momentum acquired during
the half cycle with greater current carries it through the half cycle when the torque is in the opposite
direction. At least two effects can cause an asymmetry. Even if the wires are perfectly stripped and the
wires clean, the contact resistance is unlikely to be exactly equal, even at rest. Also, the rotation itself
causes the contact to be intermittent so, if there are longer bounces during one phase, this asymmetry is
sufficient. In principle, you could partially strip the wires in such a way that the current would be zero in
one half cycle.

An even simpler motor (one that is also much simpler to understand!) is the homopolar motor.

AC motors
With AC currents, we can reverse field directions without having to use brushes. This is good
news, because we can avoid the arcing, the ozone production and the ohmic loss of energy that
brushes can entail. Further, because brushes make contact between moving surfaces, they wear
out.

The first thing to do in an AC motor is to create a rotating field. 'Ordinary' AC from a 2 or 3 pin
socket is single phase AC--it has a single sinusoidal potential difference generated between only
two wires--the active and neutral. (Note that the Earth wire doesn't carry a current except in the
event of electrical faults.) With single phase AC, one can produce a rotating field by generating
two currents that are out of phase using for example a capacitor. In the example shown, the two
currents are 90° out of phase, so the vertical component of the magnetic field is sinusoidal,
while the horizontal is cosusoidal, as shown. This gives a field rotating counterclockwise.

(* I've been asked to explain this: from simple AC theory, neither coils nor capacitors have the
voltage in phase with the current. In a capacitor, the voltage is a maximum when the charge has
finished flowing onto the capacitor, and is about to start flowing off. Thus the voltage is behind
the current. In a purely inductive coil, the voltage drop is greatest when the current is changing
most rapidly, which is also when the current is zero. The voltage (drop) is ahead of the current.
In motor coils, the phase angle is rather less than 90¡, because electrical energy is being
converted to mechanical energy.)

In this animation, the graphs show the variation in time of the currents in the vertical and
horizontal coils. The plot of the field components B x and By shows that the vector sum of these
two fields is a rotating field. The main picture shows the rotating field. It also shows the polarity
of the magnets: as above, blue represents a North pole and red a South pole.

If we put a permanent magnet in this area of rotating field, or if we put in a coil whose current
always runs in the same direction, then this becomes a synchronous motor. Under a wide range
of conditions, the motor will turn at the speed of the magnetic field. If we have a lot of stators,
instead of just the two pairs shown here, then we could consider it as a stepper motor: each pulse
moves the rotor on to the next pair of actuated poles. Please remember my warning about the
idealised geometry: real stepper motors have dozens of poles and quite complicated geometries!

Induction motors

Now, since we have a time varying magnetic field, we can use the induced emf in a coil – or
even just the eddy currents in a conductor – to make the rotor a magnet. That's right, once you
have a rotating magnetic field, you can just put in a conductor and it turns. This gives several of
the advantages of induction motors: no brushes or commutator means easier manufacture, no
wear, no sparks, no ozone production and none of the energy loss associated with them. Below
left is a schematic of an induction motor. (For photos of real induction motors and more details,
see Induction motors.)

The animation at right represents a squirrel cage motor. The squirrel cage has (in this
simplified geometry, anyhow!) two circular conductors joined by several straight bars. Any two
bars and the arcs that join them form a coil – as indicated by the blue dashes in the animation.
(Only two of the many possible circuits have been shown, for simplicity.)

This schematic suggests why they might be called squirrel cage motors. The reality is different:
for photos and more details, see Induction motors. The problem with the induction and squirrel
cage motors shown in this animation is that capacitors of high value and high voltage rating are
expensive. One solution is the 'shaded pole' motor, but its rotating field has some directions
where the torque is small, and it has a tendency to run backwards under some conditions. The
neatest way to avoid this is to use multiple phase motors.

