Unit I: Introduction to Computer

Basic concepts:
Introduction:
The word "Computer" is derived from the Latin word "Computare" which means to calculate, here
calculate means to do mathematical operation.
We can define a computer as a device that operates upon the data. A data can be mark scored by a
student's or data collected by a government.

 What is computer?
A computer is an electronic device which get's input from the user processes it and gives output to
the user. A computer can stone large amount of data. The manipulation of that data is called data
processing. Computer process the raw data and gives meaningful information to the user.

Characteristics of Computer :

1. Automatic :
Computers are automatic machine which does not require human intervention, until the job is
finished. However computer being a machine can not start itself and cannot go out and find the own
problem. User's need to instruction the computers what to do.

2. Speed :
Computer can work very fast, due to it high speed. It can perform any calculation in a fraction of
seconds. The speed of computer can be measured in millisecond, microsecond, nanosecond and
picoseconds.

3. Accuracy :
Computers are very fast and accurate machine. A computer can perform any calculation with the
same accuracy. However errors may occur in computer but the errors are due in human rather than
computer. If the input data are incorrect than then the output or result produced by the computer will be
incorrect this is known as Garbage In Garbage Out (GIGO).

4. Diligence :
Unlike human beings computer are free from monotony, tiredness and lack of concentration. It can
work continuously for a long time without creating any errors. It can perform any task with the same speed
and accuracy as it has done in the first one.
5. Versatility :
Computer is a versatile machine. Versatility is one of the wonderful feature of a computer. A
computer is capable of performing any kind of task and can be reduce to a finite number of series.

6. Storage:
A computer contains a very large storage space. It can store a huge amount of data and information
which can be accessed when desired. There are two types of memory in a computer i.e. primary or main
memory and secondary memory. A primary memory can store small amount of data but a secondary
memory can store large amount of data. Example of primary memory are cache memory, RAM, ROM and
example of secondary memory are:- hard disk, CD-ROM, DVD-ROM, Magnetic tape etc.

Advantages and Drawbacks of computer:

Advantages of computer:
 Multitasking:
 Multitasking is one of the major advantages of computer. Person can perform multiple tasks,
multiple operations; calculate numerical problems within few seconds. Computer can perform trillion of
instructions per second.
 Speed:
Now computer is not just a calculating device. Now a day’s computer has very important role in
human life. One of the main advantages of computer is its incredible speed, which helps human to complete
their task in few seconds. All the operations can be performed very fast just because of its speed else wise it
takes a long time to perform the task.
 Cost/ Stores huge amount of data:
It is a low cost solution. Person can save huge data within a low budget. Centralized database of
storing information is the major advantage that can reduce cost.
 Accuracy:
One of the root advantage of computer is that can perform not only calculations but also with
accuracy.
 Data Security:
Protecting digital data is known as data security. Computer provides security from destructive
forces and from unwanted action from unauthorized users like cyber attack or access attack.

Disadvantages of computers:

 Virus and hacking attacks:

Virus is a worm and hacking is simply an unauthorized access over computer for some illicit purpose. Virus
is being transferred from email attachment, viewing an infected website advertisement, through removable
device like USB etc. once virus is transferred in host computer it can infect file, overwrite the file etc.
For example: Huge portion of internet was going down including Twitter, Netflix, Reddit and CNN in
October 2016 because the largest DDoS attack was launched on service provider DYN using IoT Botnet.
 Online Cyber Crimes:
Online cyber-crime means computer and network may have used in order to commit crime. Cyber stalking
and Identity theft are the points which comes under online cyber-crimes. For example: one may get the
access of the access to your shopping account like Amazon account now that person will be able to know
your personal details like debit card or credit card number which can be than misused.
 Reduction in employment opportunity:
Mainly past generation was not used of the computer or they have the knowledge of computer they faced a
big problem when computer came in field. As we have seen in banking sector senior bank employees faced
this problem when computer came to the banking sector.

Application of Computer:
Computers are used in every field that we know today. Computer is used in general purpose work to
tough task. Computer is used in offices, industries, medical field, education field, military and is also used
by scientists. Some of the application fields are defined below.
1. Computer in offices :
Computers in offices or generally used to prepare letters, reports, memorandum, advertisement,
publicity, contracts forms, notes etc. Even small offices and organizations have computers because of its
cheaper price. A computer in office can be used to store data or information and can also be used to prepare
any documents.

2. Computer in book publication :

Today each and every book publication uses computer to prepare softcopy of any book. The
designing and editing of any books are done by using computer. The task or data are stored in secondary
memory such as hard disk, floppy disk, CD-ROM and DVD-ROM. After each and every error is corrected
then the final copy is printed using printers.

3.Computer for Desktop publishing system :

 Now a day's all magazines, newspapers, book, comics etc. are produced by using computers. The
text is typed using word processing software. Today DTP software makes it easy to apply styles and layout.
Example of word processing software is Ms-Word.

4.Computer for data Analysis :

Computers are broadly used in data analysis. Special software can be used for data analysis e.g.
spreadsheet data are entered in the form of rows and columns. Each and every organization can do data
analysis to prepare daily sales, prepare annual profit. Government can also use data analysis software to
prepare annual budget.

5. Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) :

Computer's can be used in any industry to the purpose of production or engineering. E.g. of such
industry are: - Mechanical industry, automobile industry. Designers use CAD (Computer Aided Design) to
prepare design. The information is then available to the engineers and operator who manufacture the
products. Engineers and operators can also use computer for computer controlled manufacturing (CAM).

6. Computer in Graphics :
Computers can be used to draw graphics and picture, for which special purpose graphic software is
available. Computer can draw complicated drawings of multicolor in minutes. It can also draw three
dimensional pictorial views. Picture can be modified using graphic software. E.g. of graphic software are:
Coral draw, Paint package, Adobe Photoshop.

7. Computer in Communication :
For sending and receiving information computers are widely used today. Communication is carried
through wired or wireless medium. Information may be or text message or voice message. Different types
of hardware and software are used for communication. Different communication services such as e-mail,
chatting, online banking, PAN and satellite communication.

8. Computer in education :
Computer can be used in educational sector for teaching, computing and research. Computers are
used by the teachers to keep records of the students and computers are used by students for learning
purpose. Different packages of hardware and software are available for the student for learning purpose.
At the beginning every student starts from the basic package.
9. Computer in Medical Field :
Computers are used by doctors for diagnosis, getting information of patient's diseases, treatments,
drugs etc. They are also used in keeping patient information. Different type of medical equipments are are
also controlled by computer.

10. Computer in Military :

Computers are used by military to control different types of weapons and missiles. Today military
use computer to control pilot less planes.

History of computer:
Abacus:
a) Derived from Latin word ABAX.
b) ABAX is flat pieces of material covered with sand.
c) Created by Chinese about 3,000 years ago.
d) It consist of rectangular frame with number of rod's divided into two parts each consisting of number of
beads. By sliding these beads calculation was done.

Napier bone:
a) Invented by john Napier in 1617 A.D.
b) It is an instrument made of ten rods called Napier bones which have the multiplication table inscribed on
strip of bone.

Slide Ruler:
a) Invented by William Aughtred in 1620 A.D.
b) It consisted of two moveable graduated scales. These scale slides upon the other to perform any
calculation.
c) It was used to find product, division or quotient.

Blaise Pascal:
a) Discovered by French scientist Blaise Pascal in 1642 A.D and was also called pascaline.
b) Pascaline consisted of toothed wheels having digits 0 to 9.

Leibniz Calculating Machine:

a) It was invented by German Mathematician Gottfried Wilhem Von Leibniz in 1671 A.D.
b) In 1964 modification was done by stepped Reckoner using dials and cylinder.
c) It could do addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
d) It was the first machine to use binary number system.

Jacquards Loom:
a) Invented by silk weaver Joseph Marie Jacquard in 1801 A.D.
b) It used punched card as an input device.
c) Punch card was automatically fed through the loom in sequence.

