OVERVIEW

The limits of my language mean the limits of my world.

Q. What is PL/SQL?
A. PL/SQL is Oracle's Procedural Language Extension to SQL, the relational
database language.

Q. What are the main features of PL/SQL

A. Following are main features of PL/SQL :-
1. Data Encapsulation
2. Information Hiding
3. Overloading
4. Exception Handling

Q. What is the objective of PL/SQL?

A. PL/SQL bridges the gap between database technology and procedural
programming languages.

Q. What can you do with PL/SQL?

A. With PL/SQL
1. You can use SQL statements to manipulate Oracle data.
2. You can use flow-of-control statements to process the data.
3. You can declare constants and variables, define procedures and functions,
and trap runtime errors.

*** PL/SQL combines the data manipulating power of SQL with the data
processing power of procedural languages.

Q. Is PL/SQL a block-structured language?

A. Yes. It means you can define blocks within a block.

Q. Does PL/SQL support divide-and conquer approach to problem solving

called stepwise refinement? If yes, how?
A. Yes. The basic units (procedures, functions, and anonymous blocks) that make
up a PL/SQL program are logical blocks, which can contain any number of nested
sub-blocks. Typically, each logical block corresponds to a problem or subproblem
to be solved. Thus, PL/SQL supports the divide-and- conquer approach to problem
solving called stepwise refinement.

*** A block (or sub-block) lets you group logically related declarations and
statements. The declarations are local to the block and cease to exist when
the block completes.

Q. How many parts a PL/SQL block has?

A. Three. These are :-

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 1. Declarative Part (Optional)
2. An Executable Part (Required)
3. An Exception Handling Part (Optional)
Following figure shows a PL/SQL block :-
[DECLARE
-- declarations]
BEGIN
-- statements
[EXCEPTION
-- handler]
END;

Q. Is the order of a PL/SQL block's part logical?

A. Yes.
First comes the declarative part, in which items can be declared.
Once declared, items can be manipulated in the executable part.
Exceptions raised during execution can be dealt with in the exception-handling part.

Q. What is an exception?
A. In PL/SQL, a warning or error condition is called an exception.

Q. Where can you nest sub-blocks in PL/SQL?

A. You can nest sub-blocks in the executable and exception-handling parts of a
PL/SQL block or subprogram but not in the declarative part.

Q. Where can you define local subprograms in PL/SQL?

A. You can define local subprograms in the declarative part of any block.
However, you can call local subprograms only from the block in which they are
defined.

Q. Are forward references to variables or constants allowed in PL/SQL?

A. No. You must declare a variable or constant before referencing it in other
statements, including other declarative statements.

Q. What could be the datatypes of a variable in PL/SQL?

A. A variable can belong to
1. Any SQL datatype such as CHAR, DATE & NUMBER or
2. Any PL/SQL datatype such as BOOLEAN & BINARY_INTEGER

Q. Are there composite datatypes in PL/SQL?

A. Yes. You can declare nested tables, variable-size arrays (VARRAY for short), and
records using the TABLE, VARRAY & RECORD composite datatypes.

Q. In how many ways you can assign values to a variable in PL/SQL?

A. You can assign values to a variable in two ways.
1. The first way uses the assignment operator (:=), a colon followed by an equal sign.
 e.g :-
tax := price * tax_rate;
2. The second way to assign values to a variable is to select or fetch database values
into it. e.g. :-
SELECT sal * 0.10 INTO bonus FROM emp WHERE empno = emp_id;

Q. How is a constant declared in PL/SQL?

A. Declaring a constant is like declaring a variable except that you must add the keyword
CONSTANT and immediately assign a value to the constant. Thereafter, no more
assignments to the constant are allowed. e.g. :-
credit_limit CONSTANT REAL := 5000.00;

Q. What do you mean by attributes in PL/SQL?

A. PL/SQL variables and cursors have attributes, which are properties that let you
reference the datatype and structure of an item without repeating its definition.
Database columns and tables have similar attributes, which you can use to ease
maintenance.

Q. Explain %TYPE attribute. What are its advantages?

A. The %TYPE attribute provides the datatype of a variable or database column. This is
particularly useful when declaring variables that will hold database values. e.g. :-
Soppose there is a column named title in a table named books. To declare a variable
named my_title that has the same datatype as column title, you use dot notation and
the %TYPE attribute, as follows :-
my_title books.title%TYPE;
Declaring my_title with %TYPE has two advantages :-
1. You need not know the exact datatype of title.
2. If you change the database definition of title the datatype of my_title changes
accordingly at run time.

Q. Explain %ROWTYPE attribute. What are its advantages?

A. In PL/SQL, records are used to group data. A record consists of a number of related
fields in which data values can be stored.
The %ROWTYPE attribute provides a record type that represents a row in a table. The
record can store an entire row of data selected from the table or fetched from a cursor
or cursor variable.
Columns in a row and corresponding fields in a record have the same names and
datatypes. e.g. below, you declare a record named dept_rec. Its fields have the same
names and datatypes as the columns in the dept table :-
DECLARE
dept_rec.dept%ROWTYPE; -- declare record variable

You use dot notation to reference fields, as the following example shows :-
my_deptno := dept_rec.deptno;

*** If you declare a cursor that retrieves the last name, salary, hire date, and job title of

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 an employee, you can use %ROWTYPE to declare a record that stores the same
information, as follows :-
DECLARE
CURSOR c1 IS SELECT ename, sal, hiredate, job FROM emp;
emp_rec c1%ROWTYPE; -- declare record variable that
-- represents a row in the emp table
When you execute the statement
FETCH c1 INTO emp_rec;
the value in the ename column of the emp table is assigned to the ename field of
emp_rec, the value in the sal column is assigned to the sal field, and so on. Following
fig. shows how the result might appear :-

Q. What is a cursor in PL/SQL?

A. Oracle uses work areas called private SQL areas to execute SQL statements and
store processing information. A PL/SQL construct called a cursor lets you name a
work area and access its stored information.

Q. How many types of cursors are there in PL/SQL?

A. There are two kinds of cursors :-
1. Implicit Cursors - PL/SQL implicitly declares a cursor for all SQL data
manipulation statements, including queries that return only one row.
2. Explicit Cursors - For queries that return more than one row, you can explicitly
declare a cursor to process the rows individually. An example follows :-
DECLARE
CURSOR c1 IS
SELECT empno, ename, job FROM emp WHERE deptno = 20;

Q. What is an active set or result set?

A. The set of rows returned by a multi-row query is called the active set. Its size is the
number of rows that meet your search criteria. Following fig. shows an explicit cursor
"pointing" to the current row in the active set. This allows your program to process the
rows one at a time :-

Q. Is multirow query processing similar to file processing?

A. Yes, somewhat. e.g., a COBOL program opens a file, processes records, then closes
the file. Likewise, a PL/SQL program opens a cursor, processes rows returned by a
query, then closes the cursor.
Just as a file pointer marks the current position in an open file, a cursor marks the
current position in a result set.

Q. How do you control a cursor in PL/SQL?

A. You use the OPEN, FETCH, and CLOSE statements to control a cursor.
The OPEN statement executes the query associated with the cursor, identifies the
result set, and positions the cursor before the first row.
 The FETCH statement retrieves the current row and advances the cursor to the next
row.
When the last row has been processed, the CLOSE statement disables the cursor.

Q. What is a cursor FOR loop?

A. In most situations that require an explicit cursor, you can simplify coding by using a
cursor FOR loop instead of the OPEN, FETCH, and CLOSE statements.
A cursor FOR loop implicitly declares its loop index as a record that represents a
row in a database table, opens a cursor, repeatedly fetches rows of values from the
result/active set into fields in the record, then closes the cursor when all rows have
been processed. In the following example, the cursor FOR loop implicitly declares
emp_rec as a record :-
DECLARE
CURSOR c1 IS
SELECT ename, sal, hiredate, deptno FROM emp;
...
BEGIN
FOR emp_rec IN c1 LOOP
...
salary_total := salary_total + emp_rec.sal;
END LOOP;
END;
You use dot notation to reference individual fields in the record.

Q. What is a Cursor Variable?

A. A cursor variable is like a cursor. It also points to the current row in the result set of a
multi-row query. But, unlike a cursor, a cursor variable can be opened for any type
-compatible query. It is not tied to a specific query.

Cursor variables are true PL/SQL variables, to which you can assign new values and
which you can pass to subprograms stored in an Oracle database. This gives you more
flexibility and a convenient way to centralize data retrieval.

Typically, you open a cursor variable by passing it to a stored procedure that declares a
cursor variable as one of its formal parameters. The following packaged procedure
opens the cursor variable generic_cv for the chosen query:

CREATE PACKAGE BODY emp_data AS

PROCEDURE open_cv (generic_cv IN OUT GenericCurTyp,
choice IN NUMBER) IS
BEGIN
IF choice = 1 THEN
OPEN generic_cv FOR SELECT * FROM emp;
ELSIF choice = 2 THEN
OPEN generic_cv FOR SELECT * FROM dept;
ELSIF choice = 3 THEN

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 OPEN generic_cv FOR SELECT * FROM salgrade;
END IF;
END open_cv;
END emp_data;

Q. What are External Procedures?

A. Some programming tasks are more quickly or easily done in a lower-level language
such as C. It is because sucah a program is more efficient at machine-precision
calculations.

To support such special-purpose processing, PL/SQL provides an interface for calling

routines written in other languages. This makes the strengths and capabilities of those
languages available to you.

Q. How is an External Procedure used?

A. An external procedure is a third-generation-language routine stored in a dynamic
link library (DLL), registered with PL/SQL, and called by you to do special-purpose
processing. At run time, PL/SQL loads the library dynamically, then calls the
routine as if it were a PL/SQL subprogram.

Q. Where are typically external procedures used ?

A. Typically, external procedures are used to
Interface with embedded systems,
Solve scientific and engineering problems,
Analyze data, or
Control real-time devices and processes.

In the following example, you write a PL/SQL standalone function named interp
that registers the C routine c_interp as an external function:

CREATE FUNCTION interp (

-- find the value of y at x degrees using Lagrange interpolation
x FLOAT,
y FLOAT)
RETURN FLOAT AS EXTERNAL
LIBRARY mathlib
NAME "c_interp"
LANGUAGE C;

Q. What is Data Abstraction ?

A. Data abstraction lets you extract the essential properties of data while ignoring
unnecessary details. Once you design a data structure, you can forget the details and
focus on designing algorithms that manipulate the data structure.

Q. What is modularity?
A. Modularity lets you break an application down into manageable, well-defined logic
modules. Through successive refinement, you can reduce a complex problem to a set
of simple problems that have easy-to-implement solutions.

Q. What are Collections?

A. A collection is an ordered group of elements, all of the same type. Each element has a
unique subscript that determines its position in the collection.

PL/SQL has collection types - TABLE and VARRAY which allow you to declare
nested tables and variable-size arrays (varrays for shor )

To reference an element, you use standard subscripting syntax. For example, the
following call references the fifth element in the nested table (of type Staff) returned
by function new_hires:
DECLARE
TYPE Staff IS TABLE OF Employee;
staffer Employee;
FUNCTION new_hires (hiredate DATE) RETURN Staff IS
BEGIN
...
END;
BEGIN
staffer := new_hires('10-NOV-96')(5);
...
END;

Collections work like the arrays found in most third-generation programming

languages. They can store instances of an object type and, conversely, can be attributes
of an object type. Also, collections can be passed as parameters. So, you can use
them to move columns of data into and out of database tables or between client-side
applications and stored subprograms.

Q. What are Records?

A. You can use the %ROWTYPE attribute to declare a record that represents a row in a
table or a row fetched from a cursor. However, with a user-defined record, you can
declare fields of your own.

Records contain uniquely named fields, which can have different datatypes. Suppose
you have various data about an employee such as name, salary, and hire date. These
items are dissimilar in type but logically related. A record containing a field for each
item lets you treat the data as a logical unit. Consider the following example:

DECLARE
TYPE TimeRec IS RECORD (minutes SMALLINT, hours SMALLINT);
TYPE MeetingTyp IS RECORD (
day DATE,

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 time TimeRec, -- nested record
place VARCHAR2(20),
purpose VARCHAR2(50));

Notice that you can nest records. That is, a record can be the component of another
record.

Q. What are Object Types?

A. In PL/SQL, object-oriented programming is based on object types. An object type
encapsulates a data structure along with the functions and procedures needed to
manipulate the data. The variables that form the data structure are called attributes.
The functions and procedures that characterize the behavior of the object type are
called methods.

Object types reduce complexity by breaking down a large system into logical entities.
This allows you to create software components that are modular, maintainable, and
reusable.

Q. How is an object created?

A. You define an object type using the CREATE TYPE statement (in SQL*Plus for
example), you create an abstract template for some real-world object. As the following
example of a bank account shows, the template specifies only those attributes and
behaviors the object will need in the application environment:

CREATE TYPE Bank_Account AS OBJECT (

acct_number INTEGER(5),
balance REAL,
status VARCHAR2(10),

MEMBER PROCEDURE open (amount IN REAL),

MEMBER PROCEDURE validate (num IN INTEGER),
MEMBER PROCEDURE close (num IN INTEGER, amount OUT REAL),
MEMBER PROCEDURE deposit (num IN INTEGER, amount IN REAL),
MEMBER PROCEDURE withdraw (num IN INTEGER, amount IN REAL),
MEMBER FUNCTION curr_bal (num IN INTEGER) RETURN REAL

);

At run time, when the data structure is filled with values, you have created an instance
of an abstract bank account. You can create as many instances (called objects) as you
need. Each object has the number, balance, and status of an actual bank account.

Q. How does PL/SQL provide modularity?

A. PL/SQL meets this with program units. Besides blocks and subprograms, PL/SQL
provides the package, which allows you to group related program items into larger
units.
Q. Explain the architecture of PL/SQL?
A. The PL/SQL runtime system is a technology, not an independent product. The
PL/SQL can be installed in an Oracle Server or in an application development tool
such as Oracle Forms or Oracle Reports. So, PL/SQL can reside in two
environments :-
1. The Oracle Server
2. Oracle Tools

These two environments are independent. PL/SQL might be available in the Oracle
Server but unavailable in tools, or the other way around.

In either environment, the PL/SQL accepts as input any valid PL/SQL block or
subprogram. Following shows the PL/SQL engine processing an anonymous block.
The PL/SQL executes procedural statements but sends SQL statements to the SQL
Statement Executor in the Oracle Server.

Q. How does PL/SQL work in ORACLE server?

A. Application development tools that lack a local PL/SQL engine rely on Oracle to
process PL/SQL blocks and subprograms. When it contains the PL/SQL , an
Oracle Server can process PL/SQL blocks and subprograms as well as single SQL
statements. The Oracle Server passes the blocks and subprograms to its local PL/SQL
engine. Following figure shows the processing of an anonymous PL/SQL block sent to
ORACLE from a host program or ORACLE tool :-

Q. How does PL/SQL work in ORACLE Tools?

A. When ORACLE tool contains the PL/SQL, an application development tool can
process PL/SQL blocks. The tool passes the blocks to its local PL/SQL engine.
The engine executes all procedural statements at the application site and sends only
SQL statements to Oracle. Thus, most of the work is done at the application site,
not at the server site.

Furthermore, if the block contains no SQL statements, the engine executes the entire
block at the application site. This is useful if your application can benefit from
conditional and iterative control.

Frequently, Oracle Forms applications use SQL statements merely to test the value of
field entries or to do simple computations. By using PL/SQL instead, you can avoid
calls to the Oracle Server.
Moreover, you can use PL/SQL functions to manipulate field entries.

Q. How does PL/SQL result in higher productivity?

A. PL/SQL adds functionality to non-procedural tools such as SQL*Forms,
SQL*Menu, SQL*Reportwriter. This makes the tools more powerful and
better one. You need not use multiple trigger steps, macros, or user exits.This
results in increased productivity.

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Q. How does PL/SQL result in better performance?
A. 1. Processing of SQL statements
Without PL/SQL, Oracle must process SQL statements one at a time. Each SQL
statement results in another call to Oracle and higher performance overhead. In a
networked environment, the overhead can become significant. Every time a SQL
statement is issued, it must be sent over the network, creating more traffic.

However, with PL/SQL, an entire block of statements can be sent to Oracle at one
time. This can drastically reduce communication between your application and
Oracle. Following figure shows that, if your application is database intensive, you
can use PL/SQL blocks, control structures and subprograms to group SQL
statements before sending them to Oracle for execution. e.g. to execute 10 individual
statements, 10 calls are required. But to execute a subprogram containing 10 SQL
statements, only one call is required.

2. Procedural Processing Power

PL/SQL also improves performance by adding procedural processing power to
Oracle tools. Using PL/SQL, a tool can do any computation quickly and
efficiently without calling on the Oracle Server. This saves time and reduces
network traffic.

Q. How is PL/SQL integrated with ORACLE? What are the advantages of this
integration?
A. Both PL/SQL and Oracle are based on SQL.
Moreover, PL/SQL supports all the SQL datatypes.
Combined with the direct access that SQL provides, these shared datatypes
integrate PL/SQL with the Oracle data dictionary.

The %TYPE and %ROWTYPE attributes further integrate PL/SQL with the data
dictionary. For example, you can use the %TYPE attribute to declare variables,
basing the declarations on the definitions of database columns. If a definition changes,
the variable declaration changes accordingly at run time. This provides

1. Data Independence
2. Reduces Maintenance Costs
3. Allows programs to adapt as the database changes to meet new business needs.

Q. What is a stored subprogram?

A. Named PL/SQL block compiled and stored permanently in an ORACLE database
is called a stored subprogram. Then it can be referenced by any no. of applications
connected to that database.

Q. What is a database trigger?

A. A database trigger is a stored subprogram. It is always associated with a table.
Oracle automatically fires the database trigger before or after an INSERT,
 UPDATE, DELETE statement affects the table.
One of the many uses for database triggers is to audit data modifications.

FUNDAMENTALS
There are six essentials in painting. The first is called spirit; the second, rhythm; the third,
thought; the fourth, scenery; the fifth, the brush; and the last is the ink.

Q. What does a PL/SQL character set include?

A. The PL/SQL character set includes :-
1. The upper and lowercase letters A .. Z, a .. z
2. The numerals 0 .. 9
3. Tabs, Spaces, and Carriage returns
4. The symbols ( ) + - * / < > = ! ~ ; : . ' @ % , " # $ ^ & _ | { } ? [ ]

Q. Is PL/SQL case sensitive?

A. PL/SQL is not case sensitive, so lowercase letters are equivalent to corresponding
uppercase letters except within string and character literals.

Q. What are lexical units?

A. A line of PL/SQL text contains groups of characters known as lexical units. These
can be classified as follows :-
1. Delimiters (simple and compound symbols)
2. Identifiers, which include reserved words
3. Literals
4. Comments
e.g., the line
bonus := salary * 0.10; -- compute bonus
contains the following lexical units :-
•identifiers bonus and salary
•compound symbol :=
•simple symbols * and ;
•numeric literal 0.10
•comment -- compute bonus

*** To improve readability, you can separate lexical units by spaces.

In fact, you must separate adjacent identifiers by a space or punctuation.

*** You cannot embed spaces in lexical units except for string literals and
comments.
For example, the following line is illegal because the compound symbol
for assignment (:=) is split :-
count : = count + 1; -- illegal

Q. What is a delimiter?
A. A delimiter is a simple or compound symbol that has a special meaning to PL/SQL.

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 e.g., you use delimiters to represent arithmetic operations such as addition and
subtraction.
Simple symbols :-
Simple symbols consist of one character. e.g. :-
+ addition operator
- subtraction/negation operator
* multiplication operator
/ division operator
= relational operator
< relational operator
> relational operator
( expression or list delimiter
) expression or list delimiter
; statement terminator
% attribute indicator
, item separator
. component selector
@ remote access indicator
' character string delimiter
" quoted identifier delimiter
: host variable indicator

Compound Symbols :-
Compound symbols consist of two characters. e.g. :-
** exponentiation operator
<> relational operator
!= relational operator
~= relational operator
^= relational operator
<= relational operator
>= relational operator
:= assignment operator
=> association operator
.. range operator
|| concatenation operator
<< (beginning) label delimiter
>> (ending) label delimiter
-- single-line comment indicator
/* (beginning) multi-line comment delimiter
*/ (ending) multi-line comment delimiter

Q. What is an identifier?
A. Identifiers are used to name PL/SQL program items and units, which include
constants, variables, exceptions, cursors, cursor variables, subprograms, and
packages.
An identifier consists of a letter optionally followed by more letters, numerals, dollar
 signs, underscores, and number signs. Other characters such as hyphens, slashes,
and spaces are illegal.

*** Adjoining and trailing dollar signs, underscores, and number signs in an
identifier are legal. e.g. :-
money$$$tree, SN##, try_again_

*** You can use upper, lower, or mixed case to write identifiers.
PL/SQL is not case sensitive except within string and character literals.
So, if the only difference between identifiers is the case of corresponding letters,
PL/SQL considers the identifiers to be the same. e.g. :-
lastname
LastName -- same as lastname
LASTNAME -- same as lastname and LastName

Q. What could be the length of an identifier?

A. The length of an identifier cannot exceed 30 characters.
But, every character, including dollar signs, underscores, and number signs, is
significant.

Q. What are reserved words?

A. Reserved words are identifiers having special syntactic meaning to PL/SQL. So
they should not be redefined. e.g., the words BEGIN and END, which bracket
the executable part of a block or subprogram, are reserved.

Q. What will happen if you try to redefine a reserved word?

A. You will get a compilation error. e.g. :-
DECLARE
end BOOLEAN; -- illegal; causes compilation error

*** Typically, reserved words are written in upper case to promote readability.
However, like other PL/SQL identifiers, reserved words can be written in
lower or mixed case

Q. What are predefined identifiers?

A. Identifiers globally declared in package STANDARD, such as the exception
INVALID_NUMBER. These can be redeclared. However, redeclaring
predefined identifiers is error prone because your local declaration overrides
the global declaration.

Q. What are quoted identifiers?

A. PL/SQL lets you enclose identifiers within double quotes. Quoted identifiers are
seldom needed, but occasionally they can be useful. They can contain any sequence
of printable characters including spaces but excluding double quotes. Thus, the
following identifiers are legal :-
"X+Y", "last name", "on/off switch", "employee(s)", "*** header info ***"

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Q. What is the max length of a quoted identifier?
A. The maximum length of a quoted identifier is 30 characters not counting the double
quotes.

*** Using PL/SQL reserved words as quoted identifiers is allowed but not
recommended.

Q. Are all PL/SQL reserved words reserved by SQL?

A. No. Some PL/SQL reserved words are not reserved by SQL. e.g., you can use
the PL/SQL reserved word TYPE in a CREATE TABLE statement to name a
database column. But, if a SQL statement in your program refers to that column,
you get a compilation error, as the following example shows :-
SELECT acct, type, bal INTO ... -- causes compilation error
To prevent the error, enclose the uppercase column name in double quotes, as
follows :-
SELECT acct, "TYPE", bal INTO ...
The column name cannot appear in lower or mixed case (unless it was defined that
way in the CREATE TABLE statement). e.g., the following statement is invalid :-
SELECT acct, "type", bal INTO ... -- causes compilation error
Alternatively, you can create a view that renames the troublesome column, then use
the view instead of the base table in SQL statements.

Q. What is a literal?
A. A literal is an explicit numeric, character, string, or Boolean value not
represented by an identifier.
The numeric literal 147 and the Boolean literal FALSE are examples.

Q. What are numeric literals?

Q. Two kinds of numeric literals can be used in arithmetic expressions :-
1. Integers :-
An integer literal is an optionally signed whole number without a
decimal point. e.g. :-
030 6 -14 0 +32767
2. Reals :-
A real literal is an optionally signed whole or fractional number with a
decimal point. e.g. :-
6.6667 0.0 -12.0 3.14159 +8300.00 .5 25.

*** PL/SQL considers numbers such as 12.0 and 25. to be reals even though
they have integral values.

*** Numeric literals cannot contain dollar signs or commas.

Q. Can numeric literals be written in scientific notation?

A. Yes. Simply suffix the number with an E (or e) followed by an optionally signed
 integer. e.g. :-
2E5 1.0E-7 3.14159e0 -1E38 -9.5e-3
E stands for "times ten to the power of."
The number after E also corresponds to the number of places the decimal
point shifts.

Q. What are character literals?

A. A character literal is an individual character enclosed by single quotes
(apostrophes). e.g. :-
'Z' '%' '7' ' ' 'z' '('

*** PL/SQL is case sensitive within character literals. e.g., PL/SQL considers
the literals 'Z' and 'z' to be different.

*** The character literals '0' .. '9' are not equivalent to integer literals.
Character literals cannot used in arithmetic expressions.

Q. What are string literals?

A. A string literal is a sequence of zero or more characters enclosed by single
quotes. e.g. :-
'Hello, world!'
'XYZ Corporation'
'10-NOV-91'
'He said "Life is like licking honey from a thorn."'
'$1,000,000'

Q. What are the datatype of string literals?

A. All string literals except the null string ('') have datatype CHAR.

Q. Apostrophes (single quotes) delimit string literals. Then how do you

represent an apostrophe within a string?
A. Write two single quotes. e.g. :-
'Don''t leave without saving your work.'

*** PL/SQL is case sensitive within string literals. e.g., PL/SQL considers
the following literals to be different :-
'baker'
'Baker'

Q. What are boolean literals?

A. Boolean literals are the predefined values TRUE and FALSE and the
non-value NULL, which stands for a missing, unknown, or inapplicable value.
Remember, Boolean literals are values, not strings.

Q. Explain comments in PL/SQL?

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A. The PL/SQL compiler ignores comments.
Adding comments to your program promotes readability and aids
understanding.
PL/SQL supports two comment styles :-
1. Single-line :-
Single-line comments begin with a double hyphen (--) anywhere
on a line and extend to the end of the line. e.g. :-
-- begin processing
SELECT sal INTO salary FROM emp -- get current salary
WHERE empno = emp_id;
bonus := salary * 0.15; -- compute bonus amount
Notice that comments can appear within a statement at the end of a line.
2. Multi-line :-
Multi-line comments begin with a slash-asterisk (/*), end with an asterisk-
slash (*/), and can span multiple lines. e.g. :-
BEGIN
/* Compute a 15% bonus for top-rated employees. */
IF rating > 90 THEN
bonus := salary * 0.15 /* bonus is based on salary */
ELSE
bonus := 0;
END If;
...
/* The following line computes the area of a circle using pi,
which is the ratio between the circumference and diameter. */
area := pi * radius**2;

Q. Can you nest comments?

A. No.

Q. Why should we not use single-line comments in a PL/SQL block that is

processed dynamically by an Oracle precompiler program?
A. It is because end-of-line characters are ignored. As a result, single-line
comments extend to the end of the block, not just to the end of a line. So, use
multi-line comments instead.

Q. What is meant by a datatype?

A. Every constant and variable has a datatype. It specifies :-
1. A storage format
2. Constraints
3. Valid range of values

*** PL/SQL provides a variety of predefined scalar & composite datatypes.

Q. What is a scalar datatype?

A. A scalar type has no internal components.
*** The scalar types fall into four families, which store :-
1. Number
2. Character
3. Boolean
4. Date/time data, respectively

*** An additional scalar type, MSLABEL, is available with Trusted Oracle.

Q. What is a composite datatype?

A. A composite type has internal components that can be manipulated individually.

Q. What is Trusted Oracle?

A. A specially secured version of Oracle.

PL/SQL Predefined Datatypes

Scalar Datatypes Composite Datatypes

BINARY_INTEGER CHAR RECORD TABLE
DEC CHARACTER
DECIMAL LONG
DOUBLE PRECISION LONG RAW
FLOAT ROWID
INT STRING
INTEGER VARCHAR
NATURAL VARCHAR2
NUMBER
NUMERIC --------------
POSITIVE DATE
REAL --------------
SMALLINT BOOLEAN

Q. What is a base type?

A. A base type is the datatype from which a subtype is derived.

Q. What is a subtype?
A. A subtype associates a base type with a constraint and so defines a subset of values.

Q. What are Number datatypes?

A. Number datatypes allow you to store numeric data (integers, real numbers, and
floating-point numbers), represent quantities, and do calculations.

Q. Explain Numeric datatype BINARY_INTEGER?

A. BINARY_INTEGER datatype is used to store signed integers.
Its magnitude range is -2147483647 .. 2147483647.

17
 BINARY_INTEGER values require less storage than NUMBER values.
So using BINARY_INTEGER variables can boost performance.

*** PL/SQL represents BINARY_INTEGER values as signed binary numbers.

Q. What are the subtypes of BINARY_INTEGER?

A. PL/SQL predefines the following BINARY_INTEGER subtypes :-
1. NATURAL - (0 .. 2147483647)
2. POSITIVE - (1 .. 2147483647)
The subtypes NATURAL and POSITIVE are used when you want to restrict
an integer variable to non-negative or positive values, respectively.

Q. What is NUMBER datatype?

A. NUMBER datatype is used to store fixed or floating-point numbers of virtually
any size.
You can specify precision, which is the total number of digits.
You can also specify scale, which determines where rounding occurs.
The syntax is as follows :-
NUMBER[(precision, scale)]
You cannot use constants or variables to specify precision and scale. You must use
integer literals.
The maximum precision of a NUMBER value is 38 decimal digits.
The magnitude range is 1.0E-130 .. 9.99E125.
If you do not specify the precision, it defaults to 38 or the maximum supported by
your system, whichever is less.
Scale can range from -84 to 127. For instance, a scale of 2 rounds to the nearest
hundredth (3.456 becomes 3.46).
Scale can be negative, which causes rounding to the left of the decimal point.
e.g., a scale of -3 rounds to the nearest thousand (3456 becomes 3000).
A scale of 0 rounds to the nearest whole number.
If you do not specify the scale, it defaults to zero.

Q. What are the NUMBER subtype?

A. DEC, DECIMAL, DOUBLE PRECISION, INTEGER, INT, NUMERIC, REAL,
SMALLINT, FLOAT

Q. Explain FLOAT datatype?

A. FLOAT is another subtype of NUMBER.
However, you cannot specify a scale for FLOAT variables.
You can only specify a binary precision, which is the total number of binary digits.
The syntax is as follows :-
FLOAT[(binary_precision)]
The maximum precision of a FLOAT value is 126 binary digits.
If you omit binary_precision, it defaults to 126 unless the maximum supported
by your system is less than 126.
*** To convert from binary to decimal precision, multiply the binary precision by
0.30103.
To convert from decimal to binary precision, multiply the decimal precision by
3.32193.

Q. What are character datatypes?

A. Character types allow you to store alphanumeric data, represent words and text, and
manipulate character strings.

Q. Explain CHAR datatype?

A. CHAR datatype is used to store fixed-length character data.
How the data is represented internally depends on the database character set,
which might be 7-bit ASCII or EBCDIC Code.
The CHAR datatype takes an optional parameter that lets you specify a maximum
length up to 32767 bytes. The syntax is as follows :-
CHAR[(maximum_length)]
You cannot use a constant or variable to specify the maximum length. You must use
an integer literal in the range 1 .. 32767.
If you do not specify a maximum length, it defaults to 1.
The maximum width of a CHAR database column is 2000 bytes. So, you cannot insert
CHAR values longer than 2000 bytes into a CHAR column.

*** Remember, you specify the maximum length of a CHAR(n) variable in bytes,
not characters. So, if a CHAR(n) variable stores multi-byte characters, its
maximum length is less than n characters.

