LIVELIHOOD CULTURE OF 18 TRIBES

TBOLI- The primary source of livelihood of the T’boli tribe comes from Lake Sebu.
Surrounding its shores are tilapia fishponds nurtured and maintained by the T’boli.
Instead of artificial feeds, they gather lotus seeds and other aquatic plants in the lake
and use these to nourish tilapias. Also farming is also relevant to this people. The
Department of Agriculture (DA), the Department of Interior and Local Government
(DILG), and the T’Boli municipal government oversee the construction of a 13-
kilometer concrete road network that by the end of the year would be completed. The
P108-million road project is part of the national government’s Payapa at Masaganang
Pamayanan (PAMANA) Program, which is overseen and monitored by the Office of
the Presidential Adviser on the Peace Process or OPAPP. Another P21 million has
been allocated to finance livelihood programs in Barangays Lambuling, Salome, and
Maan, bringing the total PAMANA allocation for T’boli to P124.5 million.

BLAAN- The B'laan are composed of three subgroups from Koronadal, Sarangani, and

Davao. Their means of livelihood are swidden farming, weaving (the males weave
baskets and the females, mats), fishing, hunting, food gathering, and tool- and weapon-
making. Swidden agriculture also known as shifting cultivation refers to a technique of
rotational farming in which land is cleared for the normally by fire and then left to
regeneratre after a few years. One of the daring actions made by the people of
Columbio—and especially the B’laan indigenous peoples— was to file a petition against
mining with the Philippine Supreme Court. That petition was first positively resolve, but
the verdict was inexplicably reversed just after a few months, allowing foreign mining
corporations to operate under 100% ownership in the Philippines. Having lost their legal
battle, the communities of Columbio shifted their efforts towards improving their socio-
economic conditions, to meet at least their urgent needs for food and land security. So
far, they did not secure a Certificate of Ancestral Domain, but just a Certificate of
collective ownership, securing land for ten years under an agrarian reform program.

ATA- For generations, the Ata women have mastered the art of making liyang, a woven
basket used for harvesting or for wood gathering. A liyang is made of abaca, rattan
(uway), and a bamboo tree (bagtok), which are all harvested in the forest. Collecting
raw materials alone entails hours of walking into the woods through a rugged track,
while the arduous weaving of a full-size liyang takes about three days to finish. Most of
these products are sold at the market or to nearby towns, as well as during special
events like festivals.The tradition of weaving liyang has been handed down through
different generations by Ata elders. Children grow up watching their mothers
weaving liyang, and thus learn through observation and training. Today, most of the
experienced weavers are educating their offspring to preserve this ancient yet vital
custom of the Ata tribe. They are confident that the continued practice of their culture
and traditions, such as liyang-weaving, will remind the future generations of Atas of their
roots. Slash-and-burn agriculture was once practiced by the tribe, but due to the
deterioration of the land and depletion of food sources in the surrounding areas, the
majority turned to trade and contour farming.
BAGOBO- For the Bagobo, losing a part of one’s arable property coupled with the
uncertainty of regularly producing their own food from a smaller piece of land is a fight
they have acknowledged. In their remaining lands, the tribe plant abaca, assorted root
crops, cereals, banana, coconut, and coffee. Men and women engage in subsistence
farming. Children are trained at a very young age to help out in farm work. Every family
heavily relies on abaca, the main and most important commodity grown in the area, as
their major source of income. On the average, an abaca farmer can harvest 100
kg/week at PhP 30-50.00/kg. Unfortunately, landslides following a series of heavy rains
occurred in 2008, making the tribal families lose majority of their abaca stands.
Disheartened, most of the farmers have not gone back to abaca growing ever since.
According to the Bagobo-Klata, the rainy season became so unpredictable that farmers
do not know the right time to plant their crops anymore. They have also observed that it
is now hotter than it used to be. In the past, they can still work in the fields even until
high noon. Due to the intense daytime heat, they have cut short their work time and are
forced to instead start very early in the morning.

BANWAON- Agriculture is their top source of livelihood, but they are knowledgeable in
farming and fishing as well. Despite living in modern times, the Banwaons strive to keep
their culture and traditions unscathed. For instance, they have numerous tales of war
and heroes that have been orally passed down and survive to this day. The province of
Agusan del Sur can be accessed both by land and water through the Butuan–Davao
National Highway or the north–south route interregional road linking Davao and the
Caraga Region. The Caraga Region supplies about 5 billion metric tons of metallic and
non-metallic gold ore reserves, making it one of the richest gold deposits in the country.

BUKIDNON- Abaca is known to be an effective plant that can improve the water holding
capacity of soil that can prevent floods/landslides and can help in the protection of
watersheds. These groups were introduced to engage in abaca production as source of
eco-friendly livelihood. Abaca nurseries cum techno-demo farms will serve as learning
field on abaca production technologies for these communities. The nurseries will be
jointly maintained by the 4 associations through the “Hunlus” or bayanihan system until
it becomes productive. These nurseries are expected to produce 800 suckers every
quarter or 3,200 abaca planting materials annually. Every recipient will give back the
number of planting materials received after two (2) years for distribution to other farmers
who are also interested in the production of abaca. Sustaining the system of distribution
and maintaining the demo farm will ensure continued income for the tribesmen and will
capably sustain the abaca fiber production in their area.

DIBABAWON- Their livelihood is supplemented by logging timbers like apitong, lauan,

yakal, kamagong and narra. The hunting of banog, bats, snakes, field rat, monkey and
different kinds of birds is prevalent. Fishing is also one of the major activities.. They also
engage in food gathering. For their livelihood, hunting is popular among the Dibabawon
as part of the customs. What is caught from the hunting is divided into different parts to
be distributed to every family in the neighborhood. During rice harvest, the yield is
divided into two. Everything harvested from morning until noon goes to the harvester
and those that are harvested in the afternoon goes to the farm owner.

HIGAUNON- The main economic activity is slash and burn cultivation of upland rice and
corn. The agricultural cycle starts during March and April when the Higaonon devote
themselves to clearing and planting. They also engage in food gathering. The Higaonon
filed an “ancestral domain claim” in 2002 for land they have traditionally inhabited, which
is their right under the Indigenous People’s Rights Act (IPRA) of 1997. But the
government allowed agribusiness company A Brown Corporation, Inc., to establish oil
palm plantations through its subsidiary ABERDI on the land that same year.

KALAGAN- The Kalagan are self-sufficient farmers, producing nearly all their own food.
Wet rice is grown in the lowlands, and dry rice and corn are raised in the mountainous
areas. Yams and sweet potatoes are also staple crops. Vegetables such as tomatoes,
squash, and beans are grown; coconuts abound; and many kinds of fruit are available.
Goats are raised for meat, and chickens are raised for both eggs and meat. In addition
to farming, the Kalagan catch fish and obtain wild foods and other various materials
from the marshes. The Kalagan of highest rank in their society do not perform manual
labor. Among the rest of the people, male/female division of labor is not very
pronounced. Men do the plowing, tilling and other heavy farm work. The women do
most of the domestic work, often assisted by their older children. Many household items
are hand crafted from wood, bamboo, rattan, thatch, and fiber. Most of these are for
personal use, but some woven items, mats, and baskets are made for commercial sale.
Kalagan art is limited mostly to weaving, making baskets, and crafting certain
ornaments. Personal adornment in the form of bright clothing, beaded jewelry, and other
accessories is distinctive and colorful. On special occasions, graceful dances are
performed to the rhythmic music of gongs and other instruments.

