Lecture Notes

Lecture No 4:

• Tabulation

• Simple bar chart

• Component bar chart

• Multiple bar chart

• Pie chart
As indicated in the last lecture, there are two broad categories of data … qualitative data and quantitative data. A variety
of methods exist for summarizing and describing these two types of data. The tree-diagram below presents an outline of
the various techniques

TYPES OF DATA

Qualitative Quantitative

Univariate Bivariate Discrete Continuous

Frequency Frequency
Table Table Frequency Frequency
Distribution Distribution
Percentages
Component Multiple Line Histogram
Bar Chart Bar Chart
Pie Chart
Chart
Frequency
Bar Chart Polygon

Frequency
Curve

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In today’s lecture, we will be dealing with various techniques for summarizing and describing qualitative data.

Qualitative

Univariate Bivariate
Frequency Frequency
Table Table

Percentages
Component Multiple
Pie Chart Bar Chart Bar Chart

Bar Chart
We will begin with the univariate situation, and will proceed to the bivariate situation.
EXAMPLE:
Suppose that we are carrying out a survey of the students of first year studying in a co-educational college of
Lahore. Suppose that in all there are 1200 students of first year in this large college.
We wish to determine what proportion of these students have come from Urdu medium schools and what proportion has
come from English medium schools.
So we will interview the students and we will inquire from each one of them about their schooling.
As a result, we will obtain a set of data as you can now see on the screen.

We will have an array of observations as follows:

U, U, E, U, E, E, E, U, ……

(U : URDU MEDIUM)
(E : ENGLISH MEDIUM)

Now, the question is what should we do with this data?

Obviously, the first thing that comes to mind is to count the number of students who said “Urdu medium” as well as the
number of students who said “English medium”.

This will result in the following table:

Medium of No. of Students

Institution (f)
Urdu 719
English 481
1200

The technical term for the numbers given in the second column of this table is “frequency”.

It means “how frequently something happens?”

Out of the 1200 students, 719 stated that they had come from Urdu medium schools.

So in this example, the frequency of the first category of responses is 719 whereas the frequency of the second category
of responses is 481.

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It is evident that this information is not as useful as if we compute the proportion or percentage of students
falling in each category.

Dividing the cell frequencies by the total frequency and multiplying by 100 we obtain the following:

Medium of
f %
Institution
Urdu 719 59.9 = 60%
English 481 40.1 = 40%
1200

What we have just accomplished is an example of a univariate frequency table pertaining to qualitative data.
Let us now see how we can represent this information in the form of a diagram.
One good way of representing the above information is in the form of a pie chart.
A pie chart consists of a circle which is divided into two or more parts in accordance with the number of distinct
categories that we have in our data.
For the example that we have just considered, the circle is divided into two sectors, the larger sector pertaining to
students coming from Urdu medium schools and the smaller sector pertaining to students coming from English medium
schools.
How do we decide where to cut the circle?
The answer is very simple! All we have to do is to divide the cell frequency by the total frequency and multiply by 360.
This process will give us the exact value of the angle at which we should cut the circle.
PIE CHART

Medium of
f Angle
Institution
Urdu 719 215.70
English 481 144.30
1200

Urdu
215.70

English
144.30

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SIMPLE BAR CHART:

The next diagram to be considered is the simple bar chart.

A simple bar chart consists of horizontal or vertical bars of equal width and lengths proportional to values they
represent.

As the basis of comparison is one-dimensional, the widths of these bars have no mathematical significance but
are taken in order to make the chart look attractive.
Let us consider an example.

Suppose we have available to us information regarding the turnover of a company for 5 years as given in the
table below:

Years 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969

Turnover (Rupees) 35,000 42,000 43,500 48,000 48,500

In order to represent the above information in the form of a bar chart, all we have to do is to take the year along the x-
axis and construct a scale for turnover along the y-axis.

Next, against each year, we will draw vertical bars of equal width and different heights in accordance with the
50,000

40,000

30,000

20,000

10,000

1965 1966 1967 1968 1969

turn-over figures that we have in our table.

As a result we obtain a simple and attractive diagram as shown below.

When our values do not relate to time, they should be arranged in ascending or descending order before-charting.
BIVARIATE FREQUENCY TABLE:
What we have just considered was the univariate situation.