*** You can insert any CHAR(n) value into a LONG database column because the
maximum width of a LONG column is 2147483647 bytes or 2 gigabytes.

*** You cannot retrieve a value longer than 32767 bytes from a LONG column into
a CHAR(n) variable.

Q. What are CHAR subtypes?

A. The CHAR subtype below have the same range of values as their base type.
1. CHARACTER
2. STRING

Q. What is VARCHAR2 datatype?

A. VARCHAR2 datatype is used to store variable-length character data.
How the data is represented internally depends on the database character set,
which might be 7-bit ASCII or EBCDIC Code.
The VARCHAR2 datatype takes a required parameter that specifies a maximum
length up to 32767 bytes. The syntax is as follows :-
VARCHAR2(maximum_length)
You cannot use a constant or variable to specify the maximum length. You must use
an integer literal in the range 1 .. 32767.

19
 The maximum width of a VARCHAR2 database column is 4000 bytes. Therefore,
you cannot insert VARCHAR2 values longer than 4000 bytes into a VARCHAR2
column.

*** You specify the maximum length of a VARCHAR2(n) variable in bytes,

not characters. So, if a VARCHAR2(n) variable stores multi-byte
characters, its maximum length is less than n characters.

*** You can insert any VARCHAR2(n) value into a LONG database column
because the maximum width of a LONG column is 2147483647 bytes.

*** You cannot retrieve a value longer than 32767 bytes from a LONG column
into a VARCHAR2(n) variable.

Q. What is VARCHAR subtype?

A. The VARCHAR subtypes has the same range of values as its base type VARCHAR2.
Thus, VARCHAR is just another name for VARCHAR2.

*** Currently, VARCHAR is synonymous with VARCHAR2. However, in future

releases of PL/SQL, to accommodate emerging SQL standards, VARCHAR
might become a separate datatype with different comparison semantics. So, it
is a good idea to use VARCHAR2 rather than VARCHAR.

Q. Explain LONG datatype?

A. LONG datatype is used to store variable-length character strings.
The LONG datatype is like the VARCHAR2 datatype, except that the maximum
length of a LONG value is 32760 bytes.

*** You can insert any LONG value into a LONG database column because the
maximum width of a LONG column is 2147483647 bytes.

*** You cannot retrieve a value longer than 32760 bytes from a LONG column
into a LONG variable.

Q. Why are LONG columns required?

A. LONG columns can store text, arrays of characters, or even short documents.

Q. Where can you reference LONG columns?

A. You can reference LONG columns in UPDATE, INSERT, and (most) SELECT
statements.
However, these can not be referenced in expressions, SQL function calls, or certain
SQL clauses such as WHERE, GROUP BY, and CONNECT BY.

Q. What is RAW datatype?

A. RAW datatype is used to store binary data or byte strings. e.g., a RAW variable
might store a sequence of graphics characters or a digitized picture.
 Raw data is like VARCHAR2 data, except that PL/SQL does not interpret raw data.
The RAW datatype takes a required parameter that lets you specify a maximum length
up to 32767 bytes. The syntax is as follows :-
RAW(maximum_length)
You cannot use a constant or variable to specify the maximum length. You must use
an integer literal in the range 1 .. 32767.

*** Although the maximum length of a RAW variable is 32767 bytes, the maximum
width of a RAW database column is 255 bytes. So, you cannot insert RAW
values longer than 255 bytes into a RAW column.

*** You can insert any RAW value into a LONG RAW database column because
the maximum width of a LONG RAW column is 2147483647 bytes.
However, you cannot retrieve a value longer than 32767 bytes from a LONG
RAW column into a RAW variable.

Q. Explain LONG RAW datatype?

A. LONG RAW datatype is used to store binary data or byte strings.
LONG RAW data is like LONG data, except that LONG RAW data is not
interpreted by PL/SQL.
The maximum length of a LONG RAW value is 32760 bytes.

*** You can insert any LONG RAW value into a LONG RAW database column
because the maximum width of a LONG RAW column is 2147483647 bytes.

*** You cannot retrieve a value longer than 32760 bytes from a LONG RAW
column into a LONG RAW variable.

Q. Explain ROWID datatype?

A. Internally, every database table has a ROWID pseudocolumn, which stores
hexadecimal strings called rowids. Each rowid represents the storage address
of a row. ROWID datatype is used to store rowids.
ROWID is a CHAR subtype.
A rowid contains the information, which is needed to locate a row.
When you select or fetch a rowid into a ROWID variable, you can use the function
ROWIDTOCHAR, which converts the binary value to an 18-byte character string
and returns it in the format :-
BBBBBBBB.RRRR.FFFF
Where BBBBBBBB is the block in the datafile, RRRR is the row in the block(first
row is 0), and FFFF is the database file. These numbers are hexadecimal. e.g.
the rowid
0000000E.000A.0007
points to the 11th row in the 15th block in the 7th database file.

Q. Where can you compare ROWID variable with ROWID pseudocolumn?

A. You can compare a ROWID variable with the ROWID pseudocolumn in the

21
 WHERE clause of an UPDATE or DELETE statement to identify the latest row
fetched from a cursor.

*** Rowids provide the fastest way to access particular rows.

*** Normally, a rowid uniquely identifies a row. However, rows in different

tables stored in the same cluster can have the same rowid.

Q. What is BOOLEAN datatype?

A. BOOLEAN datatype is used to store the logical values TRUE and FALSE and
the non-value NULL, which stands for a missing, inapplicable, or unknown value.
Only logic operations are allowed on BOOLEAN variables.
The BOOLEAN datatype takes no parameters.
Only the values TRUE and FALSE and the non-value NULL can be assigned to a
BOOLEAN variable.
You cannot insert the values TRUE and FALSE into a database column.
Also, you cannot select or fetch column values into a BOOLEAN variable.

Q. What is DATE datatype?

A. DATE datatype is used to store fixed-length date/time values.
DATE values include the time of day in seconds since midnight.
The date portion defaults to the first day of the current month and the time
portion defaults to midnight.
The date function SYSDATE returns the current date and time.
Valid dates range from January 1, 4712 BC to December 31, 4712 AD.

Q. What is Julian date?

A. A Julian date is the number of days since January 1, 4712 BC.
Julian dates allow continuous dating from a common reference.
You can use the date format model 'J' with date functions TO_DATE and
TO_CHAR to convert between DATE values and their Julian equivalents.

*** In date expressions, PL/SQL automatically converts character values in the

default date format to DATE values.

*** The default date format is set by the Oracle initialization parameter
NLS_DATE_FORMAT. e.g., the default might be 'DD-MON-YY'.

Q. Can you add or subtract dates?

A. Yes. e.g the following statement returns the number of days since an employee
was hired :-
SELECT SYSDATE - hiredate INTO days_worked FROM emp
WHERE empno = 7499;

*** In arithmetic expressions, PL/SQL interprets integer literals as days.

For instance, SYSDATE + 1 is tomorrow.
*** PL/SQL supports both explicit and implicit (automatic) datatype conversion.

*** If PL/SQl cannot determine which implicit conversion is needed, you get a
compilation error.

Q. Where can you declare variables & constants?

A. You can declare variables and constants in the declarative part of any PL/SQL
block, subprogram, or package.

Q. What does a declaration do?

A. Declarations allocate storage space for a value, specify its datatype, and name
the storage location so that you can reference it. They can also assign an initial
value and specify the NOT NULL constraint. e.g. :-
birthday DATE;
emp_count SMALLINT := 0;
acct_id VARCHAR2(5) NOT NULL := 'AP001';

*** By default, variables are initialized to NULL. e.g., the following declarations
are equivalent :-
birthday DATE;
birthday DATE := NULL;

*** You cannot assign nulls to a variable defined as NOT NULL. If you try,
PL/SQL raises the predefined exception VALUE_ERROR. The NOT
NULL constraint must be followed by an initialization clause. e.g., the
following declaration is illegal :-
acct_id INTEGER(5) NOT NULL; -- illegal; not initialized

*** In constant declarations, the keyword CONSTANT must precede the type
specifier, as the following example shows :-
credit_limit CONSTANT REAL := 5000.00;

*** A constant must be initialized in its declaration. Otherwise, you get a

compilation error when the declaration is elaborated.

Q. What is elaboration?
A. The processing of a declaration by the PL/SQL compiler is called elaboration.

Q. Explain the use of DEFAULT?

A. You can use the keyword DEFAULT instead of the assignment operator
to initialize variables. e.g., the declarations
blood_type CHAR := 'O';
valid BOOLEAN := FALSE;
can be rewritten as follows :-
blood_type CHAR DEFAULT 'O';

23
 valid BOOLEAN DEFAULT FALSE;

*** You can also use DEFAULT to initialize subprogram parameters,

cursor parameters, and fields in a user-defined record.

Q. What is %TYPE attribute?

A. The %TYPE attribute provides the datatype of a variable or database column.
In the following example, %TYPE provides the datatype of a variable :-
credit REAL(7,2);
debit credit%TYPE;
A %TYPE declaration can include an initialization clause :-
balance NUMBER(7,2);
minimum_balance balance%TYPE := 10.00;

Q. When is %TYPE attribute more useful? What are its advantages?

A. The %TYPE attribute is particularly useful when declaring variables that refer to
database columns.
You can reference a table and column, or you can reference an owner, table,
and column, as in
my_dname scott.dept.dname%TYPE;
Advantages :-
1. You need not know the exact datatype of dname.
2. If the database definition of dname changes, the datatype of my_dname
changes accordingly at run time. It makes the maintenance easy.

*** A NOT NULL column constraint does not apply to variables declared
using %TYPE. In the following example, even though the database column
empno is defined as NOT NULL, you can assign a null to the variable
my_empno :-
DECLARE
my_empno emp.empno%TYPE;
...
BEGIN
my_empno := NULL; -- this works
...
END;

Q. What is %ROWTYPE attribute?

A. The %ROWTYPE attribute provides a record type that represents a row in a table
(or view). The record can store an entire row of data selected from the table or
fetched from a cursor. In the following example, you declare two records. The first
record stores a row selected from the emp table. The second record stores a row
fetched from cursor c1.
DECLARE
emp_rec emp%ROWTYPE;
CURSOR c1 IS SELECT deptno, dname, loc FROM dept;
 dept_rec c1%ROWTYPE;
Columns in a row and corresponding fields in a record have the same names and
datatypes. In the following example, you select column values into a record named
emp_rec :-
DECLARE
emp_rec emp%ROWTYPE;
...
BEGIN
SELECT * INTO emp_rec FROM emp WHERE ...
The column values returned by the SELECT statement are stored in fields. To
reference a field, you use dot notation. e.g., you might reference the deptno field
as follows :-
IF emp_rec.deptno = 20 THEN ...
Also, you can assign the value of an expression to a specific field, as the following
examples show :-
emp_rec.ename := 'JOHNSON';
emp_rec.sal := emp_rec.sal * 1.15;

Q. Can a %ROWTYPE declaration include an initialization clause?

A. No.

Q. How can you assign values to all fields in a %ROWTYPE record at once?
A. There are two ways to assign values to all fields in a record at once.
1. PL/SQL allows aggregate assignment between entire records if their declarations
refer to the same table or cursor. For example, the following assignment is legal :-
DECLARE
dept_rec1 dept%ROWTYPE;
dept_rec2 dept%ROWTYPE;
CURSOR c1 IS SELECT deptno, dname, loc FROM dept;
dept_rec3 c1%ROWTYPE;
BEGIN
...
dept_rec1 := dept_rec2;
However, because dept_rec2 is based on a table and dept_rec3 is based on a cursor,
the following assignment is illegal :-
dept_rec2 := dept_rec3; -- illegal
2. You can assign a list of column values to a record by using the SELECT or FETCH
statement, as the example below shows. The column names must appear in the order
in which they were defined by the CREATE TABLE or CREATE VIEW statement.
DECLARE
dept_rec dept%ROWTYPE;
...
BEGIN
SELECT deptno, dname, loc INTO dept_rec FROM dept
WHERE deptno = 30;

25
Q. Can you assign a list of column values to a %ROWTYPE record by using an
assignment statement?
A. No. e.g. the following syntax is illegal :-
record_name := (value1, value2, value3, ...); -- illegal

*** You can retrieve entire records, you cannot insert or update them.
e.g., the following statement is illegal :-
INSERT INTO dept VALUES (dept_rec); -- illegal

Q. What should we do if there are expressions in the select-list items fetched

by a cursor?
A. Select-list items fetched from a cursor associated with %ROWTYPE must have
simple names or, if they are expressions, must have aliases. In the following example,
you use an alias called wages :-
DECLARE
CURSOR my_cursor IS SELECT sal + NVL(comm, 0) wages, ename
FROM emp;
my_rec my_cursor%ROWTYPE;
BEGIN
OPEN my_cursor;
LOOP
FETCH my_cursor INTO my_rec;
EXIT WHEN my_cursor%NOTFOUND;
IF my_rec.wages > 2000 THEN
INSERT INTO temp VALUES (NULL, my_rec.wages,
my_rec.ename);
END IF;
END LOOP;
CLOSE my_cursor;
END;

Q. Does PL/SQL allow forward declaration of variables or constants?

A. No.You must declare a variable or constant before referencing it in other statements,
including other declarative statements. e.g., the following declaration of maxi is
illegal :-
maxi INTEGER := 2 * mini; -- illegal
mini INTEGER := 15;

Q. Does PL/SQL allow forward declaration of subprograms?

A. Yes.

Q. Does PL/SQL allow you to declare a list of variables that have the same
datatype?
A. No. e.g., the following declaration is illegal :-
i, j, k SMALLINT; -- illegal
The legal version are as follows :-
 i SMALLINT;
j SMALLINT;
k SMALLINT;

Q. In how many can you specify the names of PL/SQL program objects?
A. Names can be simple, qualified, remote, or both qualified and remote. e.g., you
can use the procedure name raise_salary in any of the following ways :-
raise_salary(...); -- simple
emp_actions.raise_salary(...); -- qualified
raise_salary@newyork(...); -- remote
emp_actions.raise_salary@newyork(...); -- qualified and remote

Q. Why are synonyms required?

A. You can create synonyms to provide location transparency for remote schema
objects such as tables, sequences, views, standalone subprograms, and packages.

*** You cannot create synonyms for items declared within subprograms or
packages. That includes constants, variables, cursors, cursor variables,
exceptions, and packaged procedures.

Q. Explain Scope Rule?

A. Within the same scope, all declared identifiers must be unique. So, even if their
datatypes differ, variables and parameters cannot share the same name.
e.g., two of the following declarations are illegal :-
DECLARE
valid_id BOOLEAN;
valid_id VARCHAR2(5); -- illegal duplicate identifier
FUNCTION bonus (valid_id IN INTEGER) RETURN REAL IS ...
-- illegal triplicate identifier

Q. Are names of variables & parameters case-sensitive?

A. No. e.g., PL/SQL considers the following names to be the same :-
DECLARE
zip_code INTEGER;
Zip_Code INTEGER; -- same as zip_code
ZIP_CODE INTEGER; -- same as zip_code and Zip_Code

Q. Explain precedence in case of ambiguous SQL statements including

local variables, formal parameters & database tables?
A. In ambiguous SQL statements, the names of local variables and formal
parameters take precedence over the names of database tables. e.g.,
the following UPDATE statement fails because PL/SQL assumes that emp refers
to the loop counter :-
FOR emp IN 1..5 LOOP
...
UPDATE emp SET bonus = 500 WHERE ...

27
 END LOOP;
Likewise, the following SELECT statement fails because PL/SQL assumes that
emp refers to the formal parameter :-
PROCEDURE calc_bonus (emp NUMBER, bonus OUT REAL) IS
avg_sal REAL;
BEGIN
SELECT AVG(sal) INTO avg_sal FROM emp WHERE ...
In such cases, you can prefix the table name with a username,as follows :-
PROCEDURE calc_bonus (emp NUMBER, bonus OUT REAL) IS
avg_sal REAL;
BEGIN
SELECT AVG(sal) INTO avg_sal FROM scott.emp WHERE ...
However, it is better programming practice is to rename the variable or
formal parameter:

Q. Explain precedence in case of ambiguous SQL statements including

local variables, formal parameters & database columns?
A. Unlike the names of tables, the names of columns take precedence over the
names of local variables and formal parameters. e.g., the following DELETE
statement removes all employees from the emp table, not just KING, because
Oracle assumes that both enames in the WHERE clause refer to the database
column :-
DECLARE
ename VARCHAR2(10) := 'KING';
BEGIN
DELETE FROM emp WHERE ename = ename;
In such cases, to avoid ambiguity, prefix the names of local variables and
formal parameters with my_, as follows :-
DECLARE
my_ename VARCHAR2(10);
Or, use a block label to qualify references, as in
<<main>>
DECLARE
ename VARCHAR2(10) := 'KING';
BEGIN
DELETE FROM emp WHERE ename = main.ename;

Q. Can you use a subprogram name to qualify references to local variables and
formal parameters?
A. Yes. e.g. :-
FUNCTION bonus (deptno IN NUMBER, ...) RETURN REAL IS
job CHAR(10);
BEGIN
SELECT ... WHERE deptno = bonus.deptno AND job = bonus.job;

Q. What do you mean by the scope of an identifier?

A. The scope of an identifier is that region of a program unit (block, subprogram,
or package) from which you can reference the identifier.

Q. What do you mean by the visibility of an identifier?

A. An identifier is visible only in the regions from which you can reference the
identifier using an unqualified name.

Q. How are references to an identifier resolved?

A. References to an identifier are resolved according to its scope and visibility.
Following fig. shows the scope and visibility of a variable named x, which is
declared in an enclosing block, then redeclared in a sub-block.
Scope Visibility

DECLARE DECLARE
----------------. x REAL;
x REAL; | -----------------.
BEGIN | BEGIN |
... | ... |
DECLARE | DECLARE |
Outer x x REAL; | ____________ .
BEGIN | x REAL;
... | BEGIN
END; | ...
... | END;
END; | ----------------.
____________. ... |
END; |
____________.

DECLARE DECLARE
x REAL; x REAL;
BEGIN BEGIN
... ...
DECLARE DECLARE
Inner x --------------. x REAL;
x REAL; | --------------.
BEGIN | BEGIN |
... | ... |
END; | END; |
____________. __________.
END; ...
END;

*** Identifiers declared in a PL/SQL block are considered local to that block
and global to all its sub-blocks.

29
*** If a global identifier is redeclared in a sub-block, both identifiers remain in
scope. Within the sub-block, however, only the local identifier is visible
because you must use a qualified name to reference the global identifier.

Q. Can you declare an identifier twice in the same block?

A. No. However, you can declare the same identifier in two different blocks.
The two items represented by the identifier are distinct, and any change in
one does not affect the other.

Q. Can a block reference identifiers declared in other blocks at the same level?
A. No. it is because those identifiers are neither local nor global to the block. e.g. :-
DECLARE
a CHAR;
b REAL;
BEGIN
-- identifiers available here: a (CHAR), b
DECLARE
a INTEGER;
c REAL;
BEGIN
-- identifiers available here: a (INTEGER), b, c
END;

DECLARE
d REAL;
BEGIN
-- identifiers available here: a (CHAR), b, d
END;
-- identifiers available here: a (CHAR), b
END;
See that a block cannot reference identifiers declared in other blocks nested at
the same level.

Q. Can a global identifier be used in a sub-block?

A. Yes. In that case the local declaration prevails and the sub-block cannot reference
the global identifier unless you use a qualified name. The qualifier can be the label
of an enclosing block, as the following example shows :-
<<outer>>
DECLARE
birthdate DATE;
BEGIN
DECLARE
birthdate DATE;
BEGIN
...
 IF birthdate = outer.birthdate THEN ...
The qualifier can also be the name of an enclosing subprogram. e.g. :-
PROCEDURE check_credit (...) IS
rating NUMBER;
FUNCTION valid (...) RETURN BOOLEAN IS
rating NUMBER;
BEGIN
...
IF check_credit.rating < 3 THEN ...

*** Within the same scope, a label and a subprogram cannot have the same name.

Q. When are variables & constants initialized?

A. Variables and constants are initialized every time a block or subprogram is entered.
By default, variables are initialized to NULL. So, unless you expressly initialize a
variable, its value is undefined, as the following example shows :-
DECLARE
count INTEGER;
...
BEGIN
count := count + 1; -- assigns a null to count
Therefore, to avoid unexpected results, never reference a variable before you assign
it a value.

Q. Which values can be assigned to a Boolean variable?

A. Only the values TRUE and FALSE and the non-value NULL can be assigned to
a Boolean variable. e.g. :-
DECLARE
done BOOLEAN;
BEGIN
done := FALSE; -- legal
WHILE NOT done LOOP
...
END LOOP;

Q. What do relational operators return when applied to an expression?

A. Boolean Value. e.g. :-
done := (count > 500);

Q. How can you assign database values to a variable?

A. You can use the SELECT/Cursor statement to assign values to a variable.
For each item in the select list/fetched, there must be a corresponding,
type-compatible variable in the INTO list. e.g. :-
DECLARE
my_empno emp.empno%TYPE;
my_ename emp.ename%TYPE;

31
 wages NUMBER(7,2);
BEGIN
...
SELECT ename, sal + comm INTO last_name, wages FROM emp
WHERE empno = emp_id;

Q. Can you select column values into a Boolean variable?

A. No.

Q. How are expressions constructed?

A. Expressions are constructed using operands and operators.

Q. What is an operand?
A. An operand is a variable, constant, literal, or function call that contributes
a value to an expression. e.g. :-
-X / 2 + 3

Q. What is a unary operator?

A. Unary operators such as the negation operator (-) operate on one operand.

Q. What is a binary operator?

A. Binary operators such as the division operator (/) operate on two operands.

Q. Is there any ternary oprator in PL/SQL

A. No.

Q. What is operator prcedence?

A. The operations within an expression are done in a particular order depending
on their precedence (priority). Following Table shows the default order of
operations from first to last (top to bottom) :-
Operator Operation
**, NOT exponentiation, logical negation
+, - identity, negation
*, / multiplication, division
+, -, || addition,subtraction, concatenation
=, !=, <, >, <=, >=,
IS NULL, LIKE, BETWEEN, IN comparison
AND conjunction
OR inclusion

*** Operators with higher precedence are applied first. e.g., both of the following
expressions yield 8 because division has a higher precedence than addition :-
5 + 12 / 4
12 / 4 + 5

*** Operators with the same precedence are applied in no particular order.
Q. How can you control the order of evaluation?
A. You can use parentheses to control the order of evaluation. e.g., the following
expression yields 7, not 11, because parentheses override the default operator
precedence :-
(8 + 6) / 2
In the following example, the subtraction is done before the division because the
most deeply nested subexpression is always evaluated first :-
100 + (20 / 5 + (7 - 3))

Q. What are logical operators?

A The logical operators AND, OR, and NOT follow the tri-state logic shown in
following tables.
AND and OR are binary operators.
NOT is a unary operator.

Logic Truth Table

NOT | TRUE | FALSE | NULL

------------------------------------------------------------------
| FALSE | TRUE | NULL

AND | TRUE | FALSE | NULL

-------------------------------------------------------------------
TRUE | TRUE | FALSE | NULL
-------------------------------------------------------------------
FALSE | FALSE | FALSE | FALSE
-------------------------------------------------------------------
NULL | NULL | FALSE | NULL

OR | TRUE | FALSE | NULL

------------------------------------------------------------------
TRUE | TRUE | TRUE | TRUE
------------------------------------------------------------------
FALSE | TRUE | FALSE | NULL
------------------------------------------------------------------
NULL | TRUE | NULL | NULL

*** When you do not use parentheses to specify the order of evaluation, operator
precedence determines the order. Compare the following expressions :-
NOT (valid AND done) | NOT valid AND done
If the Boolean variables valid and done have the value FALSE, the first
expression yields TRUE. However, the second expression yields FALSE
because NOT has a higher precedence than AND; therefore, the second

33
 expression is equivalent to
(NOT valid) AND done

*** Usually, PL/SQL stops evaluating a logical expression as soon as the result can
be determined. This allows you to write expressions that might otherwise cause
an error. Consider the following OR expression :-
DECLARE
...
on_hand INTEGER;
on_order INTEGER;
BEGIN
..
IF (on_hand = 0) OR (on_order / on_hand < 5) THEN
...
END IF;
END;
When the value of on_hand is zero, the left operand yields TRUE, so PL/SQL
need not evaluate the right operand. If PL/SQL were to evaluate both operands
before applying the OR operator, the right operand would cause a division by
zero error.

Q. What are comparison operators?

A. Comparison operators compare one expression to another. The result is always
TRUE, FALSE, or NULL.

Q. Where do you use comparison operators?

A. Typically, you use comparison operators in the WHERE clause of SQL data
manipulation statements and in conditional control statements.

Q. What are relational operators?

A. The relational operators allow you to compare arbitrarily complex expressions.
The following list gives the meaning of each operator :-
Operator Meaning
= is equal to
<>, !=, ~= is not equal to
< is less than
> is greater than
<= is less than or equal to
>= is greater than or equal to

Q. What is IS NULL operator?

A. The IS NULL operator returns the Boolean value TRUE if its operand is null
or FALSE if it is not null. Comparisons involving nulls always yield NULL.
Therefore, to test for nullity (the state of being null), do not use the statement
IF variable = NULL THEN ...
Instead, use the following statement :-
 IF variable IS NULL THEN ...

Q. What is LIKE operator?

A. LIKE operator is used to compare a character value to a pattern. Case is significant.
LIKE returns the Boolean value TRUE if the character patterns match or FALSE if
they do not match.

Q. What are wildcards?

A. The patterns matched by LIKE can include two special-purpose characters called
wildcards.
An underscore (_) matches exactly one character.
A percent sign (%) matches zero or more characters.
e.g., if the value of ename is 'JOHNSON', the following expression yields TRUE :-
ename LIKE 'J%SON'

Q. What is BETWEEN operator?

A. The BETWEEN operator tests whether a value lies in a specified range.
It means "greater than or equal to low value and less than or equal to high value."
e.g., the following expression yields FALSE :-
45 BETWEEN 38 AND 44

Q. What is IN operator?
A. The IN operator tests set membership. It means "equal to any member of.
The set can contain nulls, but they are ignored.
e.g., the following statement does not delete rows in which the ename column is null :-
DELETE FROM emp WHERE ename IN (NULL, 'KING', 'FORD');

*** value NOT IN set yield FALSE if the set contains a null. e.g., instead of deleting
rows in which the ename column is not null and not 'KING', the following
statement deletes no rows :-
DELETE FROM emp WHERE ename NOT IN (NULL, 'KING');

Q. What is cocatenation operator?

A. The concatenation operator (||) appends one string to another. e.g., the expression
'suit' || 'case'
returns the value
'suitcase'.

*** If both operands have datatype CHAR, the concatenation operator returns
a CHAR value. Otherwise, it returns a VARCHAR2 value.

Q. What is a Boolean Expression?

A. PL/SQL lets you compare variables and constants in both SQL and procedural
statements. These comparisons, called Boolean expressions, consist of simple or

35
 complex expressions separated by relational operators.
Often, Boolean expressions are connected by the logical operators AND, OR,
and NOT.
A Boolean expression always yields TRUE, FALSE, or NULL.

Q How many types of Bollean Expressions are there?

A. There are three kinds of Boolean expressions :-
1. Arithmetic
2. Character
3. Date

Q. What are Arithmetic Boolean Expressions?

A. You can use the relational operators to compare numbers for equality or inequality.
Comparisons are quantitative; that is, one number is greater than another if it
represents a larger quantity. e.g., given the assignments
number1 := 75;
number2 := 70;
the following expression yields TRUE :-
number1 > number2

Q. What are Character Boolean Expressions?

A. You can compare character values for equality or inequality. Comparisons are
based on the collating sequence used for the database character set.
A collating sequence is an internal ordering of the character set, in which a
range of numeric codes represents the individual characters. One character
value is greater than another if its internal numeric value is larger. e.g., given the
assignments :-
string1 := 'Kathy';
string2 := 'Kathleen';
the following expression yields TRUE :-
string1 > string2
However, there are semantic differences between the CHAR and VARCHAR2
base types that come into play when you compare character values.

Q. What are Date Boolean Expressions?

A. You can also compare dates. Comparisons are chronological; that is, one date
is greater than another if it is more recent. e.g., given the assignments
date1 := '01-JAN-91';
date2 := '31-DEC-90';
the following expression yields TRUE :-
date1 > date2

Some Guidelines :-
1. In general, do not compare real numbers for exact equality or inequality.
Real numbers are stored as approximate values. e.g., the following IF
condition might not yield TRUE :-
 count := 1;
IF count = 1.0 THEN ...

2. It is a good idea to use parentheses when doing comparisons. e.g., the

following expression is illegal because 100 < tax yields TRUE or FALSE,
which cannot be compared with the number 500 :-
100 < tax < 500 -- illegal
The debugged version is as follows :-
(100 < tax) AND (tax < 500)
3. A Boolean variable is itself either true or false. So, comparisons with the
Boolean values TRUE and FALSE are redundant. e.g., assuming the
variable done is of type BOOLEAN, the IF statement
IF done = TRUE THEN ...
can be simplified as follows :-
IF done THEN ...

Some Rules regarding NULLs :-

1. Comparisons involving nulls always yield NULL
2. Applying the logical operator NOT to a null yields NULL
3. In conditional control statements, if the condition yields NULL,
its associated sequence of statements is not executed

*** In the example below, you might expect the sequence of statements to execute
because x and y seem unequal. But, nulls are indeterminate. Whether or not x is
equal to y is unknown. Therefore, the IF condition yields NULL and the sequence
of statements is bypassed.
x := 5;
y := NULL;
...
IF x != y THEN -- yields NULL, not TRUE
sequence_of_statements; -- not executed
END IF;

*** In this example, you might expect the sequence of statements to execute because a
and b seem equal. But, again, that is unknown, so the IF condition yields NULL and
the sequence of statements is bypassed.
a := NULL;
b := NULL;
...
IF a = b THEN -- yields NULL, not TRUE
sequence_of_statements; -- not executed
END IF;

*** Applying the logical operator NOT to a null yields NULL. Thus, the following two
statements are not always equivalent :-
IF x > y THEN | IF NOT x > y THEN

37
 high := x; | high := y;
ELSE | ELSE
high := y; | high := x;
END IF; | END IF;

The sequence of statements in the ELSE clause is executed when the IF condition
yields FALSE or NULL. So, if either or both x and y are null, the first IF statement
assigns the value of y to high, but the second IF statement assigns the value of x to
high. If neither x nor y is null, both IF statements assign the same value to high.

Q. What are zero-length strings?

A. PL/SQL treats any zero-length string like a null. This includes values returned
by character functions and Boolean expressions. e.g., the following statements assign
nulls to the target variables :-
null_string := TO_VARCHAR2('');
zip_code := SUBSTR(address, 25, 0);
valid := (name != '');
So, use the IS NULL operator to test for null strings, as follows :-
IF my_string IS NULL THEN ...

Q. How does Concatenation Operator handle null operands?

A. The concatenation operator ignores null operands. e.g., the expression
'apple' || NULL || NULL || 'sauce'
returns the value
'applesauce'.