Charles Babbage:
a) Charles Babbage was also called as father of modern computer.
b) He was professor of mathematics at Cambridge University and invented different
machine in 1823 A.D. and there after he invented analytical machine in 1833 A.D.
c) The different machine was able to computer tables of number.
d) Charles Babbage then discovered analytical and required Six Steam engine.
e) It was the first programmable mach
Lady Augusta ADA Lovelace:
a) Lady Augusta ADA Lovelace was the daughter of great poet Lord Baryon, and gave idea to uses binary
number to Charles Babbage’s Analytical Machine.
b) She was the first programmer in Computer history.

George Boole:
a) George Boole was an English mathematician and introduced Boolean algebra.

Tabulating Machine:
a) Invented by Dr. Herman Hollerich in 1887 A.D.
b) Used punch cards and could do automated calculation.
c) It could automatically read information that are punched onto the punch card.
d) At first it was called Calculating Machine Company and later called IBM (International Business
Machine)

Electro-Mechanical Era:

Mark-I:
a)Developed by Howard Aiken of Harvard University in 1937 A.D. and the machine was called as mark -I
b) If handle 23 decimal place numbers and words and could perform all four mathematical operation.
c) It was first electromechanical computer.
d) It was slow and required 3 to 5 seconds for multiplication and was fully automatic.

Atnasoft Berry Computer (ABC):

a) Invented by Vincent Atnasoft in 1937 A.D. and shortly called as ABC Computer.
b) It was the first electronic computer.

ENIAC (Electronic Numerical and Integrated Calculator):

a) Invented by John William Mauchly and Jeorge Persper Eckeret in 1946 A.D. and it is
also called as ENIAC.
b) It was the first general purpose computer and was used by military.
c) It used decimal number system and consisted of 18,000 vacuum tubes and 70,000 resistors.
d) It could do addition and multiplication in 200 microseconds and 2,000 microseconds respectively.
John Von Neumann:
a) Invented by John von Neumann in 1945 A.D.
b) It used stored program concept inside the computer.
c) It consisted of 4,000 vacuum tube and 10,000 crystal diodes.

Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC):

a) Invented by John Mauchly and J.P Eckert in 1951 A.D.
b) It was the first digital computer.
c) It was used by census bureau of U.S.A.

Generation of computer:

Generations of Computer:
The evolution of digital computer is often divided into generations. The development of computer
took place in five distinct phases known as computer generations. Each generation is characterized by
dramatic improvements over the previous generation. Evolution of modern computer is classified into five
generations based on their speed, capacity, reliability, technology used and programming language.

1st generation of Computer (1946-1954):

The first generation computer was developed during 1946-1958. They used vacuum tubes and
valves as the memory device. They were large in size, very slow in speed, had very low capacity but were
very expensive. They consumed a lot of power and produced a lot of heat. This made programming
extremely difficult and time consuming.

Characteristic of 1st generation computer:

a) They used vacuum tube as an electronic circuit and a magnetic drum as
primary memory.
b)They consumed lot of power and generated lot of heat.
c)They used machine level language for writing the programs which was tedious and
time consuming.
d)They have low level of accuracy and reliability.
e)Eg.ENIAC, EDSAC, UNIVAC – I, EDSAC etc.

2nd generation computer (1955-1964):

The second generation computer was developed during 1955-1964. They used transistors as the
electronic circuit. They were faster, more reliable, easier to operate, less expensive, smaller, required less
electricity than of the first generation computer. They used assembly level language and high level language
such as COBOL, ALGOL, FORTRAN etc.
Characteristics of 2nd generation computer:
a) They used transistors as CPU Component.
b) These computers used Magnetic Core as primary data storage and Magnetic Tape
as secondary data storage.
c)These computers were smaller, faster, more reliable and more accurate than those of first generation
computer.
d)They required less power and emitted less heat than vacuum tube.
e)Their operating speed was up to micro seconds.
f)They used Machine independent high level language such as ALGOL, COBOL, FORTRAN etc.
g)Eg: IBM-1620, IBM-1401, CDC-3600,LEO Mark-III, 400 series, NCR-300 etc.
3rd generation computer (1965-1974) :
The third generation computers were developed during 1965-1975. They used integrated circuit(IC)
as an electronic circuit. This new technology made the third generation computers more reliable,
smaller, faster, easier to operate, high capacity, less expensive than previous generation computer. Third
generation computer included the use of an operating system for automatic processing and multi
processing.
Characteristics of 3rd generation computer:
a)They used Integrated Circuit(IC) as an electronic circuit.
b)They used semiconductor device as a primary memory.
c)They had large storage capacity.
d)Their operating speed was improved to nano-seconds.
e)they were more reliable, much small in size, easier to operate and less expensive than previous generation
computer.
f)They included multi programming, batch an time-sharing operating system.
g)They extensively used high level programming language including Report Programming Generator(RPG)
and Pascal.
4th generation Computer (1975-1989):
The fourth generation computers were developed during 1975-1989. The present day
computers were included in this generation. They used microprocessor chip as an electronic circuit. The
first microprocessor was called Intel-400 and was developed by Intel Corporation of USA in 1971. In this
generation use of microprocessor made computers very fast, capable of high memory, small in size and less
expensive than previous generation computers. Data communication media was also developed in this
generation. Fourth generation computers used graphical devices and language interfaces to graphic system.

Characteristics of 4th generation computer:

a)These computers use microprocessor chip as an electronic circuit.
b)They used semiconductor for primary memory and magnetic device like floppy disk, hard disk and
magnetic tape for secondary memory.
c)Fourth generation computers are highly reliable and accurate.
d)Their operating speed has been increased to Pico-seconds.
e)Their size has been reduced to micro computers such as desktop and laptop computers.
f)They can understand many high level languages, and they are user friendly.
g)Eg:IBMPC, IBM-4341, Apple/Macintosh, DEC-10, SUPERBRAIN.

5th generation Computer (1989-Present):

The fifth generation computers were developed after 1990 and are still moving towards the
advanced technologies such as Artificial Intelligence, very high speed, parallel processing etc. Fifth
generation computers combined hardware and software to produce artificial intelligence. They are able to
process non-numerical information such as pictures, graphs and able to understand natural language.

Characteristics of 5th generation Computer:

a)BIO chip and ULSI are used as main component.
b)They have artificial intelligence.
c) They process non-numerical information such as pictures, graphs.
d)They use super conductor as main memory.
e)They are able to understand natural languages.

Elements of Computer System:

Input and Output:

Communication with the outside world takes place through the input and output elements of the
computer system. Data is input into a computer through external hardware devices like mice, keyboards,
touch screens and storage devices. Once data has been processed, it can be converted to a human-readable
format for output to devices like printers, displays, speakers or headphones. The computer can also convert
data to other output formats, such as electrical signals for controlling automated equipment.

Data processing Element:

The data processing element is made up of several units that perform data processing within the
CPU (central processing unit), which is often referred to as the brains of the computer. The CPU interprets
programming instructions and controls internal and external devices. One of the most important units within
the CPU is the ALU (arithmetic logic unit), which performs arithmetic and logical operations on data. Some
computers have a dedicated graphics processing unit (GPU) to support high-speed display of complex
visual images. The data processing also contains circuits and registers that track system states, such as the
program counter for the currently executing software.

Control Element:
The control element of the computer is responsible for movement of data between memory and the
CPU. This element coordinates the execution of program instructions with all the other elements of the
computer system by providing timing and control signals. The job of the control element is done by the
control unit (CU), which on most modern computers is part of the CPU. The control unit is often described
as the central nervous system of the computer.

Memory Element:
Computers use both internal and external memory when performing operations. Internal memory is
used to hold the software instructions and related data for programs that are currently executing. Internal
memory consists of RAM (random access memory), which is temporary because it retains data only while
power is applied. When the computer is turned off, the memory clears. Data which is not being used by the
computer is usually stored in external memory on devices like hard drives and flash drives.