Three phase AC induction motors

Single phase is used in domestic applications for low power applications but it has some
drawbacks. One is that it turns off 100 times per second (you don't notice that the fluorescent
lights flicker at this speed because your eyes are too slow: even 25 pictures per second on the
TV is fast enough to give the illusion of continuous motion.) The second is that it makes it
awkward to produce rotating magnetic fields. For this reason, some high power (several kW)
domestic devices may require three phase installation. Industrial applications use three phase
extensively, and the three phase induction motor is a standard workhorse for high power
applications. The three wires (not counting earth) carry three possible potential differences
which are out of phase with each other by 120°, as shown in the animation below. Thus three
stators give a smoothly rotating field. (See this link for more about three phase supply.)

If one puts a permanent magnet in such a set of stators, it becomes a synchronous three phase
motor. The animation shows a squirrel cage, in which for simplicity only one of the many
induced current loops is shown. With no mechanical load, it is turning virtually in phase with
the rotating field. The rotor need not be a squirrel cage: in fact any conductor that will carry
eddy currents will rotate, tending to follow the rotating field. This arrangement can give
an induction motor capable of high efficiency, high power and high torques over a range of
rotation rates.

Linear motors
A set of coils can be used to create a magnetic field that translates, rather than rotates. The pair
of coils in the animation below are pulsed on, from left to right, so the region of magnetic field
moves from left to right. A permanent or electromagnet will tend to follow the field. So would a
simple slab of conducting material, because the eddy currents induced in it (not shown)
comprise an electromagnet. Alternatively, we could say that, from Faraday's law, an emf in the
metal slab is always induced so as to oppose any change in magnetic flux, and the forces on the
currents driven by this emf keep the flux in the slab nearly constant. (Eddy currents not shown in
this animation.)

Alternatively, we could have sets of powered coils in the moving part, and induce eddy currents
in the rail. Either case gives us a linear motor, which would be useful for say maglev trains. (In
the animation, the geometry is, as usual on this site, highly idealised, and only one eddy current
is shown.)

Some notes about AC and DC motors for high power applications

AC motors are used for high power applications whenever it is possible. Three phase AC
induction motors are widely used for high power applications, including heavy industry.
However, such motors are unsuitable if multiphase is unavailable, or difficult to deliver. Electric
trains are an example: it is easier to build power lines and pantographs if one only needs one
active conductor, so this usually carries DC, and many train motors are DC. However, because
of the disadvantages of DC for high power, more modern trains convert the DC into AC and
then run three phase motors.

Single phase induction motors have problems for applications combining high power and
flexible load conditions. The problem lies in producing the rotating field. A capacitor could be
used to put the current in one set of coils ahead, but high value, high voltage capacitors are
expensive. Shaded poles are used instead, but the torque is small at some angles. If one cannot
produce a smoothly rotating field, and if the load 'slips' well behind the field, then the torque
falls or even reverses.

Power tools and some appliances use brushed AC motors. Brushes introduce losses (plus arcing
and ozone production). The stator polarities are reversed 100 times a second. Even if the core
material is chosen to minimise hysteresis losses ('iron losses'), this contributes to inefficiency,
and to the possibility of overheating. These motors may be called 'universal' motors because they
can operate on DC. This solution is cheap, but crude and inefficient. For relatively low power
applications like power tools, the inefficiency is usually not economically important.

If only single phase AC is available, one may rectify the AC and use a DC motor. High current
rectifiers used to be expensive, but are becoming less expensive and more widely used. If you
are confident you understand the principles, it's time to go to How real electric motors work by John
Storey. Or else continue here to find out about loudspeakers and transformers.

Loudspeakers
A loudspeaker is a linear motor with a small range. It has a single moving coil that is
permanently but flexibly wired to the voltage source, so there are no brushes.
The coil moves in the field of a permanent magnet, which is usually shaped to produce maximum
force on the coil. The moving coil has no core, so its mass is small and it may be accelerated quickly,
allowing for high frequency motion. In a loudspeaker, the coil is attached to a light weight paper cone,
which is supported at the inner and outer edges by circular, pleated paper 'springs'. In the photograph below,
the speaker is beyond the normal upward limit of its travel, so the coil is visible above the magnet poles.