Q. How do built-in functions handle nulls?

A. If a null argument is passed to a built-in function, a null is returned except in
the following cases.
1. DECODE :-
The function DECODE compares its first argument to one or more
search expressions, which are paired with result expressions. Any
search or result expression can be null. If a search is successful, the
corresponding result is returned. In the following example, if the
column rating is null, DECODE returns the value 1000 :-
SELECT DECODE(rating, NULL, 1000, 'C', 2000, 'B', 4000, 'A', 5000)
2. NVL :-
The function NVL returns the value of its second argument if its first
argument is null. In the example below, if hire_date is null, NVL returns
the value of SYSDATE. Otherwise, NVL returns the value of hire_date :-
start_date := NVL(hire_date, SYSDATE);
3. REPLACE :-
The function REPLACE returns the value of its first argument if its second
argument is null, whether the optional third argument is present or not. For
instance, after the assignment
new_string := REPLACE(old_string, NULL, my_string);
 the values of old_string and new_string are the same.
If its third argument is null, REPLACE returns its first argument with
every occurrence of its second argument removed. e.g., after the
assignments
syllabified_name := 'Gold-i-locks';
name := REPLACE(syllabified_name, '-', NULL);
the value of name is
'Goldilocks'.
If its second and third arguments are null, REPLACE simply returns its
first argument.

Q. What are built-in functions?

A. PL/SQL provides many powerful functions to help you manipulate data. These built-in
functions fall into the following categories :-
1. Error-reporting
2. Number
3. Character
4. Conversion
5. Date
6. Miscellaneous

Q. can you use all the built-in functions in SQL statements?

A. You can use all the functions in SQL statements except the error-reporting
functions SQLCODE and SQLERRM.

Q. Can you use all the built-in functions in procedural statements?

A. You can use all the functions in procedural statements except the miscellaneous
functions DECODE, DUMP & VSIZE.

*** The SQL group functions AVG, MIN, MAX, COUNT, SUM, STDDEV,
and VARIANCE are not built into PL/SQL. Nevertheless, you can use them
in SQL statements (but not in procedural statements).

Q. What are error reporting functions?

A. Two functions SQLCODE & SQLERRM give you information about PL/SQL
execution errors.

Q. Are error reporting functions SQLCODE & SQLERRM allowed in SQL

statements?
A. No.

Q. What is SQLCODE function?

A. Its syntax is
function SQLCODE return NUMBER
It returns the number associated with the most recently raised exception.
This function is meaningful only in an exception handler.

39
 Outside a handler, SQLCODE always returns zero.

Q. What is SQLERRM function?

A. Its syntax is
function SQLERRM [(error_number NUMBER)] return CHAR
It returns the error message associated with the current value of SQLCODE.
Without an argument, SQLERRM is meaningful only in an exception handler.
Outside a handler, SQLERRM with no argument always retruns the message
"ORA-0000: normal, successful completion"

Q. What is TABLE?
A. TABLE is a composite datatype in PL/SQL.

Q. What are PL/SQL tables?

A. Objects of type TABLE are called PL/SQL tables.
These are modelled as database tables but are not the same.
These use a primary key to give you array-like access to rows.

Q. Is the size of a PL/SQL table constrained?

A. No. Like the size of a database table, the size of a PL/SQL table is unconstrained.
That is, number of rows in a PL/SQL table can increase dynamically. hence a PL/SQL
table grows as new rows are added.

Q. What are other characteristics of PL/SQL table?

A. PL/SQL tables can have one column and a primary key, neither of which can
be named.
The column can belong to any scalar datatype.
The primary key must belong to type BINARY_INTEGER.

*** Future versions of PL/SQL will allow PL/SQL tables to have multiple, named
columns & composite primary keys of any type.

Q. How is a PL/SQL table declared?

A. PL/SQL table is declared in two steps :-
1. Define a TABLE type
2. Then declare PL/SQL table of that type
The syntax is as follows :-
TYPE type_name IS TABLE OF
{ column_type | variable%TYPE | table.column%TYPE } [NOT NULL]
INDEX BY BINARY_INTEGER
Here type_name is a type specifier. This type specifier will be used in subsequent
declaration of PL/SQL table. The column_name is any scalar(not composite)
datatype such as CHAR, DATE or NUMBER. You can use the %TYPE attribute
to specify a column datatype.
You can declare TABLE types in the declarative part of any blcok, subprogram
or package.
 Example :-
DECLARE
TYPE EnameTabTyp IS TABLE OF CHAR(10)
INDEX BY BINARY_INTEGER;
...
ename_tab EnameTabTyp;
Here the identifier ename_tab represent an entire PL/SQL table.

Q. Why is a PL/SQL table unconstrained?

A. A PL/SQL table is unconstrained because its primary key can assume any value
in the range of values defined for BINARY_INTEGER(-2147483647 ..2147483647).

Q. Can you initialize a PL/SQL table in its declaration?

A. No. e.g., the following declaration is illegal :-
ename_tab EnameTabTyp := ('CASEY', 'STUART', 'CHU'); -- illegal

*** PL/SQL tables follow the usual scoping and instantiation rules.

Q. What is instantiation?
A. It is the creation of a new instance of a program object. In a package,
PL/SQL tables are instantiated when you first reference the package and
cease to exist when you exit the application or end the database session.
In a block or subprogram, they are instantiated when you enter the block or
subprogram and cease to exist when you exit the block or subprogram.

Q. Can PL/SQL tables be declared as formal parameters of procedures &

functions?
A. Yes. The restrictions that apply to scalar parameters also apply to PL/SQL
tables. e.g. :-
PACKAGE emp_actions IS
TYPE EnameTabType IS TABLE OF emp.ename%TYPE
INDEX BY BINARY_INTEGER;
TYPE SalTabTyp IS TABLE OF emp.sal%TYPE
INDEX BY BINARY_INTEGER;
ename_tab EnameTabTyp;
sal_tab SalTabTyp;
...
PROCEDURE hire_batch
(ename_tab EnameTabTyp, sal_tab SalTabTyp, ...);
PROCEDURE log_names
(ename_tab EnameTabTyp, num BINARY_INTEGER);
...
END emp_actions;

Q. How will you reference rows in a PL/SQL table?

A. To reference rows in a PL/SQL table, specify a primary key value using the array

41
 like syntax :-
plsql_table_name(primary_key_value)
here primary_key_value belongs to type BINARY_INTEGER. e.g., you will
reference the 3rd row in PL/SQL table ename_tab as follows :-
ename_tab(3) ...

Q. Can the primary key values be negative?

A. Yes. The magnitude range of a BINARY_INTEGER value is
-2147483647 ..2147483647. So the primary key value can be negative. e.g. :-
ename_tab(-5) ... -- legal

Q. Can you assign the value of a PL/SQL expression to a specific row of a

PL/SQL table?
A. Yes. e.g. :-
sal_tab(5) := salary + increase;

Example 1. :-
Here you use a Cursor FOR loop to load two PL/SQL tables :-
DECLARE
TYPE EnameTabType IS TABLE OF emp.ename%TYPE
INDEX BY BINARY_INTEGER;
TYPE SalTabTyp IS TABLE OF emp.sal%TYPE
INDEX BY BINARY_INTEGER;
ename_tab EnameTabTyp;
sal_tab SalTabTyp;
i BINARY_INTEGER := 0;
...
BEGIN
-- load employee names & salaries into PL/SQL tables
FOR emprec IN (SELECT ename, sal FROM emp) LOOP
i := i + 1;
ename_tab(i) := emprec.ename;
sal_tab(i) := emprec.sal;
END LOOP;
-- process the tables
process_sals(ename_tab, sal_tab);
END;

Example 2. :-
Here you use dot notation to reference the package emp_actions :-
DECLARE
...
i BINARY_INTEGER := 0;
BEGIN
-- load employee names into a PL/SQL table
FOR emprec IN (SELECT ename FROM emp) LOOP
 i := i + 1;
emp_actions.ename_tab(i) := emprec.ename;
END LOOP;
-- process the PL/SQL table
emp_actions.log_names(emp_actions.ename_tab, i);
...
END;

Q. Can you reference an uninitialized row?

A. A row of a PL/SQL table does not exist until it is assigned a value. If you try to
reference an uninitialized row, Pl/SQL raises the predefined exception
NO_DATA_FOUND. e.g. :-
DECLARE
TYPE JobTabTyp IS TABLE OF CHAR(14)
INDEX BY BINARY_INTEGER;
job_tab JobTabTyp;
BEGIN
job_tab(1) := 'CLERK';
IF job_tab(2) = 'CLERK' THEN -- raises NO_DATA_FOUND
...
END IF;
...
EXCEPTION
WHEN NO_DATA_FOUND THEN
-- here because job_tab(2) does not exist
END;

*** The size of a PL/SQL table is unconstrained. If you want to maintain a row
count, you must declare a variable to store the no. of rows currently in
PL/SQL table.

Q. What happens if a PL/SQL table grows too large?

A. Consider the following example :-
DECLARE
TYPE DateTabTyp IS TABLE OF DATE
INDEX BY BINARY_INTEGER;
hiredate_tab DateTabTyp;
i BINARY_INTEGER := 0;
...
BEGIN
/* Initialize PL/SQL table */
LOOP
i := i + 1;
HIREDATE_TAB(i) := SYSDATE;
-- EXIT WHEN statement omitted
END LOOP;

43
 ...
EXCEPTION
WHEN STORAGE_ERROR THEN
-- comes here eventually
END;
With each iteration of the loop, another row is added to the PL/SQL table. The loop
cannot complete because it contains no EXIT WHEN statement. Eventually, PL/SQL
runs out of memory and raises the predefined exception STORAGE_ERROR.

Q. How can we insert values from a PL/SQL table into a database column?
A. You must use a loop. e.g., consider the following declarations :-
DECLARE
TYPE EnameTabType IS TABLE OF CHAR(10)
INDEX BY BINARY_INTEGER;
TYPE EmpnoTabTyp IS TABLE OF NUMBER(4)
INDEX BY BINARY_INTEGER;
ename_tab EnameTabTyp;
empno_tab EmpnoTabTyp;
...
You can use the following procedure to INSERT values from PL/SQL tables
into the emp database table :-
PROCEDURE insert_emp_data
(rows BINARY_INTEGER,
empno_tab EmpnoTabTyp,
ename_tab EnameTabTyp,
...) IS
BEGIN
FOR i IN 1..rows LOOP
INSERT INTO emp (empno, ename, ...)
VALUES (empno_tab(i), ename_tab(i), ...);
END LOOP;

Q. How can we fetch values from a database column into a PL/SQL table?
A. You must use a loop. e.g. : -
PROCEDURE fetch_emp_data
(rows OUT BINARY_INTEGER,
empno_tab OUT EmpnoTabTyp,
ename_tab OUT EnameTabTyp,
...) IS
BEGIN
rows := 0;
FOR emprec in (SELECT * FROM emp) LOOP
rows := rows + 1;
empno_tab(rows) := emprec.empno;
ename_tab(rows) := emprec.ename;
...
 END LOOP;

Q. Can you reference a PL/SQL table in an INTO clause?

A. No. e.g., the following SELECT statement is illegal :-
PROCEDURE fetch_emp_data
(rows OUT BINARY_INTEGER,
empno_tab OUT EmpnoTabTyp,
ename_tab OUT EnameTabTyp,
...) IS
BEGIN
SELECT empno, ename
INTO empno_tab, ename_tab -- illegal
FROM emp;
...
END;

Q. How can you delete rows from a PL/SQL table?

A. There is no straightforward way to delete rows from a PL/SQL table.
DELETE statement cannot specify PL/SQL tables.
Setting a row to NULL as follows does not work because the rows remains :-
sal_tab(3) := NULL;
Referencing the above row does not raise the exception NO_DATA_FOUND.
Therefore you cannot delete individual rows from a PL/SQL table.

Q. Can we delete an entire PL/SQL table?

A. Although you cannot delete individual rows from a PL/SQL table, you can
use a simple technique to delete an entire PL/SQL as follows :-
1. First, declare another PL/SQL table of the same type and leave it empty.
2. Later, when you want to delete the original PL/SQL table, simply assign the
empty table to them. e.g. :-
DECLARE
TYPE NumTabTyp IS TABLE OF NUMBER
INDEX BY BINARY_INTEGER;
sal_tab NumTabTyp;
empty_tab NumTabTyp;
...
BEGIN
/* Load salary table */
FOR i IN 1..50 LOOP
sal_tab(i) := i;
END LOOP;
...
/* Delete all rows from salary table */
sal_tab := empty_tab;
...
IF sal_tab(3) = 3 THEN -- raises NO_DATA_FOUND

45
 ...
END;

Q. What are the restrictions of %ROWTYPE attribute?

A. %ROWTYPE attribute is used to declare a record that represents a row in a
table or a row fetched by a cursor. However, you cannot
1. Specify the datatypes of fields in the record or
2. Define the fields of your own

Q. How can you lift the above restrictions of %ROWTYPE attribute?

A. Use the composite datatype RECORD.

Q. What are records?

A. Objects of type RECORD are called records.
Unlike PL/SQL tables, records have uniquely named fields, which can belong
to different datatypes. e.g. :-
Suppose you've different kinds of data about an
employee such as name, salary, hire date, and so on. This data is dissimilar
in type but logically related. A record that contains such fields as the name,
salary, and hire date of an employee lets you treat the data as a logical unit.

Q. How is a record declared?

A. Like PL/SQL tables, a record must be declared in two steps.
1. First, define a RECORD type
2. then declare user-defined record of that type.
The syntax is as follows :-
TYPE type_name IS RECORD
(field_name1 {field_type | variable%TYPE | table.column%TYPE
| table%ROWTYPE} [NOT NULL],
(field_name2 {field_type | variable%TYPE | table.column%TYPE
| table%ROWTYPE} [NOT NULL],
...);
Here type_name is a type specifier used in subsequent declarations of records.
field_type is any datatype including RECORD and TABLE.
e.g. :-
DECLARE
TYPE DeptRecType IS RECORD
(deptno NUMBER(2) NOT NULL := 20,
dname dept.dname%TYPE,
loc dept.loc%TYPE);
...
See field declarations are like variable declarations.
Each field has a unique name and specific datatype.
You can add the NOT NULL constraint to any field declaration. However,
fields declared as NOT NULL must be initialized.
Once you define DeptRecTyp, you can declare records of that type, as follows :-
 dept_rec DeptRecTyp;
The identifier dept_rec represents an entire record.

Q. Can a record be initialized?

A. Unlike PL/SQL tables, a record can be initialized in its declaration. e.g. :-
DECLARE
TYPE TimeTyp IS RECORD
(second SMALLINT := 0,
minute SMALLINT := 0.
hour SMALLINT := 0);
...
When you declare a record of type TimeTyp, its three fields assume an initial value
of zero

*** User-defined records follow the usual scoping and instantiation rules.

Q. What is instantiation?
A. It is the creation of a new instance of a program object. In a package,
RECORDS are instantiated when you first reference the package and
cease to exist when you exit the application or end the database session.
In a block or subprogram, they are instantiated when you enter the block or
subprogram and cease to exist when you exit the block or subprogram.

Q. Can user-defined records be declared as formal parameters of procedures

& functions?
A. Yes. The restrictions that apply to scalar parameters also apply to PL/SQL
tables. e.g. :-
PACKAGE emp_actios IS
TYPE EmpRecTyp IS RECORD
(empno NUMBER NOT NULL := 1001,
ename CHAR(10),
job CHAR(14),
mgr NUMBER(4),
hiredate DATE,
sal NUMBER(7,2),
comm NUMBER(7,2),
deptnoNUMBER(4));
...
PROCEDURE hire_employee (emp_rec EmpRecTyp);
...
END emp_actions;

Q. How can you reference the individual fields in a record?

A. Use dot notation. The syntax is :-
record_name.field_name

47
Q. Can you assign the value of a PL/SQL expression to a specific field?
A. Yes. e.g. :-
emp_rec.ename := UPPER(emp_rec.ename);

Q. Can you assign values to all fields in a RECORD at once?

A. Yes. This can be done in two ways.
1. You can assign one record to another if they belong to the same datatype.
e.g. :-
DECLARE
TYPE DeptRecTyp IS RECORD (...);
dept_rec1 DeptRecTyp;
dept_rec2 DeptRecTyp;
...
BEGIN
...
dept_rec1 := dept_rec2; -- legal
2. You can assign a list of column values to a record by using the SELECT or
FETCH statement. Just make sure that the column names appear in the
same order as the fields in record :-
DECLARE
TYPE DeptRecTyp IS RECORD
(deptno NUMBER(2),
dname CHAR(14),
loc CHAR(13));
dept_rec DeptRecTyp;
...
BEGIN
SELECT deptno, dname, loc INTO dept_rec FROM dept
WHERE deptno = 30;
...
END;

Q. If their fields match exactly, can records of different types be assigned to

each other?
A. No.

*** A user-defined record & a %ROWTYPE record always belong to different

types; e.g. :-
DECLARE
TYPE DeptRecTyp IS RECORD
(deptno NUMBER(2),
dname CHAR(14),
loc CHAR(13));
dept_rec1 DeptRecTyp;
dept_rec2 dept%ROWTYPE;
...
 BEGIN
...
dept_rec1 := dept_rec2; -- illegal
END;

Q. Can you assign a list of values to a record using an assignment statement?

Q. No. The following syntax is illegal :-
record_name := (value1, valu2, value3, ...); -- illegal

Q. Can records be tested for equality or inequality?

A. No. e.g., the following IF condition is illegal :-
IF dept_rec1 = dept_rec2 THEN -- illegal
...
END IF;

Q. What are nested records?

A. PL/SQL lets you declare and reference nested records. That is, a record can be
the component of another record. e.g. :-
DECLARE
TYPE TimeTyp IS RECORD
(minute SMALLINT,
hour SMALLINT);
TYPE MeetingTyp IS RECORD
(day DATE,
time TimeTyp, -- nested record
place CHAR(20),
purpose CHAR(50));
TYPE PartyTyp IS RECORD
(day DATE,
time TimeTyp, -- nested record
loc CHAR(15));
meeting MeetingTyp;
seminar MeetingTyp;
party partyTyp;
...
BEGIN
meeting.day := '26-JUN-91';
meeting.time.minute := 45;
meeting.time.hour := 10;
...
END;

Q. Can you assign one nested record to another if they belong to the same type?
A. Yes. e.g. :-
seminar.time := meeting.time;
Such assignments are allowed even if the containing records belong to different

49
 datatypes. e.g. :-
party.time := meeting.time;

Q. What is the main advantage of records?

A. The RECORD type lets you collect information about the attributes of an object.
It is easy to manipulate the information because you can refer to the objects as
a whole.

Control Structures
One ship drives east and another drives west
With the selfsame winds that blow.
'Tis the set of the sails and not the gales
Which tells us the way to go.

Q. What is Structure Theorem?

A. According to the structure theorem, any computer program can be written using the
basic control structures
1. Selection
2. Iteration
3. Sequence
They can be combined in any way necessary to deal with a given problem.

Q. What is a selection structure?

A. The selection structure tests a condition, then executes one sequence of statements
instead of another, depending on whether the condition is true or false.

Q. What is a condition?
A. A condition is any variable or expression that returns a Boolean value (TRUE,
FALSE, or NULL).

Q. What is a iteration structure?

A. The iteration structure executes a sequence of statements repeatedly as long as a
condition holds true.

Q. What is a sequence structure?

A. The sequence structure simply executes a sequence of statements in the order in
which they occur.

Q. What is the main characteristic of the three basic control structures defined
above?
A. These have single entry and single exit point. Their proper use leads to a
well-structured program.
Q. What is conditional control IF statement?
A. Often, it is necessary to take alternative actions depending on circumstances.
The IF statement lets you execute a sequence of statements conditionally. That is,
whether the sequence is executed or not depends on the value of a condition.

Q. How many forms of IF statement are there?

A. There are three forms of IF statements :-
1. IF-THEN
2. IF-THEN-ELSE
3. IF-THEN-ELSIF

Q. Explain IF-THEN.
A. It is the simplest form of IF statement. It associates a condition with a sequence of
statements enclosed by the keywords THEN and END IF (not ENDIF). e.g. :-
IF condition THEN
sequence_of_statements;
END IF;
The sequence of statements is executed only if the condition yields TRUE. If the
condition yields FALSE or NULL, the IF statement does nothing. In either
case, control passes to the next statement. e.g. :-
IF sales > quota THEN
compute_bonus(empid);
UPDATE payroll SET pay = pay + bonus WHERE empno = emp_id;
END IF;

*** You can place brief IF statements on a single line. e.g. :-

IF x > y THEN high := x; END IF;

Q. Explain IF-THEN-ELSE.
A. This form of IF statement adds the keyword ELSE followed by an alternative
sequence of statements. e.g. :-
IF condition THEN
sequence_of_statements1;
ELSE
sequence_of_statements2;
END IF;
The sequence of statements in the ELSE clause is executed only if the condition
yields FALSE or NULL. Thus, the ELSE clause ensures that a sequence of
statements is executed. In the following example, the first or second UPDATE
statement is executed when the condition is true or false, respectively :-
IF trans_type = 'CR' THEN
UPDATE accounts SET balance = balance + credit WHERE ...
ELSE
UPDATE accounts SET balance = balance - debit WHERE ...
END IF;

51
Q. Can THEN and ELSE clauses include IF statements?
A. Yes, i.e. IF statements can be nested. e.g. :-
IF trans_type = 'CR' THEN
UPDATE accounts SET balance = balance + credit WHERE ...
ELSE
IF new_balance >= minimum_balance THEN
UPDATE accounts SET balance = balance - debit WHERE ...
ELSE
RAISE insufficient_funds;
END IF;
END IF;

Q. Explain IF-THEN-ELSIF.
A. This form of IF statement is used to select an action from several mutually
exclusive alternatives. It uses the keyword ELSIF (not ELSEIF) to introduce
additional conditions. e.g. :-
IF condition1 THEN
sequence_of_statements1;
ELSIF condition2 THEN
sequence_of_statements2;
ELSE
sequence_of_statements3;
END IF;
If the first condition yields FALSE or NULL, the ELSIF clause tests another
condition.
An IF statement can have any number of ELSIF clauses.
The final ELSE clause is optional.
Conditions are evaluated one by one from top to bottom. If any condition yields
TRUE, its associated sequence of statements is executed and control passes to the next
statement. If all conditions yield FALSE or NULL, the sequence in the ELSE clause is
executed. e.g. :-
BEGIN
...
IF sales > 50000 THEN
bonus := 1500;
ELSIF sales > 35000 THEN
bonus := 500;
ELSE
bonus := 100;
END IF;
INSERT INTO payroll VALUES (emp_id, bonus, ...);
END;

Q. Give any guideline regarding use of IF statements?

A. 1. Avoid clumsy IF statements like those in the following example :-
 DECLARE
...
overdrawn BOOLEAN;
BEGIN
...
IF new_balance < minimum_balance THEN
overdrawn := TRUE;
ELSE
overdrawn := FALSE;
END IF;
...
IF overdrawn = TRUE THEN
RAISE insufficient_funds;
END IF;
END;
This code disregards two useful facts :-
(A) The value of a Boolean expression can be assigned directly to a Boolean variable.
So, you can replace the first IF statement with a simple assignment, as follows :-
overdrawn := new_balance < minimum_balance;
(B) A Boolean variable is itself either true or false. So, you can simplify the condition
in the second IF statement, as follows :-
IF overdrawn THEN ...

2. When possible, use the ELSIF clause instead of nested IF statements. That way,
code will be easier to read and understand. Compare the following IF statements :-
IF condition1 THEN | IF condition1 THEN
statement1; | statement1;
ELSE | ELSIF condition2 THEN
IF condition2 THEN | statement2;
statement2; | ELSIF condition3 THEN
ELSE | statement3;
IF condition3 THEN | END IF;
statement3; |
END IF; |
END IF; |
END IF; |

These statements are logically equivalent, but the first statement obscures the flow of
logic, whereas the second statement reveals it.

Q. What are iteration control LOOP statements?

A. LOOP statements let you execute a sequence of statements multiple times.

Q. How many forms of LOOP statements are there?

A. There are three forms of LOOP statements :-
1. LOOP

53
 2.WHILE-LOOP
3. FOR-LOOP

Q. Explain LOOP statement.

A. This is the simplest form of LOOP statement. It signifies and infinite loop. It
encloses a sequence of statements between the keywords LOOP and END LOOP.
e.g. :-
LOOP
sequence_of_statements;
END LOOP;
With each iteration of the loop, the sequence of statements is executed, then control
resumes at the top of the loop.

Q. Then, how can you terminate an infininte loop ?

A. If further processing is undesirable or impossible, you can use an EXIT statement to
complete the loop. You can place one or more EXIT statements anywhere inside
a loop, but nowhere outside a loop.

Q. What is an EXIT statement?

A. It is an iteration control statement. It is used to complete a loop.

Q. How many forms of EXIT statements are there?

A. There are two forms of EXIT statements :-
1. EXIT
2. EXIT-WHEN

Q. Explain EXIT statement.

A. The EXIT statement forces a loop to complete unconditionally. When an EXIT
statement is encountered, the loop completes immediately and control passes to the
next statement. e.g. :-
LOOP
...
IF credit_rating < 3 THEN
...
EXIT; -- exit loop immediately
END IF;
END LOOP;
-- control resumes here

Q. Can you use EXIT statement to complete a PL/SQL block?

A. No. e.g. :-
BEGIN
...
IF credit_rating < 3 THEN
...
EXIT; -- illegal
 END IF;
END;

*** Remember, the EXIT statement must be placed inside a loop.

*** To complete a PL/SQL block before its normal end is reached,

use the RETURN statement.

Q. Explain EXIT-WHEN statement.

A. The EXIT-WHEN statement allows a loop to complete conditionally. When the
EXIT statement is encountered, the condition in the WHEN clause is evaluated. If the
condition yields TRUE, the loop completes and control passes to the next statement
after the loop. e.g. :-
LOOP
FETCH c1 INTO ...
EXIT WHEN c1%NOTFOUND; -- exit loop if condition is true
...
END LOOP;
CLOSE c1;
Until the condition yields TRUE, the loop cannot complete. So, statements within the
loop must change the value of the condition.

Q. Compare EXIT-WHEN statement with a simple IF statement?

A. The EXIT-WHEN statement replaces a simple IF statement. e.g. compare
the following statements:
IF count > 100 THEN | EXIT WHEN count > 100;
EXIT; |
END IF; |
These statements are logically equivalent, but the EXIT-WHEN statement is
easier to read and understand.

Q. What is a loop label?

A. A label is an undeclared identifier enclosed by double angle brackets.
Like PL/SQL blocks, loops can be labeled. However, label must appear at the
beginning of the LOOP statement. e.g. :-
<<label_name>>
LOOP
sequence_of_statements;
END LOOP;
Optionally, the label name can also appear at the end of the LOOP statement. e.g. :-
<<my_loop>>
LOOP
...
END LOOP my_loop;

*** When you nest labeled loops, you can use ending label names to improve

55
 readability.

Q. Can you use EXIT statement to complete any enclosing loop along with current
loop?
A. Yes, with either form of EXIT statement, you can complete not only the current loop,
but any enclosing loop. Simply label the enclosing loop that you want to complete.
Then, use the label in an EXIT statement. e.g. :-
<<outer>>
LOOP
...
LOOP
...
EXIT outer WHEN ... -- exit both loops
END LOOP;
...
END LOOP outer;
Every enclosing loop up to and including the labeled loop is exited.

Q. Explain WHILE-LOOP.
A. The WHILE-LOOP statement associates a condition with a sequence of
statements enclosed by the keywords LOOP and END LOOP. e.g. :-
WHILE condition LOOP
sequence_of_statements;
END LOOP;
Before each iteration of the loop, the condition is evaluated. If the condition yields
TRUE, the sequence of statements is executed, then control resumes at the top of the
loop. If the condition yields FALSE or NULL, the loop is bypassed and control passes
to the next statement. e.g. :-
WHILE total <= 25000 LOOP
...
SELECT sal INTO salary FROM emp WHERE ...
total := total + salary;
END LOOP;

Q. Is the no. of iterations known before entering a WHILE-LOOP?

A. No. It is because the number of iterations depends on the condition and is unknown
until the loop completes.
Since the condition is tested at the top of the loop, the sequence might execute
zero times.

*** Some languages have a LOOP UNTIL or REPEAT UNTIL structure, which
tests the condition at the bottom of the loop instead of at the top. Therefore,
the sequence of statements is executed at least once. PL/SQL has no such
structure.

Q. How can you build a LOOP UNTIL or REPEAT UNTIL structure in PL/SQL?
A. This is as follows :-
LOOP
sequence_of_statements;
EXIT WHEN boolean_expression;
END LOOP;
To ensure that a WHILE loop executes at least once, use an initialized Boolean
variable in the condition. e.g. :-
done := FALSE;
WHILE NOT done LOOP
sequence_of_statements;
done := boolean_expression;
END LOOP;
A statement inside the loop must assign a new value to the Boolean variable.
Otherwise, you have an infinite loop.

*** The following LOOP statements are logically equivalent :-

WHILE TRUE LOOP | LOOP
... | ...
END LOOP; | END LOOP;

*** The number of iterations through a WHILE loop is unknown until the loop
completes.

Q. Explain FOR-LOOP.
A. The number of iterations through a FOR loop is known before the loop is entered.
FOR loops iterate over a specified range of integers. The syntax is as follows :-
FOR counter IN [REVERSE] lower_bound..higher_bound LOOP
sequence_of_statements;
END LOOP;
The range is evaluated when the FOR loop is first entered and is never
re-evaluated.The sequence of statements is executed once for each integer in the
range. After each iteration, the loop counter is incremented. e.g. :-
FOR i IN 1..3 LOOP -- assign the values 1,2,3 to i
sequence_of_statements; -- executes three times
END LOOP;

Q. What will happen if lower bound equals the higher bound in a FOR loop?
A. If the lower bound equals the higher bound, the sequence of statements is executed
once. e.g. :-
FOR i IN 3..3 LOOP -- assign the value 3 to i
sequence_of_statements; -- executes one time
END LOOP;

Q. How can we reverse the direction of iteration?

A. By default, iteration proceeds upward from the lower bound to the higher bound.
However, if you use the keyword REVERSE, iteration proceeds downward from

57
 the higher bound to the lower bound In the following example, after each iteration,
the loop counter is decremented :-
FOR i IN REVERSE 1..3 LOOP -- assign the values 3,2,1 to i
sequence_of_statements; -- executes three times
END LOOP;
Nevertheless, you write the range bounds in ascending (not descending) order.

Q. Explain the behavior of loop counter inside a FOR loop.

A. Inside a FOR loop, the loop counter can be referenced like a constant.
So, the loop counter can appear in expressions but cannot be assigned values. e.g. :-
FOR ctr IN 1..10 LOOP
...
IF NOT finished THEN
INSERT INTO ... VALUES (ctr, ...); -- legal
factor := ctr * 2; -- legal
ELSE
ctr := 10; -- illegal
END IF;
END LOOP;

Q. What can be the bounds of a FOR loop range?

A. The bounds of a loop range can be literals, variables, or expressions. However,
these must evaluate to integers. e.g. the following iteration schemes are legal :-
j IN -5..5
k IN REVERSE first..last
step IN 0..TRUNC(high/low) * 2
code IN ASCII('A')..ASCII('J')

Q. Is it necessary for lower bound to be 1?

A. No, the lower bound need not be 1. However, the loop counter increment (or
decrement) must be 1.

Q. Some languages provide a STEP clause, which lets you specify a different
increment. PL/SQL has no such structure. How can you build such one?
A. This is as follows :-
FOR j IN 5..15 LOOP -- assign values 5,6,7,... to j
IF MOD(j, 5) = 0 THEN -- pass multiples of 5
sequence_of_statements; -- j has values 5,10,15
END IF;
END LOOP;

Q. Can we determine the loop range in a FOR loop dynamically at run time?
A. Yes, PL/SQL lets you determine the loop range dynamically at run time. e.g. :-
SELECT COUNT(empno) INTO emp_count FROM emp;
FOR i IN 1..emp_count LOOP
...
 END LOOP;
The value of emp_count is unknown at compile time.The SELECT statement returns
the value at run time.