Types of computer:
There are different types of computer which are classified according to their capabilities
and use i.e.

I) On the basis of work

II) On the basis of size
III) On the basis of model
IV) On the basis of brand
I) On the basis of work:-
A) Analog computer:
A computer that uses analog singles to display information is called analog computer. It is a
computational device in which the problem variables are represented as continuous varying physical
quantities such as temperature and pressure. Information is in continuous form and displayed in the
form of curves. It is used to measure continuous physical quantities like current flow, temperature,
heartbeat, blood pressure. Analog Computers are faster in operation. E.g. Speedometer, Thermometer,
pressure gauge

b) Digital Computer:
The Computer which is based on digits or numbers is known as digital computer. Digital
Computer is an electronic computing machine that uses binary digits 0 and 1 to represent all form of
information internally in digital form. Information is in discrete and is displayed in the form of text,
graphics and pictures.

c) Hybrid Computer:
A Computer that is used to understand binary as well as analog signals to display information is
called hybrid computer. It depends on the operating mode of computer. It can display information in
discrete and continuous form because its one part is dedicated for digital processing and next part for
analog processing.
2) On the basis of size:

a) Super computer :
Super Computer is the fastest most expensive and most powerful computer made to process
complex and scientific job. It consists of large memory with high computational speed of 400-1000
MIPS (Millions of Instruction Per Seconds) and is capable of handling 64-128 bit word. The machine
cycle is 4-2 nanoseconds. Multiple numbers of CPUs operate in parallel to make work faster. E.g.
CRAY-1, CRAY-X-MP, NEL-500.

Application of Super computer:

- Use to forecast the weather and global climate.
- Used in military and defense system.
- In automobiles, aircraft and space craft designing.
- In encrypting and decryption sensitive intelligence information.
- Nuclear Research.
b) Mainframe Computer:
Mainframe is the term originally referred to the cabinets containing central processing unit of a
very large computer. It is also a very powerful multi-user computer used in large business organization,
examination department, industries and defense to process data of complex nature. It can respond
several hundred requests very quickly. It uses several CPU for data processing. The machine can handle
word length of 30-64 bits have execution speed of 100-200 MIPS. It is a very large and expensive
computer. E.g. IBM 1401, IBM 4300 SEREIS, IC 2950/10.

Application of main frame computer:

- Government and Civilian
- Credit card processing
- Bank account management
- Marketing.
- Business data processing in large organization.
- Air traffic control
- Industrial design.

b) Mini Computer :
Mini Computer is a general purpose computer which is comparatively small and less expensive
then the main frame Computer. It is also a multi-user computer and supports more than dozen of people
at time. It has slower operating speed, small storage, limited hardware, lesser memory capacity as
compared to main frame computer. They have the memory of 64-256 MB. Access time of 75-100 nano-
seconds and can handle 16-32 bit word length. E.g. IBM-ASCI400, IBM/B60, HP-9000, PDP-II

Applications of Mini Computer:

- Schools and universities.
- Large business organization to process computer data.
- Scientific research.
- Engineering analysis.
-Industrial process monitoring.

c) Micro Computer:
It is the smallest general purpose processing system based on micro processing and system
based on microprocessor chip. It consists of CPU with a single chip which supports hard disk and
floppy disk. It is also called home PC or personal computer because it is a single user computer. The
peripheral devices used in micro computers are keyboard, magnetic disk, monitor, printer and modem
for internet connection. It supports many high level languages, multimedia, graphics and games.
E.g. Apple-1, IBM-5150

Application of Micro Computer:-

- General purpose calculation.
- Office automation.
- Business communication.
- Schools and homes.

3. On the basis of brand:

a) IBM PC:
The Computer developed by international business Machine Company is called IBM PC. The
Computer technology used in IBM-PC is designed by engineers of IBM Company. IBM Company was
established in 1924 A.D. and is one of the leading companies in today's markets of digital Computer.
IBM PCs are more reliable, durable and have better quality.

a) IBM Compatible:
IBM Compatible Computer are developed by other companies rather than IBM but using the
technology of IBM. They have same operational and functional characteristics of IBM PC. The
Software used in IBM is Compatible with IBM PC. So they are also known as duplicates of IBM PC.
These Computers are Cheaper than IBM PC. E.g. Compaq, NEC (Nippon Electronics)

b) Apple/Macintosh:
Apple Computers are developed by Apple Corporation established in 1970 A.D. in USA. The
architectural design of Apple Computer is different from IBM and IBM Compatible computers. The
software used in IBM Computer is not compatible with apple computers. They require different
software. Macintosh is mainly used in desktop publishing. Keyboard is the main peripheral device in
Macintosh Computer. They are costly than IBM and are available in different capacities cost, and size.

4. On the basis of model:

a) XT Computer (Extended Technology) :
The Computer which uses 8086 or 8088 processors and having operating speed of 4.77 MHz are
known as XT Computers. It is comparatively slower and less flexible than other models. It cannot
support GUI(Graphical User Interface) based programs and software.

b) AT Computer (Advanced Technology) :

The Computer which uses 80286, 80386, 80486, or 80586 microprocessors are known as AT
computers. At Computers are faster than XT Computer. Its processing speed and memory capacity is
also larger than XT Computers.

c) PS/ 2 Computer (Personal System-2):

PS/2 computers were developed of after 1990 A.D. by IBM Company. Most of the Computers
developed were laptop computers of PS/2 model. The models developed were faster and efficient than
AT Models.
 Unit-II: Computer Hardware

Central Processing Unit (CPU):

The main unit inside the computer is the  CPU. This unit is responsible for all events inside the
computer. It controls all internal and external devices, performs “Arithmetic and Logical operations”. The
operations a Microprocessor performs are called “instruction set” of this processor. The instruction set is
“hard wired” in the CPU and determines the machine language for the CPU. The more complicated the
instruction set is, the slower the CPU works. Processors differed from one another by the instruction set. If
the same program can run on two different computer brands they are said to be compatible. Programs
written for IBM compatible computers will not run on Apple computers because these two architectures are
not compatible.
The control Unit and the Arithmetic and Logic unit of a computer system are jointly known as the Central
Processing Unit (CPU). The CPU is the brain of any computer system. In a human body, all major decisions
are taken by the brain and the other parts of the body function as directed by the brain. Similarly, in a
computer system, all major calculations and comparisons are made inside the CPU and the CPU is also
responsible for activating and controlling the operations of other units of a computer system.

Components of CPU:
Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU):
The arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) of a computer system is the place where the actual
execution of the instructions takes place during the processing operations. All calculations are performed
and all comparisons (decisions) are made in the ALU. The data and instructions, stored in the primary
storage prior to processing are transferred as and when needed to the ALU where processing takes place.
No processing is done in the primary storage unit. Intermediate results generated in the ALU are
temporarily transferred back to the primary storage until needed at a later time. Data may thus move from
primary storage to ALU and back again as storage many times before the processing is over. After the
completion of processing, the final results which are stored in the storage unit are released to an output
device.
The arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) is the part where actual computations take place. It consists of
circuits that perform arithmetic operations (e.g. addition, subtraction, multiplication, division over data
received from memory and capable to compare numbers (less than, equal to, or greater than).
While performing these operations the ALU takes data from the temporary storage are inside the CPU
named registers. Registers are a group of cells used for memory addressing, data manipulation and
processing. Some of the registers are general purpose and some are reserved for certain functions. It is a
high-speed memory which holds only data from immediate processing and results of this processing. If
these results are not needed for the next instruction, they are sent back to the main memory and registers are
occupied by the new data used in the next instruction.
All activities in the computer system are composed of thousands of individual steps. These steps should
follow in some order in fixed intervals of time. These intervals are generated by the Clock Unit. Every
operation within the CPU takes place at the clock pulse. No operation, regardless of how simple, can be
performed in less time than transpires between ticks of this clock. But some operations required more than
one clock pulse. The faster the clock runs, the faster the computer performs. The clock rate is measured in
megahertz (Mhz) or Gigahertz (Ghz). Larger systems are even faster. In older systems the clock unit is
external to the microprocessor and resides on a separate chip. In most modern microprocessors the clock is
usually incorporated within the CPU.