MAMANWA- Mamanwa mainly rely on shifting agriculture with hunting and gathering
forest resources. These natural resources are no longer sufficient to support their
livelihood needs of their family. Thus, Mamanwa Tribe has difficult way of living and is
financially hard-up due to no permanent work. The Mamanwa relied on subsistence
farming and fishing. Following a consensus with the tribe, the current adjusted royalty
distribution is: 50% for community development and 50% for governance.
Community development is composed of projects and activities on health and
sanitation, particularly potable water (15%), education (16%), support to Ancestral
Domain Sustainable Development and Protection Plan (ADSDPP) (9%), livelihood and
environment programs (30%), housing (8%), water systems (6%), sports development
and socio-cultural activities (5%), monitoring and evaluation (8%), and peace and order
(3%).Meantime, governance is comprised of Tribal Hall construction and administrative
support (12%), stipends for members and leaders (83%), and calamity and reserve
funds (5%).
MANDAYA- The Mandayas are shifting cultivators who rely largely on swidden farming
(also known as slash-and-burn) as a means for survival. Their other means
of livelihood include fishing, food gathering, hunting, and the planting of abaca as a
cash crop. Aesthetics and arts rank high among the Mandaya. They are excellent
metalsmiths, who can fashion beautiful silver ornaments and brass items (evidence of
their contact with Muslim groups), and weapons. Music is also an important part of
Mandaya culture, as they use various musical instruments and dances for celebrations
and rituals.

MANGGUWANGAN- They also focused on farming and hunting foods. They already
scattered in the different area of Mindanao so they don’t have any traditional livelihoods
culture.`

MANOBO- Men already received training on how to increase their farm and agricultural
production, starting a sago business, animal dispersal and other livelihood projects such
as serving as guides for the tourists, both foreign and local, who are on tour at the
amazing and majestic Agusan Marsh.Some Manobo tribesmen are also producing fish
nets and street light posts. While the wives of the BMADMCI male members also have
separate livelihood programs.They are mostly into making bags, sandals, tissue
holders, headbands, money and jewelry boxes, customized boxes, and several
household needs made of water lilies.They are also into making beads and other
handicraft.The tribal leaders of the BMADMCI, who are closely supervised and guided
by the councils' adviser, Elvira G. Catuburan, the chief of the Technical Management
Services Division of the National Communities on Indigenous People (NCIP), are still
looking for other income-generating projects like social services, livelihood potentials,
and forest development and management.It was learned that two of the tribal Manobo
leaders recently arrived a study tour in Honan Province, China, just to secure vital ideas
for additional livelihood projects. Practically, the royalty share of the ancestral domain
claims given to them by the PhilSaga Mining Corporation (PSMC) here is very vital in
the tribe's new way of life.
MANSAKA-  Mansaka life revolves around gold mining as it does for most people living
in the area. The valley itself is rich in copper and gold ore and mining has proliferated
since the 1970’s. For centuries the Mansaka farmed their land and grew subsistence
crops in patches of shifting agriculture throughout the valley. They grew corn, camotes,
vegetables, fruits, upland rice and even some cash crops such as coffee and abaca.
Although this type of subsistence farming is still present in the region, a number of
factors forced many Mansaka to find alternative forms of income. One of these factors
during the 1960s and 1970s was the increased number of upland settlers, due to new
logging access roads and large mining companies hiring Visayan migrants. The
consistent increase of human settlement further up the mountains led to less land and
degraded agricultural/soil resources for the Mansaka. Likewise, security tensions over
land with armed groups such as the NPA led many Mansaka to look for alternative
sources of income. Gold panning started in the rivers which eventually led to more
sophisticated means of mining as knowledge increased and larger corporations moved
in.
SUBANEN- There, most of the Subanen settled down and subsisted on rice farming
and fishing, in addition to breeding a variety of livestock, such as chickens, water
buffaloes, pigs, and cattle. In the last few years, petitions have been made by a number
of Subanen groups regarding the illegal cutting of trees, which several other indigenous
people from Mindanao are struggling with. To restore the forests in their ancestral
domains, communities have initiated tree plantings in designated areas. Last year, eight
tribal Subanen communities from five municipalities in Zamboanga del Sur were among
the millions of people who joined a one-hour planting event, which targeted to plant 4.6
million trees in the whole island of Mindanao. Roughly 5,000 trees, covering 205
hectares of land, were planted by the Subanen in five communities. 
TAGAKAOLO- Tagakaolo translates to “inhabitants of headwater (olo sa tubig) or
sources of rivers and streams.”. therefore their main livelihood is fishing.

TEDURAY- The economy of the Teduray is basically agriculture. Their primary means
of livelihood is farming. Their other sources of income are fishing, hunting and mini
handicraft production. Majority of the farmers still practice slash-and-burn methods of
farming. Thus, most of the farmers get marginal production which is very insufficient to
serve the needs of their families. Teduray still observe and practice the following
traditional ways of life: The planting star is observed during the months of December to
January — the period for upland farming. Farmers will only start to farm if the planting
star is visible. To a fenuwo where the first rice field to be planted, the spiritual leader
performs the ritual planting prayers  assisted by four Fintailans at the bagong/tudaor
center of the farm. After the rituals, the palay seeds are distributed to the women
planters with a spokesman giving the signal to start planting.

UBO- Ubos do not benefit. Many have lost their lands as they become indebted to meet
basic needs. Ubo fashion fine weaponry and jewelry that they believe possess souls, making it
harder for the maker to part with them. Agriculturally, they practice swidden, a slash-and-burn
farming, oft planting and harvesting rice, root crops, and vegetables for consumption.
 MEDICATION/ MEDICINES CULTURE PRACTICE OF 18
TRIBES
TBOLI
They prefer giving birth at home to practice their traditional rituals such as having a hilot
(midwife) present during delivery and using malong (Filipino wraparound skirt) so as not
to expose their private parts.. The T’boli people believe their sicknesses are always
caused by their angry gods, and they have to perform rituals and offer densu to
appease the spirits. They believe that these are punishments because they violate the
customary ways of intervening with nature. The m’wanga (tribal hilot) and m’tonbu
(herbal healer) cure the sick person and lead the healing rituals. They cure illnesses
such as b’latu (tumor or myoma), tenbalung (hemorrhage) or henayam. The illnesses
range from sentengeb (minor) to nasal be tonok (most serious), where the healer
perform and offer different offerings depending on the severity of the sickness.

B'LAAN
They believe the shamans have power to cure the sick by magic, to communicate with
the gods, and to control events.

ATA
Among the Aeta community in Ilagan, Isabela for example, banana leaves are used to
cure toothache. They also bathe themselves with cooled-down water boiled with
camphor leaves (subusob) to help alleviate fever, or they make herbal teas out of the
camphor leaves that they then drink thrice a day if the fever and cold still persist. For
muscle pains, they drink herbal teas extracted from kalulong leaves and have the
patient take it thrice a day. In order to prevent relapse after giving birth, women also
bathe themselves in cooled-down water boiled with sahagubit roots. The drinking of
sahagubit herbal tea is likewise recommended to deworm Aeta children, or generally to
alleviate stomachache. The Aeta communities take pride in their use of herbal
medicines and their own natural ways of curing the sick.

MANOBO
Among the Agusan Manobo are the yellow fruit moonseed or albutra (Arcangelisia
flava) and cinnamon or kaningag (Cinnamomum mercadoi). These medicinal plants are
highly prized for treating insect and snake bites, reproductive problems (impotence and
sterility), cancer, ulcers, and diarrhea. The Manobo tribe uses piper to treat snakebites,
by soaking the vine in coconut oil and applying it to the wound,

HIGAONON
Leaves were the most widely used plant parts which were commonly prepared by
boiling in water (decoction) and administered orally. stomach ailments, respiratory
diseases, wounds or cuts, and muscle pains or over fatigue in women were the most
common health problems treated by the identified medicinal plants.