Q. What happens if the lower bound of a loop range evaluates to a larger integer
than the upper bound?
A. Then the sequence of statements within the loop is not executed and control passes to
the next statement. e.g :-
-- limit becomes 1
FOR i IN 2..limit LOOP
sequence_of_statements; -- executes zero times
END LOOP;
-- control passes here

Q. Can you reference a FOR loop counter outside the loop?

A. The loop counter is defined only within the FOR loop. You cannot reference it outside
the loop. After the loop is exited, the loop counter is undefined. e.g. :-
FOR ctr IN 1..10 LOOP
...
END LOOP;
sum := ctr - 1; -- illegal

Q. Is it required to declare a loop counter explicitly?

A. No, you need not explicitly declare the loop counter explicitly as it is implicitly
declared as a local variable of type INTEGER. The following example shows that
the local declaration hides any global declaration :-
DECLARE
ctr INTEGER;
BEGIN
...
FOR ctr IN 1..25 LOOP
...
IF ctr > 10 THEN ... -- refers to loop counter
END LOOP;
END;
To reference the global variable in this example, you must use a label and dot notation,
as follows :-
<<main>>
DECLARE
ctr INTEGER;
...
BEGIN
...
FOR ctr IN 1..25 LOOP
...
IF main.ctr > 10 THEN ... -- refers to global variable

59
 END LOOP;
END main;

*** The same scope rules apply to nested FOR loops. Consider the example below.
Both loop counters have the same name. So, to reference the outer loop counter
from the inner loop, you must use a label and dot notation, as follows :-
<<outer>>
FOR step IN 1..25 LOOP
FOR step IN 1..10 LOOP
...
IF outer.step > 15 THEN ...
END LOOP;
END LOOP outer;

Q. How can you complete a FOR loop prematurely?

A. The EXIT statement allows a FOR loop to complete prematurely. e.g. the following
loop normally executes ten times, but as soon as the FETCH statement fails to return
a row, the loop completes no matter how many times it has executed :-
FOR j IN 1..10 LOOP
FETCH c1 INTO emp_rec;
EXIT WHEN c1%NOTFOUND;
...
END LOOP;

Q. How can you exit from a nested FOR loop prematurely?

A. You can complete not only the current loop, but any enclosing loop prematurely.
Simply label the enclosing loop that you want to complete. Then, use the label in
an EXIT statement to specify which FOR loop to exit, as follows :-
<<outer>>
FOR i IN 1..5 LOOP
...
FOR j IN 1..10 LOOP
FETCH c1 INTO emp_rec;
EXIT outer WHEN c1%NOTFOUND; -- exit both FOR loops
...
END LOOP;
END LOOP outer;
-- control passes here

Q. Give the names of two sequential control statements?

A. 1. GOTO statement
2. NULL statement

Q. Are GOTO & NULL statements crucial for PL/SQL programming?

A. Unlike the IF and LOOP statements, the GOTO and NULL statements are not crucial
to PL/SQL programming.
 The structure of PL/SQL is such that the GOTO statement seldom needed.
Occasionally, it can simplify logic enough to warrant its use.
The NULL statement can make the meaning and action of conditional statements
clear and so improve readability.

Q. Explain GOTO statement.

A. The GOTO statement branches to a label unconditionally.
The label must be unique within its scope and must precede an executable
statement or a PL/SQL block.
When executed, the GOTO statement transfers control to the labeled statement or
block.
Example 1.
Here you go to an executable statement farther down in a sequence of
statements :-
BEGIN
...
GOTO insert_row;
...
<<insert_row>>
INSERT INTO emp VALUES ...
END;

Example 2.
Here you go to a PL/SQL block farther up in a sequence of statements :-
BEGIN
...
<<update_row>>
BEGIN
UPDATE emp SET ...
...
END;
...
GOTO update_row;
...
END;

Q. What is the problem in the following example. How can you remove this
problem?
A. DECLARE
done BOOLEAN;
BEGIN
...
FOR i IN 1..50 LOOP
IF done THEN
GOTO end_loop;
END IF;

61
 ...
<<end_loop>> -- illegal
END LOOP; -- not an executable statement
END;
The label <<end_loop>> in the above example is illegal because it does not precede an
executable statement.
To solve it, simply add the NULL statement, as follows :-
DECLARE
done BOOLEAN;
BEGIN
...
FOR i IN 1..50 LOOP
IF done THEN
GOTO end_loop;
END IF;
...
<<end_loop>>
NULL; -- an executable statement
END LOOP;
END;

Q. Can a GOTO statement branch to an enclosing block from the current block?
A. Yes. e.g. :-
DECLARE
my_ename CHAR(10);
BEGIN
...
<<get_name>>
SELECT ename INTO my_ename FROM emp WHERE ...
...
BEGIN
...
GOTO get_name; -- branch to enclosing block
END;
END;
Here, GOTO statement branches to the first enclosing block in which the referenced
label appears.

Q. Can a GOTO statement branch into an IF statement, LOOP statement, or

sub_block?
A. No. e.g., the following GOTO statement is illegal :-
BEGIN
...
GOTO update_row; -- illegal branch into IF statement
...
IF valid THEN
 ...
<<update_row>>
UPDATE emp SET ...
END IF;
END;

Q. Can a GOTO statement branch from one IF statement clause to another?

A. No. Consider the following example shows :-
BEGIN
...
IF valid THEN
...
GOTO update_row; -- illegal branch into ELSE clause
ELSE
...
<<update_row>>
UPDATE emp SET ...
END IF;
END;

Q. Can a GOTO statement branch from an enclosing block into a sub-block?

A. No. Consider the following example :-
BEGIN
...
IF status = 'OBSOLETE' THEN
GOTO delete_part; -- illegal branch into sub-block
END IF;
...
BEGIN
...
<<delete_part>>
DELETE FROM parts WHERE ...
END;
END;

Q. Can a GOTO statement branch out of a subprogram?

A. No. Consider the following example :-
DECLARE
...
PROCEDURE compute_bonus (emp_id NUMBER) IS
BEGIN
...
GOTO update_row; -- illegal branch out of subprogram
END;
BEGIN
...

63
 <<update_row>>
UPDATE emp SET ...
END;

Q. Can a GOTO statement branch from an exception handler into the current
block?
A. No. e.g., the following GOTO statement is illegal :-
DECLARE
...
pe_ratio REAL;
BEGIN
...
SELECT price / NVL(earnings, 0) INTO pe_ratio FROM ...
<<insert_row>>
INSERT INTO stats VALUES (pe_ratio, ...);
EXCEPTION
WHEN ZERO_DIVIDE THEN
pe_ratio := 0;
GOTO insert_row; -- illegal branch into current block
END;

Q. Can a GOTO statement branch to an exception handler?

A. No.

Q. Can a GOTO statement branch from an exception handler into an enclosing

block?
A. Yes.

Q. What is the disadvantage of overuse of GOTO statements?

A. Overuse of GOTO statements can result in complex, unstructured code (sometimes
called spaghetti code) that is hard to understand and maintain. So, use GOTO
statements sparingly. e.g. to branch from a deeply nested structure to an error-handling
routine, raise an exception rather than use a GOTO statement.

Q. Explain NULL statement?

A. 1. The NULL statement explicitly specifies inaction.
2. It does nothing other than pass control to the next statement.
3. It can improve readability.
4. In a construct allowing alternative actions, the NULL statement serves as a
placeholder. It tells readers that the associated alternative has not been
overlooked, but that indeed no action is necessary.
In the following example, the NULL statement shows that no action is taken for
unnamed exceptions :-
EXCEPTION
WHEN ZERO_DIVIDE THEN
ROLLBACK;
 WHEN VALUE_ERROR THEN
INSERT INTO errors VALUES ...
COMMIT;
WHEN OTHERS THEN
NULL;
END;

*** Each clause in an IF statement must contain at least one executable statement.
The NULL statement meets this requirement. So, you can use the NULL
statement in clauses that correspond to circumstances in which no action is
taken. e.g. :-
IF rating > 90 THEN
compute_bonus(emp_id);
ELSE
NULL;
END IF;

Q. What is a stub?
A. A stub is dummy subprogram that allows you to defer the definition of a procedure
or function until you test and debug the main program.

Q. How does a NULL statement help in creating a stub?

A. The NULL statement is a handy way to create stubs when designing applications from
the top down. . It is because the NULL statement meets the requirement that at
least one statement must appear in the executable part of a subprogram. e.g. :-

PROCEDURE debit_account (acct_id INTEGER, amount REAL) IS

BEGIN
NULL;
END debit_account;

INTERACTION WITH ORACLE

Knowledge is of two kinds. We know a subject ourselves, or we know where we can find
information upon it.

65
Q. How does PL/SQL manipulate Oracle data?
A. PL/SQL manipulate Oracle data because it supports all SQL
1. Data manipulation commands
2. Transaction control commands
3. Functions
4. Pseudocolumns
5. Operators

Q. Which data manipulation command PL/SQL does not support?

A. EXPLAIN PLAN

Q. Does PL/SQL support data definition commands such as CREATE?

A. No.

Q. Does PL/SQL support session control commands such as SET ROLE?

A. No.

Q. Does PL/SQL support system control command such as ALTER SYSTEM?

A. No.

Q. Which SQL statements does PL/SQL use to manipulate Oracle data?

A. To manipulate Oracle data, PL/SQL uses following data manipulation statements :-
1. INSERT
2. UPDATE
3. DELETE
4. SELECT
5. LOCK TABLE (temporarily limits access to a table)

Q. What is a transaction?
A. A transaction is a series of SQL data manipulation statements that does a logical
unit of work.
OR
A transaction is a series of SQL data manipulation statements that takes Oracle
database from one consistent state to another consistent state.

Q. Is Oracle transaction oriented?

A. Yes.

Q. Why does Oracle use transactions?

A. Oracle uses transactions to ensure data integrity.

Q. Which Oracle commands does PL/SQL use to control transactions?

A. To control transactions, PL/SQL uses following transaction control statements :-
1. COMMIT
2. ROLLBACK
3. SAVEPOINT
 4. SET TRANSACTION (establishes a read-only query)

Q. How can you undo part of a transaction?

A. By using SAVEPOINT with ROLLBACK.

Q. What are group functions?

A. Group functions operate on entire columns of ORACLE data for summarization.
PL/SQL uses following group functions :-
AVG, COUNT, MAX, MIN, STDDEV, SUM, VARIANCE etc.

Q. Where can you use Group Functions?

A. You can use the group functions in SQL statements, but not in procedural
statements.

Q. Except one, all group functions ignore nulls. Name that.

A. COUNT(*).

Q. What are pseudocolumns?

A. Pseudocolumns are not actual columns in a table but they behave like columns.

Q. Which pseudocolumns does PL/SQL recognise?

A. PL/SQL recognizes the following SQL pseudocolumns, which return specific data
items :-
1. CURRVAL
2. LEVEL
3. NEXTVAL
4. ROWID
5. ROWNUM

Q. Where can you reference pseudocolumns?

A. You can use pseudocolumns in SQL statements, but not in procedural statements.

Q. Can you select values from a pseudocolumn?

A. Yes.

Q. Can you insert values in a pseudocolumn?

A. No.

Q. Can you update values in a pseudocolumn?

A. No.

Q. Can you delete values from a pseudocolumn?

A. No.

Q. What is a sequence?
A. A sequence is a database object that generates sequential numbers.

67
 When you create a sequence, you can specify its initial value and an increment.

Q. What are CURRVAL & NEXTVAL pseudocolumns?

A. CURRVAL returns the current value in a specified sequence.
Before you can reference CURRVAL in a session, you must use NEXTVAL
to generate a number.
A reference to NEXTVAL stores the current sequence number in CURRVAL.
NEXTVAL increments the sequence and returns the next value.
To obtain the current or next value in a sequence, you must use dot notation, e.g. :-
sequence_name.CURRVAL
sequence_name.NEXTVAL

Q. Where can you use CURRVAL & NEXTVAL?

A. You can use CURRVAL and NEXTVAL only in
1. A Select List
2. The VALUES clause
3. The SET clause

*** If a transaction generates a sequence number, the sequence is incremented

immediately whether you commit or roll back the transaction.

Q. What is LEVEL pseudocolumn?

A. You use LEVEL with the SELECT CONNECT BY statement to organize rows
from a database table into a tree structure.
LEVEL returns the level number of a node in a tree structure. The root is level 1,
children of the root are level 2, grandchildren are level 3, and so on.

You specify the direction in which the query walks the tree (down from the root or
up from the branches) with the PRIOR operator.
In the START WITH clause, you specify a condition that identifies the root of the
tree.

Q. What is ROWID pseudocolumn?

A. ROWID returns the rowid (binary address) of a row in a database table.

*** PL/SQL provides a datatype also named ROWID. You can use variables of
type ROWID to store rowids in a readable format.

*** When you select or fetch a rowid into a ROWID variable, you can use the
function ROWIDTOCHAR, which converts the binary value to an 18-byte
character string.

Q. What is ROWNUM pseudocolumn?

A. ROWNUM returns a number indicating the order in which a row was selected from
a table. The first row selected has a ROWNUM of 1, the second row has a
ROWNUM of 2, and so on.
 If a SELECT statement includes an ORDER BY clause, ROWNUMs are
assigned to the retrieved rows before the sort is done.

Q. What is the main use of ROWNUM pseudocolumn?

A. You use ROWNUM in the WHERE clause of a SELECT statement to limit the
number of rows retrieved. e.g. :-
DECLARE
CURSOR c1 IS SELECT empno, sal FROM emp
WHERE sal > 2000 AND ROWNUM < 10; -- returns 10 rows

*** The value of ROWNUM increases only when a row is retrieved. So the only
meaningful use of ROWNUM in a WHERE clause is :-
... WHERE ROWNUM < constant;
e.g. the following condition can not be met because the first nine rows are never
retrieved :-
... WHERE ROWNUM = 10;

Q. What are set operators?

A. Set operators combine the results of two queries into one result.
1. INTERSECT returns all distinct rows selected by both queries.
2. MINUS returns all distinct rows selected by the first query but not by the second.
3. UNION returns all distinct rows selected by either query.
4. UNION ALL returns all rows selected by either query, including all duplicates.

Q. What are comparison operators?

A. Typically, Comparison operators are used in the WHERE/GROUP BY clause to
form predicates. Predicates compare one expression to another and always
evaluate to TRUE, FALSE, or NULL.
Following comparison opeartors can be used to form predicates :-
ALL, ANY, SOME, BETWEEN, EXISTS, IN, IS NULL & LIKE.

Q. What are logical operators?

A. Logical operators are used to combine predicates. There are thre logical
operators :-
AND, OR & NOT

Q. What are row operators?

A. Row operators are used to return or reference particular rows. Following are
row operators :-
ALL. DISTINCT & PRIOR.

Q. What does a PRIOR row operator do?

A. PRIOR refers to the parent row of the current row returned by a tree-structured
query. It must be used in the CONNECT BY clause of such a query to define the
parent-child relationship.

69
Q. What is an execution plan?
A. For every SQL statement, ORACLE optimizer generates an execution plan.
It is a series of steps that ORACLE takes to execute the statement.

Q. What are Optimizer hints?

A. In some cases, you can suggest to ORACLE the way to optimize a SQL statement.
These suggestions are called hints. These let you influence the decisions made by the
optimizer.
Hints are not directives. They merely help the optimizer do its job.

Q. What can a hint specify?

A. A hint can specify :-
1. Optimization Approach for a SQL statement
2. Access Path for each referenced table
3. Join Order for a join
4. Method used to join tables

Q. What are the main categories of hints?

A. (From above question) Hints fall into four catogories :-
1. Optimization Approach
2. Access Path
3. Join Order
4. Join Operation

Q. Give two names of optimization approach hints.

A. 1. COST (invoke cost-based optimizer)
2. NOCOST (invoke rule-based optimezer)

Q. How do you give hints to the optimizer?

A. By placing them in a comment immediately after the verb in a SELECT, UPDATE,
or DELETE statement e.g. :-
SELECT /*+ COST */ ename, job, sal INTO ...

Q. Can you create synonyms for packages and stand-alone subprograms?

A. Yes.

Q. Can you create synonyms for objects declared within packages or

subprograms?
A. No.

Q. What is a distributed database?

A. A distributed database is a single logical database comprising multiple physical
database at different sites.

Q. What are Global Names?

A. In a distributed database system, each database is uniquely identified by a
 two-part global name :-

1. The 1st part is a <= 8 characters database name.

2. The 2nd part is a network domain name.

To form network domain names, use dot notation and follow a path through the
tree structure from leaf to root. The domain name tells the name or location of
a network host and the type of organization it is. Consider the following figure :-

Here every database object is uniquely identified by its global object name. e.g. :-
BEGIN
SELECT ename, job INTO my_ename, my_job
FROM [email protected]
WHERE empno = my_empno;
...

Q. What is Internet?
A. Internet is a worldwide system of computer networks to exchange information.

Q. How many types of cursors does PL/SQL uses?

A. PL/SQL uses two types of cursors :-
1. Implicit - PL/SQL declares a cursor implicitly for all SQL data manipulation
statements, including queries that return only one row.
2. Explicit - For queries that return more than one row, you must declare an
explicit cursor or use a cursor FOR loop to process the rows.

*** The set of rows returned by a query can consist of zero, one, or multiple rows,
depending on how many rows meet search criteria.

71
Q. Where can you declare a cursor?
A. You can declare a cursor in the declarative part of any PL/SQL block, subprogram,
or package.

Q. How do you control a cursor?

A. You use three commands to control a cursor :-
1. OPEN - You initialize the cursor with the OPEN statement, which identifies
the result/active set.
2. FETCH - Then, you use the FETCH statement to retrieve the first row. You
can execute FETCH repeatedly until all rows have been retrieved.
3. CLOSE - When the last row has been processed, you release the cursor with
the CLOSE statement.

Q. How can you process several queries in parallel?

A. You can process several queries in parallel by declaring and opening multiple
cursors.

Q. Are forward references allowed for cursors in PL/SQL?

A. No. So, you must declare a cursor before referencing it in other statements.

Q. How is a cursor declared?

A. When you declare a cursor, in the declarative part, you name it and associate it
with a specific query. e.g. :-
DECLARE
CURSOR c1 IS SELECT ename, deptno FROM emp
WHERE sal > 2000;
...
BEGIN
...

Q. What is a cursor name?

A. The cursor name is an undeclared identifier. It is not the name of a PL/SQL variable.
You cannot assign values to a cursor name or use it in an expression.
However, cursors and variables follow the same scoping rules.
Naming cursors after database tables is allowed but not recommended.

Q. What is a parameterized cursor?

A. A parameterized cursor can take parameters, which can appear in the associated query
wherever constants can appear. The syntax is :-
CURSOR name [ ( parameter [, parameter, ...] ) ] IS
SELECT ...
Where parameter stands for the following syntax :-
variable_name [IN] datatype [{:= | DEFAULT} value]
 The formal parameters of a cursor must be IN parameters. Therefore, they cannot
return values to actual parameters.
Also, you cannot impose the NOT NULL constraint on a cursor parameter.
You can initialize cursor parameters to default values. That way, you can pass different
numbers of actual parameters to a cursor, accepting or overriding the default values as
you please.
Also, you can add new formal parameters without having to change every reference to
the cursor.
Example :-
DECLARE
CURSOR c1 (low INTEGER DEFAULT 0,
high INTEGER DEFAULT 99) IS SELECT ...

Q. What is the scope of a cursor's parameter?

A. The scope of cursor parameters is local to the cursor, i.e. they can be referenced
only within the query specified in the cursor declaration.

Q. When is the value of a cursor's parameter used?

A. The value of a cursor's parameter is used by the associated query when the cursor
is opened.

Q. Explain the opening of a cursor.

A. When a cursor is opened with OPEN statement, it executes the query and identifies
the result/active set, which consists of all rows that meet the query search criteria.
e.g. :-
DECLARE
CURSOR c1 IS SELECT ename, job FROM emp WHERE sal < 3000;
...
BEGIN
OPEN c1;
...
END;

*** For cursors declared using the FOR UPDATE clause, the OPEN statement
also locks those rows.

*** Rows in the result set are not retrieved when the OPEN statement is executed.
Rather, the FETCH statement retrieves the rows.

*** The query associated with a cursor can reference PL/SQL variables within its
scope. However, any variables in the query are evaluated only when the cursor
is opened.

Q. How are parameters passed to a cursor?

A. You use the OPEN statement to pass parameters to a cursor. e.g. consider the
following cursor declaration :-

73
 DECLARE
CURSOR c1 (name VARCHAR2, salary NUMBER) IS SELECT ...
Any of the following statements opens the cursor :-
OPEN c1(emp_name, 3000);
OPEN c1('ATTLEY', 1500);
OPEN c1(emp_name, salary);

*** In the above example, when the identifier salary is used in the cursor declaration, it
refers to the formal parameter. But, when it is used in the OPEN statement, it refers
to the PL/SQL variable. To avoid confusion, use unique identifiers.

*** Unless you want to accept default values, each formal parameter in the cursor
declaration must have a corresponding actual parameter in the OPEN statement.

*** Formal parameters declared with a default value need not have a corresponding
actual parameter. They can simply assume their default values when the OPEN
statement is executed.

*** You can associate the actual parameters in an OPEN statement with the formal
parameters in a cursor declaration using positional or named notation.

*** The datatypes of each actual parameter and its corresponding formal parameter
must be compatible.

Q. Explain fetching with a cursor?

A. The FETCH statement retrieves the rows in the result/active set one at a time.
After each fetch, the cursor advances to the next row in the result set. e.g. :-
FETCH c1 INTO my_empno, my_ename, my_deptno;
For each column value returned by the query associated with the cursor, there
must be a corresponding variable in the INTO list. Also, their datatypes must
be compatible.

Q. How can you change the result/active set or values of variables in a cursor's
query?
A. First close and then reopen the cursor with the input variables set to their new values.

Q. Can we use different INTO list on separate fetches with the same cursor?
A. Yes. e.g. :-
DECLARE
CURSOR c1 IS SELECT ename FROM emp;
name1 emp.ename%TYPE;
name2 emp.ename%TYPE;
name3 emp.ename%TYPE;
BEGIN
OPEN c1;
FETCH c1 INTO name1; -- this fetches first row
 FETCH c1 INTO name2; -- this fetches second row
FETCH c1 INTO name3; -- this fetches third row
...
CLOSE c1;
END;

Q. What happens if you fetch past the last row in the result/active set?
A. If you execute a FETCH but there are no more rows left in the active set,
the values of the target variables (i.e. fetch-list variables) are indeterminate.

Q. Explain closing of a cursor?

A. The CLOSE statement disables the cursor, and the result set becomes undefined.
e.g. :-
CLOSE c1;

*** Once a cursor is closed, you can reopen it. Any other operation on a closed
cursor raises the predefined exception INVALID_CURSOR.

Q. What are explicit cursor attributes?

A. Each explicitly defined cursor has four attributes :-
1. %NOTFOUND
2. %FOUND
3. %ROWCOUNT
4. %ISOPEN
When appended to the cursor name, these attributes let you access useful information
about the execution of a multirow query.

Q. Where can you use explicit cursor attributes?

A. You can use explicit cursor attributes in procedural statements but not in SQL
statements.

Q. Explain %NOTFOUND attribute of an explicit cursor?

A. This attribute of an explicit cursor tells whether the last fetch returned a row or not.
It yields FALSE if the last fetch returned a row, or TRUE if the last fetch failed to
return a row ( as the active/result set was empty). e.g. :-
LOOP
FETCH c1 INTO my_ename, my_sal, my_hiredate;
EXIT WHEN c1%NOTFOUND;
...
END LOOP;
Before the first fetch, %NOTFOUND evaluates to NULL. So, if FETCH
never executes successfully, the loop is never exited. That is because the EXIT WHEN
statement executes only if its WHEN condition is true. To be safe, you should use the
following EXIT statement instead :-
EXIT WHEN c1%NOTFOUND OR ci%NOTFOUND IS NULL;

75
*** If a cursor or cursor variable is not open, referencing it with %NOTFOUND
raises INVALID_CURSOR.

*** Eventually, the FETCH statement must fail to return a row. So when that
happens, no exception is raised.

Q. Why should we use %NOTFOUND attribute of explicit cursors?

A. You can open multiple cursors. In that case %NOTFOUND tells you which cursors
have rows left to fetch.

Q. Explain %NOTFOUND attribute of an explicit cursor?

A. It is the logical opposite of %NOTFOUND. After an explicit cursor is opened but
before the first fetch, %FOUND yields NULL. Thereafter, it yields TRUE if the
last fetch returned a row, or FALSE if the last fetch failed to return a row. e.g. :-
LOOP
FETCH c1 INTO my_ename, my_sal, my_hiredate;
IF c1%FOUND THEN -- fetch succeeded
...
ELSE -- fetch failed, so exit loop
EXIT;
END IF;
END LOOP;
Here you are using %FOUND to select an action.

*** If a cursor or cursor variable is not open, referencing it with %FOUND raises
the predefined exception INVALID_CURSOR.

Q. Why should we use %FOUND attribute of explicit cursors?

A. You can open multiple cursors. In that case %FOUND tells you which cursors
have rows left to fetch.

Q. Explain %ROWCOUNT attribute of an explicit cursor?

A. When its cursor or cursor variable is opened, %ROWCOUNT is zeroed.
Before the first fetch, %ROWCOUNT yields 0. Thereafter, it yields the number
of rows fetched so far. The number is incremented if the last fetch returned a row.
e.g. :-
LOOP
FETCH c1 INTO my_ename, my_deptno;
IF c1%ROWCOUNT > 10 THEN
...
END IF;
...
END LOOP;

*** If a cursor or cursor variable is not open, referencing it with %ROWCOUNT

raises INVALID_CURSOR.
Q. Why should we use %ROWCOUNT attribute of explicit cursors?
A. You can open multiple cursors. In that case %ROWCOUNT tells you how many rows
have been fetched so far.

Q. Explain %ROWCOUNT attribute of an explicit cursor?

A. %ISOPEN yields TRUE if its cursor or cursor variable is open.
Otherwise, %ISOPEN yields FALSE. e.g. :-
IF c1%ISOPEN THEN -- cursor is open
...
ELSE -- cursor is closed, so open it
OPEN c1;
END IF;
Here, you use %ISOPEN to select an action.

Table of Cursor Attribute Values

%NOTFOUND %FOUND %ROWCOUNT %ISOPEN

before excp excp excp FALSE
OPEN
after NULL NULL 0 TRUE

before NULL NULL 0 TRUE

first
FETCH
after FALSE TRUE 1 TRUE

before FALSE TRUE 1 TRUE

middle
FETCHes
after FALSE TRUE data-dependent TRUE

before FALSE TRUE data-dependent TRUE

last
FETCH
after TRUE FALSE data-dependent TRUE

before TRUE FALSE data-dependent TRUE

CLOSE
after excp excp excp FALSE

*** Referencing %FOUND, %NOTFOUND, or %ROWCOUNT before a cursor

is opened or after it is closed raises INVALID_CURSOR.

*** After the first FETCH, if the result set was empty, %FOUND yields FALSE,
%NOTFOUND yields TRUE, and %ROWCOUNT yields 0.

77
Q. What are implicit cursors?
A. Oracle implicitly opens a cursor to process each SQL statement not associated with
an explicitly declared cursor. PL/SQL lets you refer to the most recent implicit cursor
as the "SQL" cursor.

Q. Can we use OPEN, FETCH & CLOSE statements to control SQL cursor?
A. No. But, you can use cursor attributes to get information about the most recently
executed SQL statement.

Q. What are implicit cursor attributes?

A. The SQL cursor (i.e.implicit cursor) has four attributes :-
1. %NOTFOUND
2. %FOUND
3. %ROWCOUNT
4. %ISOPEN
When appended to the cursor name (SQL), these attributes return information about
the execution of an INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, or SELECT INTO statement.
The values of the cursor attributes always refer to the most recently executed
SQL statement, wherever that statement appears.

*** Before Oracle opens the SQL cursor automatically, the implicit cursor
attributes yield NULL.

Q. Where can you use SQL cursor attributes?

A. You can use implicit cursor attributes in procedural statements but not in SQL
statements.

Q. Explain implicit cursor attribute %FOUND.

A. Until a SQL data manipulation statement is executed, %FOUND yields NULL.
Thereafter, %FOUND yields TRUE if an INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE
statement affected one or more rows, or a SELECT INTO statement returned
one or more rows. Otherwise, %FOUND yields FALSE. e.g. :-
DELETE FROM emp WHERE empno = my_empno;
IF SQL%FOUND THEN -- delete succeeded
INSERT INTO new_emp VALUES (my_empno, my_ename, ...);
Here, you use %FOUND to insert a row if a delete succeeds.

Q. Explain implicit cursor attribute %NOTFOUND.

A. %NOTFOUND is the logical opposite of %FOUND.
%NOTFOUND yields TRUE if an INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement
affected no rows, or a SELECT INTO statement returned no rows. Otherwise,
%NOTFOUND yields FALSE. e.g. :-
UPDATE emp SET sal = sal * 1.05 WHERE empno = my_empno;
IF SQL%NOTFOUND THEN -- update failed
INSERT INTO temp VALUES(...);
 END IF;
Here. you use %NOTFOUND to insert a new row if an update fails.

*** An Important Guideline regarding SQL cursor attribute %NOTFOUND :-

1. If a SELECT INTO statement fails to return a row, PL/SQL raises the predefined
exception NO_DATA_FOUND whether you check %NOTFOUND on the next
line or not. e.g. :-
BEGIN
...
SELECT sal INTO my_sal FROM emp WHERE empno = my_empno;
-- might raise NO_DATA_FOUND
IF SQL%NOTFOUND THEN -- condition tested only when false
... -- this action is never taken
END IF;
EXCEPTION
...
END;
The check is useless because the IF condition is tested only when %NOTFOUND
is false. When PL/SQL raises NO_DATA_FOUND, normal execution stops and
control transfers to the exception-handling part of the block. In this case,
%NOTFOUND is useful in the OTHERS exception handler. Therefore, instead of
coding a NO_DATA_FOUND handler, find out if that exception was raised by
checking %NOTFOUND. e.g. :-
BEGIN
...
SELECT sal INTO my_sal FROM emp WHERE empno = my_empno;
-- might raise NO_DATA_FOUND
EXCEPTION
WHEN OTHERS THEN
IF SQL%NOTFOUND THEN -- check for 'no data found'
...
END IF;
...
END;

2. A SELECT INTO statement that calls a SQL group function never raises
NO_DATA_FOUND because group functions always return a value or a null.
In such cases, %NOTFOUND yields FALSE. e.g. :-
BEGIN
...
SELECT MAX(sal) INTO my_sal FROM emp WHERE deptno = my_deptno;
-- never raises NO_DATA_FOUND
IF SQL%NOTFOUND THEN -- always tested but never true
... -- this action is never taken
END IF;

79
 EXCEPTION
WHEN NO_DATA_FOUND THEN ... -- never invoked
...
END;

Q. Explain implicit cursor attribute %ISOPEN.

A. Oracle closes the SQL cursor automatically after executing its associated SQL
statement. As a result, %ISOPEN always yields FALSE.