Control Unit:
How the input device knows that it is time for it to feed data into the storage unit? How does the
ALU know what should be done with the data once it is received? And how is it that only the final results
are sent to the output devices and not the intermediate results? All this is possible because of the control
unit of the computer system. By selecting, interpreting, and seeing to the execution of the program
instructions, the control unit is able to maintain order and directs the operation of the entire system.
Although, it does not perform any actual processing on the data, the control unit acts as a central nervous
system for the other components of the computer. It manages and coordinates the entire computer system. It
obtains instructions from the program stored in main memory, interprets the instructions, and issues signals
that cause other units of the system to execute them.
The control unit directs and controls the activities of the internal and external devices. It
interprets the instructions fetched into the computer, determines what data, if any, are  needed, where it is
stored, where to store the results of the operation, and sends the control signals to the devices involved in
the execution of the instructions.

Register array:
A register is a very small amount of very fast memory that is built into the CPU (central
processing unit) in order to speed up its operations by providing quick access to commonly used values.
Registers are the top of the memory hierarchy and are the fastest way for the system to manipulate
data. Below them are several levels of cache memory, at least some of which is also built into the CPU and
some of which might be on other, dedicated chips. Cache memory is slower than registers but much more
abundant. Below the various levels of cache is the main memory, which is even slower but vastly more
abundant (e.g., hundreds of megabytes as compared with only 32 registers). But it, in turn, is still far faster
and much less capacious than storage devices and media (e.g., hard disk drives and CDROMs).
Most registers are implemented as an array of SRAM (static random access memory) cells.
SRAM is a type of RAM that is much faster and more reliable than the DRAM (dynamic random access
memory), which is used for main memory because of its lower cost and smaller space consumption. The
term static is employed because SRAM does not need to be electrically refreshed as does DRAM, although
it is still volatile (i.e., it needs to be connected to a power supply in order to retain its contents).
Registers are normally measured by the number of bits they can hold, for example, an 8-bit register
or a 32-bit register. The x86 (i.e., Intel-compatible) instruction set defines a set of eight 32-bit registers.
However, CPUs that implement this instruction set generally contain many more registers than just these
eight, including various specialized types. An instruction set is the aspects of computer architecture visible
to a programmer, including the native data types, instructions, registers, addressing modes, memory
architecture, interrupt and exception handling and external input/output.
Registers can also be classified into general purpose and special purpose types. The former serve as
temporary holding places for data that is being manipulated by the CPU. That is, they hold the inputs to the
arithmetic/logic circuitry and store the results produced by that circuitry.
Special purpose registers store internal CPU data, such as the  program counter (also
termed instruction pointer), stack pointer and status register. Program counters contain the address of the
next instruction to be executed. Instruction registers hold the instruction being executed by the CPU,
address registers hold memory addresses and are used to access memory, and data registers are used to store
integers.

Factors Affecting the Speed of CPU:

1. The materials the processor is made from. Different processors, like any product, are made using
different materials and different qualities of materials. There are 'good' quality materials and not-so-
good ones! The materials used in a processor will affect the reliability, speed and performance of that
processor. Importantly, the speed of the slowest component might slow right down an otherwise fast
CPU.
2. Clock speed. Another reason why different processors perform differently is clock speed. Every
computer has a 'clock'. This is a crystal that vibrates, generating 'pulses' that are used to control how
the different components of a computer system work together. If you have a 800Mhz machine, it
means the system clock is generating approximately 800 million pulses every second! The faster the
clock, the more fetch-decode-execute cycles the CPU can perform in a second, and (very broadly) the
faster your programs should go! (There are lots of other factors that may mean this is not the case,
however).
 3. Cores. A CPU traditionally had one 'core' but processors these days might be dual-core or quad-
core, for example. A core is actually a processor with its own cache. So a dual-core CPU has not one
but two processors. A quad core CPU has four processors. Two brains (or four brains) are better than
one! Each brain can be working on different parts of a program at the same time and so this speeds up
the overall CPU's performance.
4. Cache. Although CPUs fetch instructions from RAM, there is another place in can get instructions
from, called 'cache'. Cache is just like RAM but much faster to read from and write to compared to
RAM. The computer cleverly puts data into cache that it needs again and again. It is a lot quicker for
the CPU to get data from cache than RAM. The more cache a computer has, the better the CPU will
perform.
5. Word size. An important characteristic of a processor is its word size. This is the number of bits
that the CPU can work with in any one clock cycle. The more bits it can work with in one clock cycle,
the faster the computer will go. The early commercial computers like the Spectrum ZX were 8-bit
computers (in another words, the processor could work on 8 bits of data at a time). Things have moved
on since the early 1980s and you are likely to be using either a 32-bit computer or a 64-bit computer
now. No doubt we will all be buying 128-bit computers in the near future!

What is microprocessor?
The VLSI technology leads to the development of microprocessor which is generally known as
CPU. It consists of complicated circuit which is designed to perform mathematical and logical calculations.
Hence it became possible to build a complete computer with a microprocessor, a few additional storage and
other supporting devices.
A micro processor has a limited number of instructions that it understands. Each instruction involves
a series of logical operation that are performed to complete each task. The major microprocessor
manufacturing companies are: Intel, Motorola, IBM, AMD and Cyrix.

Types of processor architecture:

CISC technology(Complex Instruction Set Computing):

CISC technology combines the different instructions and each instruction has the ability to perform
several tasks. CSIC technology consists of 200-300 instructions. Instructions were of different lengths 8, 16,
32 bits. CISC technology has several draw backs such as time consuming, processor overheating and
complex instructions.
RISC technology(Reduced Instruction Set computing):
Due to several draw backs of CISC technology, RISC technology comes into existence. RISC
technology used smaller and several instructions which were much simpler than CICS instructions. Due to
smaller instructions RSIC technology required less transistors which resulted in less manufacturing cost and
cooler operating CPU or microprocessor. All instructions have fixed length i.e. 32 bits. This resulted in
faster CPU which saved more time.

VLIW architecture:
“Very Large Instruction Word” architecture consists of multiple ALUs in parallel. These architectures
have been designed to exploit the “Instruction Level Parallelism” in application. Programmers can break
their code such that each ALU can be loaded in parallel. The operation to be done on each ALU (in a given
cycle) forms the instruction word (for that cycle). It is completely up to the programmer to take care of
partitioning of the application across different ALUs. Also, it is programmer’s burden (and compiler’s
burden if the code is being written in high level language) to make sure that there is not interdependency
between the instructions with are part of “instruction word”. The processor does not have any hardware to
ascertain (and reschedule) the order of instructions (this is called static scheduling).
Primary memory:
It is also called the main memory or internal memory. RAM and ROM are called primary memory
storage area built into computer hardware. This memory consists of small integrated circuit (IC) either on
the motherboard or attached to the mother board of a computer. This memory allows CPU to store and
retrieve data very quickly. The rate of fetching data from the memory is 50 nanosecond per byte.

a) RAM (Random Access Memory): RAM is a volatile memory. It is also called temporary memory. It is
the most commonly used memory but it is a volatile memory because it's contents are lost after the
computer is shut down. So it needs regular power supply to hold its data and instructions. RAM chips are of
two types S-RAM and D-RAM.
 S-RAM
It stands for static - RAM. Static memory allows the current flow continue on its way. It alters the
path taken by the power using one of two possible courses of travel to mark the state being remembered.
 D-RAM
It stands for dynamic-RAM. Dynamic RAM uses external circuit to periodically regenerate or
refresh the stored charge to retain the stored data. It does not retain information for very long time. PCs
periodically refresh memory automatically. During the refresh period the memory is not available for
normal operation.

b) ROM (Read Only Memory): It stands for read only memory. ROM is a computer memory on which
data are prerecorded. The programming code or data on a ROM chip is written by manufacturer during the
manufacturing time which cannot be erased or removed by the user. It is permanent in nature. ROM retains
its data even when the computer is turned off whereas RAM doses not retain data when the computer is
turned off. ROM chips are used in all kind of electronic devices from calculation to video games.
Most PCs have a small amount of ROM that stores code that starts off or boots the computer. Early
computers also use ROM to store basic input, output system which acts as a translator between PCs
hardware and the operating system.