BAGOBO
When a member of the family shows signs and symptoms of an illness, they are always
able to generate the cure through medicinal herbal plants and oils used. They also
acknowledged the use of modern medicine or over-the-counter drugs available in the
market especially when they are not satisfied with the use of herbals.

TAGAKAOLO
The inhabitants of headwater (olo sa tubig) or sources of Herbal Medicine such as
bayabas parts of the plant have been used in traditional medicine to manage conditions
like malaria, gastroenteritis, vomiting, diarrhea, dysentery, wounds, ulcers, toothache,
coughs, sore throat, or inflamed gums. and they are Known in Using Cooking pot.

SUBANEN
Bubuena and ampalaya for cough sakati and malunggay for wound, and handilika or
katakataka for boil. Boiling bubuena leaves for 15 minutes and drinking the mixture is
an effective cough treatment. However, Mansakas employ hot infusion of bubuena
leaves and the juice is extracted and or the leaves are rubbed on the chest and back.
For ampalaya, both indigenous and scientific applications are the same.

MANSAKA
Herbal treatment used by Mansaka for fevers are tawa-tawa and bosikad decoction
and or cold infusion (for bosikad). Tawa-tawa and Bosikad are found to have multiple
medicinal uses as revealed by scientific studies. The antibacterial and platelet effect of
tawa-tawa and the analgesic/hypoglycemic effect of bosikad are the chemical
components that will cure fever problem.

MANGGUWANGAN
Avocado, papaya, and guava are an effective treatment for stomach ache due to
flatulence, diarrheal, and dysentery effect. Papaya fruit has the ability to clean the
stomach; however, Subanen use the seed for treatment due to their belief that
bitterness components will cure the stomach ache problem.

MAMANWA
They use tuba-tuba for ulcers and toothache while Mansakas use it for hampol of bone
dislocation or sprain. Scientific studies showed that tuba-tuba contains hydrogen
cyanide, oil and its latex strongly inhibits mosaic virus.

KALAGAN
Lagundi, mayana, cogon, and lagnob are used for fever treatment due to its febrifuge,
analgesic and antimicrobial ability.
BUKIDNON
The effectiveness of sakati and malunggay leaves for wound treatment as practiced
by the bukidnln people is validated by scientific studies, revealing that sakati has an
inhibitory activity and is used by Malaysian as paste applied onto wounds and cuts,
while malunggay antiseptic ability will destroy and prevent the growth of infectious
agents thereby preventing the wound against infection.

BANWAON
Using lansones bark for hepatitis as Practiced by banwaon and for stomach ache is
validated by scientific studies revealing that lansones has antibacterial and antioxidant
effects.

DIBABAWON
Bawang is a used by dibabawon herbal medicine to treat infection with antibacterial,
antiinflammatory, anti-cancer and anti-hypertensive properties. It is widely used to
reduce cholesterol level in blood.
And using of Sambong that used to treat kidney stones, wounds and cuts, rheumatism,
anti-diarrhea, anti spasms, colds and coughs and hypertension.

MANDAYA
They use oil palmas as it is a monocotyledonous plant which belongs to the coccoid
group of palms that is commonly used for treating gonorrhea, rheumatism, headache,
wounds.

UBO
They use Lagundi effective in the treatment of colds, flu, bronchial asthma, chronic
bronchitis, and pharyngitis. Studies have shown that Lagundi can prevent the body's
production of leukotrienes, which are released during an asthma attack. The roots of
this shrub are also used as treatment for rheumatism, dyspepsia, boils, and leprosy.
The leaves, flowers, seeds, and root of Lagundi can all be used as herbal medicine. A
decoction is made by boiling the parts of the plant and taken orally.

TEDURAY
They are common is using Oregano erectly spreading plant that has a strong aromatic
characteristics, with leaves and stems that are fleshy. Its properties are believed to be
responsible for slowing the process of spoilage of food and thus minimizing the risk of
ingesting harmful bacteria, parasites and fungi. The extracts and juices of such are used
for asthma, dyspepsia, chronic coughs, bronchitis, and rheumatism. Ear aches have
also been proven to be cured by the infusion prepared from its leaves. The leaves
relieve painful swellings, boils, and sprains, when their poultices are applied directly to
the affected area.

EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENT CULTURE OF 18 TRIBES

TBOLI
Parents train their children through cautionary tales. Because of the region's isolation, access to formal
education remains limited, though less so than in the past.According to the 2000 census, of the
population over the age of five years in South Cotabato as a whole, 41.1% had completed elementary
school, 29% high school, and 8.4% college or university. 2000 literacy levels in Southern Mindanao
ranged from over 95% in Davao City to 80.4% in Sarangani province; the percentage for the T'boli's rural
South Cotabato province was likely closer to Sarangani's. The T'nalak, the T'boli sacred cloth, made from
abaca is the best known T'boli craft and is one of the tribes traditional textile, this cloth is exchanged
during marriages and used as a cover during births. The T'boli women are named dreamweavers,
another legend tells us that the T'nalak weaving was taught by a goddess named Fu Dalu in a dream and
that women learn this ethnic and sacred ritual, based on tribal designs and cloth patterns through their
dreams. These unique patterns are made with centuries-old practices and passed down from generation
to generation. This typical T'boli textile is history held in the hands of their makers and the rich cultural
heritage can be seen through their creations, it shows the tribe's collective imagination and cultural
meanings.The weaving is a very tedious job and requires much patience, a lot of creativity and a good
memory to remenber the particular designs. Men are not allowed to touch the chosen abaca fiber and
materials used in the weaving process and the weaver should not mate with her husband in the time the
cloth is woven, for it may break the fiber and destroy the design. At present the T'nalak products have
become the signature product of the province of South Cotabato.

B'LAAN
To enhance learning among students from the blaan indigenous group, sarangani teachers created
traditional and digital learning materials in the children's mother tongue.an elder of the blaan tribe in
sarangani checks the accuracy of illustrations and learning content created by teachers for young blaan
learners.it is a challenge faced by many ip (indigenous people) students, given the lack of teachers who
hail from their own tribes or are knowledgeable of their language and culture.to help address this,
specifically for the benefit of young learners from the blaan tribe in sarangani, pldt wireless unit smart
communications organized workshops for the creation of traditional and digital learning materials in the
local language and incorporating local culture. one of the workshops, conducted in partnership with the
pldt-smart foundation, also introduced a learning method that would help ip educators effectively
handle multiple grade levels at the same time.according to the department of education, there are 125
ip schools in sarangani alone, catering mostly to blaan students. “it is so easy to impart knowledge if you
use their language. you can’t keep speaking in english if your audience is composed of ip pupils.”for five
days in january, a team of teachers and illustrators learned scriptwriting and storyboarding so they could
produce animated versions of blaan stories and make lessons more fun and interactive. smart will help
put all the content in a mobile app especially made for blaan learners. the plan is to include sections on
blaan prayers, songs, and greetings, on top of lessons on numbers and letters. They are famous for their
rich and colorful cultural heritage, ethnic art and handcrafts like the brass ornaments and traditional
beadwork. Colorful native costumes woven from abaca and decorated with embroidery, buttons, beads
and heavy brass belts with numerous tiny bells are worn by the women of the Bilaan, making their
approach heard, even from a far distance. The sequin-like capiz shells called takmon are used to give a
distinct design and color to their clothes, among the women, the intricately beaded wooden comb, the
swat san salah is a must.