Q. Explain implicit cursor attribute %ROWCOUNT.

A. %ROWCOUNT yields the number of rows affected by an INSERT, UPDATE,
or DELETE statement, or returned by a SELECT INTO statement.
%ROWCOUNT yields 0 if an INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement affected
no rows, or a SELECT INTO statement returned no rows. e.g. :-
DELETE FROM emp WHERE ...
IF SQL%ROWCOUNT > 10 THEN -- more than 10 rows were deleted
...
END IF;
Here, you use %ROWCOUNT to take action if more than ten rows have been deleted.

*** If a SELECT INTO statement returns more than one row, PL/SQL raises the
predefined exception TOO_MANY_ROWS and %ROWCOUNT yields 1,
not the actual number of rows that satisfy the query.
In such a situation, %ROWCOUNT is useful in the OTHERS exception
handler. Therefore, instead of coding a TOO_MANY_ROWS handler,
find out if the exception TOO_MANY_ROWS was raised by checking
%ROWCOUNT. e.g. :-
DECLARE
my_sal NUMBER(7,2);
my_ename CHAR(10);
BEGIN
...
SELECT sal INTO my_sal FROM emp WHERE ename = my_ename;
-- might raise TOO_MANY_ROWS
...
EXCEPTION
WHEN OTHERS THEN
IF SQL%ROWCOUNT > 0 THEN -- check for 'too many rows'
...
END IF;
...
END;

*** An Important Guideline regarding SQL cursor attributes :-

The values of the cursor attributes always refer to the most recently executed SQL
statement, wherever that statement is. It might be in a different scope (e.g., in a sub-
 block). So, if you want to save an attribute value for later use, assign it to a Boolean
variable immediately.
In the following example, relying on the IF condition is dangerous because the
procedure check_status might have changed the value of %NOTFOUND :-
UPDATE parts SET quantity = quantity - 1 WHERE partno = part_id;
check_status(part_id); -- procedure call
IF SQL%NOTFOUND THEN -- dangerous!
You can debug the code as follows :-
UPDATE parts SET quantity = quantity - 1 WHERE partno = part_id;
sql_notfound := SQL%NOTFOUND; -- assign value to Boolean variable
check_status(part_id);
IF sql_notfound THEN ...

Q. What are packaged cursors?

A. You can separate a cursor specification from its body for placement in a package.
That way, you can change the cursor body without having to change the cursor
specification. You code the cursor specification in the package specification using
the syntax :-
CURSOR cursor_name [(parameter[, parameter]...)]
RETURN return_type;
In the following example, you use the %ROWTYPE attribute to provide a record
type that represents a row in the database table emp :-
CREATE PACKAGE emp_actions AS
/* Declare cursor specification. */
CURSOR c1 RETURN emp%ROWTYPE; ...
END emp_actions;

CREATE PACKAGE BODY emp_actions AS

/* Define cursor body. */
CURSOR c1 RETURN emp%ROWTYPE IS
SELECT * FROM emp WHERE sal > 3000;
...
END emp_actions;

*** See in above example, the cursor specification has no SELECT statement
because the RETURN clause defines the datatype of the result value.
However, the cursor body must have a SELECT statement and the same
RETURN clause as the cursor specification.
Also, the number and datatypes of select items in the SELECT statement must
match the RETURN clause.

Q. What is the main advantage of packaged cursors?

A. Packaged cursors increase flexibility. e.g., you can change the cursor body in the last
example, as follows, without having to change the cursor specification :-
CREATE PACKAGE BODY emp_actions AS
/* Define cursor body. */

81
 CURSOR c1 RETURN emp%ROWTYPE IS
SELECT * FROM emp WHERE deptno = 20; -- new WHERE clause
...
END emp_actions;

Q. What is a cursor FOR loop?

A. In most situations that require an explicit cursor, you can simplify coding by using a
cursor FOR loop instead of the OPEN, FETCH, and CLOSE statements.
A cursor FOR loop implicitly declares its loop index as a %ROWTYPE record,
opens a cursor, repeatedly fetches rows of values from the result set into fields in
the record, and closes the cursor when all rows have been processed. e.g. :-
DECLARE
result temp.col1%TYPE;
CURSOR c1 IS
SELECT n1, n2, n3 FROM data_table WHERE exper_num = 1;
BEGIN
FOR c1_rec IN c1 LOOP
/* calculate and store the results */
result := c1_rec.n2 / (c1_rec.n1 + c1_rec.n3);
INSERT INTO temp VALUES (result, NULL, NULL);
END LOOP;
COMMIT;
END;
Here, the FOR loop index c1_rec is implicitly declared as a record. Its fields store all
the column values fetched from the cursor c1. Dot notation is used to reference
individual fields.
Before each iteration of the FOR loop, PL/SQL fetches into the implicitly declared
record, which is equivalent to a record explicitly declared as follows :-
c1_rec c1%ROWTYPE;
The record is defined only inside the loop. You cannot refer to its fields outside
the loop. e.g., the following reference is illegal :-
FOR c1_rec IN c1 LOOP
...
END LOOP;
result := c1_rec.n2 + 3; -- illegal
The sequence of statements inside the loop is executed once for each row that satisfies
the query associated with the cursor. When you leave the loop, the cursor is closed
automatically-even if you use an EXIT or GOTO statement to leave the loop
prematurely or an exception is raised inside the loop.

*** When the cursor FOR loop is entered, the cursor name cannot belong to a
cursor that was already opened by an OPEN statement or by an enclosing
cursor FOR loop.

*** You need not declare a cursor because PL/SQL lets you substitute a subquery.
e.g. :-
 DECLARE
bonus REAL;
BEGIN
FOR emp_rec IN (SELECT empno, sal, comm FROM emp) LOOP
bonus := (emp_rec.sal * 0.05) + (emp_rec.comm * 0.25);
INSERT INTO bonuses VALUES (emp_rec.empno, bonus);
END LOOP;
COMMIT;
END;

Q. What should we do if there is an expression in the select-list of a cursor query?

A. Fields in the implicitly declared record hold column values from the most recently
fetched row. The fields have the same names as corresponding columns in the query
select list. Consider the following example :-
CURSOR c1 IS
SELECT empno, sal+NVL(comm,0), job FROM ...
In such cases, you must include an alias for the select-item. In the next example, wages
is an alias for the select item sal+NVL(comm,0) :-
CURSOR c1 IS
SELECT empno, sal+NVL(comm,0) wages, job FROM ...
To reference the corresponding field, you use the alias instead of a column name,
as follows :-
IF emp_rec.wages < 1000 THEN ...

Q. Can we pass parameters to a cursor used in a cursor FOR loop?

A. Yes. e.g. :-
DECLARE
CURSOR emp_cursor(dnum NUMBER) IS
SELECT sal, comm FROM emp WHERE deptno = dnum;
total_wages NUMBER(11,2) := 0;
high_paid NUMBER(4) := 0;
higher_comm NUMBER(4) := 0;
BEGIN
/* The number of iterations will equal the number of rows *
* returned by emp_cursor. */
FOR emp_record IN emp_cursor(20) LOOP
emp_record.comm := NVL(emp_record.comm, 0);
total_wages := total_wages + emp_record.sal +
emp_record.comm;
IF emp_record.sal > 2000.00 THEN
high_paid := high_paid + 1;
END IF;
IF emp_record.comm > emp_record.sal THEN
higher_comm := higher_comm + 1;
END IF;
END LOOP;

83
 INSERT INTO temp VALUES (high_paid, higher_comm,
'Total Wages: ' || TO_CHAR(total_wages));
COMMIT;
END;

Q. What is a session?
A. The jobs or tasks that Oracle manages are called sessions. A user session is started
when you run an application program or an Oracle tool and connect to Oracle.

Q. Why is concurrency control required?

A. To allow user sessions to work "simultaneously" and share computer resources,
Oracle must control concurrency, the accessing of the same data by many users.
Without adequate concurrency controls, there might be a loss of data integrity.
That is, changes to data might be made in the wrong order.

Q. How does Oracle control concurrency?

A. Oracle uses locks to control concurrent access to data. A lock gives you temporary
ownership of a database resource such as a table or row of data. Thus, data cannot
be changed by other users until you finish with it.
You need never explicitly lock a resource because default locking mechanisms protect
Oracle data and structures. However, you can request data locks on tables or rows
when it is to your advantage to override default locking. You can choose from several
modes of locking such as row share and exclusive.

Q. What is a deadlock?
A. A deadlock can occur when two or more users try to access the same schema object.
e.g., two users updating the same table might wait if each tries to update a row
currently locked by the other. Because each user is waiting for resources held by
another user, neither can continue until Oracle breaks the deadlock by signaling an
error to the last participating transaction.

Q. What is read-consistent view of data?

A. When a table is being queried by one user and updated by another at the same time,
Oracle generates a read-consistent view of the data for the query. That is, once a query
begins and as it proceeds, the data read by the query does not change. As update
activity continues, Oracle takes snapshots of the table's data and records changes in a
rollback segment.
Oracle uses rollback segments to build read-consistent query results and to undo
changes if necessary.

Q. What is transaction processing?

A. Oracle is transaction oriented, i.e., it uses transactions to ensure data integrity. A
transaction is a series of one or more logically related SQL statements that accomplish
a task. Oracle treats the series of SQL statements as a unit so that all the changes
brought about by the statements are either committed (made permanent) or rolled back
(undone) at the same time. If your program fails in the middle of a transaction, the
 database is automatically restored to its former state.

The first SQL statement in your program begins a transaction. When one transaction
ends, the next SQL statement automatically begins another transaction. Thus, every
SQL statement is part of a transaction.

The COMMIT and ROLLBACK statements ensure that all database changes brought
about by SQL operations are either made permanent or undone at the same time. All
the SQL statements executed since the last commit or rollback make up the current
transaction. The SAVEPOINT statement names and marks the current point in the
processing of a transaction.

Q. What is a distributed transaction?

A. A distributed transaction includes at least one SQL statement that updates data at
multiple nodes in a distributed database.
If the update affects only one node, the transaction is remote, not distributed.
If part of a distributed transaction fails, you must rollback the whole transaction or
rollback to a savepoint.

*** Until you commit the changes, other users cannot access the changed data.
They see the data as it was before you made the changes.

*** The COMMIT statement releases all row and table locks. It also erases
any savepoints marked since the last commit or rollback.

*** Just as a block can span multiple transactions, a transaction can span multiple
blocks.

Q. What is a COMMENT clause? What is its use?

A. The COMMENT clause lets you specify a Comment to be associated with a
distributed transaction.
When you issue a commit/rollback, changes to each database affected by a distributed
transaction are made permanent/undone. However, if a network or machine fails
during the commit/rollback, the state of the distributed transaction might be unknown
or in doubt. In that case, Oracle stores the text specified by COMMENT in the data
dictionary along with the transaction ID. The text must be a quoted literal <= 50
characters in length. e.g. :-
COMMIT COMMENT 'In-doubt order transaction; notify Order Entry';

Q. Does PL/SQL support FORCE clause?

A. No, PL/SQL does not support the FORCE clause, which, in SQL, manually commits
an in-doubt distributed transaction. e.g., the following COMMIT statement is illegal :-
COMMIT FORCE '23.51.54'; -- illegal

Q. What are Statement-Level Rollbacks?

A. Before executing a SQL statement, Oracle marks an implicit savepoint. Then, if the

85
 statement fails, Oracle rolls it back automatically.

Oracle can also roll back single SQL statements to break deadlocks. Oracle signals
an error to one of the participating transactions and rolls back the current statement
in that transaction.

*** Before executing a SQL statement, Oracle must parse it. In other words, Oracle
examines the SQL statement to make sure that it follows syntax rules and refers
to valid schema objects.
Errors detected while executing a SQL statement cause a rollback, but errors
detected while parsing the statement do not.

*** SAVEPOINT names and marks the current point in the processing of a
transaction. Used with the ROLLBACK TO statement, savepoints let you
undo parts of a transaction instead of the whole transaction.

*** When you roll back to a savepoint, any savepoints marked after that savepoint
are erased. However, the savepoint to which you roll back is not erased. e.g.,
if you mark five savepoints, then roll back to the third, only the fourth and fifth
are erased.
A simple rollback or commit erases all savepoints.

Very Important :-
If you mark a savepoint within a recursive subprogram, new instances of the
SAVEPOINT statement are executed at each level in the recursive descent.
However, you can only rollback to the most recently marked savepoint.

Q. What are savepoint names?

A. Savepoint names are undeclared identifiers and can be reused within a transaction.
This moves the savepoint from its old position to the current point in the transaction.
Thus, a rollback to the savepoint affects only the current part of your transaction.
e.g. :-
BEGIN
...
SAVEPOINT my_point;
UPDATE emp SET ... WHERE empno = emp_id;
...
SAVEPOINT my_point; -- move my_point to current point
INSERT INTO emp VALUES (emp_id, ...);
...
EXCEPTION
WHEN OTHERS THEN
ROLLBACK TO my_point;
END;

*** The number of active savepoints per session is unlimited.

 An active savepoint is one marked since the last commit or rollback.
You or your DBA can raise the limit (up to 255) by increasing the value of the
ORACLE initialization parameter SAVEPOINTS.

Q. What are implicit rollbacks?

A. Before executing an INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement, Oracle marks an
implicit savepoint (unavailable to you). If the statement fails, Oracle rolls back to
the savepoint. Normally, just the failed SQL statement is rolled back, not the whole
transaction. However, if the statement raises an unhandled exception, the host
environment determines what is rolled back.

Q. What happens when a stored subprogram fails with an unhandled exception?

A. If you exit a stored subprogram with an unhandled exception, PL/SQL does not assign
values to OUT parameters.
Also, PL/SQL implicitly rolls back all database work done by the subprogram.
However, if the subprogram issued a COMMIT before the unhandled exception was
raised, only the uncommited work is rolled back

Q. What can happen if you neglect to commit or roll back a transaction explicitly?
A. A good programming practice is to commit or roll back every transaction explicitly.
If you neglect to commit or roll back a transaction explicitly, the host environment
determines its final state.

e.g., in the SQL*Plus environment, if your PL/SQL block does not include a
COMMIT or ROLLBACK statement, the final state of your transaction depends
on what you do after running the block. If you execute a data definition, data
control, or COMMIT statement or if you issue the EXIT, DISCONNECT, or
QUIT command, Oracle commits the transaction.
If you execute a ROLLBACK statement or abort the SQL*Plus session, Oracle
rolls back the transaction.

In the Oracle Precompiler environment, if your program does not terminate

normally, Oracle rolls back your transaction.A program terminates normally when
it explicitly commits or rolls back work and disconnects from Oracle using the
RELEASE parameter, as follows :-
EXEC SQL COMMIT WORK RELEASE;

Q. What is the default state for all transactions? Explain.

A. The default state for all transactions is statement-level read consistency.
It ensures that a query sees oly changes committed before it began executing,
plus any changes made by prior statements in the current transaction. If other
users commit changes to the relevant database tables, subsequent queries see
those changes.

Q. How can we establish transaction-level read consistency?

A. You can use the SET TRANSACTION statement to establish a read-only transaction.

87
 This provides transaction-level read consistency. This ensures that a query sees only
changes committed before the current transaction began.
The SET TRANSACTION is written as follows :-
SET TRANSACTION READ ONLY

Q. What is SET TRANSACTION statement?

A. SET TRANSACTION statement is used :-
1. to begin a read-only or read-write transaction
2. to establish an isolation level, or
3. to assign your current transaction to a specified rollback segment.
The SET TRANSACTION statement must be the first SQL statement in a read-only
transaction. It can appear only once in a transaction.

Q. What is the use of read-only transactions?

A. Read-only transactions are useful for running multiple queries against one or
more tables while other users update the same tables.

*** If a transaction is set to READ ONLY, subsequent queries see only changes
committed before the transaction began. The use of READ ONLY does not
affect other users or transactions.

Q. What happens during a read-only transaction?

A. During a read-only transaction, all queries refer to the same snapshot of the
database.This provides a multi-table, multi-query, read-consistent view. Other
users can continue to query or update data as usual. A commit or rollback ends the
transaction.

Q. Which statements are allowed in a read-only transaction?

A. Only the SELECT INTO, OPEN, FETCH, CLOSE, LOCK TABLE, COMMIT,
and ROLLBACK statements are allowed in a read-only transaction. e.g. including
an INSERT or DELETE statement raises an exception.
Also, queries cannot be FOR UPDATE.

Q. Can you override default locking?

A. Yes. By default, Oracle locks data structures for you automatically.
However, you can request specific data locks on rows or tables.
Explicit locking lets you share or deny access to a table for the duration of a
transaction.

Q. How can you lock specific rows of a table?

A. With the SELECT FOR UPDATE statement, you can explicitly lock specific rows
of a table to make sure they do not change before an update or delete is executed.
However, Oracle automatically obtains row-level locks at update or delete time.
So, use the FOR UPDATE clause only if you want to lock the rows before the update
or delete.
Q. How can you lock an entire table?
A. By using the LOCK TABLE statement.

Q. What is FOR UPDATE clause? Explain.

A. When you declare a cursor that will be referenced in the CURRENT OF clause of
an UPDATE or DELETE statement, you must use the FOR UPDATE clause to
acquire exclusive row locks. e.g. :-
DECLARE
CURSOR c1 IS SELECT empno, sal FROM emp
WHERE job = 'SALESMAN' AND comm > sal FOR UPDATE NOWAIT;

If present, the FOR UPDATE clause must appear at the end of cursor declaration.

The FOR UPDATE clause identifies the rows that will be updated or deleted, then
locks each row in the result set. This is useful when you want to base an update on
the existing values in a row. In that case, you must make sure the row is not changed
by another user before the update.

The optional keyword NOWAIT tells Oracle not to wait if the table has been locked
by another user. Control is immediately returned to your program so that it can do
other work before trying again to acquire the lock. If you omit the keyword NOWAIT,
Oracle waits until the table is available. The wait has no limit unless the table is
remote, in which case the Oracle initialization parameter
DISTRIBUTED_LOCK_TIMEOUT sets a limit.

All rows are locked when you open the cursor, not as they are fetched.
The rows are unlocked when you commit or roll back the transaction.
So, you cannot fetch from a FOR UPDATE cursor after a commit.

When querying multiple tables, you can use the FOR UPDATE clause to confine
row locking to particular tables. Rows in a table are locked only if the FOR UPDATE
OF clause refers to a column in that table. e.g., the following query locks rows in the
emp table but not in the dept table :-
DECLARE
CURSOR c1 IS SELECT ename, dname FROM emp, dept
WHERE emp.deptno = dept.deptno AND job = 'MANAGER'
FOR UPDATE OF sal;

You use the CURRENT OF clause in an UPDATE or DELETE statement to refer

to the latest row fetched from a cursor. e.g. :-
DECLARE
CURSOR c1 IS SELECT empno, job, sal FROM emp FOR UPDATE;
...
BEGIN
OPEN c1;
LOOP

89
 FETCH c1 INTO ...
...
UPDATE emp SET sal = new_sal WHERE CURRENT OF c1;
END LOOP;

Q. Explain LOCK TABLE.

A. You use the LOCK TABLE statement to lock entire database tables in a specified
lock mode so that you can share or deny access to them. e.g., the statement below
locks the emp table in row share mode. Row share locks allow concurrent access to
a table. They prevent other users from locking the entire table for exclusive use.
LOCK TABLE emp IN ROW SHARE MODE NOWAIT;
Table locks are released when your transaction issues a commit or rollback.

Q. What does a lock mode determine?

A. The lock mode determines what other locks can be placed on the table. e.g.,
many users can acquire row share locks on a table at the same time, but only
one user at a time can acquire an exclusive lock. While one user has an exclusive
lock on a table, no other users can insert, delete, or update rows in that table.

Q. Does a table lock keep other users from querying a table?

A. No & Never.

Q. Can a query acquire a table lock?

A. No & Never.

*** Only if two different transactions try to modify the same row will one
transaction wait for the other to complete.

Q. How can you fetch rows from a cursor across commits?

A. The FOR UPDATE clause acquires exclusive row locks. All rows are locked when
you open the cursor, and they are unlocked when you commit your transaction. So,
you cannot fetch from a FOR UPDATE cursor after a commit. If you do, PL/SQL
raises an exception. e.g. the following FOR loop fails after the tenth insert :-
DECLARE
CURSOR c1 IS SELECT ename FROM emp FOR UPDATE OF sal;
ctr NUMBER := 0;
BEGIN
FOR emp_rec IN c1 LOOP -- FETCHes implicitly
...
ctr := ctr + 1;
INSERT INTO temp VALUES (ctr, 'still going');
IF ctr >= 10 THEN
COMMIT; -- releases locks
END IF;
END LOOP;
END;
 If you want to fetch across commits, do not use the FOR UPDATE and CURRENT
OF clauses. Instead, use the ROWID pseudocolumn to mimic the CURRENT OF
clause. Simply select the rowid of each row into a ROWID variable. Then, use the
rowid to identify the current row during subsequent updates and deletes. e.g. :-
DECLARE
CURSOR c1 IS SELECT ename, job, rowid FROM emp;
my_ename emp.ename%TYPE;
my_job emp.job%TYPE;
my_rowid ROWID;
BEGIN
OPEN c1;
LOOP
FETCH c1 INTO my_ename, my_job, my_rowid;
EXIT WHEN c1%NOTFOUND;
UPDATE emp SET sal = sal * 1.05 WHERE rowid = my_rowid;
-- this mimics WHERE CURRENT OF c1
COMMIT;
END LOOP;
CLOSE c1;
END;
Disadvantages :-
1. Be careful. In the last example, the fetched rows are not locked because no FOR
UPDATE clause is used. So, other users might unintentionally overwrite your
changes.
2. Also, the cursor must have a read-consistent view of the data, so rollback segments
used in the update are not released until the cursor is closed. This can slow down
processing when many rows are updated.

*** You can also use the %ROWTYPE attribute with cursors that reference the
ROWID pseudocolumn :-
DECLARE
CURSOR c1 IS SELECT ename, sal, rowid FROM emp;
emp_rec c1%ROWTYPE;
BEGIN
OPEN c1;
LOOP
FETCH c1 INTO emp_rec;
EXIT WHEN c1%NOTFOUND;
...
IF ... THEN
DELETE FROM emp WHERE rowid = emp_rec.rowid;
END IF;
END LOOP;
CLOSE c1;
END;

91
Q. What is "program too large" compilation error?
A. PL/SQL was designed primarily for transaction processing. Therefore, the PL/SQL
compiler imposes a limit on program size. The limit depends on the mix of
statements in your PL/SQL program & the memory available on your platform.
Programs that exceed the limit cause a "program too large" compilation error.

Q. What are the solutions of above problem?

A. 1. Typically, the abov problem occurs with package bodies or anonymous blocks.
With a package, the best solution is to divide it into smaller packages.
With a block, the best solution is to redefine it as a series of subprograms,
which can be stored in the database.

2. Another solution is to break the block into two sub-blocks. Consider the
SQL*Plus script. Before the first block terminates, it inserts any data the second
block needs into a database table called temp. When the second block starts
executing, it selects the data from temp. This approximates the passing of
parameters from one procedure to another.
DECLARE
mode NUMBER;
median NUMBER;
BEGIN
...
INSERT INTO temp (col1, col2, col3)
VALUES (mode, median, 'blockA');
END;
/

DECLARE
mode NUMBER;
median NUMBER;
BEGIN
SELECT col1, col2 INTO mode, median FROM temp
WHERE col3 = 'blockA';
...
END;
/
Disadvantage :-
The above method works unless you must re-execute the first block while the
second block is still executing, or unless two or more users must run the script
concurrently.
Solution :-
To avoid these restrictions, you can embed the blocks in a host language such as
C, COBOL, or FORTRAN. That way, you can re-execute the first block using
flow-of-control statements. Also, you can store data in global host variables
instead of a database table.
Q. What is a database trigger?
A. A database trigger is a stored PL/SQL program associated with a specific
database table.
ORACLE executes (fires) the database trigger automatically whenever a given
SQL operation affects the table.
So, unlike subprograms, which must be invoked explicitly, database triggers are
invoked implicitly.

Q. What are the uses of database triggers?

A. 1. Audit data modifications
2. Enforce complex business rules
3. Derive column values automatically
4. Implement complex security authorizations

Q. How many database triggers you can associate with a given table?
A. 12

Q. What privileges are required to create a database trigger?

A. To create a database trigger, you must have
1. CREATE TRIGGER privilegs and either
2. own the associated table or
3. have ALTER privileges for the associated table or
4. have ALTER ANY TABLE privileges.

Q. What is the structure of a database trigger?

A. A database trigger has three parts :-
1. A triggering event
2. An optional trigger constraint
3. Trigger action
When the event occurs, the database trigger fires and an anonymous PL/SQL block
performs the action.

*** Database triggers fires with the privileges of the owner, not the current user.
So, the owner must have appropriate access to all objects referenced by the
trigger action.

Q. Give an example of a database trigger?

A. The following database trigger reorder ensures that a part is reordered when its
quantity on hand drops below the reorder point.
CREATE TRIGGER reorder
/* triggering event */
AFTER UPDATE OF qty_on_hand ON inventory
FOR EACH ROW
/* trigger constraint */
WHEN (new. reorder = 'T')
BEGIN

93
 /* trigger action */
IF :new.qty_on_hand < :new.reorder_point THEN
INSERT INTO pending_orders
VALUES (:new.part_no, :new.reorder_qty, SYSDATE);
END IF:
END;
Here trigger statement is UPDATE. If the trigger statement fails, it is rolled back.
The keyword AFTER specifies that database trigger fires after the update is done.

By default, a database trigger fires once per table. The FOR EACH ROW option
specifies that the trigger fires once per row. However, for the trigger to fire, the
bollean expression in the WHEN clause must evaluate to TRUE.

The prefix :new is a correlation name that refers to the newly updated column value.
Within a database trigger, you can reference :new & :old values of changing rows.
However, colon is not used in WHEN clause.

*** You can use REFERENCING clause to replace :new & :old with other
correlation names.

Q. Which statements can appear in a database trigger?

A. Except for transaction control statements such as COMMIT & ROLLBACK, any
SQL or procedural statement, including subprogram calls, can appear in the
BEGIN...END block of a database trigger.
A database trigger can also have DECLARE & EXCEPTION sections.

*** A trigger action can include calls to the built-in ORACLE procedure
raise_application_error, which lets you issue user-defined error messages.
 ERROR HANDLING
There is nothing more exhilarating than to be shot at without result.

Q. Why do runtime errors arise?

A. Runtime errors arise from :-
1. Design faults
2. Coding mistakes
3. Hardware failures
4. Many other sources.

Q. What is the objective of Error/Exception Handling?

A. Exception handling lets you "bulletproof" your program so that it can continue
operating in the presence of errors.

Q. What is an exception in PL/SQL?

A. In PL/SQL, a warning or error condition is called an exception.

Q. How many types of exceptions are there?

A. There are two types of exceptions :-
1. Internally defined(by the runtime system)
2. User-defined

Q. Give two examples of internally defined exceptions.

A. 1. Division by zero with predefined name as ZERO_DIVIDE
2. Out of memory with predefined name as STORAGE_ERROR

Q. Do all internal exceptions have predefined names?

A. No. But the unnamed internal exceptions can be given names.

Q. Where can user-defined exceptions be defined?

A. You can define exceptions of your own in the declarative part of any PL/SQL
block, subprogram, or package.
*** Unlike internal exceptions, user-defined exceptions must be given names.

95
Q. What happens when an error occurs?
A. When an error occurs, an exception is raised. That is, normal execution stops and
control transfers to the exception-handling part of PL/SQL block or subprogram.

Q. How are internal exceptions raised?

A. Internal exceptions are raised implicitly (i.e. automatically) by the runtime system.

Q. How are user-defined exception raised?

A. User-defined exceptions are raised explicitly by RAISE statements.

Q. Can predefined internal exceptions be raised explicitly?

A. Yes, by using the RAISE statement.

Q. How are raised exceptions handeled?

A. To handle raised exceptions, you write separate routines called exception handlers.
After an exception handler runs, the current block stops executing and the enclosing
block resumes with the next statement. If there is no enclosing block, control returns
to the host environment.

Q. What is OTHERS handler?

A. The OTHERS handler is optional. It catches all exceptions that a block does not name
specifically.

Q. What are the advantages of exceptions?

A. Using exceptions for error handling has several advantages :-
1. Without exception handling, every time you issue a command, you must check for
execution errors, as follows :-
BEGIN
SELECT ...
-- check for 'no data found' error
SELECT ...
-- check for 'no data found' error
SELECT ...
-- check for 'no data found' error
Error processing is not clearly separated from normal processing. If you neglect to
code a check, the error goes undetected and is likely to cause other, seemingly
unrelated errors.
With exceptions, you can handle errors conveniently without the need to code
multiple checks, as follows :-
BEGIN
SELECT ...
SELECT ...
SELECT ...
...
EXCEPTION
WHEN NO_DATA_FOUND THEN -- catches all 'no data found' errors
 2. Exception improve readability as error-handling routines are isolated.
3. Exceptions also improve reliability. You need not worry about checking for an
error at every point it might occur. Just add an exception handler to your PL/SQL
block. If the exception is ever raised in that block (or any sub-block), you can be
sure it will be handled.

Q. When is an internal exception raised?

A. An internal exception is raised implicitly whenever your PL/SQL program :-
1. Violates an Oracle rule
2. Exceeds a system-dependent limit

Q. Every Oracle error has a number. Then how is an internal exception handled?
A. Yes, every Oracle error has a number. But exceptions must be handled by name. So,
PL/SQL predefines some common Oracle errors as exceptions. e.g. PL/SQL raises
the predefined exception NO_DATA_FOUND if a SELECT INTO statement returns
no rows.

Q. How can we handle unnamed internal exceptions i.e. Oracle errors that have no
predefined names?
A. 1. Use OTHERS handler with error-reporting functions SQLCODE & SQLERRM.
These error-reporting functions return the ORACLE error code and message text.
2. Use the pragma EXCEPTION_INIT to associate exception names with ORACLE
error numbers.

Q. Where does PL/SQL declare predefined exceptions?

A. PL/SQL declares predefined exceptions globally in package STANDARD, which
defines the PL/SQL environment. So, you need not declare them yourself.

Q. Explain exception CURSOR_ALREADY_OPEN.

A. This exception is raised when you try to open an already open cursor.
You must close a cursor before you can reopen it.
*** A cursor FOR loop automatically opens the cursor to which it refers.
So, you cannot open that cursor inside the loop.

Q. Explain exception DUP_VAL_ON_INDEX.

A. This exception is raised when you try to store duplicate values in a database
column that is constrained by a unique index.