Types of ROM:

I) Programmable ROM: It is a programmable ROM but not only once. Once the program is written in the
PROM it cannot be erased but can only be read. P-ROMs are programmed to record information using a
special device known as P-ROM programmer. The information recorded in the P-ROM can only be read but
can't be changed.

II) Erasable Programmable-ROM: EP-ROM is a special kind of chip that can be reprogrammed to store
the new information. Its information is stored as electric charges deposited on a chip and EP-ROM can be
erased by removing it from the circuit. It can then be reprogrammed by using EP burner. There are two
types of EP-ROM. i.e. EEP-ROM and UVEP-ROM.

a) Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM: It is a kind of EP-ROM chip which doesn't have to be
removed and send back to the company and manufacturer for re-programming. It can be electrically re-
programmed while in circuit by using special software.

b) Ultra-Violent Erasable Programmable ROM: It is a kind of EP-ROM in which the stored information
is erased by exposing the chip to the ultra-Violet light.
Cache Memory:
Cache memory contains a copy of main memory data when the processor requests for data. It is
used to reduce the average access time for instructions or data which are normally stored in the main
memory.
 Main Memory

Cache Memory

Processor

Cache memory is placed at two three labels that is L1, L2, and L3. The first level is called primary
cache memory or level 1 cache. L1 is placed in the microprocessor chip. It is smaller than level 2 cache and
uses the high speeds-RAM. L2 is included on separate printed circuit board. It has higher capacity than L1.
L3 cache is available in some modern computers only.

Basic L1 L2 L3

Speed Highest Medium Lowest

Storage Capacity Smallest Medium Highest

Secondary Memory:
Primary memory is of limited capacity and volatile in nature. So to overcome this limitation
secondary storage devices are used. Secondary memory is non-volatile in nature and has larger storage
capacity. It is used to store large volume of data on permanent basis that can be further used. E.g. magnetic
disk (hard-disk, magnetic tape) and optical disk(CD-ROM,DVD-ROM,CD-RW,BRD)

Hard disk:
It is an online magnetic storage device. It is permanently connected to the computer system.
When the computer is on, hard disk is always available to store or give information. It is a permanent
secondary storage device. Hard disk can store all types of information such as operating system, text, audio,
video, graphical images and animation.
Hard disk is made up of collection of disk known as platters. These platters are made up of
aluminum with thin coating of magnetic material known as ferric oxide (iron). Each Platter has two read
and write heads and is connected with the help of arm. A hard disk drive rotates at the speed of 2400-7200
rpm (revolution per minute). Each sector of hard disk con store 128-2048 bytes of information. Each
platters surface may contain 400-800 tracks which are divided into 26 sectors. Each platter stores 360000
bytes to 10000000 bytes of information. Thus different sizes of hard disk are available in the market that is
2 GB-500 GB or even in Tera bytes.

Magnetic tape:
Magnetic tape is one of most popular storage device which is used for large volume of data. The data
are accessed and processed sequentially. A magnetic tape is a plastic ribbon usually 1/2 inch width and 50-
2400 feet long. The ribbon is coated with magnetic material such as iron oxide or chromium dioxide. Data
are recorded in the tape in the forms of tiny magnetized and non-magnetized spots. The ribbon is enclosed
in a plastic jacket known as cartridge or cassette. The data in the magnetic tape can be erased and can be re-
recorded in the same area. The magnetic tape is divided into horizontal rows called tracks and vertical
columns known as frames.
There are 7-9 tracks in magnetic tape depending upon the width of the tape. A parity bit is set in
every magnetic tape to check the errors during input and output operations. Every magnetic tape has starting
and end point marked on it when the number of data increase and inter record gap is created between these
data. Inter recording gap are created automatically when the data is written on the tape. The storage capacity
of the tape depends on its length and its data recording density. The data recording density is the amount of
data that can be stored on given length of tape which is measured in BPI (Bytes Per Inch).

Advantages:
I) it can store large volume of data and instructions, and is cheaper than other mass storage devices.
II) It can be re-used many times.
III) Large volume of data can be stored in small storage space.
IV) Magnetic tape is light in weight and is easy to handle and store.
V) Magnetic tape is a portable storage device.

Limitations of magnetic tape:

I) Magnetic tapes are sequential access devices so they are not suitable for random data access.
II) They are sensitive to dust, smoke, magnetic field and excessive heat.
III) They are slower as compared to other mass storage devices.

Optical Storage devices :

Optical storage device are new type of secondary storage devices as compared to magnetic
storage devices. These types of devices are used for backup purpose and transfer of data from one computer
to another. Optical storage devices use laser beam to read and write data or information on the disk. Optical
storage devices are also called laser disk or optical laser disk. Data are stored randomly on the disk. An
optical disk consists of concentric circles known as track which are again divided into equal parts known as
sectors. Data are written on the disk in these sectors. Data are written on the disk in the form of 0 and 1 i.e.
on and off called as pits. The greatest drawback of optical disk is large access time as compared to magnetic
disk. They are cheaper than magnetic storage devices. E.g. CD-ROM, CD-RW, DVD-ROM.

I) CD-ROM: CD- ROM stands for Compact Disk Read only Memory. It is a write once read many times
type of disk. The user can write on CD-ROM once only. It uses laser beam to read and write data on the
disk. The data is written in the forms of 0 and 1. It consists of concentric circles known as track which are
again divided into equal parts known as sectors. The storage capacity of CD-ROM is 700 MB.

ii) CD-RW: It stands for Compact Disk Rewritable. It is a similar to CD-ROM but in CD-RW we can write
data more than once. So it is multiple times writeable and multiple times readable type of disk. Laser beam
is used to read and write data on the disk. A disk written once can be erased by changing the chemical
properties of the disk. The storage capacity of CD-RW is 700 MB.

iii) DVD-ROM: It stands for Digital Versatile Disk Read Only Memory. It has higher storage capacity as
compared to CDs because they use laser beam of shorter wave length to read and write data on the disk. The
bottom layer of DVD is made of polycarbonate plastic which forms the base of DVD. The next layer is
known to be data writing area in which data is written in the form of pits. The storage capacity of DVD-
ROM is 4.7 to 20 GB ranging from single layered to double layered.

Magneto-optical storage device:

A magneto-optical disk is a rewritable disk that makes use of both magnetic disk and optical
technologies. It is similar to a magnetic diskette except for its larger size. Magneto-optical disks are seldom
manufactured and used due to the advent of flash drives and DVD/CD drives, which are less expensive and
have better writing time and reliability. Magneto-optical disks are also known as magneto-optical drives and
MO drives. One of the most well-known examples of a magneto-optical disk is the Sony MiniDisc.The
magneto-optical disk has the following features:
 It is capable of having high data intensity by means of a magnetic read/write head and a laser.
 Like diskettes, the magneto-optical disk allows multiple rewrites.
 The driver for a magneto-optical disk can verify the information written to the disk and will report
any errors to the operating system. This often results in faster reading but slower writing, although
it helps make data storage more reliable.
 The magneto-optical disk is a special removable disk.
  The design of the drive allows the inserted disk to be exposed to the magnetic head on one side and
to the laser on the other side.
 Its writing speed is faster than that of diskettes, but is slower than that of CD/DVD drives.
 Convenience and reliability are much better than those of diskettes, along with high data capacity.