ATA
This Salugpungan Community Learning Center is running for nine years and taught 558 Ata Manobo
students.The school started nine years ago in 2003, as a non-formal school of the religious organization
Rural Missionaries of the Philippines (RMP) in Southern Mindanao.The tribal leaders of Salugpungan
thought that education is key for the future generation, especially in learning how to defend their
culture and their land against the encroachment of mining and other industries.Their hopes were
supported by the RMP especially through the efforts of the slain Italian missionary Father Fausto ‘Pops’
Tentorio, PIME (Pontifical Institute for Foreign Missions), who was then the chair of the RMP Board of
Directors.Fr. Tentorio, who runs literacy programs in North Cotabato province, extended support to
Talaingod.Later in 2007, the Salugpungan Council and RMP established a primary school. Now there are
10 Ata-Manobo schools. Fr. Tentorio had supported the schools through donations and financial
support from his friends in Italy.Now, the Salugpungan Community Learning Center has become a full-
fledged elementary school, offering primary education — for free — up to Grade Six.But, the religious
and the lumads’ initiative to gain access to basic education had been undermined with lack of
government support.The tradition of weaving liyang has been handed down through different
generations by Ata elders. Children grow up watching their mothers weaving liyang, and thus learn
through observation and training. Today, most of the experienced weavers are educating their offspring
to preserve this ancient yet vital custom of the Ata tribe. They are confident that the continued practice
of their culture and traditions, such as liyang-weaving, will remind the future generations of Atas of their
roots.

BAGOBO
Traditional Manuvu' education takes place in the home. From a young age Manuvu' children stay by
their mother's side. Young girls are taught household chores and agricultural tasks reserved for females,
while boys assisted their fathers in the fields. After puberty, girls are eligible for marriage. In the 1950s
and 1960s government-operated public schools were established, but student enrollment remains low
as students drop out of school at a young age.Dance and music traditions (including gong-playing and
the singing of the Tuwaang epic, a highlight of most social gatherings) resemble those of other
Mindanao-Sulu peoples.Traditionally tattooing was common. Men wore tattoos on the chest, upper
arms, forearms, and fingers, while women had tattoos on the same parts of the body as well as on their
calves, where the most elaborate tattoos were done. Tattoo designs mimicked the embroidered
patterns on clothing, with the addition of figures of binuaja (crocodile), ginibang (iguana) and binuyo
(betel leaf).Traditionally men carry bolos, knives with long blades and a wooden handle that are used to
clear vegetation in agricultural land or cutting trails in the forest.

BANWAON
Lately, the Banwaon people have been a subject of discussion, as they have been displaced due to a
conflict in their ancestral land. Most of them live in the impoverished areas of Agusan del Sur with no
access to basic services, such as education. Most children have to endure kilometers of walking just to
reach the town centers where the schools are situated.Similar to other indigenous peoples in Mindanao,
they continue to cope with the changes in their environment that could likely threaten the preservation
of their culture and tradition. Nonetheless, a handful of organizations have tried to extend aid to the
Banwaons to help them further withstand these changes while retaining their cultural identity.The
typical Banwaon household includes extended family members, which is characteristic of the tribe's
close-knit family ties. Agriculture is their top source of livelihood, but they are knowledgeable in farming
and fishing as well. Despite living in modern times, the Banwaons strive to keep their culture and
traditions unscathed. For instance, they have numerous tales of war and heroes that have been orally
passed down and survive to this day.Up to the present time, the Datu remains central to everyday life,
and rituals are still observed to appease their gods. Traditionally, ceremonial offerings, such as pigs or
chickens, are essential. Among the sacred ceremony of the Banwaons is tud-om, which is a succession of
sacred verses that is instituted not only during harvest or thanksgiving but also during community or
tribal conflicts and in establishing a new chieftain.

BUKIDNON
The Bukid’non Pulangiyen tribal community lives on the watershed of Sitio Bendum in Malaybalay City,
Bukidnon, Mindanao. Until recently, they had no access to primary education: the nearest school was
seven kilometres away at the bottom of the mountain and could only be reached by walking for two
hours. Consequently, school-aged Pulangiyen children had very limited access to basic education, and
even the education they could access was not appropriate for the Pulangiyen tribe. This all changed with
the establishment of the Apu Pulamguwan Cultural Education Center (APC) in Bendum. APC is a
community school which has developed a culture-based curriculum for primary education, and has
made education accessible not only to children living in the area but also to other villages that extend to
the borders of the neighbouring province of Agusan del Sur. APC’s presence makes it possible for almost
150 children from indigenous communities to attend school and benefit from all of the opportunities
education brings, with the result that families and the wider community are now better able to
participate in the regions socio-economic development.Support to the education sector has been
extended with a goal to improve the passing marks in the elementary and secondary levels.Cultural
events Bukidnon is progressive in agriculturall-based economy. These are:
tomato,cassava,rice,corn,rubber, banana, pineapple and many more fruits and vegetables. Every two
years, people of Bukidnon celebrates KAAMULAN to showcase, promote and preserve their cultural
heritage.Bukidnons art is best expressed in their dances, poetry and music, mat weaving, and basketry.
The Bukidnon musical instruments consist of bamboo flutes, bamboo Jew’s harp, one-stringed violin,
and the boatshaped guitar.The Bukidnon handicrafts consist of mats, hats, fishtraps, and cloth weaving.
The traditional method of farming is still being practiced by the farmers in planting palay, corn,
sugarcane, pineapple, coffee, cassava, abaca, and vegetables.

DIBABAWON
The social structure of the Dibabawon tribe consists of the following: Maniguon, the tribal leader who is
chosen by elders who convene to elect the Head of Maniguon (Panguo); the Baganis, the tribal warriors
and protectors; the Baylan, the spiritual leader of the tribe, who performs rituals during festivals, to heal
the sick, and oversees other events that are significant to the tribe such as thanksgiving for a good
harvest, asking for an abundance of food, and prosperity; the Kadumahan, the Dibabawon term for their
community.The tribe has its own unique mode of dressing. A Dibabawon dress is called, “Puka”. They
use black cloth with red embroideries for the male’s upper dress. They also use black cloth adorned with
colors red and white for their pants. The women use red cloth with ornaments and embroideries of blue
thread and patadyong for their skirt.

HIGAUNON
The Higaonon of Sinakungan continually remain in active pursuit of their young learners’ education—
teachers ensure quality in the school’s day-to-day operations, while parents and other community
members regularly aid in activities like structural maintenance, supplementary feeding, and regular
cultural gatherings.For program turnover, Cartwheel PH coordinated with DepEd’s Indigenous Peoples
Education Office (IPSEO) in Metro Manila, which connected the organization to the community’s district
branch with recommendation from DepEd Undersecretary for Curriculum and Instruction, Dina Ocampo.
With the approval and the turning over of the program to the Department of Education, the government
institution sees the importance of keeping indigenous knowledge, skills and practices of the Higaonon
integrated into all subject matter.With the active community members and supportive local
stakeholders working together to sustain culturally relevant education, Cartwheel PH remains hopeful in
the thriving of Higaonon culture in Sinakungan.The culture of Higaunon tribe can best be described as a
culture of Peace, for solving their internal conflicts or settle feuds among other ethnic groups, the
tribes practises an ancient ritual: the tampudas hu Balagun, or the treaty of the green vine branch, a
symbolic ans traditonal cutting of the vine. Most of the members of this tribal group are Christianized,
but the recounting by older generation of stories concerning their traditional and indigenous religion is
common practise. When they are baptized the Higaonon are allowed to keep two names, a Christian and
an Higaonon name.

KALAGAN
The Tagakaulo Kalagan in Sarangani Province and Davao del Sur work in association with the
Department of Education Bureaus of Elementary Education and Alternative Learning Systems. Beginning
in the barangay of Lutay, an area which formerly had neither formal schools for children nor non-formal
classes for adults, a program for children has begun where basic reading and writing lesson materials are
constructed first in the mother tongue of the students, and then bridging into Filipino and English. SIL
members are very active in this area and the program is spreading to a number of other Tagakaulo
speaking areas. Kalagan are Tagakaolo who have converted to Islam, either through intermarriage or
contact with the Maguindanao. Islamization is a relatively recent development among the Tagakaolo
and many older Kalagan still retain traditional beliefs. Kalagan speak Tagakaolo, a subgroup of the
Central Philippine Language Group. Some Kalagan are swidden agriculturalists, while others are involved
in wage labor. Maize is the major crop, and is harvested two or three times a year. Coastal Kalagan are
also fishermen, and some work as plantation laborers.