For low frequency, large wavelength sound, one needs large cones. The speaker shown below is 380 mm
diameter. Speakers designed for low frequencies are called woofers. They have large mass and are therefore
difficult to accelerate rapidly for high frequency sounds. In the photograph below, a section has been cut
away to show the internal components.

Tweeters - loudspeakers designed for high frequencies - may be just speakers of similar design, but with
small, low mass cones and coils. Alternatively, they may use piezoelectric crystals to move the cone.
Speakers are seen to be linear motors with a modest range - perhaps tens of mm. Similar linear
motors, although of course without the paper cone, are often used to move the reading and
writing head radially on a disc drive.

Loudspeakers as microphones

In the picture above, you can see that a cardboard diaphragm (the loudspeaker cone) is
connected to a coil of wire in a magnetic field. If a soundwave moves the diaphragm, the coil
will move in the field, generating a voltage. This is the principle of a dynamic microphone –
though in most microphones, the diaphragm is rather smaller than the cone of a loudspeaker. So,
a loudspeaker should work as a microphone. This is a nice project: all you need is a loudspeaker
and two wires to connect it to the input of an oscilloscope or the microphone input of your
computer. Two questions: what do you think the mass of the cone and coil will do to the
frequency response? What about the wavelength of sounds your use?

Warning: real motors are more complicated

The sketches of motors have been schematics to show the principles. Please don't be angry if, when
you pull a motor apart, it looks more complicated! (See How real electric motors work.) For instance, a
typical DC motor is likely to have many separately wound coils to produce smoother torque: there is always
one coil for which the sine term is close to unity. This is illustrated below for a motor with wound stators
(above) and permanent stators (below).

Transformers
The photograph shows a transformer designed for demonstration purposes: the primary and
secondary coils are clearly separated, and may be removed and replaced by lifting the top
section of the core. For our purposes, note that the coil on the left has fewer coils than that at
right (the insets show close-ups).
The sketch and circuit show a step-up transformer. To make a step-down transformer, one only
has to put the source on the right and the load on the left. (Important safety note: for a real
transformer, you could only 'plug it in backwards' only after verifying that the voltage rating
were appropriate.) So, how does a transformer work?

The core (shaded) has high magnetic permeability, ie a material that forms a magnetic field
much more easily than free space does, due to the orientation of atomic dipoles. (In the
photograph, the core is laminated soft iron.) The result is that the field is concentrated inside the
core, and almost no field lines leave the core. If follows that the magnetic fluxes φ through the
primary and secondary are approximately equal, as shown. From Faraday's law, the emf in each
turn, whether in the primary or secondary coil, is −dφ/dt. If we neglect resistance and other
losses in the transformer, the terminal voltage equals the emf. For the N p turns of the primary,
this gives

Vp = − Np.dφ/dt .
For the Ns turns of the secondary, this gives
Vs = − Ns.φ/dt
Dividing these equations gives the transformer equation
Vs/Vp = Ns/Np = r.
where r is the turns ratio. What about the current? If we neglect losses in the transformer (see the
section below on efficiency), and if we assume that the voltage and current have similar phase
relationships in the primary and secondary, then from conservation of energy we may write, in
steady state:
Power in = power out,      so
 VpIp = VsIs,      whence

Is/Ip = Np/Ns = 1/r.

So you don't get something for nothing: if you increase the voltage, you decrease the current by
(at least) the same factor. Note that, in the photograph, the coil with more turns has thinner wire,
because it is designed to carry less current than that with fewer turns.