50,000

40,000

30,000

20,000

10,000

0
1965 1966 1967 1968 1969

In each of the two examples, we were dealing with one single variable.
In the example of the first year students of a college, our lone variable of interest was ‘medium of schooling’.
And in the second example, our one single variable of interest was turnover.
Now let us expand the discussion a little, and consider the bivariate situation.

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Going back to the example of the first year students, suppose that alongwith the enquiry about the Medium of Institution,
you are also recording the sex of the student.
Suppose that our survey results in the following information:

Student No. Medium Gender

1 U F
2 U M
3 E M
4 U F
5 E M
6 E F
7 U M
8 E M
: : :
: : :

Now this is a bivariate situation; we have two variables, medium of schooling and sex of the student.
In order to summarize the above information, we will construct a table containing a box head and a stub as shown below:

Sex
Male Female Total
Med.

Urdu

English

Total

The top row of this kind of a table is known as the boxhead and the first column of the table is known as stub.
Next, we will count the number of students falling in each of the following four categories:

1. Male student coming from an Urdu medium school.

2. Female student coming from an Urdu medium school.
3. Male student coming from an English medium school.
4. Female student coming from an English medium school.
As a result, suppose we obtain the following figures:

Sex
Male Female Total
Med.

Urdu 202 517 719

English 350 131 481

Total 552 648 1200

What we have just accomplished is an example of a bivariate frequency table pertaining to two qualitative variables.

COMPONENT BAR CHAR:

Let us now consider how we will depict the above information diagrammatically.

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This can be accomplished by constructing the component bar chart (also known as the subdivided bar chart) as shown
below:

Urdu
800 English
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
Male Female
In the above figure, each bar has been divided into two parts. The first bar represents the total number of male students
whereas the second bar represents the total number of female students.

As far as the medium of schooling is concerned, the lower part of each bar represents the students coming from
English medium schools. Whereas the upper part of each bar represents the students coming from the Urdu medium
schools.The advantage of this kind of a diagram is that we are able to ascertain the situation of both the variables at a
glance.
We can compare the number of male students in the college with the number of female students, and at the same
time we can compare the number of English medium students among the males with the number of English medium
students among the females.

MULTIPLE BAR CHART

The next diagram to be considered is the multiple bar chart.

Let us consider an example.

Suppose we have information regarding the imports and exports of Pakistan for the years 1970-71 to 1974-75
as shown in the table below:

Imports Exports
Years
(Crores of Rs.) (Crores of Rs.)
1970-71 370 200
1971-72 350 337
1972-73 840 855
1973-74 1438 1016
1974-75 2092 1029
Source: State Bank of Pakistan

A multiple bar chart is a very useful and effective way of presenting this kind of information.

This kind of a chart consists of a set of grouped bars, the lengths of which are proportionate to the values of
our variables, and each of which is shaded or coloured differently in order to aid identification.

With reference to the above example, we obtain the multiple bar chart shown below:

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Multiple Bar Chart Showing Imports & Exports of Pakistan 1970-71 to 1974-75

This is a very good device for the comparison of two different kinds of information.
If, in addition to information regarding imports and exports, we also had information regarding production, we could

have compared them from year to year by grouping the three bars together.
The question is, what is the basic difference between a component bar chart and a multiple bar chart?
The component bar chart should be used when we have available to us information regarding totals and their
components.

For example, the total number of male students out of which some are Urdu medium and some are English
medium. The number of Urdu medium male students and the number of English medium male students add up to give us
the total number of male students.
On the contrary, in the example of exports and imports, the imports and exports do not add up to give us the totality of
some one thing!

Histograms with Unequal Intervals

For histograms, the heights of the bars on a histogram indicate the Frequency Density. The area of each bar is the
frequency. The Frequency Density changes for each bar on the histogram:

Frequency Density = (frequency / class width)

The example shows a table of a maths test given to a year group. Note that the class interval varies for each class:

Hour Frequency Class width Frequency Density

0 < h ≤ 30 2 30 2 ÷ 30 = 0.1
30 < h ≤ 40 18 10 18 ÷ 10 = 1.5
40 < h ≤ 50 42 10 42 ÷ 10 = 4.2
50 < h ≤ 60 51 10 51 ÷ 10 = 5.1
60 < h ≤ 65 43 5 43 ÷ 5 = 8.6
65 < h ≤ 75 45 10 45 ÷ 10 = 4.5
75 < h ≤ 90 18 15 18 ÷ 15 = 1.2

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