Q. Explain exception INVALID_CURSOR.

A. This exception is raised when you try an illegal cursor operation such as closing
an unopened cursor.

Q. Explain exception INVALID_NUMBER.

A. This exception is raised if in a SQL statement, the conversion of character string
to a number fails because the character string does not represent a valid number.
e.g. the following INSERT statement raises INVALID_NUMBER when ORACLE

97
 tries to convert 'HALL' to a number :-
INSERT INTO emp (empno, ename, deptno) VALUES ('HALL', 7888, 20);

*** However, in procedural statements, VALUE_ERROR is raised.

Q. Explain exception LOGIN_DENIED.

A. This exception is raised if you try logging on to Oracle with an invalid username
and/or password.

Q. Explain exception NO_DATA_FOUND.

A. This exception is raised :-
1.If a SELECT INTO statement returns no rows
2.If you reference an uninitialized row in a PL/SQL table

Q. Does a SELECT INTO statement that calls a group function will raise exception
NO_DATA_FOUND?
A. No. It is because SQL group functions such as AVG or SUM always return a value or
a null.

*** The FETCH statement is expected to return no rows eventually, so when that
happens, no exception is raised.

*** As NO_DATA_FOUND is raised if a SELECT INTO statement returns no

rows, you can check the value of SQL%NOTFOUND only in an exception
handler.
However, you can check the value of cursor_name%NOT_FOUND after
every FETCH.

Q. Explain exception NOT_LOGGED_ON.

A. This exception is raised if your PL/SQL program issues a database call without
being connected to Oracle.

Q. Explain exception PROGRAM_ERROR.

A. This exception is raised if PL/SQL has an internal problem.

Q. Explain exception STORAGE_ERROR.

A. This exception is raised if PL/SQL :-
1. Runs out of memory
2. Memory is corrupted

Q. Explain exception TIMEOUT_ON_RESOURCE.

A. This exception is raised if a timeout occurs while Oracle is waiting for a resource.

Q. Explain exception TOO_MANY_ROWS .

A. This exception is raised if a SELECT INTO statement returns more than one row.
Q. Explain exception TRANSACTION_BACKED_OUT.
A. This exception is raised when the remote part of a transaction is rolled back
implicitly or explicitly. Your transaction must be rolled back because ORACLE
data might be inconsistent at some nodes. In such cases, ROLLBACK the transaction
and retry it.

Q. Explain exception VALUE_ERROR.

A. This exception is raised if an arithmetic, conversion, truncation, or size-constraint
error occurs. e.g. when you select a column value into a character variable, if the
value is longer than the declared length of the variable truncation occurs and PL/SQL
aborts the assignment and raises VALUE_ERROR.
DECLARE
my_empno NUMBER(4);
my_ename CHAR(10);
BEGIN
my_empno := 'HALL'; -- VALUE_ERROR exception is raised
---
END;
*** However, no exception is raised if a truncated character value is assigned to
a host variable.
*** In procedural statements, VALUE_ERROR is raised if the conversion of a
character string to a number fails.
*** In SQL statements, INVALID_NUMBER is raised.

Q. Explain exception ZERO_DIVIDE.

A. This exception is raised if you try to divide a number by zero.

Q. Explain user-defined exceptions.

A. PL/SQL lets you define exceptions of your own.
Unlike predefined exceptions, user-defined exceptions must be declared.
Also user-defined exceptions must be raised explicitly by RAISE statements.

Q. Where can you declare user-defined exceptions?

A. Exceptions can be declared only in the declarative part of a PL/SQL block,
subprogram, or package.
You declare an exception by introducing its name, followed by the keyword
EXCEPTION. e.g.
DECLARE
past_due EXCEPTION;

Q. Are, exceptions similar to variables. If yes, then what are the key differences
between the two?
A. Yes, exception and variable declarations are similar. The same scope rules apply to
variables and exceptions. However,
1. An exception is an error condition, not a data item.
2. Unlike variables, exceptions cannot appear in assignment statements or SQL

99
 statements.

Q. Explain scope rules in case of exceptions?

A. 1. You cannot declare an exception twice in the same block.
2. You can declare the same exception in two different blocks.
3. Exceptions declared in a block are considered local to that block and global to
all its sub-blocks.
*** Because a block can reference only local or global exceptions, enclosing
blocks cannot reference exceptions declared in a sub-block.

Q. Can you redeclare a global exception in a sub-block?

A. Yes, you can redeclare a global exception in a sub-block. In that case the local
declaration prevails. So, the sub-block cannot reference the global exception unless
it was declared in a labeled block, in which case the following syntax is valid :-
block_label.exception_name
e.g.
DECLARE
past_due EXCEPTION;
acct_num NUMBER;
BEGIN
...
DECLARE ---------- sub-block begins
past_due EXCEPTION; -- this declaration prevails
acct_num NUMBER;
BEGIN
...
IF ... THEN
RAISE past_due; -- this is not handled
END IF;
...
END; ------------- sub-block ends
EXCEPTION
WHEN past_due THEN -- does not handle RAISEd exception
...
END;
Here, the enclosing block does not handle the raised exception because the declaration
of past_due in the sub-block prevails. Though they share the same name, the two
past_due exceptions are different, just as the two acct_num variables share the same
name but are different variables. Therefore, the RAISE statement and the WHEN
clause refer to different exceptions.
To have the enclosing block handle the raised exception, you must remove its
declaration from the sub-block or define an OTHERS handler.

Q. How can you handle unnamed internal exceptions?

A. To handle unnamed internal exceptions
1.Either you must use the OTHERS handler or
 2.The pragma EXCEPTION_INIT.

Q. What is a pragma?
A. A pragma is a compiler directive. Pragmas (also called pseudoinstructions) are
processed at compile time, not at run time. They do not affect the meaning of a
program. They simply convey information to the compiler.

Q. What does a pragma do?

A. In PL/SQL, EXCEPTION_INIT is used. It tells the compiler to associate an exception
name with an Oracle error number. That allows you to refer to any internal exception
by name and to write a specific handler for it.

Q. Where do you code the pragma EXCEPTION_INIT?

A. You code the pragma EXCEPTION_INIT in the declarative part of a PL/SQL block,
subprogram, or package using the syntax :-
PRAGMA EXCEPTION_INIT(exception_name, Oracle_error_number);
where exception_name is the name of a previously declared exception. The pragma
must appear somewhere after the exception declaration in the same declarative part,
as shown in the following example :-
DECLARE
deadlock_detected EXCEPTION;
PRAGMA EXCEPTION_INIT(deadlock_detected, -60);
BEGIN
...
EXCEPTION
WHEN deadlock_detected THEN
-- handle the error
...
END;

Q. Where do PL/SQL globally declares predefined exceptions?

A. PL/SQL declares predefined exceptions globally in package STANDARD.

Q. Can we redeclare predefined exceptions?

A. Yes. However, redeclaring predefined exceptions is error prone because your local
declaration overrides the global declaration. e.g. if you declare an exception named
invalid_number and then PL/SQL raises the predefined exception
INVALID_NUMBER internally, a handler written for INVALID_NUMBER will
not catch the internal exception. In such case, you must use dot notation to specify
the predefined exception, as follows :-
EXCEPTION
WHEN invalid_number OR STANDARD.INVALID_NUMBER THEN
-- handle the error
...
WHEN OTHERS THEN ...
END;

10
1
Q. How are exceptions raised?
A. Predefined internal exceptions are raised implicitly by the runtime system.
Also, user-defined exceptions that you have associated with an Oracle error
number using EXCEPTION_INIT are also raised implicitly by the runtime system.
However, other user-defined exceptions must be raised explicitly by RAISE
statements.

*** You can also raise a predefined exception explicitly. e.g.

RAISE INVALID_NUMBER;

Q. How does an exception propagate?

A. When an exception is raised, if PL/SQL cannot find a handler for it in the current
block or subprogram, the exception propagates. That is, the exception reproduces
itself in successive enclosing blocks until a handler is found or there are no more
blocks to search. In the latter case, PL/SQL returns an unhandled exception error to
the host environment.

*** However, exceptions cannot propagate across remote procedure calls (RPCs).
Therefore, a PL/SQL block cannot catch an exception raised by a remote
subprogram.

Q. Explain exceptions propagation rules.

A. Rule 1.
When an exception is handeled locally, then execution resumes in the
enclosing block.
BEGIN
...
BEGIN
IF x = 1 THEN
RAISE A; -- exception A is raised
ELSIF x = 2 THEN
RAISE B;
ELSE
RAISE C;
END IF;
...
EXCEPTION
WHEN A THEN -- exception A is handeled here(locally)
...
END;
... -- execution resumes here
EXCEPTION
WHEN B THEN
...
END;
RULE 2.
If an exception is not handled locally, then it propagates to the first
enclosing block. If it is handled in enclosing block then control passes back
to host environment.
BEGIN
...
BEGIN
IF x = 1 THEN
RAISE A;
ELSIF x = 2 THEN
RAISE B; -- exception B is raised
ELSE
RAISE C;
END IF;
...
EXCEPTION
WHEN A THEN -- exception B is not handeled here(locally)
so propagates to enclosing block
...
END;
...
EXCEPTION
WHEN B THEN -- exception B is handeled here after which control
is returned to host environment
...
END;

RULE 3.
If no exception handler is found for a raised exception then a runtime
unhandeled exception is returned to the host environment.
BEGIN
...
BEGIN
IF x = 1 THEN
RAISE A;
ELSIF x = 2 THEN
RAISE B;
ELSE
RAISE C; -- exception C is raised
END IF;
...
EXCEPTION
WHEN A THEN -- exception C is not handeled here(locally)
so propagates to the enclosing block
...

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 END;
...
EXCEPTION
WHEN B THEN -- exception C is not handled here, so a runtime
unhandeled exception is returned to the host
environment.
...
END;

Q. Can an exception propagate beyond its scope i.e. beyond the block in which
it was declared?
A. Yes, e.g.
BEGIN
...
DECLARE ---------- sub-block begins
past_due EXCEPTION;
BEGIN
...
IF ... THEN
RAISE past_due;
END IF;
END; ------------- sub-block ends
EXCEPTION
...
WHEN OTHERS THEN
ROLLBACK;
END;
Because the block in which it was declared has no handler for the exception named
past_due, it propagates to the enclosing block. But, according to the scope rules,
enclosing blocks cannot reference exceptions declared in a sub-block. So, only
an OTHERS handler can catch the exception.

*** RULE 4.
Enclosing blocks cannot reference exceptions declared in a sub-block.
Only an OTHERS handler can catch the exception in this case.

Q. Can you reraise an exception?

A. Yes, we can reraise an exception, i.e., handle it locally, then pass it to an enclosing
block. To reraise an exception, simply place a RAISE statement in the local
handler. e.g.
DECLARE
out_of_balance EXCEPTION;
BEGIN
...
BEGIN ---------- sub-block begins
...
 IF ... THEN
RAISE out_of_balance; -- raise the exception
END IF;
EXCEPTION
WHEN out_of_balance THEN
-- handle the error
RAISE; -- reraise the current exception
...
END; ------------ sub-block ends
EXCEPTION
WHEN out_of_balance THEN
-- handle the error differently
...
END;
*** Omitting the exception name in a RAISE statement (which is allowed only in
an exception handler) reraises the current exception.

Q. How are raised exception handled?

A. When an exception is raised, normal execution of PL/SQL block or subprogram stops
and control transfers to its exception-handling part, which is formatted as follows :-
EXCEPTION
WHEN exception_name1 THEN -- handler
sequence_of_statements1
WHEN exception_name2 THEN -- another handler
sequence_of_statements2
...
WHEN OTHERS THEN -- optional handler
sequence_of_statements3

Q. Does control return to the point where the exception was raised, after the
successful handling of raised exception?
A. No, control does not return to where the exception was raised. In other words, you
cannot resume processing where you left off.

Q. Explain OTHERS exception handler?

A. The OTHERS exception handler is always the last handler in a block or subprogram.
It is optional. It acts as the handler for all exceptions not named specifically.
Thus, a block or subprogram can have only one OTHERS handler. e.g.
EXCEPTION
WHEN ... THEN
-- handle the error
WHEN ... THEN
-- handle the error
...
WHEN OTHERS THEN
-- handle all other errors

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 END;
*** Use of the OTHERS handler guarantees that no exception will go unhandled.

Q. Can two or more exceptions execute the same sequence of statements?

A. Yes, just list the exception names in the WHEN clause, separating them by the
keyword OR. e.g.
EXCEPTION
WHEN over_limit OR under_limit OR VALUE_ERROR THEN
-- handle the error

Q. Can OTHERS keyword appear in the above list of exception names?

A. No, It must appear by itself.

*** You can have any number of exception handlers, and each handler can
associate a list of exceptions with a sequence of statements.

Q. Can an exception name appear multiple times in the exception-handling

part of a PL/SQL block or subprogram?
A. No, an exception name can appear only once in the exception-handling part of
a PL/SQL block or subprogram.

Q. Which PL/SQL variables can be used in an exception handler?

A. In an exception handler, the usual scoping rules for PL/SQL variables apply.
So you can reference local and global variables in an exception handler.

*** When an exception is raised inside a cursor FOR loop, the cursor is closed
implicitly before the handler is invoked. Therefore, the values of explicit
cursor attributes are not available in the handler.

Q. Can exception be raised in declarations?

A. Yes, exceptions can be raised in declarations by faulty initialization expressions.
e.g.
DECLARE
limit CONSTANT NUMBER(3) := 5000; -- raises an exception
BEGIN
...
EXCEPTION
WHEN OTHERS THEN ... -- cannot catch the exception(why)

*** In above case, handlers in the current block cannot catch the raised exception.
It is because an exception raised in a declaration propagates immediately to
the enclosing block.

*** Only one exception at a time can be active in the exception-handling part of a
block or subprogram.
Q. Can exceptions be raised in an exception handler?
A. Yes. An exception raised inside a handler propagates immediately to the enclosing
block, which is searched to find a handler for the newly raised exception. From there
on, the exception propagates normally. e.g.
EXCEPTION
WHEN INVALID_NUMBER THEN
INSERT INTO ... -- might raise DUP_VAL_ON_INDEX
WHEN DUP_VAL_ON_INDEX THEN ... -- cannot catch the exception

Q. Can a GOTO statement branch to an exception handler?

A. No.

Q. Can a GOTO statement branch from an exception handler into the current
block?
A. No. e.g.
DECLARE
pe_ratio NUMBER(3,1);
BEGIN
DELETE FROM stats WHERE symbol = 'XYZ';
SELECT price / NVL(earnings, 0) INTO pe_ratio FROM stocks
WHERE symbol = 'XYZ';
<<my_label>>
INSERT INTO stats (symbol, ratio) VALUES ('XYZ', pe_ratio);
EXCEPTION
WHEN ZERO_DIVIDE THEN
pe_ratio := 0;
GOTO my_label; -- illegal branch into current block

Q. Can a GOTO statement branch from an exception handler into an enclosing

block?
A. Yes.

Q. What are SQLCODE & SQLERRM functions?

A. The functions SQLCODE and SQLERRM are error reporting functions. These
are used in an exception handler to find out
1. Which error occurred and
2. The associated error message.

Q. What do SQLCODE & SQLERRM return in case of internal exceptions?

A. For internal exceptions, SQLCODE returns the number of the Oracle error. The
number that SQLCODE returns is negative unless the Oracle error is no data found,
in which case SQLCODE returns +100.
SQLERRM returns the corresponding error message. The message begins with the
Oracle error code.

Q. What do SQLCODE & SQLERRM return in case of user-defined exceptions?

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A. For user-defined exceptions, SQLCODE returns +1 and SQLERRM returns the
message
User-Defined Exception

Q. What do SQLCODE & SQLERRM return in case of pragma

EXCEPTION_INIT?
A. If you have used the pragma EXCEPTION_INIT to associate the exception name
with an Oracle error number, then SQLCODE returns that error number and
SQLERRM returns the corresponding error message.

*** The maximum length of an Oracle error message is 512 characters including
the error code, nested messages, and message inserts such as table and
column names.

Q. What do SQLCODE & SQLERRM return if no exception is raised?

A. If no exception has been raised, SQLCODE returns zero and SQLERRM returns
the message
ORA-0000: normal, successful completion

Q. Can you pass an error no. to SQLERRM?

A. Yes, you can pass an error number to SQLERRM, in which case SQLERRM
returns the message associated with that error number. The error number passed
to SQLERRM should be negative.
Passing a zero to SQLERRM always returns the following message :-
ORA-0000: normal, successful completion
Passing a +ve number to SQLERRM always returns the message :-
User-Defined Exception
Passing +100 to SQLERRM always returns the following message :-
ORA-01403: no data found

*** Make sure you pass negative error numbers to SQLERRM. In the following
example SQLERRM gives unwanted results as it is passed +ve rather than -ve
numbers :-
DECLARE
...
err_msg VARCHAR2(100);
BEGIN
...
/* Get all Oracle error messages. */
FOR err_num IN 1..9999 LOOP
err_msg := SQLERRM(err_num); -- wrong; should be -err_num
INSERT INTO errors VALUES (err_msg);
END LOOP;
END;

Q. Can you use SQLCODE or SQLERRM directly in a SQL statement?

A. No. e.g following statement is illegal :-
INSERT INTO errors VALUES (SQLCODE, SQLERRM);
Instead, you must assign their values to local variables, then use the variables
in the SQL statement, as the following example shows :-
DECLARE
err_num NUMBER;
err_msg VARCHAR2(100);
BEGIN
...
EXCEPTION
...
WHEN OTHERS THEN
err_num := SQLCODE;
err_msg := SUBSTR(SQLERRM, 1, 100);
INSERT INTO errors VALUES (err_num, err_msg);
The string function SUBSTR ensures that a VALUE_ERROR exception (for
truncation) is not raised when you assign the value of SQLERRM to err_msg.

Q. Where are SQLCODE & SQLERRM useful?

A. SQLCODE and SQLERRM are especially useful in the OTHERS exception
handler because they tell you which internal exception was raised.

Q. What happens in case of unhandled exceptions?

A. If a handler for a raised exception can not be found then, PL/SQL returns an
unhandled exception error to the host environment, which determines the outcome.

Q. What happens if an unhandled exception is there in ORACLE Precompilers

environment?
A. In the Oracle Precompilers environment, any database changes made by a failed SQL
statement or PL/SQL block are rolled back.

Q. What happens if an unhandled exception is there in a subprogram?

A. Unhandled exceptions can also affect subprograms.
If you exit a subprogram successfully, PL/SQL assigns values to OUT parameters.
However, if you exit with an unhandled exception, PL/SQL does not assign values
to OUT parameters.
Also, if a stored subprogram fails with an unhandled exception, ORACLE
implicitly rollsback all database workdone by the subprogram. However, if the
subprogram issued a COMMIT before the unhandled exception was raised, only the
uncommited work is rolled back.PL/SQL does not roll back database work done by
the subprogram.

Q. How do an unhandled exception affect transactions?

A. Before executing a PL/SQL block or stored subprogram, ORACLE marks an
implicit savepoint. If the block or stored subprogram fails with an unhandled
exception, ORACLE rollsback to the savepoint. Thus any database work done

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 by the block or subprogram is undone.

Q. How can we avoid unhandled exceptions?

A. You can avoid unhandled exceptions by coding an OTHERS handler at the
topmost level of every PL/SQL block and subprogram.

Q. How can you continue after an exception is raised?

A. An exception handler lets you recover from an error before exiting a block.
But, when the handler completes, the block terminates. You cannot return to
the current block from an exception handler. In the following example, if the
SELECT INTO statement raises ZERO_DIVIDE, you cannot resume with the
INSERT statement :-
DECLARE
pe_ratio NUMBER(3,1);
BEGIN
DELETE FROM stats WHERE symbol = 'XYZ';
SELECT price / NVL(earnings, 0) INTO pe_ratio FROM stocks
WHERE symbol = 'XYZ';
INSERT INTO stats (symbol, ratio) VALUES ('XYZ', pe_ratio);
EXCEPTION
WHEN ZERO_DIVIDE THEN
...
Though PL/SQL does not support continuable exceptions, you can still handle
an exception for a statement, then continue with the next statement. Simply place
the statement in its own sub-block with its own exception handlers. If an error
occurs in the sub-block, a local handler can catch the exception. When the sub-block
terminates, the enclosing block continues to execute at the point where the sub-block
ends. e.g. :-
DECLARE
pe_ratio NUMBER(3,1);
BEGIN
DELETE FROM stats WHERE symbol = 'XYZ';
BEGIN ---------- sub-block begins
SELECT price / NVL(earnings, 0) INTO pe_ratio FROM stocks
WHERE symbol = 'XYZ';
EXCEPTION
WHEN ZERO_DIVIDE THEN
pe_ratio := 0;
END; ---------- sub-block ends
INSERT INTO stats (symbol, ratio) VALUES ('XYZ', pe_ratio);
EXCEPTION
...
Here, if the SELECT INTO statement raises a ZERO_DIVIDE exception, the local
handler catches it and sets pe_ratio to zero. Execution of the handler is complete, so
the sub-block terminates, and execution continues with the INSERT statement.
Q. How can you retry a transaction for which an exception is raised?
A. After an exception is raised, rather than abandon your transaction, you might want to
retry it. The technique is simple.
First, encase the transaction in a sub-block. Then, place the sub-block inside
a loop that repeats the transaction.
Consider the following example :-
When the exception handler completes, the sub-block terminates, control transfers to
the LOOP statement in the enclosing block, the sub-block starts executing again, and
the transaction is retried. You can use a FOR or WHILE loop to limit the number of
tries.
DECLARE
name CHAR(20);
ans1 CHAR(3);
ans2 CHAR(3);
ans3 CHAR(3);
suffix NUMBER := 1;
BEGIN
...
LOOP -- could be FOR i IN 1..10 LOOP to allow ten tries
BEGIN -- sub-block begins
SAVEPOINT start_transaction; -- mark a savepoint
/* Remove rows from a table of survey results. */
DELETE FROM results WHERE answer1 = 'NO';
/* Add a survey respondent's name and answers. */
INSERT INTO results VALUES (name, ans1, ans2, ans3);
-- raises DUP_VAL_ON_INDEX if two respondents
-- have the same name (because there is a unique
-- index on the name column)
COMMIT;
EXIT;
EXCEPTION
WHEN DUP_VAL_ON_INDEX THEN
ROLLBACK TO start_transaction; -- undo changes
suffix := suffix + 1; -- try to fix
name := name || TO_CHAR(suffix); -- problem
...
END; -- sub-block ends
END LOOP;
END;
Here, before starting the transaction, you mark a savepoint. If the transaction
succeeds, you commit, then exit from the loop. If the transaction fails, control
transfers to the exception handler, where you roll back to the savepoint undoing
any changes, then try to fix the problem.

Q. What are locator variables?

A. Exceptions can mask the statement that caused an error, e.g.

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 BEGIN
SELECT ...
SELECT ...
SELECT ...
...
EXCEPTION
WHEN NO_DATA_FOUND THEN ...
-- Which SELECT statement caused the error?
END;
Normally, this is not a problem. But, if the need arises, you can use a locator variable
to track statement execution, as follows :-
DECLARE
stmt INTEGER := 1; -- designates 1st SELECT statement
BEGIN
SELECT ...
stmt :=2; -- designates 2nd SELECT statement
SELECT ...
stmt := 3; -- designates 3rd SELECT statement
SELECT ...
...
EXCEPTION
WHEN NO_DATA_FOUND THEN
INSERT INTO errors VALUES ('Error in statement ' || stmt);
...
END;

SUBPROGRAMS
Civilization advances by extending the number of important operations that we can perform
without thinking about them.

Q. How do subprograms aid application development?

A. Subprograms aid application development by isolating operations. They are like
 building blocks, which can be used to construct reliable, modular, maintainable
applications.

Q. What are subprograms?

A. Subprograms are name PL/SQL blocks. These can take parameters and can be
invoked.

Q. How many types of subprograms are there in PL/SQL?

A. PL/SQL has two types of subprograms :-
1. Procedures
2. Functions
Generally, procedure is used to perform an action and a function is used to
compute a value.

Q. What is the structure of a subprogram?

A. Like unnamed or anonymous PL/SQL blocks, subprograms have following parts :-
1. Declarative Part
2. Executable Part
3. Exceptional Handling Part(Optional)

The declarative part contains declarations of types, cursors, constants, variables,

exceptions, and nested subprograms. These objects are local to the subprogram
and cease to exist when you exit the subprogram.

The executable part contains statements that assign values, control execution, and
manipulate ORACLE data.

The exception-handling part contains exception handlers, which deal with exception
raised during execution.

Q. Where are subprograms allowd?

A. You can declare subprograms in any PL/SQL block, subprogram, or package.
However, you must declare subprograms at the end of a declarative section after all
other program items. For example, the following procedure declaration is misplaced :-

DECLARE
PROCEDURE award_bonus (...) IS -- misplaced; must come last
BEGIN ... END;
rating NUMBER;
CURSOR c1 IS SELECT * FROM emp;

Q. What should be done to make a subprogram available for general use by all
tools?
A. Store it in an ORACLE database.

Q. What are the advantages of subprograms?

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A. Subprograms provide modularity; that is, they let you break a program down into
manageable, well-defined logic modules. This supports top-down design and the
stepwise refinement approach to problem solving.

Subprograms promote reusability and maintainability. Once validated, a subprogram

can be used in any number of applications. Furthermore, only the subprogram is
affected if its definition changes. This simplifies maintenance and enhancement.

Dummy subprograms (stubs) allow you to defer the definition of procedures and
functions until you test and debug the main program.

Q. What is a procedure? Give its syntax.

A. A procedure is a subprogram that performs a specific action. The syntax is :-

PROCEDURE name [(parameter[, parameter, ...])] IS

[local declarations]
BEGIN
executable statements
[EXCEPTION
exception handlers]
END [name];

Q. What is the syntax of a procedure's parameter?

The syntax of a parameter is as follows :-
parameter_name [IN | OUT | IN OUT] datatype [{:= | DEFAULT} expr]

Q. Can you impose constraints on a procedure's parameter?

A. NO.
You cannot impose the NOT NULL constraint on a parameter.
Also, you cannot specify a constraint on the datatype. e.g.

PROCEDURE ... (emp_id NUMBER(4)) IS -- illegal; should be NUMBER

BEGIN ... END;

Q. How many parts does a procedure has?

A. A procedure has two parts: the specification and the body.

Q. Explain specification part of a procedure?

A. The procedure specification begins with the keyword PROCEDURE and ends with
the procedure name or a parameter list. Parameter declarations are optional.
Procedures that take no parameters are written without parentheses.

Q. Explain the body part of a procedure?

A. The procedure body begins with the keyword IS and ends with the keyword END
followed by an optional procedure name. The procedure body has three parts:
1. Declarative part
 2. An executable part
3. An exception-handling part (Optional)

The declarative part contains local declarations, which are placed between the
keywords IS and BEGIN. The keyword DECLARE, which introduces declarations in
an anonymous PL/SQL block, is not used.

The executable part contains statements, which are placed between the keywords
BEGIN and EXCEPTION (or END). At least one statement must appear in the
executable part of a procedure. The NULL statement meets this requirement.

The exception-handling part contains exception handlers, which are placed between
the keywords EXCEPTION and END.

Q. Give an example of a procedure?

A. Following is a procedure raise_salary, which increases the salary of an employee :-

PROCEDURE raise_salary (emp_id INTEGER, increase REAL) IS

current_salary REAL;
salary_missing EXCEPTION;
BEGIN
SELECT sal INTO current_salary FROM emp
WHERE empno = emp_id;
IF current_salary IS NULL THEN
RAISE salary_missing;
ELSE
UPDATE emp SET sal = sal + increase
WHERE empno = emp_id;
END IF;
EXCEPTION
WHEN NO_DATA_FOUND THEN
INSERT INTO emp_audit VALUES (emp_id, 'No such number');
WHEN salary_missing THEN
INSERT INTO emp_audit VALUES (emp_id, 'Salary is null');
END raise_salary;

Q. How is a procedure called?

A. A procedure is called as a PL/SQL statement.e.g.
raise_salary(emp_num, amount);

Q. What is a function? Give its syntax?.

A. A function is a subprogram that computes a value. Functions and procedures are
structured alike, except that functions have a RETURN clause. The syntax is :-

FUNCTION name [(parameter[, parameter, ...])] RETURN datatype IS

[local declarations]

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 BEGIN
executable statements
[EXCEPTION
exception handlers]
END [name];

Q. What is the syntax of a function's parameter?

A. The syntax of a function's parameter is as follows :-
parameter_name [IN | OUT | IN OUT] datatype [{:= | DEFAULT} expr]

Q. Can you impose constraints on a function's parameter?

A. No.
You cannot impose the NOT NULL constraint on a parameter.
Also, you cannot specify a constraint on the datatype.

Q. How many parts does a function has?

A. Like a procedure, a function has two parts :- the specification and the body.

Q. Explain the specification part of a function?

A. The function specification begins with the keyword FUNCTION and ends with the
RETURN clause, which specifies the datatype of the result value. Parameter
declarations are optional.
*** Functions that take no parameters are written without parentheses.

Q. Explain the body part of a function?

A. The function body begins with the keyword IS and ends with the keyword END
followed by an optional function name. The function body has three parts :-
1. A declarative part
2. An executable part
3. An exception-handling part (Optional)

The declarative part contains local declarations, which are placed between the
keywords IS and BEGIN. The keyword DECLARE is not used.

The executable part contains statements, which are placed between the keywords
BEGIN and EXCEPTION (or END). One or more RETURN statements must
appear in the executable part of a function.

The exception-handling part contains exception handlers, which are placed between
the keywords EXCEPTION and END.

Q. Give an example of a function?

A. Following is an example of a function :-

FUNCTION sal_ok (salary REAL, title REAL) RETURN BOOLEAN IS

min_sal REAL;
 max_sal REAL;
BEGIN
SELECT losal, hisal INTO min_sal, max_sal
FROM sals
WHERE job = title;
RETURN (salary >= min_sal) AND (salary <= max_sal);
END sal_ok;

Q. How is a function called?

A. A function is called as part of an expression. e.g.

IF sal_ok(new_sal, new_title) THEN ...

...
END IF;
...
promotable := sal_ok(new_sal, new_title) AND (rating > 3);

In both the cases, function identifier is an expression that yields a result.

*** The function identifier acts like a variable whose value depends on the parameters
passed to it.

Q. Can you use user-defined functions in SQL statements?

A. No.
Call to user-defined functions can appear in procedural statements, but not in
SQL statements. e.g. following INSERT statement is illegal :-

DECLARE
empnum INTEGER;
...
FUNCTION bonus (emp_id INTEGER) RETURN REAL IS
BEGIN ... END bonus;
BEGIN
...
INSERT INTO payroll
VALUES(empnum, ..., bonus(empnum)); -- illegal call
END;

Q. What is a RETURN statement?

A. The RETURN statement immediately completes the execution of a subprogram and
returns control to the caller. Execution then resumes with the statement following the
subprogram call.

*** Do not confuse the RETURN statement with the RETURN clause, which
specifies the datatype of the result value in a function specification.

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Q. Can a subprogram contain several RETURN statements?
A. Yes, a subprogram can contain several RETURN statements, none of which need be
the last lexical statement. Executing any of them completes the subprogram
imediately.

Q. In a procedure, can a RETURN statement contain an expression?

A. No, in procedures, a RETURN statement cannot contain an expression.
The statement simply returns control to the caller before the normal end of the
procedure is reached.

Q. In a function, can a RETURN statement contain no expression?

A. No, in functions, a RETURN statement must contain an expression, which is
evaluated when the RETURN statement is executed. The resulting value is
assigned to the function identifier, which acts like a variable of the type specified
in the RETURN clause.

*** A function must contain at least one RETURN statement. Otherwise,

PL/SQL raises the predefined exception PROGRAM_ERROR at run time.

