Tian Et Al

Even though experimental testing has been performed, the modelling (analytical or numerical)
aspect of the 3D-printed structure (reinforced or not) is still in its infancy. Most of the work
conducted so far is associated with topology optimization techniques for complex geometries and
simulations of the printing process.
Tian et al. [20] used the concept of the Representative Volume Element (RVE) to predict the
mechanical properties of a 3D-printed composite of a metal-bonded diamond grinding wheel
application.
Finally, important to mention is the work of Damanpack et al. [21] on periodic lattice cell
structures. They utilized the concept of the RVE to present solutions for the effective properties
of a single, unreinforced lattice and then approximated the structure by considering the material
as homogeneous. Their model simulated the tensile tests with minor errors.
The elastic properties 3D cFRP have been previously studied by a limited number of researchers
exploiting numerical modelling techniques. Very recently, Hou et al. [22] utilized a COMBOT-I
printer to construct samples of PLA and Kevlar with different hatch spacing in order to regulate
the volume fraction of the fibres. They tested samples with layers of various orientations (0◦, 90◦,
and ±45◦) in tension and, afterwards, used ABAQUS [15] software to predict numerically their
macroscopic behaviour.
Dutra et al. [23] also used ABAQUS software to determine the stiffness and strength of nylon
matrix specimens reinforced with continuous fibres. For the prediction of the elastic properties,
they demonstrated the use of the asymptotic homogenization technique and compared the results
to experimental data. They concluded that the consideration of Nylon as the thermoplastic matrix
underestimates the transverse and inplane shear elastic properties and propose the use of higher
properties for their prediction.
Some analytical work has also been conducted to supplement the experimental one in the area of
mechanical properties of 3D cFRP. Important to underline is the work of van der Klift et al. [24],
who were among the first to implement the Rule-of-Mixture (ROM) model [25,26] for the
prediction of the mechanical properties of the reinforced 3Dprinted material. Naranjo-Lozada et
al. [27] and Chabaud et al. [10] followed the same path. However, all the aforementioned
researchers noticed a deviation from the expected theoretical values.
Melenka et al. [28] used a model referred to as Volume Average Stiffness (VAS) in order to
predict the elastic properties. The VAS presented accurate results for volume fractions higher
than 4%. An improved method has been developed very recently by Polyzos et al. [29]. They
demonstrated a multi-scale analytical methodology combining micro-mechanical and void
models for the approximation of the effective properties of the structure. Their method presented
very accurate estimations for three (𝐸11, 𝐸22, 𝐺12) out of five independent elastic properties of
the structure based on comparisons to experimental data.
Generally, the fundamental knowledge and consequent research of the complex FFF reinforced
structures are accompanied to date by a limited amount of published relevant work where the
unique geometric and material characteristics are partially considered [30]. The complex printed
geometries, the significant level of porosity and inadequate information on the properties of the
constituent materials exhibited in the literature are three of the most important drawbacks
delaying the understanding of the FFF.
Predictive modelling can facilitate the understanding of internal mechanisms and phenomena that
occur during the elastic deformation of the complex structure and offer rapid and accurate
estimations of the elastic properties of reinforced 3D-printed parts. The aforementioned
drawbacks, however, render the implementation of predictive modelling considerably more
challenging in comparison with the techniques that are employed thus far for traditional epoxy-
based composite structures. Therefore, there is an indisputable demand for an effective and
holistic approach to the predictive modelling of the elastic properties of reinforced FFF
structures.
A novel multi-scale modelling approach is developed in the context of the present research paper
to address the fundamental struggles and present an innovative and practical means of evaluation
of the elastic properties of reinforced FFF structures. The concept of hierarchical modelling is
implemented to articulate the addition of reinforced filament, the freedom of fibre orientation,
and the high internal porosity. The structure is partitioned in specific scales that embody the
unique characteristics of the reinforced FFF materials. Previously developed modelling
techniques, such as the notion of RVE, are incorporated to represent accurately and effectively
the geometrical and material irregularities of the structure’s geometry.
The most commonly encountered constituent materials (Nylon matrix with glass, carbon and
Kevlar fibres) are investigated. Extensive validation of the proposed multi-scale modelling
approach is presented for every scale by compelling comparisons to either analytical
micromechanical and void models or experimental data. Furthermore, a pioneering analytical
micro-mechanical Concentric Cylinder model is proposed as a simplification of the rather
complex Mori–Tanaka model to aid the validation process of the first step of the multi-scale
numerical approach. Finally, the lack of experimental data provided in literature for Kevlar 3D
cFRP is supplemented by performing of a series of tensile tests. The novel multi-scale modelling
approach of the elastic properties constitutes a foundation of the structural modelling of the 3D
cFRP.

Tian Et Al

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Even though experimental testing has been performed, the modelling (analytical or numerical)

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