Flash memory:
Flash memory is a non-volatile memory chip used for storage and for transferring data between a
personal computer (PC) and digital devices. It has the ability to be electronically reprogrammed and erased.
It is often found in USB flash drives, MP3 players, digital cameras and solid-state drives.
Flash memory is a type of electronically erasable programmable read only memory (EEPROM), but
may also be a standalone memory storage device such as a USB drives. EEPROM is a type of data memory
device using an electronic device to erase or write digital data. Flash memory is a distinct type of
EEPROM, which is programmed and erased in large blocks.
Flash memory incorporates the use of floating-gate transistors to store data. Floating-gate transistors, or
floating gate MOSFET (FGMOS), is similar to MOSFET, which is a transistor used for amplifying or
switching electronic signals. Floating-gate transistors are electrically isolated and use a floating node in
direct current (DC). Flash memory is similar to the standard MOFSET, except the transistor has two gates
instead of one.
Flash memory was first introduced in 1980 and developed by Dr. Fujio Masuoka, an inventor and
mid level factory manager at Toshiba Corporation (TOSBF). Flash memory was named after its capability
to erase a block of data “in a flash”. Dr. Masuoka’s objective was to create a memory chip preserving data
when the power was turned off.
Flash memory has many features. It is a lot less expensive than EEPROM and does not require
batteries for solid-state storage such as static RAM (SRAM). It is non-volatile, has a very fast access time
and has a higher resistance to kinetic shock compared to a hard disc drive. Flash memory is extremely
durable and can withstand intense pressure or extreme temperatures. It can be used for a wide array of
applications such as digital cameras, mobile phones, laptop computers, PDAs (personal digital assistants),
digital audio players and solid-state drives (SSDs).

Input technology:
The devices that are used to input data to the computer are called input devices. The input devices of
computer are keyboard, mouse, scanner, touch pad, joystick, track ball etc. The computer consists of I/O
system. The system included two basic components i.e. input/output module and another one is input/output
peripheral. The data entry station or devices are termed as input unit.
1. Keyboard: A keyboard is a standard input device. It is a data entry platform of computer. The layout
of keyboard is like of traditional QWERTY typewriter but some extra command and function key are
provided for internet, multimedia, operating system and software operation. It has a small processor
attached to visual display unit. The processor checks for the accuracy of data at the time of entry. When
a key is pressed electric signal is generated which determines which key was pressed. This process is
known as encoding.

Types of keyboard :-
- XT-(Extended technology) -83 key
- AT- (Advanced technology) -101key
- Enhanced technology - 103 key
- Multimedia keyboard - above 111key

2. Mouse :
Mouse is a point and click input device with two or three buttons. The first mouse was built in 1968
A.D. Apple built the first single button mouse in 1982 for graphical user interface of his products. There are
many technology applied in designing of mouse. The optical mouse is based on laser technology. Scroll
wheel of a mouse provides the facilities to scroll page upward and downward direction.

Types of mouse:
 There are three types of mouse: Trackball mouse, Optical mouse and wireless optical mouse.

1. Trackball mouse: are old technology mouse that has mechanical movement of ball
inside. That ball moves along the movement of mouse. Cons: Dust can easily block the
mechanical movement of mouse inside ball
2. Optical mouse: Optical mouse are the mouse having infrared sensitivity technology these
mouse are being used these days. Its pros are no dust can enter and block the movement of
mouse like trackball mouse if dust gone inside ball will block the ball. Cons: some mouse's
have sensitivity issues using in some crippled surface.
3. Wireless optical mouse: This mouse comes with Bluetooth technology that can be used
long range having no issues of wire tangle. It is the same infrared sensitivity technology used
in this too that is in optical mouse. Only the difference is it is wireless. Pros: Can use the
mouse in distant without having wire tangling issues. Cons: same as said in second option
crippled surface infrared sensitivity issue.

3. Scanner: It is a input device which is used to enter picture, graphic and other documents in computer and
allow saving in different format. It has two main components.
a. Data capturing sub system: It is used to illustrate image and convert into optical form.
b. Image processing subsystem: It is used to convert optical image into digital form.

Types of Scanner:
 Flatbed Scanner or Desktop Scanner: It is the most versatile and commonly used scanner. In fact
this article will focus on the technology as it relates to flat bed scanner. In flat bed scanner the page
to be scanned is placed over a glass plate. The light source is kept below the glass plate which
moves from left to right horizontally. The entire page is divided into number of scan lines. The
scanner senses each line one by one.

 Hand held Scanner: Hand held Scanner has a set of light emitting diodes encased in a small case
that can be held in our hand easily. To scan a document the scanner is dragged slowly over it from
its one end to another end.

4. Joystick:
It is a pointing device which is used to move the cursor on the screen. It is a input device which
consists of spherical ball at the upper and lower end. The lower spherical ball moves in a socket i.e. left,
right, forward, backward direction. The electronic circuit inside the joystick measures the displacement of
the joystick from the central position. A joystick consists of number of buttons in the upper spherical ball
which is used to execute several commands. Today joysticks are used to play games in computer. A joystick
uses phesio electric sensor to detect several commands when executed.

5. Touch panel or touch Screen:

The touch screen is a modern and advanced technology applied to computer, watches, cameras and
smart phones etc. It is screen which is touch sensitive which executes commands when touched by finger
tip. There are 3 types of touch sensitive screen.
 Capacitive Screen: A capacitive screen is made from capacitors. When screen is touched with
finger, capacitors generate sense in the form of charge to the computer.

 Infrared Screen: An infrared screen is made from light emitting diodes. When is touch the emitted
beam of light is interrupted, which senses the position of finger on the screen.

 Pressure sensitive screen: A pressure sensitive screen works on the theory of pressure. When the
screen is touched with the finger tip the pressure sensitive screen detects the pressure of the finger
at the particular screen position.
6. Light Pen:
A light pen is a light-sensitive computer input device, basically a stylus, that is used to select text,
draw pictures and interact with user interface elements on a computer screen or monitor. The light pen
works well with CRT monitors because of the way such monitors scan the screen, which is one pixel at a
time, giving the computer a way to keep track of the expected scanning time by the electron beam and infer
the pen's position based on the latest timestamp of the scanning.
The light pen works by detecting the change in brightness of nearby pixels, which indicates that the CRT's
electron beam is scanning in that area; it then sends the timing of this event to the computer, which then
compares this information to the timestamp of the last scan by the electron beam, allowing the computer to
infer the precise location of the pen.

7. Stylus:
In computing, a stylus is an instrument shaped like a pen, designed to be used with graphics
tablets or devices that use touch screen input. It is used to write or draw on a screen, similar to how you
would on a sheet of paper. Unlike a pen, styluses have a plastic or felt tip depending on its purpose and
functionality.
Originally, the stylus was not commonly found or used with devices other than graphics
tablets and PDAs. However, with the rising popularity of touch screens on mobile devices, many
individuals like to use a stylus as a replacement for their finger. The reasoning varies, but it's usually for
more accurate navigation and keeps oils from their fingers from getting on the device's screen.
A stylus can come in one of two forms: passive (also known as a  capacitive stylus) or active (also
known as an active stylus or active pen). A passive stylus is not different than using your finger as far as the
device is concerned. An active stylus (such as the one used with the Microsoft Surface) has an electronic
component that interfaces with the device's touch screen controller. They have a few distinct advantages:
more accurate and finer lines, different levels of pressure sensitivity, and the ability to ignore input from
your hand resting on the screen. The last feature is referred to as palm rejection. 

8. Microphone:
A microphone is a device that captures audio by converting sound waves into an electrical signal.
This signal can be amplified as an analog signal or may be converted to a digital signal, which can be
processed by a computer or other digital audio device.

While all microphones (or "mics") serve the same basic function, they can capture audio in several different
ways. Therefore, multiple classes of microphones exist. The three most common types are described below.