MAMANWA
Education is said to be the equalizer for all. Those who want to climb up the social and economic ladder
must pursue their dreams on the basis of knowledge and learning. But for the Mamanwas living in the
hinterlands of Surigao del Norte, much needs to be done to put an end to the marginalization of their
communities.One of their most celebrated customs is the Bonok-bonok. Most historians described
Bonok-bonok as an ethnic Mamanwa dance performed by the natives during thanksgiving, worship, and
wedding ceremonies. It is a communal tradition of the Mamanwas, where the elders from different
villages—the most respected men in their communities whom they consider leaders—along with the
women, dance, cheer, and sing for happiness and friendship. Men and women dressed in colorful native
attires complete with their ornate accessories punctuate the whole festival. For the Mamanwas, dancing
reflects their way of life and serves as an expression of their affinity with the spiritual and natural world,
where earth, water, wind, air and fire are alive.

MANDAYA
Educators from the Mandaya tribe were able to benefit from the Mandaya grammar-writing workshop
organized by UP Mindanao’s Department of Social Sciences.The workshop is part the school’s
community service to teach Mandaya educators create instructional materials to promote mother
tongue-based multi-lingual education for kinder to grade 3 learners.Christianized Mandaya still retain
some of the past beliefs creating a syncretic form of religion. Dagmay, an abaca handwoven cloth with
intricate designs revolving around man and crocodile, is one of the most popular material culture. Its
mud-dyeing technique is believed to be the only one existing in the Philippines.Mandaya culture
continues to amaze and interest many people as it becomes enduring and persevering generation after
generation. Mandaya means “inhabitants of the uplands”. Quite interestingly, areas occupied by the
Mandaya in the Pacific rim are characterized by rugged topography with few plains along the coastal
areas.

MANGGUWANGAN
They also focused on farming and hunting foods. They already scattered in the different area of
Mindanao so they don’t have any traditional livelihoods culture.`

MANOBO
Development on Education As they initiated the school, they eventually gained the recognition of the
Department of Education. Last year, the Biao Primary school was annexed to an Elementary School in
Kanipaan which is in lowland. Last March, 10 Manobo honor students were recognized in the said
elementary for the first time. More children are encouraged to finish all the way to higher education.
The high school Manobos are able to sustain their study in the lowland Milbuk National High School by
earning a keep for host families who “adopted” them and provide them their school needs. On other
hand, the elders learn literacy every Saturday through a volunteer whose compensation is shouldered by
a non Manobo village captain. This year, the government will hire and assign licensed teachers in Biao
and build a concrete classroom. Around 170 children are expected to formally re-enroll in Grade I for
academic year 2012-2013. Some Manobo tribes never wear the malong, but use it for many other
purposes: as a blanket, a crib, mosquito bar, carrying bag, and so forth. The Tigwahanon also have the
ampit, a barrel skirt shorter than the malong, with an inwoven checkered design.The Manobo are both
strong in mind and spirit, their cultural identity is firmly rooted in the land and its nature. It is
maintained through storytelling, language, family and the passing on of traditional skills and arts. The
traditional way of life has not ended for most Manobos, like any other tribal community in Mindanao,
the Manobo have faced many cultural challenges in their past and will encounter even more in the
future. They strive to uphold their values and traditions even while living in a modern society, faced
with new realities, ready to compete in the modern economic world instead of the world of nature.

MANSAKA
The Mansakas have no college education, mostly farmers, and willing to die for the ownership of their
land. The majority was converted to Christianity, but still holding on to their customs and traditions. The
community assigns members to manage the farm. Men are tasked with tilling the land and other farm-
related jobs. They do not farm on the same area though to maintain the fertility of the land and to
prevent future soil erosion.Women, on the other hand, are tasked to produce clothings and weave
mats. They also help in the farm during planting, weeding and harvesting times. Rituals, as performed by
the baylan (ritual practitioner), are done during planting and harvesting season. This activity is done to
ask Magbabaya to give them bountiful harvests, and to drive away bad spirits or pests that will damage
their plants/farms.The time of harvest is an occassion for merrymaking. The first meal from their farm
produce, is calledpyagsawitan. A ceremony is performed to offer their harvest to Magbabaya. Families
and neighbors join and witness the event. They bring food and wine as their contribution. Tribal dances
are performed, coupled with singing and the playing of indigenous instruments. Each guest leaves with
something from the farm produce.

SUBANEN
Education among these people was limited to instruction by the Thimuay head to a future husband and
wife regarding love, respect and treatment of each other, parents, and in-laws. The tribe has no religion
although it is believed that they had a holy book at one time. In marriage, the parents of the man look
for a woman he will marry and both sets of parents set the wedding date. Polygamy and polyandry are
practiced but separation is not allowed nor is marrying nearest relatives. When a couple wants to have
only 1 or 2 children the wife, after giving birth, eats an herb called benayan. For birth spacing she eats 2
herbs, and if no more children are desired she eats more. Another type of birth control is practiced by
the midwife who "manipulates" the woman after delivery. Various methods are practiced to
predetermine a child's sex. Pregnant women must abide by many regulations including placing a piece of
wood across her path before going in a doorway. It is considered a blessing to have more daughters than
sons because the father will be able to recover the dowry he paid for his wife. There is a general belief
that all human beings should marry.The cultural adaptation is upland and swidden cultivation. The
traditional settlement pattern is highly dispersed with a few residential structures on top of ridges near
potable water sources, which are placed adjacent to cultivated fields. Locations near springs rather than
streams are preferred. Rice is the preferred food but fields are also planted to corn, sweet potato, and
cassava. Land problems and degraded environment have forced some of the people to wet rice
agriculture. Metal craft and weaving are practiced. They have maintained trade with coastal peoples
through centuries. Present-day Subanon are nonaggressive, although there are indications that in the
past the people were required to provide a “soul companion” for an important deceased relative.Unique
among the ethnic groups of the country is the Subanon set of rituals, buklog, that utilizes a huge dancing
platform to which a log is attached that hits a hollowed sounding board on the ground.

TAGAKAOLO
Classes at the Tagakaolo SLT will be done when children are not in school, preferably weekends.
Teachers may also visit their students at home.Although classes are informal, each training session will
begin with the tradition call and banging of “agong” to be followed by tribal prayer, songs and
storytelling before getting into learning skills. Celito Tirando, manager of Sulong Tribu Program, said the
SLT will be developed to fortify the IP education curriculum of nearby public school. Sulong Tribu,
Tirando said, will assist the SLT initially with the purchase of materials for the skills training and
capability building of the cultural mentors.
“The provincial government will also make sure that the assistance will not only last for six months but
will be sustained and that this SLT will be formalized and integrated in the public school system,”
Tirando said, adding that “in the future, students of the public school may come down to the SLT for
their class in TLE (technology and livelihood education) " Central to their culture is the datu who
presides over civic and labor duties; a prominent datu could secure, either by capture or by purchase.
Each datu is the autonomous chief over an area.).”

TEDURAY
The Tedurays are known for their distinct and unique culture, beliefs, customs and traditions. These
people exhibits strong family ties but are too dependent on other members who are more influential
and affluent in the community. The Teduray are honest, soft-spoken, shy, sensitive and soft-hearted
people. They are also hospitable and peace-loving. A klakafan or a traveler who is still on the road by
night fall, in a fenuwo where he does not know anybody, can knock at the nearest Teduray dwelling
where he will be readily accepted and given the respect and hospitality extended to strangers and
guests alike.