Q. Does PL/SQL allow forward declaration in case of identifiers?

A. No, PL/SQL does not allow forward declaration in case of identifiers.
You must declare an identifier before using it.

Q. Does PL/SQL allow forward declaration in case of subprograms?

A.Yes, PL/SQL allow forward declaration in case of subprograms. You can use
forward declaration to
1. Define subprograms in logical or alphabetical order
2. Define mutually recursive subprograms
3. Group subprograms in a package

Q. How do you forward declare a subprogram? Give an example.

A. A forward declaration consists of a subprogram specification terminated by a
semicolon. e.g. in the following the forward declaration advises PL/SQL that
the body of procedure calc_rating can be found later in the block:-

DECLARE
PROCEDURE calc_rating ( ... ); -- forward declaration
...
/* Define subprograms in alphabetical order. */
PROCEDURE award_bonus ( ... ) IS
BEGIN
calc_rating( ... );
...
END;
PROCEDURE calc_rating ( ... ) IS
BEGIN
 ...
END;
...

*** Although the formal parameter list appears in the forward declaration, it must
also appear in the subprogram body.

Q. Where can we place the subprogram body after forward declaration?

A. You can place the subprogram body anywhere after the forward declaration,
but they must appear in the same program unit( i.e. block, subprogram or package).

Q. How do subprograms pass information?

A. Subprograms pass information using parameters.

Q. What are actual parameters?

A. The variables or expressions referenced in the parameter list of a subprogram call are
actual parameters. e.g. the following procedure call lists two actual parameters named
emp_num and amount :-
raise_salary(emp_num, amount);

*** In some cases, expressions can be used as actual parameters :-

raise_salary(emp_num, merit + cola);

Q. What are formal parameters?

A. The variables declared in a subprogram specification and referenced in the subprogram
body are formal parameters. e.g. the following procedure declares two formal
parameters named emp_id and increase :-

PROCEDURE raise_salary (emp_id INTEGER, increase REAL) IS

current_salary REAL;
...
BEGIN
SELECT sal INTO current_salary FROM emp
WHERE empno = emp_id;
...
UPDATE emp SET sal = sal + increase WHERE empno = emp_id;
END raise_salary;

Q. Is it necessary to use different names for actual & formal parameters?

A. No, it is not necessary. But it is a good programming practice is to use different
names for actual and formal parameters.

Q. Elaborate more on formal & actual parameters.

A. When you call a procedure, the actual parameters are evaluated and the result values
are assigned to the corresponding formal parameters. Before assigning the value of an
actual parameter to a formal parameter, PL/SQL converts the datatype of the value if

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 necessary. e.g. the following call to raise_salary is legal :-
raise_salary(emp_num, '2500');

The actual parameter and its corresponding formal parameter must have compatible
datatypes. For instance, PL/SQL cannot convert between the DATE and REAL
datatypes. Also, the result value must be convertible to the new datatype. e.g. The
following procedure call raises the predefined exception VALUE_ERROR because
PL/SQL cannot convert the second actual parameter to a number : -
raise_salary(emp_num, '$2500'); -- note the dollar sign

Q. In how many ways you can indicate the association between an actual and
a formal parameter?
A. You can indicate the association between an actual and formal parameter
1. By position
2. By name.
In othe words, when calling a subprogram, you can write the actual parameters
using either positional or named notation.

Q. Give an example of positional notation.

A. Conside the following declarations :-
DECLARE
acct INTEGER;
amt REAL;
PROCEDURE credit (acctno INTEGER, amount REAL) IS ...

The following procedure call uses the positional notation :-

credit(acct, amt);

Q. Give an example of named notation.

A. The following procedure call uses the named notation :-
credit(amount => amt, acctno => acct);
or
credit(acctno => acct, amount => amt);

Q. What is mixed notation?

A. In this notation, you can mix positional and named notation.e.g.
credit(acct, amount => amt);
In this case, the first parameter uses positional notation, and the second parameter uses
named notation.

*** Positional notation must precede named notation. The reverse is not allowed.
For example, the following procedure call is illegal:
credit(acctno => acct, amt);

Q. What is are parameter modes?

A. You use parameter modes to define the behavior of formal parameters.
Q. How many parameter modes are there?
A. There are three parameter modes :-
1. IN (the default)
2. OUT
3. IN OUT
These can be used with any subprogram.

Q. Why should the use of OUT & IN OUT modes be avoided with functions?
A. The purpose of a function is to take zero or more arguments (actual parameters)
and return a single value. To have a function return multiple values is a poor
programming practice. Also, functions should be free from side effects, which change
the values of variables not local to the subprogram.

Q. Explain IN mode?
A. An IN parameter lets you pass values to the subprogram being called.
Inside the subprogram, an IN parameter acts like a constant. Therefore,
it cannot be assigned a value. e.g. the following assignment statement causes a
compilation error :-

PROCEDURE debit_account (acct_id IN INTEGER, amount IN REAL) IS

minimum_purchase CONSTANT REAL := 10.0;
service_charge CONSTANT REAL := 0.50;
BEGIN
...
IF amount < minimum_purchase THEN
amount := amount + service_charge; -- causes syntax error
END IF;

Q. What should be the actual parameter that corresponds to an IN formal

parameter?
A. The actual parameter that corresponds to an IN formal parameter can be a
constant, literal, initialized variable, or expression.

Q. Can IN parameters be initialized to default values?

A. Yes, IN parameters can be initialized to default values.

Q. Explain OUT mode?

A. An OUT parameter lets you return values to the caller of a subprogram.
Inside the subprogram, an OUT parameter acts like an uninitialized variable.
Therefore, its value cannot be assigned to another variable or reassigned to itself.
e.g. the following assignment statement causes a compilation error:

PROCEDURE calc_bonus (emp_id IN INTEGER, bonus OUT REAL) IS

hire_date DATE;
BEGIN

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 SELECT sal * 0.10, hiredate INTO bonus, hire_date FROM emp
WHERE empno = emp_id;
IF MONTHS_BETWEEN(SYSDATE, hire_date) > 60 THEN
bonus := bonus + 500; -- causes syntax error
END IF;

Q. What should be the actual parameter that corresponds an OUT formal

parameter?
A. The actual parameter that corresponds to an OUT formal parameter must be a
variable; it cannot be a constant or an expression. e.g. the following procedure
call is illegal :-
calc_bonus(7499, salary + commission); -- causes compilation error

Q. Can an OUT actual parameter have a value before the subprogram is called?
A. Yes, An OUT actual parameter can(but need not) have a value before the subprogram
is called. However, the value is lost when you call the subprogram.

Q. Can an OUT formal parameter be used in an expression inside the subprogram?

A. No, inside the subprogram, an OUT formal parameter cannot be used in an expression.
The only operation allowed on the parameter is to assign it a value.

Q. What is the initial value of an OUT parameter?

A. Like variables, OUT formal parameters are initialized to NULL.
So, before exiting a subprogram, explicitly assign values to all OUT formal
parameters. Otherwise, the corresponding actual parameters will be null.
If you exit successfully, PL/SQL assigns values to the actual parameters.
However, if you exit with an unhandled exception, PL/SQL does not assign
values to the actual parameters.

Q. Explain IN OUT mode?

A. An IN OUT parameter lets you pass initial values to the subprogram being called and
return updated values to the caller.
Inside the subprogram, an IN OUT parameter acts like an initialized variable.
Therefore, it can be assigned a value and its value can be assigned to another variable.
That means you can use an IN OUT formal parameter as if it were a normal
variable.You can change its value or reference the value in any way, as the following
example shows :-

PROCEDURE calc_bonus (emp_id IN INTEGER, bonus IN OUT REAL) IS

hire_date DATE;
bonus_missing EXCEPTION;
BEGIN
SELECT sal * 0.10, hiredate INTO bonus, hire_date FROM emp
WHERE empno = emp_id;
IF bonus IS NULL THEN
RAISE bonus_missing;
 END IF;
IF MONTHS_BETWEEN(SYSDATE, hire_date) > 60 THEN
bonus := bonus + 500;
END IF;
...
EXCEPTION
WHEN bonus_missing THEN
...
END calc_bonus;

Q. What should be the actual parameter that corresponds an IN OUT formal

parameter?
A. The actual parameter that corresponds to an IN OUT formal parameter must be a
variable. It cannot be a constant or an expression.

Q. Can you initialize IN parameters to default values?

A. Yes, you can initialize IN parameters to default values. That way, you can pass
different numbers of actual parameters to a subprogram, accepting or overriding
the default values as you please.
Moreover, you can add new formal parameters without having to change every
call to the subprogram. e.g.

PROCEDURE create_dept (
new_dname CHAR DEFAULT 'TEMP',
new_loc CHAR DEFAULT 'TEMP') IS
BEGIN
INSERT INTO dept
VALUES (deptno_seq.NEXTVAL, new_dname, new_loc);

If an actual parameter is not passed, the default value of its corresponding formal
parameter is used. Consider the following calls to create_dept :-
create_dept;
create_dept('MARKETING');
create_dept('MARKETING', 'NEW YORK');
The first call passes no actual parameters, so both default values are used.
The second call passes one actual parameter, so the default value for new_loc is used
The third call passes two actual parameters, so neither default value is used.
Usually, you use positional notation to override the default values of formal
parameters.

TABLE of PARAMETER MODES

IN OUT IN OUT
the default must be specified must be specified

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 passes values to returns values to passes initial values
a subprogram the caller to a subprogram;
returns updated
values to the caller

formal parameter formal parameter formal parameter

acts like a constant acts like an acts like an
uninitialized variable uninitialized variable

formal parameter formal parameter formal parameter

cannot be assigned cannot be used in should be assigned
a value an expression; must a value
be assigned a value

actual parameter actual parameter actual parameter

can be a constant, must be a variable must be a variable
initialized variable,
literal, or expression

Q. In case of default values of IN parameters, can you skip a formal parameter

by leaving out its actual parameter?
A. No, you cannot skip a formal parameter by leaving out its actual parameter.
e.g. the following call incorrectly associates the actual parameter 'NEW YORK' with
the formal parameter new_dname :-
create_dept('NEW YORK'); -- incorrect
You cannot solve the problem by leaving a placeholder for the actual parameter. For
example, the following call is illegal :-
create_dept( , 'NEW YORK'); -- illegal
In such cases, you must use named notation, as follows :-
create_dept(new_loc => 'NEW YORK');

*** Remember, positional notation cannot follow named notation.

Q. How does PL/SQL optimize a subprogram call?

A. To optimize a subprogram call, the PL/SQL compiler can choose between two
methods of parameter passing.
1.With the by-value method, the value of an actual parameter is passed to the
subprogram.
2.With the by-reference method, only a pointer to the value is passed, in which
case the actual and formal parameters reference the same item.

*** Passing large composite types by value is inefficient. So, in most cases PL/SQL
passes composite types by reference, which saves time.

Q. What is aliasing problem ?

A. Problem of aliasing occurs when a global variable appears as an actual parameter in a
 subprogram call and then is referenced within the subprogram. The result is
indeterminate because it depends on the method of parameter passing chosen by the
compiler. Consider the following example :-
DECLARE
rent REAL;
PROCEDURE raise_rent (increase IN OUT REAL) IS
...
BEGIN
rent := rent + increase;
...
END raise_rent;
BEGIN
...
raise_rent(rent); -- indeterminate;
END;

Problem of aliasing also occurs when the same actual parameters appears twice in a
procedure call. Unless both formal parameters are IN parameters, the result is
indeterminate because it depends on the methods of parameter passing chosen by the
compiler. e.g.
DECLARE
str CHAR(10);
PROCEDURE reverse (in_str CHAR, out_str OUT CHAR) IS
...
BEGIN
-- reverse order of characters in string
...
/* At this point, whether the value of in_str is 'ABCD' or
'DCBA' depends on the methods of parameter passing
used by the PL/SQL compiler. */
END reverse;
...
BEGIN
str := 'ABCD';
reverse(str, str); -- indeterminate;
...
END:

Q. Does PL/SQL allows overloading of subprogram names?

A. Yes, PL/SQL lets you overload subprogram names. That is, you can use the same
name for several different subprograms as long as their formal parameters differ in
number, order, or datatype family.

Q. Where can overloaded subprogram names appear?

A. Overloaded subprogram names can appear only in a block, subprogram, or package.
In other words, only local or packaged subprograms can be overloaded.

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Q. Can you overload standalone subprograms?
A. No, you cannot overload standalone subprograms.

Q. Can you overload two subprograms if their formal parameters differ only in
name or parameter mode?
A. No. e.g. you cannot overload the following two procedures :-
PROCEDURE reconcile (acctno IN INTEGER) IS
BEGIN
...
END;

PROCEDURE reconcile (acctno OUT INTEGER) IS

BEGIN
...
END;

Q. Can you overload two subprograms if their formal parameters differ only in
datatype and the different datatypes are in the same family?
A. No. e.g. you cannot overload the following procedures because the datatypes
INTEGER and REAL are in the same family :-
PROCEDURE charge_back (amount INTEGER) IS
BEGIN
...
END;

PROCEDURE charge_back (amount REAL) IS

BEGIN
...
END;

Q. Can you overload two functions that differ only in return type (the datatype of
the result value) even if the types are in different families?
A. No. e.g. you cannot overload the following functions :-
FUNCTION acct_ok (acct_id INTEGER) RETURN BOOLEAN IS
BEGIN
...
END;

FUNCTION acct_ok (acct_id INTEGER) RETURN INTEGER IS

BEGIN
...
END;

Q. How does PL/SQL compiler resolves subprogram calls?

A. When the compiler encounters a procedure or function call, it tries to find a declaration
 that matches the call. The compiler searches first in the current scope and then, if
necessary, in successive enclosing scopes. The compiler stops searching if it finds one
or more subprogram declarations in which the subprogram name matches the name of
the called subprogram.
To resolve a call among possibly like-named subprograms at the
same level of scope, the compiler must find an exact match between the actual and
formal parameters. That is, they must match in number, order, and datatype (unless
some formal parameters were assigned default values). If no match is found or if
multiple matches are found, the compiler generates a syntax error.

Q. What will compiler do in the following case?

A. PROCEDURE swap (d1 DATE, d2 DATE) IS
date1 DATE;
date2 DATE;
FUNCTION valid (d DATE) RETURN BOOLEAN IS
PROCEDURE swap (n1 INTEGER, n2 INTEGER) IS
BEGIN ... END swap;
PROCEDURE swap (n1 REAL, n2 REAL) IS
BEGIN ... END swap;
BEGIN
...
swap(date1, date2);
END valid;
BEGIN
...
END swap;

Here you are calling the enclosing procedure swap from within the function .But neither
declaration of swap within the current scope matches the procedure call. Therefore, the
compiler will generate an error.

Q. Where does ORACLE declare built-in functions globally?

A. PL/SQL declares built-in functions globally in package STANDARD.

Q. Can you redeclare built-in functions? What is the disadvantage?

A. Yes. But redeclaring them locally is error prone because your local declaration
overrides the global declaration. e.g. in the following example, in which you declare
a function named sign, then within the scope of that declaration, try to call the built-in
function SIGN :-
DECLARE
x NUMBER;
...
BEGIN
DECLARE
FUNCTION sign (n NUMBER) RETURN NUMBER IS
BEGIN

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7
 IF n < 0 THEN
RETURN -1;
ELSE
RETURN 1;
END IF;
END;
BEGIN
...
x := SIGN(0); -- assigns 1 to x
END;
...
x := SIGN(0); -- assigns 0 to x
END;
Inside the sub-block, PL/SQL uses your function definition, not the built-in definition.
To call the built-in function from inside the sub-block, you must use dot notation, as
follows:
x := STANDARD.SIGN(0); -- assigns 0 to x

Q. What is Recursion?
A. Recursion means self-reference.

Q. What is a recursive subprogram?

A. A recursive subprogram is one that calls itself.

*** Each recursive call creates a new instance of any items declared in the
subprogram, including parameters, variables, cursors, and exceptions.
Likewise, new instances of SQL statements are created at each level
in the recursive descent.

Q. What is the characteristic of a recursive subprogram?

A. There must be at least two paths through a recursive subprogram :-
1. one that leads to the recursive call and
2. one that does not i.e. at least one path must lead to a terminating condition.
If the terminating condition is not there then recursion would go on forever.
In practice, if a recursive subprogram strays into infinite regress, PL/SQL eventually
runs out of memory and raises STORAGE_ERROR.

Q. Can you use iteration in place of recursion? If yes, then where is recursion
appropriate?
A. Yes, we can use iteration in place of recursion. But recursion is appropriate when
the problem can be broken down into simpler versions of itself.

Q. Compare recursion with iteration?

A. 1. Any problem that can be solved using recursion can also be solved using iteration.
2. Examples of recursion are uncommon in everyday life.
3. Iterative version of a subprogram is usually easier to design than the recursive
 version.
4. Concept of iteration is easier to grasp.
5. Recursive version is usually simpler, smaller, & therefore easier to debug.

*** The recursive version is more elegant than the iterative version.
However, the iterative version is more efficient. It runs faster and uses less
storage. That is because each recursive call requires additional time and memory.
As the number of recursive calls gets larger, so does the difference in efficiency.
Still, if you expect the number of recursive calls to be small, you might choose the
recursive version for its readability.

Q. Give an example of recursion?

A. Following is the subprogram that call itself to compute the factorial of a natural no. :-
FUNCTION fac (n POSITIVE) RETURN INTEGER IS -- returns n!
BEGIN
IF n = 1 THEN -- terminating condition
RETURN 1;
ELSE
RETURN n * fac(n - 1); -- recursive call
END IF;
END fac;

Q. What care should we take when we place a recursive call?

A. Be careful where you place a recursive call. If you place it inside a cursor FOR loop
or between OPEN and CLOSE statements, another cursor is opened at each call.
As a result, your program might exceed the limit set by the Oracle initialization
parameter OPEN_CURSORS.

Q. What is mutual recursion?

A. Subprograms are mutually recursive if they directly or indirectly call each other.
In the example below, the Boolean functions odd and even, which determine
whether a number is odd or even, call each other directly. The forward declaration
of odd is necessary because even calls odd, which is not yet declared when the call is
made :-
FUNCTION odd (n NATURAL) RETURN BOOLEAN; -- forward declaration

FUNCTION even (n NATURAL) RETURN BOOLEAN IS

BEGIN
IF n = 0 THEN
RETURN TRUE;
ELSE
RETURN odd(n - 1); -- mutually recursive call
END IF;
END even;

FUNCTION odd (n NATURAL) RETURN BOOLEAN IS

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9
 BEGIN
IF n = 0 THEN
RETURN FALSE;
ELSE
RETURN even(n - 1); -- mutually recursive call
END IF;
END odd;

Q. What are the advantages of stored subprograms?

A. 1. Higher Productivity
Make a library of stored subprograms. This will help you
avoiding redundant coding and hence increase productivity. If some requirment
changes then only the subprogram will be revised, not the application calling that
subprogram.
2. Better Performance
Use of subprograms can reduce calls from your application
to ORACLE. e.g. to execute 10 individual SQL statements, 10 calls are required,but
to execute a subprogram containing 10 SQL statements, only 1 call is required. This
can boost performance especially if your application communicates with ORACLE
over a network.
3. Memory Savings
Stored subprograms take advantage of ORACLE shared
memory capability. Hence only one copy of a subprogram is required to be loaded
into memory for execution by multiple users. Thus, your application will require
less memory.

Q. From where you can call stored subprograms?

A. You can call stored subprograms
1. From a database trigger
2. From another stored subprogram
3. From an ORACLE Precompiler application
4. From an OCI application
5. From an ORACLE tool such as SQL*Plus, SQL*DBA, SQL*Forms

*** The syntax of calling stored subprograms is the same as in case of calling
subprograms of a package, except that you don't use dot notation here.

Q. What does ORACLE do when you call a stored subprogram?

A. Before executing a stored subprogram. ORACLE marks an implicit savepoint.
If the subprogram fails with an unhandeled exception, before returning to the host
environment, ORACLE rolls back to the savepoint, undoing any database changes
made by the subprogram.

Q. What are the restrictions regarding the use of SQL and PL/SQL statements
in a stand-alone or packaged subprogram?
A. The body of a stand-alone or packaged subprogram can contain any SQL oe PL/SQL
 statement.
*** However, subprograms participating in a distributed transaction, database
triggers, and SQL*Forms applications cannot call stored subprograms that
contain a COMMIT, ROLLBACK or SAVEPOINT statement.

Q. Are references to stored functions allowed in SQL statements?

A. References to stored functions can appear in procedural statements, but not in SQL
statements.

Q. What are the states of a stored subprogram?

A. A stored subprogram is always in one of two states :-
1. Valid
2. Invalid

Q. When is a stored subprogram valid?

A. A subprogram is valid if neither its source code nor any object it references has been
DROPed, REPLACEd or ALTEREd since the subprogram was last compiled.
When you call a valid subprogram, ORACLE simply loads its compiled PL/SQL
code into the shared SQL cache and executes the code.

Q. When is a stored subprogram invalid?

A. A subprogram is invalid if its source code or any object it references has been
DROPed, REPLACEd or ALTEREd since the subprogram was last

Q. Explain dependency in case of stored subprograms?

A. A stored subprogram that references a database object is said to be dependent
on that object.
ORACLE invalidates a subprogram if any object on which it depends has been
DROPed, REPLACEd or ALTEREd since the subprogram was last compiled.

Q. Explain execution of an invalid subprogram?

A. An invalid subprogram must be recompiled before it can be executed.
Recompilation occurs in two phases :-
1. First, ORACLE determines if any referenced subprograms or packages are
themselves invalid. If so, they must be recompiled. This can lead to a cascade
of recompilations, all of which must succeed. Otherwise, ORACLE will return
runtime error and the subprogram remains invalid.
2. Second, the referencing subprogram is compiled, after which it can be executed.

Q. How is a subprogram created interactively?

A. To create subprograms and store them permanently in an Oracle database, you use
the CREATE PROCEDURE and CREATE FUNCTION statements
interactively from SQL*Plus or SQL*DBA. e.g.

CREATE PROCEDURE fire_employee (emp_id NUMBER) AS

BEGIN

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1
 DELETE FROM emp WHERE empno = emp_id;
END;

*** Generally, tools (such as Oracle Forms) that incorporate the PL/SQL engine
can store subprograms locally for later, strictly local execution. However, to
become available for general use by all tools, subprograms must be stored in
an Oracle database.

Q. What happens when you CREATE a subprogram for storage on database?

A. When you CREATE a subprogram for storage in the database, ORACLE does the
following things :-
1. Compiles the source code
2. Caches the object code in a shared SQL area in the System Global Area(SGA)
3. Stores the source & object code in the data dictionary
After this the object code stays cached in the SGA, where it can be executed
quickly.
*** When necessary, ORACLE applies a LEAST-RECENTLY-USED
algorithm that selects shared SQL areas to be flushed from SGA to make
room for others.

Q. What happens when you call a stored subprogram?

A. When you call a stored subprogram, ORACLE checks to see if an existing shared
SQL area holds the object code for that subprogram. If not, ORACLE allocates
a shared SQL area and loads the subprogram object code into it.
Then, ORACLE allocates a private SQL area, which holds session-specific
subprogram values.
If multiple users execute a subprogram simultaneously, onle one shared SQL area is
used, but multiple private SQL areas are maintained - one for each user.

Q. How are SQL statements within a subprogram processed?

A. SQL statements within a subprogram are processed in the same way as a stored
subprogram. They use shared SQL areas to hold their parsed representation, and
provate SQL areas to hold session-specific information.
*** The shared SQL area used by a subprogram is called a parent cursor.
The shared SQL area used by SQL statements within the subprogram
are called child cursors.
 PACKAGES
Good as it is to inherit a library, it is better to collect one.

Q. When a package can be stored in ORACLE database?

A. If you have the Procedural Database Extension.

Q. What is a package?
A. A Package is a database object. It groups logically related PL/SQL types, objects &
subprograms.

Q. What is the structure of a package?

A. A package usually have two parts :-

1. Package Specification(must present there)

2. Package Body(Sometimes it is unnecessary)

The specification is the Interface to your applications.It declares :- types, variables,

constants, exceptions, cursors, & subprograms available for use.

The body fully defines cursors & subprograms and so implements the specification.

Q. Can packages be called, passed parameters or nested like subprograms?

A. No.

Q. Give the format of a package?

A. PACKAGE name IS -- specification (visible part)

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3
 -- public type & object declarations
-- subprogram specifications
END [name];

PACKAGE BODY name IS -- body (hidden part)

-- private type & object declarations
-- subprogram bodies
[BEGIN
-- initialization statements]
END [name];

As you can see specification holds Public declarations, which are visible to your
application. The body holds implementation details & private declarations, which
are hidden from your application.

Q. What is the advantage of separating body part from specification in a package?

A. Then we can debug, enhance or replace a package body without changing the interface
(package specification) to the package body.

Also, as your application refers to the specification, you can change the body
(implementation) without having to recompile calling programs.

Q. How are packages created interactively?

A. Packages are created interactively with SQL*Plus or SQL*DBA using the
CREATE PACKAGE and CREATE PACKAGE BODY commands.

Q. How does a package result in better performance?

A. When you call a packaged subprogram for the first time, the whole package is loaded
into the memory. Therefore, subsequent calls to related subprograms in the package
require no disk I/O.

Further, unlike subprograms, packages stop Cascading Dependencies and thus avoid
unnecessary recompiling. In other words, if you change the definition of a stand-alone
function, ORACLE must recompile all stored subprograms that call the function.
However, if you change the definition of a packaged function, ORACLE need not
recompile the calling subprograms because they do not depend on the package body.

*** Packaged public variables & cursors persist for the duration of a session.
So, they can be shared by all procedures that execute in the environment

Q. Explain package specification?

A. A package specification is interface to your application. It contains public
declarations. The scope of these declarations is local to your database schema &
global to the package. So, the declared objects are accessible from your application
& from anywhere in the package.Thus the specification lists the package resources
available to applications.
Q. Give an example of a package where body is unnecessary?
A. Only subprograms & cursors have an underlying implementation or definition. This
means if a specification declares only types, constants, variables and exceptions,
the package body is unnecessary. An example is given below :-

-- package consisting of a specification only

PACKAGE trans_data IS
TYPE TimeTyp IS RECORD
(minute SMALLINT,
hour SMALLINT);
TYPE TransTyp IS RECORD
(category VARCHAR2,
account INTEGER,
time TimeTyp);
minimum_balance CONSTANT := 10.00;
number_processed INTEGER;
insufficient_funds EXCEPTION;
END trans_data;

Such packages let you define Global Variables that persist throughout a session and
can be used by subprograms & triggers.

Q. How are the contents of a package referenced?

A. Dot Notation is used to reference the contents(i.e. types, objects & subprograms)
declared within a package specification.

package_name.type_name;
package_name.object_name;
package_name.subprogram_name;

Q. Where can the contents of a package referenced?

A. The contents of a package can be referenced from database triggers, stored
subprograms, embedded PL/SQL blocks and anonymous PL/SQL blocks
sent to ORACLE interactively by SQL*Plus or SQL*DBA.

Q. Explain the package body?

A. The package body implements the package specification. In other words,
the package body contains the definition of every cursor & subprogram
declared in the package specification.
The subprograms defined in a package body are accessible outside the
package only if their specifications also appear in the package specification.

Q. Can a package body contain private declarations?

A. Yes, a package body can contain private declarations. These private declarations
define types & objects necessary for internal workings of the package.

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5
 The scope of these declarations is local to the package body. Therefore, the
declared types & objects are inaccessible except from within the package body.
Further, unlike a package specification, the declarative part of a package body
can contain subprogram bodies.

Q. Explain the initialization part of a package body?

A. Initialization part follows the declarative part of a package body. It is optional.
It holds statements that initialize some of the variables previously declared in the
package.
The initialization part of a package is run only once, the first time you reference
the package.

*** Before executing a packaged subprogram, ORACLE marks a implicit

savepoint. If the subprogram fails with an unhandeled exception, before
returning to the host environment, ORACLE rollsback to the savepoint,
undoing any database changes made by the program.

Q. Which SQL or PL/SQL statements can be used in the body of a packaged

subprogram?
A. The body of a packaged subprogram can contain any SQL or PL/SQL statement.
However, subprograms participating in a distributed transaction, database triggers,
and SQL*Forms applications cannot call packaged subprograms that contain a
COMMIT, ROLLBACK or SAVEPOINT statement.

Q. What can be the state of a package specification?

A. A package specification is always in one of the two states:-
1. Valid
2. Invalid.
A package specification is valid if neither its source code nor any object it references
has been DROPed, REPLACEd, or ALTERed since the package specification was
last compiled.
On the other hand, a package specification is invalid if its source code or any object it
references has been DROPed, REPLACEd or ALTERed since the package
specification was last compiled.

*** When it invalidates a package specification, ORACLE also invalidates any

objects that reference the package.

Q. What can be the state of a package body?

A. A package body is subject to the same rules as given in previous question.However,
ORACLE can recompile a package body without invalidating its corresponding
package specification. This feature limits the extent to which invalidations result in
cascading recompilations.

Q. What are the characteristics of packaged variables, constants & cursors?

When should these be used?
A. 1. Every session has its own set of packaged variables, constants & cursors.
2. In a session, the first time you reference a package, its variables & cursor
parameters are null unless you initialize them.
3. During a session, the package user can change the values of packaged variables
cursor parameters. When a session ends, the values are lost and must be reinitialized
when the next session begins.

Declare variables & cursors in a package only when you want them to persist
throughout a session.

Q. What happens to the dependent objects when a package specification is

recompiled? or Explain the dependency in case of a package specification
recompilation?
A. When a package specification is recompiled, ORACLE invalidates dependent
objects. These include stand-alone or packaged subprograms that call or
reference objects in the recompiled package specification. If you call or reference
a dependent object before it is recompiled, ORACLE automatically recompiles it
at run time.

Q. What happens to the dependent objects when a package body is recompiled?

or Explain the dependency in case of a package body recompilation?
A. When a package body is recompiled, ORACLE determines if objects on which the
package body depends are valid.These include stand-alone subprograms and package
specifications called or referenced by a procedure or cursor defined in the compiled
package body. If any of these objects are invalid, ORACLE recompiles them before
recompiling the package body.If ORACLE can recompile it successfully, the package
body becomes valid. Otherwise, ORACLE returns a runtime error and the package
body remains invalid.
Compilation errors are stored in the Data Dictionary with the package.

Q. Where does ORACLE store package specification & body?

A. ORACLE stores package specification & body separately in data dictionary.

*** Objects that call or reference global package depend only on the package
specification. Therefore, you can redefine objects in the package body(which
causes the body to be recompiled) without causing ORACLE to invalidate their
dependent objects.

Q. What is package STANDARD?

A. The package STANDARD defines the PL/SQL environment. Its specification globally
declares types, exceptions & subprograms, which are automatically available to every
PL/SQL program. e.g.

Package STANDARD declares the built-in function named ABS which returns the
absolute value of its arguments.

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7
 If you redeclare ABS in a PL/SQL program, your local declaration overrides the
global declaration. However, you can still call the built-in function by using dot
notation :- STANDARD.ABS

*** Most built-in functions are overloaded. PL/SQL resolves a call to an

overloaded built-in function by matching the number & datatypes of the
formal & actual parameters.

Q. What is package DBMS_STANDARD?

A. It provides language facilities that help your application interact with ORACLE.
It is an extension of package STANDARD.You need not qualify references to it.