In some cases, decreasing the current is the aim of the exercise. In power transmission lines, for
example, the power lost in heating the wires due to their non-zero resistance is proportional to
the square of the current. So it saves a lot of energy to transmit the electrical power from power
station to city at very high voltages so that the currents are only modest.

Finally, and again assuming that the transformer is ideal, let's ask what the resistor in the
secondary circuit 'looks like' to the primary circuit. In the primary circuit:

Vp = Vs/r       and       Ip = Is.r      so

Vp/Ip = Vs/r2Is = R/r2.

R/r2 is called the reflected resistance. Provided that the frequency is not too high, and provided
that there is a load resistance (conditions usually met in practical transformers), the inductive
reactance of the primary is much smaller than this reflected resistance, so the primary circuit
behaves as though the source were driving a resistor of value R/r 2.

Efficiency of transformers

In practice, real transformers are less than 100% efficient.

 First, there are resistive losses in the coils (losing power I 2.r). For a given material, the
resistance of the coils can be reduced by making their cross section large. The resistivity
can also be made low by using high purity copper. (See Drift velocity and Ohm's law.)
 Second, there are some eddy current losses in the core. These can be reduced by
laminating the core. Laminations reduce the area of circuits in the core, and so reduce the
Faraday emf, and so the current flowing in the core, and so the energy thus lost.
 Third, there are hysteresis losses in the core. The magentisation and demagnetisation
curves for magnetic materials are often a little different (hysteresis or history depedence)
and this means that the energy required to magnetise the core (while the current is
increasing) is not entirely recovered during demagnetisation. The difference in energy is
lost as heat in the core.
 Finally, the geometric design as well as the material of the core may be optimised to
ensure that the magnetic flux in each coil of the secondary is nearly the same as that in
each coil of the primary.

More about transformers: AC vs DC generators

Transformers only work on AC, which is one of the great advantages of AC. Transformers allow
240V to be stepped down to convenient levels for digital electronics (only a few volts) or for
other low power applications (typically 12V). Transformers step the voltage up for transmission,
as mentioned above, and down for safe distribution. Without transformers, the waste of electric
power in distribution networks, already high, would be enormous. It is possible to convert
voltages in DC, but more complicated than with AC. Further, such conversions are often
inefficient and/or expensive. AC has the further advantage that it can be used on AC motors,
which are usually preferable to DC motors for high power applications.

In general, for a small motor it is much cheaper to use permanent magnets. Permanent magnet
materials are continuing to improve and have become so inexpensive that even the government
will on occasion send you pointless fridge magnets through the post. Permanent magnets are
also more efficient, because no power is wasted generating the magnetic field. So why would
one ever use a wound-field DC motor? Here's a few reasons:

 If you're building a really big motor you need a very big magnet and at some point a
wound field might become cheaper, especially if a very high magnetic field is needed to
create a large torque. Keep this in mind if you're designing a train. For this reason most
cars have starter motors that use a wound field (although some modern cars are now using
permanent magnet motors).
 With a permanent magnet the magnetic field has a fixed value (that's what "permanent"
means!) Recall that the torque produced by the motor of a given geometry is equal to the
product of the current through the armature and the magnetic field strength. With a
wound-field motor you have the option of changing the current through the field, and
hence changing the motor characteristics. This leads a range of interesting possibilities;
do you put the field winding in series with the armature, in parallel, or feed it from a
separately controlled source? As long as there is enough torque to overcome the load
placed on the motor, internal friction etc., the weaker the magnetic field the *faster* the
motor will spin (at fixed voltage). This may seem weird at first, but it's true! So, if you
want a motor that can produce a lot of torque at standstill, yet spin to high speeds when
the load is low (how's that train design coming along?) perhaps a wound field is the
answer.
 If you want to be able to run your motor from both AC and DC (the so-called "universal"
motor), the magnetic field has to reverse its polarity every half cycle of the AC power, in
order that the torque on the rotor is always in the same direction. Obviously you need a
wound-field motor to achieve this trick.