UBO
The Ubo fashion fine weaponry and jewelry that they believe possess souls, making it harder for the
maker to part with them. Agriculturally, they practice swidden, a slash-and-burn farming, ofplanting and
harvesting rice, root crops, and vegetables for consumption.
POLITICAL/ LEADERSHIP AND GOVERNANCE CULTURE OF
18 TRIBES T'BOLI
TBOLI

T’Boli society is ruled by a datu who assumes several roles. He has social, economic,
religious and political functions. There are a number of datus in the T’Boli society with
varying degrees of power, fame and status achieved or ascribed by the datus to
themselves and recognized by their followers. The position of datu is not hereditary. No
datu enjoys primacy over the others, nor does he exercise specific jurisdictional control
over specific areas or groups. Other datu might accord deferential treatment to one of
their members, but this is not a sign of his superiority over them.

B'LAAN

In some of the areas they still control, the Blaan have headmen whom they call Bong To
(big man). He is supposed to own enough disposable resources (gongs, jars, beads,
metallic weaponry, horses, cash) for use in mediating and settling conflict within his
community, with other communities, with Bisaya migrant settlers, or with the
government. He is thus supposed to be datu (wealthy). He is also supposed to be
fulong (knowledgeable and wise) because decision-making on disputes, crimes and
other problems rests on his shoulders. He is known as both Bong To and Bong Fulong if
he is an especially knowledgeable and wise leader. There are Bong Fulong who are not
Bong To. But Bong To consults and often defers to such Bong Fulong on complex
matters. If a Bong To believes that he could or should not decide upon an issue on his
own, even with the benefit of advise from a Bong Fulong, he simply convenes the
people of his community in a meeting. There is no intermediate structure between the
Bong To and the community – no council. In areas they do not control, or wherever
there is no longer anyone wealthy enough to act as Bong To.

ATA

Datu Lumansad Sibogan, the presiding officer of the Council of Elders of the Ata-
Manobo Tribe in Talaingod, said it is high time to stop their own tribal members who
follow the path of the NPA to the point of killing their own relatives.Sibogan said
"pangayaw" is a cultural practice or self-governance of the tribes to exact justice for the
killings in the community that not even the National Commission on Indigenous People
(NCIP), police or military can stop. "Pangayaw" has been defined as a ritual performed
by a warrior chief prior to waging a prestige killing.

BAGOBO

Traditionally, Bagobo society is dominated by a warrior class called magani, that

includes the community leader, usually a datu who wields no real power except his
influence as  senior arbiter and judge, qualities, which derive from his being a magani.
He exerts influence over a community composed of households organized through
kinship principles, whether by blood or by marriage.
       The houses are scattered near swidden fields. The scattered neighborhood is
organized into a district or political domain under the datu who functions as a temporal
head of a group. It is said that several domains identified as Bagobo with its datu or
chief, recognize the political authority of the datu of Sibulan, as a higher level of
hierarchy. The house of the datu has been said to be able to accommodate several
hundreds of people, and it is the ceremonial and defense center for the community.
Specific domains are controlled by magani. The magani is identified by his blood-red
clothing, which he earns in successful combats.

BANWAON

One leader called the katangkawan has become a paramilitary organiser supporting the
state‘s counter-insurgency program. Other Banwaon leaders of the Tagdumahan
association assert political autonomy from the state. The thesis follows the latter, and
their responses to the katangkawan. Almost all Banwaon are implicated in illegal
logging. Given timber‘s value as a commodity, Banwaon tenure rules have evolved so
that landowners also own the timber standing thereon. However, the katangkawan
proposed to have the entire Banwaon ancestral territory titled, invoking a state law
recognizing ancestral land ownership. The Tagdumahan responded adversely to this
project, because of its implication in counter-insurgency and the katangkawan‟s role in
it. The impact of counter-insurgency on the Banwaon is explored. The response of a
Banwaon community occupied by the military suggests a pattern of sedentarisation in
response to the state‘s growing control of the surrounding forests. A second community
suffered from threats from a death-squad allegedly controlled by the katangkawan.
Village leaders had difficulty addressing this problem because of the way the
katangkawan blurs the line between state and Banwaon society. Electoral politics as a
response to threats is also examined

BUKIDNON

A Datu – a chieftain, is the political and spiritual ruler of each tribe. The Datu is one who
settles disputes and gives judgment whenever their unwritten laws called Batasan are
violated. The Bukidnon Datu holds a great influence on the tribal and communal life of
the Bukidnons.

DIBABAWON

The word Dibabawon comes from the native word “dibabaw” which means “at the top”,
“tip”, or “victorious”. An ancient Dibabawon chieftain, Madabon, was quoted to have said
before he died, “All descendants after me, shall be called Dibabawons for they shall
always be on top of this place, come what may”. He died long before the Spanish
conquest. The social structure of the Dibabawon tribe consists of the
following: Maniguon, the tribal leader who is chosen by elders who convene to elect the
Head of Maniguon (Panguo); the Baganis, the tribal warriors and protectors; the Baylan,
the spiritual leader of the tribe, who performs rituals during festivals, to heal the sick,
and oversees other events that are significant to the tribe such as thanksgiving for a
good harvest, asking for an abundance of food, and prosperity; the Kadumahan, the
Dibabawon term for their community.

HIGAUNON

Despite the concerted efforts to denounce Datu, new families join the effort daily. With
Datu, the elders continue to develop plans for the project's successful expansion. The
Higaonon's goals are attainable with the support of concerned national and international
communities.

The Higaonon see the project as their final hope of survival. If the forest is gone, the
tribe will cease to exist. These indigenous people are the last true vestiges of tribal life
in the Philippines. As a link to the past, they are a precious world treasure.

KALAGAN

The Kalagan social structure is unusual because it is modified by a system of social

rank, certain rules of descent, and distinctive patterns of marriage. Social rank is
generally less important than blood ties. Higher-ranking families maintain elaborate
genealogies to prove their descent.Kalagan marriages are usually monogamous (having
only one spouse). Although polygyny (having more than one wife) is permitted, it is
practiced only by those of high rank and wealth. There is a strong preference for
marriage between related families, especially to second cousins. After marriage, the
couples usually live in the husband's community, although today, young couples may
form their own independent households.

MAMANWA

The Mamawas have managed to keep their group intact and to some extent their basic
cultural identity because of they way their society is structured. However the lack of
emphasis in teaching their culture and way of life to the new generation of Mamanwas,
encroachment of their ancestral domains, exposure to the modern way of life and the
lack of unity and leadership among the scattered Mamanwa tribes has sadly contributed
to the degradation of their cultural identity.

MANDAYA

The traditional governance of the Mandaya displays a strong leadership. Customary

laws are observed and stiff penalties are imposed. Acceptance and respect by the
community makes a tribal governance work. In some areas, the elders
and leaders approve holding of pangayao to exact justice and revenge.

MANGGUWANGAN

Manguangan is ethnoreligion. Ethnoreligion is deeply rooted in a people's ethnic identity

and conversion essentially equates to cultural assimilation. It was ruled by a datu who
are elder from them
MANOBO

The political structures of the Manobo groups are all quite similar. A ruler, called a
sultan, is the head of the group. Beneath him are the royal and non-royal classes. Only
those people belonging to the royal classes can aspire to the throne. Those belonging
to the non-royal classes are under the power and authority of the royal classes. Each
class is interdependent on the others.