Q. What is raise_application_error?
A. This is a packaged procedure declared and defined in package DBMS_STANDARD
It lets you issue user-defined messages. The syntax is :-

raise_application_error(error_number,error_message);

Where error_number is a negative integer in the range -20000 .. -20999 and

error_message is a character string up to 512 bytes in length.

Q. How is raise_application_error used?

A. raise_application_error can be called by an application only from an executing stored
subprogram. When called, it ends the subprogram, rollsback any database changes it
made, and returns a user-defined error no. and message to the application. The error
no. and message can be trapped like any ORACLE error. An example is given below :-

PROCEDURE raise_salary (emp_id NUMBER, increase NUMBER) IS

current_salary NUMBER;
BEGIN
SELECT sal INTO current_salary FROM emp
WHERE empno = emp_id;
IF current_salary IS NULL THEN
raise_application_error(-20101, 'Salary is missing');
ELSE
UPDATE emp SET sal = current_salary + increase
WHERE empno = emp_id;
END IF;
END raise salary;

The calling application gets a PL/SQL exception. This exception can be processed using
the error-reporting functions SQLCODE & SQLERRM in an OTHERS handler.
Furtheremore, it can use EXCEPTION_INIT to map specific error numbers returned by
raise_application_error to exceptions of its own. e.g.

EXEC SQL EXECUTE

 DECLARE
...
null_salary EXCEPTION;
PRAGMA EXCEPTION_INIT(null_salary, -20101);
BEGIN
...
raise_salary(:emp_number, :amount);
EXCEPTION
WHEN null_salary THEN
INSERT INTO emp_audit VALUES (:emp_number, ...);
...
END ;
END-EXEC;

*** Typically, raise_application_error is used in database triggers.

Q. Give any guideline while developing a package?

A. To reduce the need for recompiling when code is changed, place as few items as
possible in package specification. It is because changes to a package body do not
require ORACLE to recompile dependent procedures. However, changes to a
package specification require ORACLE to recompile every stored subprogram that
references the package.

Q. How are packaged subprograms called?

A. Package subprograms must be referenced using dot notation as told earlier. You can
call packaged subprograms from a database trigger, another subprogram, or ORACLE
precompiler application, an OCI application, or an ORACLE tool such as SQL*Plus
or SQL*DBA.

From Another Stored Subprogram :-

A stand-alone stored subprogram can call a
packaged subprogram as follows :-
emp_actions.hire_employee(name, title, ...);

From an Application Program :-

An ORACLE Precompiler or OCI application can
call packaged subprograms using anonymous PL/SQL blocks as follows :-
EXEC SQL EXECUTE
BEGIN
emp_actions.hire_employee(:name, :title, ...);
END;
END-EXEC;

From an ORACLE Tool :-

An ORACLE tool such as SQL*Plus, SQL*Forms or
SQL*DBA can call packaged subprograms interactively as follows :-

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9
 SQL> EXECUTE emp_actions.hire_employee('JIT', 'ENGG', ...);

Remote Access :-
You can use the following syntax to call packaged subprograms
dtored in a remote ORACLE database :-

package_name.subprogram_name@db_link(param1, param2, ...);

e.g. below you are calling the packaged procedure hire_employee in the newyork
database :-
emp_actions.hire_employee@newyork(name, title, ...);
EXECUTION ENVIRONMENT
Every tool carries with it the spirit by which it was created.

Q. Where can you use PL/SQL?

A. PL/SQL can be used in the following application development tools :-
1. ORACLE Call Interfaces
2. ORACLE Precompilers
3. SQL*DBA
4. SQL*Forms
5. SQL*Menu
6. SQL*Plus
7. SQL*ReportWriter

Q. Does PL/SQL support I/O?

A. No. Therefore, with interactive tools like SQL*Plus you must use a database table to
hold result values.

Q. In how many ways you can use PL/SQL in SQL*Plus?

A. If you have the transaction processing option then in SQL*Plus, you can use PL/SQL
in following ways :-
1. Input & Store a PL/SQL Block
2. Input & Run a PL/SQL Block
3. Create a Script Containing PL/SQL Blocks
4. Load & Run a Script Containing PL/SQL Blocks
5. Call a Stored Subprogram.

Q. How is an anonymous PL/SQL block input in SQL*Plus?

A. Every PL/SQL block begins with the reserved word DECLARE. If the block has no
declarative part then with the reserved word BEGIN. Inputting either reserved word
at the SQL*Plus prompt(SQL>) signals SQL*Plus to
1. Clear the SQL buffer
2. Enter INPUT mode
3. Ignore semicolons(the SQL statement terminator)

SQL*Plus expects you to input an unlabeled PL/SQL block. Hence, you can not start
 with a block label.

You can input the rest of the PL/SQL block line by line. Ending the block with a
period(.) on a line by itself stores the block in the SQL buffer.

You can save your PL/SQL block in a script file as follows :-

SQL> SAVE ,filename>

If you want to edit the file, you can use the SQL*Plus editor. After editing the file, you
can save it again as follows :-
SQL> SAVE <filename> REPLACE

Q. How is an anonymous PL/SQL block executed in SQL*Plus?

A. After inputting a PL/SQL block, you need not end it with a period. Ending the block
with a slash (/) on a line by itself stores the block in the SQL buffer, then runs
the block.

Once it is stored in the SQL buffer, you can run the PL/SQL block again as follows :-
SQL> RUN
or
SQL /

When the block is finished running, you are returned to the SQL*Plus prompt. The
SQL buffer is not cleared until you start inputting the next SQL statement or PL/SQL
block.

Q. How is a script containg PL/SQL blocks created in SQL*Plus?

A. You can use your favourite editor to create text files containing PL/SQL blocks.
Although SQL*Plus statements are not allowed in a PL/SQL block, you can intermix
them with PL/SQL blocks in a text file. e.g. :-
CLEAR BREAKS;
CLEAR COLUMNS;
COLUMN ENAME HEADING NAME
TTITLE 'CLERICAL STAFF'
DECLARE
avg_sal NUMBER(7,2);
BEGIN
SELECT AVG(sal) INTO avg_sal FROM emp;
IF avg_sal < 1500 THEN
UPDATE emp SET sal = sal * 1.05 WHERE job = 'CLERK';
END IF;
END;
/
SELECT ENAME, SAL FROM EMP WHERE JOB = 'CLERK';

The two CLEAR statements get rid of any settings left over from a previous report.

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1
 The COLUMN statement changes the ENAME column heading to NAME. The
TTITLE statement specifies a title that appears at the top of each page in the report.
The slash following the END executes the PL/SQL block.

*** In such a case a slash (/) must follow every PL/SQL block.

Q. How is a script containing PL/SQL blocks loaded an run in SQL*Plus?

A. After invoking SQL*Plus, you can load a script into the SQL buffer as follows :-
SQL> GET ,filename>

Once it is stored in the SQL buffer, you can run the script using the RUN command
or a slash (/). If you prefer, you can load and run the script in one step, as
follows :-
SQL> START <filename>

Your PL/SQL block can take advantage of the SQL*Plus substitution variable feature.
before running a script, SQL*Plus prompts for the value of any variable prefixed with
ampersand(&). e.g. :-
BEGIN
...
FOR i IN 1..&num LOOP
...
END LOOP;
END;

Q. How is a stored subprogram called in SQL*Plus?

A. From SQL*Plus you can call stand-alone and packaged subprograms stored in a
local or remote database. e.g. :-
SQL> EXECUTE create_dept('ADVERTISING', 'NEW YORK');

This call is equivalent to the following call issued from an anonymous PL/SQL block
:-
SQL> BEGIN create_dept('ADVERTISING', 'NEW YORK'); END;

In the following example you use the database link newyork to call the remote stored
procedure raise_salary :-
SQL> EXECUTE raise_salary@newyork(7499, 1500);

You can create synonyms to provide location transparency for remote stand-alone
procedures.

Q. What are ORACLE Precompilers?

A. The ORACLE Precompilers allow you to embed PL/SQL blocks within programs
written in any of the following high-level languages :-
 ADA, C, COBOL, Pascal, FORTRAN

Such programs & languages are called host programs and host languages,
respectively.

After writing a program, you precompile the source file. The precompiler checks
the program for syntax errors, then generates a modified source file, which can be
compiled, linked, and executed in the usual way.

Q. How is a PL/SQL block embedded?

A. You can embed a PL/SQL block wherever you can embed a SQL statement; the
precompiler treats them alike. To embed a PL/SQL block in your host program, you
must place the block between the keywords EXEC SQL EXECUTE and
END-EXEC, as follows :-
EXEC SQL EXECUTE
BEGIN
...
END;
END-EXEC; -- note statement terminator

*** The keyword END-EXEC must be followed with the host-language statement
terminator.

Q. What are host variables?

A. You use host variables to pass values and status codes back and forth between
a host program and an embedded PL/SQL block. Both the host program and
the PL/SQL block can set and reference the value of a host variable.

The value of an input host variable is set by the host program and referenced
by ORACLE. Conversly, the value of an output host variable is set by
ORACLE and referenced by the host program.

You declare host variables in the program Declare Section using regular host
language syntax. Inside a PL/SQL block, the scope of host variable is global.

All references to host variables in a PL/SQL block must be prefixed with a colon.
That way, the precompiler can tell host variables from PL/SQL variables and
database objects.

*** When necessary, ORACLE converts between its internal datatypes and
standard host-language datatypes.

Q. What are indicator variables?

A. You can associate any host variable with an optional indicator variable. An indicator
variable is an integer variable that indicates the value or condition of a host
variable.

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3
You use indicator variables to assign nulls to input host variables and to detect nulls
or truncated values in output host variables.

For input host variables, the values your program can assign to an indicator variable
have the following meanings :
-1 ORACLE will ignore the value of the host variable and assign a null to
the database column.
>= 0 ORACLE will assign the value of the host variable to the database
column.

For output host variables, the values ORACLE can assign to an indicator variable
have the following meanings :
-1 The database column contains a null, so the vale of the host variable is
indeterminate.
0 ORACLE assigned an intact column value to the host variable
>0 ORACLE assigned a truncated column value to the host variable. The
integer returned by the indicator variable is the original length of the
column value.

An indicator variable must be defined in the Declare Section as a 2-byte integer and,
in SQL statements, must be pefixed with a colon and appended to its host variable.

A host language needs indicator variables because it cannot manipulate nulls. PL/SQL
meets this need by allowing an embedded PL/SQL block to accept nulls from the host
program and return nulls or truncated values to it. In the following Pro*C example, the
PL/SQL block uses an indicator variable to return a null status code to the host
program :-
EXEC SQL EXECUTE
BEGIN
SELECT ename, comm
INTO :emp_name, :commission:comm_ind
FROM emp
WHERE empno = :emp_number;
...
END;
END-EXEC;
commission_out = commission;
if comm_id = -1
/*if the value returned by an indicator variable is -1, the value of its output host
variable is null*/
printf("null");
else
printf("not null");

Inside a PL/SQL block, an indicator variable must be prefixed with a colon and
appended to its host variable.
You cannot refer to an indicator variable by itself. Furthermore, if you refer to a host
variable with its indicator variable, you must always refer to it that way in the same
block. In the next example, because the host variable appears with its indicator
variable in the SELECT statement, it must also appear that way in the IF statement :-
EXEC SQL EXECUTE
BEGIN
...
SELECT ename, job
INTO :ename_host, :job_host:job_ind
FROM emp
WHERE empno = :empno_host;
...
IF :job_host:job_ind IS NULL THEN
RAISE status_unknown;
END IF:
...
END;
END-EXEC;

Although you cannot refer directly to indicator variables inside a PL/SQL block,
PL/SQL checks their values upon entering the block and sets their values correctly
upon exiting the block.

Nulls
Upon entering a block, if an indicator variable has a value of -1, PL/SQL assigns
a null to the host variable. Upon exiting the block, if a host variable is null, PL/SQL
assigns a value of -1 to the indicator variable. In the following example, the exception
name_missing is raised if the indicator variable ename_ind had a vale of -1 before the
PL/SQL block was entered :-
EXEC SQL EXECUTE
BEGIN
...
IF :ename_host:ename_ind IS NULL THEN
RAISE name_missing;
END IF;
...
EXCEPTION
WHEN name_missing THEN
...
END;
END-EXEC;

Truncated Values
PL/SQL does not raise an exception when a truncated string value
is assigned to a host variable. However, if you use an indicator variable, PL/SQL sets

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5
 it to the original length of the string. In the following example, the host program will
be able to tell, by checking the value of ename_ind, if a truncated value was assigned
to ename_host :-
EXEC SQL EXECUTE
DECLARE
new_ename CHAR(10);
...
BEGIN
...
:ename_host:ename_ind := new_ename;
...
END;
END-EXEC;

Q. What is VARCHAR pseudotype?

A. You can use the VARCHAR pseudotype to declare variable-length character
strings.(A pseudotype is a datatype not native to your host language)
VARCHAR variables have a 2-byte length field followd by a <= 65533-byte
string field. for example, the Pro*C Precompiler expands the declaration
EXEC SQL BEGIN DECLARE SECTION
VARCHAR my_ename[10];
EXEC SQL END DECLARE SECTION;
into the following data structure :-
struct {
unsigned short len;
unsigned char arr[10];
} my_ename;

To get the length of a VARCHAR, simply refer to its length field. You need not use a
string function or character-counting algorithm.

ORACLE automatically sets the length of a VARCHAR output host variable.

However, to use a VARCHAR output host variable in your PL/SQL block, you must
initialize the length field before entering the PL/SQL block. So, set the length field to
the declared(maximum) length of the VARCHAR, as shown in the following Pro*C
example :-
EXEC SQL BEGIN DECLARE SECTION;
int my_empno;
VARCHAR my_ename[10]; /* declare variable-length string */
float my_sal;
...
EXEC SQL END DECLARE SECTION;
...
my_ename.len = 10; /* initialize length field */
EXEC SQL EXECUTE
 BEGIN
SELECT ename, sal INTO :my_ename, :my_sal
FROM emp
WHERE empno = :my_empno;
...
END;
END-EXEC;
...

Q. What is DECLARE TABLE statement?

A. If an embedded PL/SQL block refers to a database table that does not yet exist, the
precompiler generates an error. To avoid such errors, you can use the DECLARE
TABLE statement to tell the precompiler what the table will look like. In the
following Pro*C example, you declare the dept table :-
EXEC SQL DECLARE dept TABLE
(dept NUMBER(2),
dname CHAR(14),
loc CHAR(13));

If you use DECLARE TABLE to define a table that already exists, the precompiler
uses your definition, ignoring the one in the ORACLE data dictionary. Note that you
cannot use the DECLARE TABLE statement inside a PL/SQL block.

Q. What is SQLCHECK option?

A. The ORACLE Precompilers can help you debug a program by checking the syntax
and semantics of embedded SQL statements and PL/SQL blocks. You control the
level of checking by entering the SQLCHECK option inline or on the command
line. You can specify the following values for SQLCHECK :-
SEMANTICS
SYNTAX
NONE
However, if you embed PL/SQL blocks in your program, you must specify
SQLCHECK=SEMANTICS. When SQLCHECK=SEMANTICS, the precompiler
checks the syntax and semantics of SQL data manipulation statements, host variable
datatypes, and PL/SQL blocks.

The precompiler gets information needed for the semantic check by using embedded
DECLARE TABLE statements or, if you specify the USERID option on the command
line, by connecting to ORACLE and accessing the data dictionary. You need not
connect to ORACLE if every database table referenced in a SQL statement or PL/SQL
block is defined by a DECLARE TABLE statement.

Q. Explain the use of Host Arrays with PL/SQL Tables?

A. You can pass input host arrays and indicator arrays to a PL/SQL block. They can be
indexed by a PL/SQL variable of type BINARY_INTEGER or by a host variable
compatible with that type. Normally, the entire host array is passed to PL/SQL, but

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7
you can use the ARRAYLEN statement to specify a smaller array dimension.

Furthermore, you can use a procedure call to assign all the values in a host array to
rows in a PL/SQL table. Given that array subscript range is m..n, the corresponding
PL/SQL table index range is always 1..n-m+1. For example, if the array subscript
range is 5..10, the corresponding PL/SQL table index range is 1..(10-5+1) or 1..6

In the Pro*C example below, you pass a host array named salary to a PL/SQL block,
which uses the host array in a function call. The function's formal parameters include a
PL/SQL table named num_tab. The function call assigns all the values in the actual
parameter salary to rows in the formal parameter num_tab.

#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
/* Declare host array */
EXEC SQL BEGIN DECLARE SECTION;
...
float salary[100];
EXEC SQL END DECLARE SECTION;

/* Populate host array */

...
EXEC SQL EXECUTE
DECLARE
TYPE NumTabTyp IS TABLE OF REAL
INDEX BY BINARY_INTEGER;
mid_salary REAL;
n BINARY_INTEGER := 100;
FUNCTION median(num_tab NumTabTyp, n INTEGER)
RETURN REAL IS
BEGIN
-- compute median
END;
BEGIN
mid_salary := median(:salary, n); -- pass array
...
END;
END-EXEC;
...
}

You can also use a procedure call to assign all row values in a PL/SQL table to
corresponding elements in a host array.

Following table shows the legal conversions between row values in a PL/SQL table
 and elements in a host array.

HOST ARRAY
PL/SQL -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
TABLE | CHAR | DATE | LONG | LONG RAW | NUMBER | RAW | ROWID | VARCHAR2 |
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
CHAR | Yes |
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
DATE | Yes |
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
LONG | Yes Yes Yes Yes |
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
LONG | Yes Yes Yes Yes |
RAW | |
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
NUM. | Yes |
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
RAW | Yes Yes Yes Yes |
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ROWID | Yes |
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
VARC2 | Yes Yes Yes Yes |
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

*** The ORACLE Precompilers do not check your usage of host arrays. For
instance, no index range-checking is done.

Q. Explain ARRAYLEN statement?

A. Suppose you must pass an input host array to a PL/SQL block for processing.
By default, when binding such a host array, the ORACLE Precompilers use its
declared dimension. However, you might not want to process the entire array,
in which case you can use the ARRAYLEN statement to specify a smaller
dimension.
ARRAYLEN associates the host array with a host variable, which stores
the smaller dimension.

Let us repeat the last example, but use ARRAYLEN to override the default
dimension of host array :-
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
/* Declare host array */
EXEC SQL BEGIN DECLARE SECTION;
...
float salary[100];
int my_dim;
EXEC SQL ARRAYLEN salary (my_dim);
EXEC SQL END DECLARE SECTION;

/* Populate host array */

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9
 ...
/* Set smaller host array dimension */
my_dim = 25;

EXEC SQL EXECUTE

DECLARE
TYPE NumTabTyp IS TABLE OF REAL
INDEX BY BINARY_INTEGER;
mid_salary REAL;
n BINARY_INTEGER := 100;
FUNCTION median(num_tab NumTabTyp, n INTEGER)
RETURN REAL IS
BEGIN
-- compute median
END;
BEGIN
mid_salary := median(:salary, n); -- pass array
...
END;
END-EXEC;
...
}

Only 25 array elements are passed to the PL/SQL block because ARRAYLEN
downsizes the host array from 100 to 25 elements. As s result, when the PL/SQL
block is sent to ORACLE for execution, a much smaller host array is sent along.
This saves time and, in a networked environment, reduces network traffic.

The following Pro*C example shows how values are assigned to host array elements
and how individual array elements are referenced :

#include <stdio.h>
...
main()
{
/* Declare host and indicator arrays */
EXEC SQL BEGIN DECLARE SECTION;
float sal[100];
float comm[100];
short icomm[100];
int i =50;
EXEC SQL END DECLARE SECTION;

EXEC SQL EXECUTE

DECLARE
TYPE SalTabTyp IS TABLE OF emp.sal%TYPE
 INDEX BY BINARY_INTEGER;
TYPE CommTabTyp IS TABLE OF emp.comm%TYPE
INDEX BY BINARY_INTEGER;
sal_tab SaltabTyp;
comm_tab CommTabTyp;
j BINARY_INTEGER := 0;
...
BEGIN
/* Load salaries and commisions into PL/SQL tables */
FOR emprec IN (SELECT sal, comm FROM emp) LOOP
j := j + 1;
sal_tab(j) := emprec.sal;
comm_tab(j) := emprec.comm;
END LOOP;
/* Process the PL/SQL tables */
...
/* Assign row values to host arrays */
WHILE :i > 0 LOOP
:sal(:i) := sal_tab(:i);
/* if comm is assigned a null, icomm is assigned -1 */
:i := :i - 1;
END LOOP;
END;
END-EXEC;
...

Q. What is Dynamic SQL?

A. Unlike static SQL statements, dynamic SQL statements are not embedded in your
source program. Instead, they are stored in character strings input to (or built by)
the program at run time. For example, they might be entered interactively or read
from a file.

The ORACLE Precompilers treat a PL/SQL block like a single SQL statement.
So, like a SQL statement, a PL/SQL block can be stored in a string host variable
for processing by dynamic SQL commands.

However, you cannot use single-line comments in a PL/SQL block that will be
processed dynamically. Instead, use multiline comments.

Following methods show how PL/SQL is used with dynamic SQL :-

Mentod 1
If your PL/SQL block contains no host variables, you can use Method1 to
execte the PL/SQL string in the usual way. In the following Pro*C example, you
prompt the user for a PL/SQL block, store it in a string variable named user_block,
then execute it :-

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1
 main()
{
printf("\nEnter a PL/SQL block: ");
scanf("%s", user_block);
EXEC SQL EXECUTE IMMEDIATE :user_block;
...

When you store a PL/SQL block in a string host variable, omit the keywords EXEC
SQL EXECUTE, the keyword END-EXEC, and the statement terminator.

Method 2
If your PL/SQL block contains a known number of input and output host
variables, you can use dynamic SQL method 2 to PREPARE and EXECUTE the
PL/SQL string in the usual way. In the Pro*C example below, the PL/SQL block
uses one host variable named my_empno. The program prompts the user for a
PL/SQL block, stores it in a string host variable named user_block, then prepares
and executes the block :-
main()
{
printf("\nEnter a PL/SQL block: ");
scanf("%s", user_block);
EXEC SQL PREPARE my_block FROM :user_block;
EXEC SQL EXECUTE my_block USING :my_empno;
...

Note that my_block is an identifier used by the precompiler, not a host or program
variable.

*** The precompiler treats all PL/SQL host variables as input host variables
whether they serve as input or output host variables(or both) inside th PL/SQL
block. So, you must put all host variables in the USING clause.

When the PL/SQL string is EXECUTEd, host variables in the USING clause replace
corresponding placeholders in the PREPAREd string. Although the precompiler treats
all PL/SQL host variables as input host variables, values are assigned correctly. Input
(program) values as assigned to input host variables, and output(column) values are
assigned to output host variables.

Method 4
If your PL/SQL block contains an unknown number of input or output host
variables, you must use this method. To do so, you set up a bind descriptor for all the
input and output host variables. Executing the DESCRIBE BIND VARIABLES
statement stores information about input and output host variables in the bind
descriptor.

Q. How can you mimick dynamic SQL?

A. Without dynamic SQL, you cannot use PL/SQL variables in a query to specify
database columns. Consider the SELECT statement below, which does not assign a
value from the ename database column to the variable my_ename. If the emp table
has a column named colx, a value from that column is assigned to my_ename. If the
table has no such column, the value of PL/SQL variable colx(that is, the string value
'ename') is assigned to my_ename.
DECLARE
colx CHAR(10);
my_ename CHAR(10);
...
BEGIN
colx := 'ename';
SELECT colx INTO my_ename FROM emp WHERE ...
...
END;

However, you can mimic dynamic SQL by using the DECODE function. In the
following example, the data returned depends on the value of my_column :-
DECLARE
my_column CHAR(10);
my_data emp.ename%TYPE;
BEGIN
...
my_column := 'hiredate';
...
SELECT DECODE(my_column, 'ename', ename,
'hiredate', TO_CHAR(hiredate, 'ddmmyy'), 'empno', empno)
INTO my_data FROM emp WHERE ...;
END;

The value that DECODE returns is always forced to the datatype of the first result
expression. In this example, the first result expression is ename, which belongs to
type CHAR, so the returned value is forced to type CHAR. Thus, my_data is
correctly declared as emp.ename%TYPE.
You can use this technique in many environments. For example, it works in
SQL*Forms, SQL*Menu, and SQL*Plus.

Q. How are stored subprograms called from a host program?

A. To call a stored subprogram from a host program, you must use an anonymous
PL/SQL block. In the following example, you call the stand-alone procedure
create_dept :-
EXEC SQL EXECUTE
BEGIN
create_dept(:number, :name, :location);
END;
END-EXEC;

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3
Notice that the actual parameters number, name, and location are host variables.

In the next example, the procedure create_dept is part of a package named

emp_actions, so you must use dot notation to qualify the procedure call :-
EXEC SQL EXECUTE
BEGIN
emp_actions.create_dept(:number, :iname, :location);
END;
END-EXEC;

LANGUAGE ELEMENTS
Grammar, which knows how to control even kings.
 ERROR MESSAGES
We often discover what will do, by finding out what will not do.

Q. Explain PL/SQL error messages?

A. PL/SQL embeds object names, numbers & character strings in some error

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5
 messages. These embedded variables are represented by name, num & str
respectively. e.g., the error message listed as :-
PLS-0038: undefined column 'name' in subquery
might actually appear as :-
PLS-0038: undefined column 'AMPNO' in subquery

*** PL/SQL error messages start with word 'PLS'

CHAR vs VARCHAR2

Q. Explain the assignment of character values to a CHAR/VARCHAR2 variable?

A. CHAR Variable:-
When you assign a character value to a CHAR variable, if the
value is shorter than the declared length of the variable, PL/SQL blank-pads the
 value to the declared length. So, information about trailing blanks is lost.
e.g., consider the following declarations :-
name1 CHAR(10);
name2 CHAR(10);
after the assignments
name1 := 'Tom & '; -- note trailing blank
name2 := 'Jerry';
If the character value is longer than the declared length of the CHAR variable,
PL/SQL aborts the assignment and raises the predefined exception VALUE_ERROR.
PL/SQL neither truncates the value nor tries to trim the trailing blanks. e.g.,
consider the following declaration :-
ACRONYM char(4);
The following assignment raises VALUE_ERROR :-
ACRONYM := 'SPCA'; -- note trailing blank

VARCHAR2 Variable :-
When you assign a character value to a VARCHAR2
variable, if the value is shorter than the declared length of the variable, PL/SQL
neither blank-pads the value nor strips trailing blanks. Character values are
assigned intact, so no information is lost. If the character value is longer than the
declared length of the VARCHAR2 variable, PL/SQL aborts the assignment and
raises VALUE_ERROR. PL/SQL neither truncates the value nor tries to trim trailing
blanks.

Q. How does ORACLE compare character values?

A. You can use the relational operators to compare character values for equality or
inequality.
Comparisons are based on the collating sequence used for the database
character set.
One character value is greater than another if it follows it in the collating
sequence. e.g., the following IF condition is TRUE :-
name1 := 'COLES';
name2 := 'COLEMAN';
IF (name1 > name2) THEN ...

ANSI/ISO SQL requires that two character values being compared have equal
lengths.
Comparison of two CHAR Variables :-
If both values in comparison belong to type
CHAR, blank-padding semantics are used. That is, before comparing character
values of unequal length, PL/SQL blank-pads the shorter value to the length of the
longer value. e.g., consider the following declarations :-
name1 CHAR(4) := 'BELL';
name2 CHAR(6) := 'BELL'; -- note trailing blanks
the following IF condition is TRUE :-
IF (name1 = name2) THEN ...

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 Comparison of VARCHAR2 Variables or a CHAR and VARCHAR2 Variable :-
If either or both value in a comparison belong to type VARCHAR2, non-blank-
padding semantics are used. That is, when comparing character values of unequal
length, PL/SQL makes no adjustments and uses the exact lengths. e.g. consider the
following declarations :-
name1 VARCHAR2(10) := 'DOW';
name2 CHAR(10) := 'DOW '; -- note trailing blanks
the following IF condition is FALSE :-
IF (name1 = name2) THEN ...

Comparison of String Literals :-

All string literals belong to type CHAR.
So, if both values in a comparison are literals, blank-padding semantics are used.
If one value is literal, blank-padding are used only if the other value belongs to type
CHAR.

Q. Explain INSERTion of character values?

A. When you INSERT the values of a PL/SQL character variable into an ORACLE
database column, whether they are blank-padded or not depends on the column
type, not on the variable type.

INSERT into a CHAR database column :-

When you INSERT a character value into a CHAR database column, ORACLE
does not strip trailing blanks. If the value is shorter than the defined width of the
column, ORACLE blank-pads the value to the defined width. As a result,
information about trailing blanks is lost. if the character value is longer than the
defined width of the CHAR column, ORACLE generates an error and insert fails.
ORACLE neither truncates the value nor tries to trim trailing blanks.

INSERT into a VARCHAR2 database column :-

When you INSERT a character value into a VARCHAR2 database column, ORACLE
does not strip trailing blanks. If the value is shorter than the defined width of the
column, ORACLE does not blank-pad the value. Character values are stored intact, so
no information is lost. If the character value is longer than the defined width of the
VARCHAR2 column, ORACLE generates an error and the insert fails. ORACLE
neither truncates the value nor tries to trim trailing blanks.

*** The same rules apply when UPDATing.

Q. Explain SELECTion of character values?

A. When you SELECT values from an ORACLE database column into a PL/SQL
character variable, whether they are blank-padded or not depends on the variable
type, not on the column type.

SELECT from a CHAR variable :-

 When you SELECT a column value into a CHAR variable, if the value is shorter than
the declared length of the variable, ORACLE blank-pads the value to the declared
length. As a result, information about trailing blanks is lost. If the character value is
longer than the declared length of the CHAR variable, ORACLE truncates the value,
completes the assignment, then alerts PL/SQL to raise VALUE_ERROR.

SELECT from a VARCHAR2 variable :-

When you SELECT a column value into a VARCHAR2 variable, if the value is
shorter than the declared length of the variable, ORACLE neither blank-pads the value
nor strips trailing blanks. Character values are stored intact, so no information is lost.
If the character value is longer than the declared length of the VARCHAR2 variable,
ORACLE truncates the value, completes the assignment, then alerts PL/SQL to raise
VALUE_ERROR.

*** The same rules apply when FETCHing.

*** In a given execution environment, whether CHAR is equivalent to VARCHAR2 or

not is determined by a command or option that sets ORACLE Version 6 or
ORACLE7 compatibility. e.g.,
In the SQL*Plus environment, you issue the SET COMPATIBILIY command,
specifying the value V6 or V7(the default), as follows :-
SQL> SET COMPATIBILITY V6

In the ORACLE Precompiler environment, you specify the runtime option DBMS
on the command line as follows :-
... DBMS=V6 ...
The default value is NATIVE, which specifies the version of ORACLE resident on
your system, which must be version 6 or later.

*** When INSERTing character values, you can ensure that no trailing blanks
are stored by using the RTRIM function, which trims trailing blanks. e.g. :-
my_empno := 7471;
my_ename := 'LEE ' -- note trailing blanks;
...
INSERT INTO emp
VALUES (my_empno, RTRIM(my_ename, ...); -- inserts 'LEE'

Q. What is the WITH INTERFACE Clause?

A. This is used to define an interface between a packaged procedure and a 3rd
generation language(3GL) program. With SQL*Module, the interface allows
your 3GL program to call PL/SQL procedures stored in an ORACLE database.

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