1.Dynamic - Dynamic microphones are the most widely used microphones. They have a simple
design that includes a magnet wrapped by a metal coil. A thin sheet called a diaphragm is placed on the
front end of the magnet and transmits vibrations from sound waves to the coil. The coil then transfers
these vibrations to electrical wires that transmit the sound as an electrical signal. Since dynamic
microphones use a simple design, they are typically very durable and do not require electrical power.
2. Condenser - Condenser microphones are commonly used for audio recording purposes. They
are known for their sensitivity and flat frequency response. Each condenser microphone includes a
front plate (the diaphragm) and a back plate that is parallel to the front plate. When sound waves hit the
diaphragm, it vibrates and alters the distance between the two plates. This change is transmitted as an
electrical signal. Unlike dynamic microphones, condensers require electrical power. This current may
be provided by an internal battery, but is most often provided as 48 volt "phantom power" from an
external preamp or mixing console.
3. Ribbon - Ribbon microphones are also known for their high fidelity. They contain a thin ribbon
made of a aluminum, duraluminum, or nanofilm, which is suspended in a magnetic field. Incoming
sound waves make the ribbon vibrate, generating voltage proportional to the velocity of the vibration.
This voltage is transmitted as an electrical signal. While early ribbon microphones required a
transformer to increase the output voltage, modern ribbon mics have improved magnets that provide a
stronger signal – in some cases even stronger than dynamic microphones. Though ribbon mics have
been largely replaced by condensers, several models are still manufactured and used today.
 Not only do microphones come in several different classes, they also use several types of directional
patterns to capture audio. Some microphones are designed with a single "polar pattern," while others have
switches that allow you to select the appropriate pattern for a specific recording purpose. Some of the most
common patterns include:

1. Cardioid - a heart or bean-shaped pattern that captures audio from one direction; commonly
used for recording vocals or a single instrument.
2. Bidirectional - a figure 8 pattern that captures audio from two separate directions; may be used
for recoding audio from two different sources or to capture reverb.
3. Omni directional - a circular pattern that captures audio from all directions; often used to
capture groups of vocalists or ambient sounds.

Output technology:
The devices from which data are displayed or printed or showed are called output devices.
The VDU (Video Display Unit) or monitor and printer are common output units.

Categories of Output devices

I) Soft copy output: The soft-copy output is not produced on a paper or some material that can be touched
and carried for being shown to other. They are temporary in nature. The output produced by monitor is soft
copy output when the electricity goes off the output is also invisible to the user.

II) Hard copy output: A hard copy output is produced on a paper or some material that can be touched and
can be carried for being shown to other. They are permanent in nature. Output produced by printer or plotter
are hard copy output.

Monitor:
Monitor is similar to television screen which is used to display data and instructions entered
through input devices. The output devices are the medium through which data and instructions stored in the
memory in the form of binary codes are decoded which can be understood by the user easily. There are two
types of monitor.
i) CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) Monitor: CRT monitors work much like television screen and are used
with personal computer. It displays the data and information received from computer memory. It can
display alphanumeric characters and graphs. An electron beam is produced by electron gun located at the
back portion directed towards the front of the CRT screen. A coating of phosphor material is made on
the inner surface of the screen. The phosphor emits light when it is struck by the electron beam on the
screen This cause the visibility of the character or graph.

ii) LCD Monitor: It stands for liquid crystal display. It is more economic, lighter in weight, not bulky but
its cost increase just screen size increased by one inch. It uses low voltage and consumes less power. The
user should sit just in front to the monitor; if he sits with angle the contents cannot be visible. The
material that behaves like both liquid and solid is called liquid crystal which is placed between horizontal
and vertical electrodes. It is widely used in laptop computers, digital watches, and digital clocks.

Speaker:
Speakers are one of the most common output devices used with computer systems. Some speakers
are designed to work specifically with computers, while others can be hooked up to any type of sound
system. Regardless of their design, the purpose of speakers is to produce audio output that can be heard by
the listener.
Speakers are transducers that convert electromagnetic waves into sound waves. The speakers receive
audio input from a device such as a computer or an audio receiver. This input may be either
in analog or digital form. Analog speakers simply amplify the analog electromagnetic waves into sound
waves. Since sound waves are produced in analog form, digital speakers must first convert the digital input
to an analog signal, then generate the sound waves.

The sound produced by speakers is defined by frequency and amplitude. The frequency determines
how high or low the pitch of the sound is. For example, a soprano singer's voice produces high frequency
sound waves, while a bass guitar or kick drum generates sounds in the low frequency range. A speaker
system's ability to accurately reproduce sound frequencies is a good indicator of how clear the audio will
be. Many speakers include multiple speaker cones for different frequency ranges, which helps produce
more accurate sounds for each range. Two-way speakers typically have a tweeter and a mid-range speaker,
while three-way speakers have a tweeter, mid-range speaker, and subwoofer.

Amplitude, or loudness, is determined by the change in air pressure created by the speakers' sound
waves. Therefore, when you crank up your speakers, you are actually increasing the air pressure of the
sound waves they produce. Since the signal produced by some audio sources is not very high (like a
computer's sound card), it may need to be amplified by the speakers. Therefore, most external computer
speakers are amplified, meaning they use electricity to amplify the signal. Speakers that can amplify the
sound input are often called active speakers. You can usually tell if a speaker is active if it has a volume
control or can be plugged into an electrical outlet. Speakers that don't have any internal amplification are
called passive speakers. Since these speakers don't amplify the audio signal, they require a high level of
audio input, which may be produced by an audio amplifier.

Speakers typically come in pairs, which allows them to produce stereo sound. This means the left
and right speakers transmit audio on two completely separate channels. By using two speakers, music
sounds much more natural since our ears are used to hearing sounds from the left and right at the same time.
Surround systems may include four to seven speakers (plus a subwoofer), which creates an even more
realistic experience.

Printer:
Printer is an output device used to produce hard copy output. The prize of printer depends on output
quality, speed and printing technology employed. The printer is divided into two broad categories.
I) Impact Printer: Impact printer use electro-mechanical mechanism that causes hammer or pin to strike
against a ribbon paper to print the text. Impact printers are also known noisy printers because they produce
lot of sound while printing. E.g. Dot-Matrix Printer, Daisy wheel Printer, Drum Printer.

II) Non Impact printer: Non-Impact printers do not use electro-mechanical printing head to strike against
ribbon and paper. They use thermal, chemical, electro-static laser beam or ink-jet technology for printing
the text. Non-impact printers are faster than impact printers. They do not produce sound while printing. E.g.
Ink jet Printers, laser-printers.

Dot matrix Printer:

It is slow, noisy printer which heads contains matrix of pins. The number of pins denotes the quality
of output. In the market 7,9,14 and 18 or even 24 pins head printer is available. This type of printer
produces character by striking pins against paper and inked ribbon to print closely spaced dots in the
appropriate shapes. Dot-Matrix printers are relatively expensive and do not produce high quality output as
compared to other printers. The speed of printing is 50-500 CPS.

Inkjet Printers:
Inkjet printers are character printers but also prints all kind of images by spraying small drops of ink
on a paper. The print head of an inkjet printer contains up to 64 tiny nozzles that can be heated selectively
by an integrated circuit resistor. To print a character the printer heats the appropriate set of nozzles as the
print head moves horizontally.

Drum Printers:
Drum printers are the line printers that print the entire line of characters at a time. It consists of solid
cylindrical drum with characters embossed on its surface in the form of circular bands. Each bit consists of
all printing characters supported by the printer in its character set. Total number of bands is equal to the
maximum number of character that can be printed on the line. A drum printer consists of hammers and
inked ribbon in front of the cylindrical drum. The paper is placed in between the cylindrical drum and the
inked ribbon which is stroked by the hammer to print a character in a line. Printing speed of drum printer in
the range of 300-2000 lines per minute.

Laser Printers:
It is non-impact printer with high resolution and can print entire page at a time. It can print 100-
2000 characters per second or 15000 lines per minute. Generally speed is measured in PPM (Pages Per
Minute). It prints 8 to 10 pages per minute. The pages or paper passed from electrically charged wire that
stimulates a positive and negative charge depending on its tonal variation. The negatively charge region of
paper remains white while positively charged attract carbon particles from toner and become permanent
black in the form of text or graph.