MANSAKA

The Mansaka’s economic and political life is largely determined by the tribal elders
or matikadong who are also baganis or tribal warriors.As it is with other indigenous
groups, any conflict that arises is resolved among the members of the community. The
most frequent of conflicts revolves around land and river. Another is when a woman
who is about to be married elopes or is taken away by another man. This usually results
to a tribal war especially when this is not resolved immediately by the tribal leaders. The
man who has taken away the woman is ordered to pay all the expenses incurred for the
wedding among other penalties.The task of a bagani is to protect the rights and lives of
the community or clan members. He is called a tribal warrior because of his capacity to
fight and protect the community. A Bagani has killed at least 12 people prior to
assuming the position.

SUBANEN

The younger brother Daginding took over the Subanen leadership from his aging father
Gumabongabon. Throughout his lifetime Gumabongabon was never conquered or
subjugated either by the Muslim or Christian faith by remaining in the jungles with his
family and those that continued his leadership.

TAGAKAOLO

It occurs in schools, communities and homes, in rich and poor areas alike, and impacts
physical and emotional wellbeing of children of all ages, races, social and economic
backgrounds. However, it was interesting to know that is not a common practice in the
community of Tagakaolo in Upper Lumabat, Malungon, Sarangani, Philippines.
Disciplining children without violence is not a new or difficult thing to do for them.“Our
traditions pass from generation to generation, from grandparents to parents and to
children. Whenever there’s a problem with a child, we provide advice to the parents,
usually the advice come from the elders,” 

TEDURAY

The political system among the Teduray is still the old type with the family as the basic
unit of government and the father as the head. In the Fenuwo, composed of 10 to 30
families, the Kefeduwan is the leader of the council of elders and spokesman of the
village. A kefeduwan is the person who is well-versed in Teduray customs and
traditional laws. The kefeduwan is the model person in the community — honest, brave,
and has the ability to influence the people witth the force of his personality and logic.
Timuay is the highest rank and honor given to the leader or the Chieftain. Today, it is,
observed that the future and promising strong and powerful leader of the Teduray are
the educated and spiritual leaders. The mobile lifestyle, poverty, and poor education
limited the socio-economic and political stability of the Teduray people. Although the
Tedurays have long recognized the Philippine government, such beliefs remain with
them.

UBO

The Manuvu people had the datu or tribal chieftain, the head of the village. As legislator,
judge, and commander-in-chief, he was assisted by a council of elders [buy-ag] who
were known for their intelligence, integrity, and prudence. These elders may themselves
became chieftains by consanguinity or affinity (Guardados 2001:33).
 RELIGIOUS AND FAITH CULTURE OF 18 TRIBES
TBOLI

The T'boli people believe in a highly-complex traditional religion that is unique to the
region. Their religion is regionally-complex and is composed of the life ways and belief
systems inherent to the Tboli psyche. However, in modern times, their religion has been
degraded to a certain extent due to the introduction of Roman Catholicism,
Protestanism, and Islam. Nevertheless, some communities continue to preserve and
conserve the religion practices of their ancestors, which has been established
thousands of years ago.

B'LAAN

B’laans have rituals for everything that they do, from selecting a place from a farm
planting, har#mvest and post harvest because of their belief onthe supremacy of the!
great creator. B’laan religious belief and practice range between customsand traditions
directly associated with the established christian churches in the areas to highly
traditional animistic beliefs which encompass both natural and supernatural elements
from the environment in which they live.

ATA

Animism permeates the Ata way of life. However, acculturation has caused some
changes especially among the younger generation. Like the Matisalugs, they believe
that "Manama" is the supreme god but there are others who do Manama's bidding.
These gods must be appeased.The primary religion practiced by the Ata is
ethnoreligion. Ethnoreligion is deeply rooted in a people's ethnic identity and conversion
essentially equates to cultural assimilation.

BAGOBO

The religious beliefs of the Bagobo revolve around many unseen spirits interfering in the
lives of humans. They believe these spirits can intrude on human activities to
accomplish their desires. The spirits are also believed to have human characteristics.
They are both good and evil in nature and can be evoked to both anger and pleasure.

BANWAON

Datu remains central to everyday life, and rituals are still observed to appease their
gods. Traditionally, ceremonial offerings, such as pigs or chickens, are essential.
Among the sacred ceremony of the Banwaons is tud-om, which is a succession of
sacred verses that is instituted not only during harvest or thanksgiving but also during
community or tribal conflicts and in establishing a new chieftain.
BUKIDNON

They continue to believe in a vast hierarchy of invisible supernatural beings led by

Magbabáya, "most powerful of all." These spirits possess human characteristics and,
while most are beneficent, they have to be won over with sacrifices of food and drink.
Christian images, novenas, crucifixes, celebrations, and saints have simply been
substituted for the old amulets, ceremonies, and guardian spirits, and the primary
purpose of worship remains one of short-term gain rather than long-term salvation.

DIBABAWON

The Dibabawon tribe’s religion is called “Talihan”. They believed in the spirits like
“Bantoy”, the messenger of the “Magbabaya” or “Taginihit” (god). “Gamo-gamo” is a
spirit that lives in the water while “Tagamaling” is a spirit from heaven. They observe
their beliefs and tradition to maintain good relationship with the Tagainihit who is the
creator of all things on Earth. Some of the tribe still practice this religion except for those
community members who have converted to Christianity.

HIGAUNON

The indigenous religion of the Higaonon no longer exists. Vestiges of this still remain
with the older generation. Even when already Christianized, no one is against the
recounting of stories concerning their traditional religion. Marriages, baptisms and other
sacraments are done in churches administered by the Catholic priest or Protestant
minister, respectively. When baptized the Higaonon keeps two names – a Christian and
an Higaonon name.

KALAGAN

They continue to believe in a variety of environmental spirits. Many tales are also told
of magic, sorcery, and supernatural beings. Muslim religious leaders and teachers
(imams and panditas) direct religious life and teach young boys to read and memorize
the Koran (Islam's holy book). Muslim holidays and other observances are celebrated to
varying degrees.

MAMANWA

Both the Mamanwa and Manobo believe in a supreme being they call Magbabaya, who
is also the creator of all. They also believe in spirits and unseen beings inhabiting and
guarding the elements of their environment and to whom recognition and respect must
be accorded to lest they would be punished or plagued by unfortunate events

MANDAYA

In contrast to the Christian belief that sets evil as absolute archenemy to one's faith and
morality, the Mandaya believe that evil spirits can be appeased and made amicable.
This appeasement the Mandaya do through rituals, offerings and sacrifices. The
Mandaya embrace evil if it meant making it good.

MANGGUWANGAN

They believe that these spirits can intrude on human activities to accomplish their
desires. The spirits are also believed to have human characteristics. They are both
good and evil in nature and can be evoked to both anger and pleasure.

MANOBO

The religious practices of the Manobo vary slightly, there seems to be at least one
common thread linking them together. Each culture believes in one "great spirit." This
"great spirit" is usually viewed as the creator figure.

MANSAKA

Rituals, as performed by the baylan (ritual practitioner), are done during planting and
harvesting season. This activity is done to ask Magbabaya to give them bountiful
harvests, and to drive away bad spirits or pests that will damage their plants/farms.The
baylan also performs a ritual or ceremony to heal a sick member of the community. If a
member becomes sick or is purportedly being punished by the spirit of the river, the
ceremony will also be done at the river.

SUBANEN

Traditional Subanen believes in a supreme being call "Diwata Migbebaya" and have
had a holy book at one time but the said book were no longer be found after the
Spanish invasion. the holy book was probably burned to brought as as loot. Traditional
Subanen which are still practicing the traditional beliefs in the Subanen communities in
the hinterlands communicate to the supreme being though the incantation and rituals
conducted by the shaman called "Balian" which are usually men but there are women
balians too.Majority of Subanen preferred to follow Christianity over Islam because of
the food restriction in Islam and the history in which most Subanen believes that Islam is
just a later religion founded on year 0610 or more than 500 years after the death of
Jesus Christ while Christianity was already practiced and taught even by Moses since
1500 BCE. Most Subanen preferred to follow the Church of God religion as it is told in
the Bible that it was the religion of Jesus Christ and his disciples while they were on
earth.

TAGAKAOLO

The Tagakaulu Kalagan were not introduced to Islam until Muslim missionaries arrived
in the area during the 1500s. About half of the entire group of Kalagan came under
Islamic influence at that time, and the group divided. Most of the Tagakaolo Kalagan
became Muslims; however, the majority of the Tagakaulu Kalagan remained animists
(believe that non-human objects have spirits). Today, many are still ethnic religionists,
believing in the traditions and religions of their forefathers. They continue to believe in a
variety of environmental spirits. Many tales are also told of magic, sorcery, and
supernatural beings

TEDURAY

Indigenous beliefs and practice, customs and rituals are animistic. Tirurays who have
close contact with the Muslim Maguindanao were influenced to believe the Islam faith.
The Roman Catholics and the Episcopalian church have been working among them for
a long time and many modernized Tirurays were influenced to believe. However many
of them still keep the old beliefs and still practice indigenous rituals.

UBO

Like the Bagobo, the Ubo believe in multiple deities headed by a central figure, Diwata
(God); they're animist, they also believe in ancestral spirits and unseen beings
inhabiting the animate and inanimate objects found throughout their environment.
 COURTING AND MARRIAGE CULTURES OF 18 TRIBES
 TBOLI

Arrange or fix marriage is common in T’boli where males would prepare

dowries or bride price to give for their bride. Early marriage is also
practice in their community, that at an early age their parents would
arrange their marriage to someone else. The parents usually do this kind
of practice when their child is severely sick; this means that the child
needs a lifetime partner, for they believe that the shaman will help them
find the partner of the child. But according to them, in the present days,
the decision will still come from the child if she/he wants to marry that
person or not.

B'LAAN

Close family ties have always been recognized as one of

the core values of Bilaan families and are deeply
embedded in their culture, the life of the Bilaan evolves
around their family that usually lives within one
compound, consisting of more than one spouse and
extended relatives living together. To protect their
property and to secure themselves from intrusions, most
marriages are limited to close relatives, within this
community cousins are allowed to marry each other.
Close family ties have always been recognized as one of
the core values of Bilaan families and are deeply
embedded in their culture, the life of the Bilaan evolves around their family that usually
lives within one compound, consisting of more than one spouse and extended relatives
living together. To protect their property and to secure themselves from intrusions, most
marriages are limited to close relatives, within this community cousins are allowed to
marry each other.

ATA

No courtship occurs between the men and women.

Marriages are arranged. Tribal marriage is called “lapao”.It
is up to both set of parents to discuss the marriage
preparations and the dowry or bugay. Neither the man nor
the woman knows about the arrangements. Both
concerned parties have no power or right to back out or
even persuade their parents to call off the wedding
BAGOBO

There's an impression that indigenous marriages are pre-

arranged with the engagement of a girl to a boy done by
parents. The dowry system, too, has in some instances
been abused with the girl becoming like a commodity
being traded.A few studies reveal many girls of
indigenous communities who are barely out of
adolescence suffer emotionally due to early marriage to a
man not of their choice.Through time, many lumad
women consider pre-arranged marriage as unfavorable to
their interests and avoid the lumad marriage
tradition.They feel in better position to achieve their life
aspirations when they are not forced to marry early.This avoidance contributes to
cultural deterioration because in its original intention, indigenous marriages, including
the dowry system, were handed down through generations to ensure the happiness and
socio-economic

well-being of the couple.

BANWAON

The neighbor tribe to banwaon is higaonon tribe both have

disputes repated to land domain, males of both the tribes are
allpwed to marry as many as they want, for as long as elders
and thier wives will consent.

BUKIDNON

Bukidnon marriages are monogamous, although in the past datus took more than one
wife if they could afford to do so, a custom still practiced by a few datus in remote areas
today.

DIBABAWON

Marriages are contracted by the parents, often even before the

children are born, the agreement being conditional upon the
favorable sex outcome of births. In tracing descent, there is no
emphasis placed on either side (the mother's or the father's)
although many more easily trace their mother's kin than those
of their father, which is largely due to the fact that mothers
spend more time with the children than the father. Important
decisions in life are governed by customary laws, which have
the strength of today's written law, and are arranged by both parties in the presence of
an arbiter
HIGAUNON

The Traditional Higaonon Wedding CeremonyHigaonon

marriage is arranged mainly by the parents of the bride
and groom. The arrangement is a long and tedious
process. Prior to the wedding, the groom-to-be must
live in the girl's house for about a year to prove his
worth and where he is scrutinized by the parents of the bride-to-be.

KALAGAN

Kalagan marriages are usually monogamous (having only one

spouse). Although polygyny (having more than one wife) is
permitted, it is practiced only by those of high rank and wealth.
There is a strong preference for marriage between related
families, especially to second cousins. After marriage, the
couples usually live in the husband's community, although
today, young couples may form their own independent
households.

MAMANWA

As an organized group, the Mamanwas respect their elders who, by

tradition, have control over the tribe’s judicial affairs and are at the
helm when it comes to maintaining peace and order within the band.

MANDAYA

 According to Mandaya law the wife cannot have more than one
husband but the husband can have more than one wife. • Among
the wives, the first is the most privileged in that she does the
least work.

MANGGUWANGAN

Their marriage was guided by their law. Arrange marriage

was practice in the early age to be independent from the
family.

MANOBO

Th e Manobos have a bilateral kinship system. Th ey recognize

lineage to both their mother or father’s family. Polygamy, although
rarely practiced, was allowed. Marriage among the people is
traditionally done by parental arrangement. It begins when two families choose a
spokesperson, usually a datu who is known for eloquence and knowledge of custom
law. Ginsa, which means “asking”, begins with the girl's representative off ering betel
chew, which the boy's representative politely refuses until negotiations for the kagun
(bridewealth) begin.Th e wedding date is determined by the length of the groom's family
will need to raise the kagun while the bride’s family are preparing the apa (wedding
feast), consisting of rice, meat, fi sh, and rice wine.

MANSAKA

Marriage is arrange by the the parents of the bride and grooms. Mansaka
maidens usually marries when she reaches 15. The parent of the girl sets
the amount of dowry for their daughter. The dowry is in terms of al-langs
(slaves), agongs and patakia.

SUBANEN

It is the traditional wedding of Subanen.The wedding is iniated by a

timuay who are liable to conduct a marriage ceremony.In wedding
time couple must wear a traditional subanen costume. The man
should wear a bolo on his waste symbolizes as the one who stand to
hid family.In a white stainless round table,their should be a glass of
water,pangasi(subanen wine),pulot(malagkit) gumo(egg).It is part of
the ceremony to take the symbols to have a prosperous family.

TAGAKAUOLO

Pagpangugnan: Tagakaulo Traditional Wedding

The process gave them the space to understand that “sablag” or

bride wealth is an essential part of the Tagakolu marriage. It binds
not only the two individuals involved but also, the families of these
individuals. It symbolizes their commitment to each other. This is
further manifested through the “pag-mesmes”, part of the ritual in
the wedding ceremony where the parents of both parties will mold
rice into a ball. The rice must stick together as one, as this foretells
the kind of marriage the couple will have. The “mesmes” or the rice is eaten together
with a dish that the bride and groom will serve each other. This entire ritual signifies
their vow of love that would harmonize them as couple.

TEDURAY

Arrange and early marriage are literally practiced. Polygamy is also

dominant in their marriage system
UBO

Arrange or fix marriage is common in T’boli where males would

prepare dowries or bride price to give for their bride. Early
marriage is also practice in their community, that at an early
age their parents would arrange their marriage to someone
else