Plotter:
Plotters are non-impact printers which are used produced high quality graphics and drawing under
computer control. They use ink pen to draw drawings or graphics. Single color or multi color pens can be
used for drawing. A graph plotter takes much less time to draw anything as compared with traditional
method of producing drawings. A complex drawing which can take about a month by traditional hand
method can be produced in less than an hour using plotter.
 Unit-III: Computer Software
Definition:
Software is a set of instructions, data or programs used to operate computers and execute
specific tasks. Opposite of hardware, which describes the physical aspects of a computer, software is a
generic term used to refer to applications, scripts and programs that run on a device. Software can be
thought of as the variable part of a computer, and hardware the invariable part.
Software is often divided into categories. Application software refers to user-downloaded programs
that fulfill a want or need. Examples of applications include office suites, database programs, web browsers,
word processors, software development tools, image editors and communication platforms.
System software includes operating systems and any program that supports application software.
The term middleware is sometimes used to describe programming that mediates between application and
system software, or between two different kinds of application software. For example, middleware could be
used to send a remote work request from an application in a computer that has one kind of operating
system, to an application in a computer with a different operating system.
An additional category of software is the utilities, which are small, useful programs with limited
capabilities. Some utilities come with operating systems. Like applications, utilities tend to be separately
installable and capable of being used independently from the rest of the operating system.

Software Classification:
A software package is a group of programs that solves specific problems or performs specific type
of job. E.g. a word processing package may contain program for text editing, text formatting, drawing
graphics, spelling checks etc. Similarly we have other software package for different purpose i.e.
PowerPoint is used to design slides for presentation. For drawing and painting we use Ms-Paint.

Types of Software:
There are different types of software used in computer according to the manufacturer and according
to the user. Although the range of software available today is very vast and varied. The software can be
divided into two major categories.
I) System software.
II) Application Software.

System Software:
System software is a collection of programs that is designed to operate and control the actual
operation of computer system. The system software helps to run application software. An operating system
of a computer system perform task such as controlling all the operation, moving data into and out of the
computer and executing the application software.

Features of system software :

I) Running of other programs.
II) Supports development and execution of application software.
III) Controls all the peripheral devices attached to the computers.
IV) Maintains several other hardware resources.

Operating System:
Operating system software is a combination of special programs that is used to manage the resources
and overall operation of the computer. It acts as a mediator between the hardware and application programs.
It makes computer easy to use and operate. Operating system hides the details of hardware from user and
provides them with a convenient interface for using computer. An operating system acts as a mediator
between hardware and user, providing a high level interface to low level hardware resources and makes
easier for operating programs and other users. An operating system controls all the resources of the
computer by keeping track of who is using what resources, granting resources request, managing conflicts
about the request from different programs and user.
 An OS allows fair sharing of system resources such as data, hardware and software. There are
different types of operating system i.e. Windows-95, Windows-98, Windows-NT, Windows-XP, UNIX,
LINUX, Novell Netware, MS-Dos etc.

Language Processor or language translator:

The program or software which translates the instructions written in human readable form to machine
readable code is called language processor. It translates the instructions into hardware understandable form
of computer system. E.g. compiler, Assembler and Interpreter.

Utility Software:
Utility software are also known as service programs that perform task such as editing text, or program
debugging, programs to correct errors, sorting of records, merging of files, creating backup, transferring
data, printing the contents of the main memory etc. Therefore utility software helps users in system
maintenance. i.e.
a) Disk formatting Utility
b) Data Compression Utility
c) Data Backup Utility
d) Antivirus Utility.

Application Software:
Application software is the combination of one or more programs designed to carry out different task
as the need of the user. It helps users to work faster and more efficiently and more productively.
Application software is the software which can be distributed widely by the manufacturer.

Tailored Software:
Tailored Software is the software specially designed to meet the specific requirement of an
organization or individual. Tailored Software is written on the demand of individual need and serve only
one user or organization e.g. Result processing of SLC, Printing of certificate, Payroll Software. For
different purpose different tailored software’s are written. Tailored software is written in high level
language such as BASIC, PASCAL, FORTRAN, C, C++ etc.

Packaged Software:
Package software is a generalized set of programs that allows the computer to perform the specific
data processing job for the users. These programs are user-friendly and designed to work on more than one
environment. E.g. word processing software, spreadsheet software and database software.

Features of Packaged Software :

i) It should be user friendly because the package software must be used with its minimum study.
ii) The packaged software should have menu driven facilities.
iii) It should be well-tested and provided by a reputed software company.
iv) It should be fast to work and easy to access.

Types of Packaged Software :

i) Word Processing Software: Word processing software is the term that describes the use of computer to
create, edit, view, format, store, retrieve and print documents.
ii) Spreadsheet Software: spreadsheets software is a numeric data analysis tool that allows you to create
any kind of computerized ledger.
iii) Database Software: Database software is a combination of one or more programs that enables users to
create database, maintain it and organization its data in designed fashion and retrieve useful information
from it.
iv)Graphics Software: graphic software enables us to use a computer system for creating, editing,
viewing, storing, retrieving and printing of designs, drawings, pictures, and graphs etc.
v) Entertainment Software: Entertainment software allows a computer to be used as an entertainment tool.
Video game is an example of entertainment software.
Operating System:
The system software deals with the system or hardware directly. This software directs the internal
operation of computer system.
An operating system is a computer program that acts as a mediator between the user and computer
hardware. This is the first software we see when we turn on the computer and again the last software we see
when the computer is turned off. As computer consists of various resources like memory, CPU, disks etc. It
is very difficult for the users of computer to understand how to operate them directly. So operating system
becomes the interpreter between computer hardware and user. It interpreters the command of user to the
hardware and presents the output to users in suitable format produced by hardware. The opening system
hides the truth about the hardware. The operating system presents a simple interface to the programmer and
user.

Roles Operating System:

i) Provide easy to use interface between user and computer.
ii) Acts as master control program.
iii) Manages input and output operation.
iv) Allocating the resources.
v) Tracking the use of resources.
vi) File and disk management.
vii) Detects and notifies errors.

Functions of Operating System :-

i. Memory management: Memory management function of an operating system takes care of
allocation and de-allocation of memory space to the programs, data or information.
ii. File management: The file management function of operating system takes care of files such
organization, storage, retrieval, naming, sharing and protection of files from unauthorized
access.
iii. Process management: An operating system takes care of creation and deletion of processes,
scheduling of system resources to different processes, requesting them and providing
mechanism for communicating between the processes.
iv. Input/Output management: An operating system keeps track of I/O devices connected to the
computers system.
v. Security management: An operating system that protects the resources and information of
computer against distruction and unauthorized access.

Types of Operating System:

There are various ways of classifying types of operating system. Here we are classifying operating
system on the basis of processing method, user interface and mode of user.

Types of Operating System based on processing Method:

i. Batch Operating System: In this type of operating system data and program is not processed until all
the data are fully input. The jobs are stored in a disk in a batch in a queue and run one or more program
at one time under the control of operating System. A job may wait in a batch or queue for minutes or
even for hours depending upon the load on the system. E.g. MS-Dos, IBM-Dos, Apple-Dos etc.

ii. Multitasking operating system: A multitasking operating system provides the ability to run more than
one program at a time. E.g. a user could be running a word processing package, printing a document,
copying a file etc. The advantage of multitasking operating system is letting the user run more than one
task at a time. So this leads to an increased productivity. E.g. UNIX, LINUX, Windows-95, Windows-
98, Windows-2000, Windows-XP, Windows-NT etc.

iii. Multi-processing operating system: A multiprocessing operating system is the one in which more
than one processor operate in a coordinated way. They share the main memory and I/O devices. The
processors can execute different programs independently and simultaneously. They can also execute
portion of the same program. E.g. UNIX and MVS.
 iv. Time Sharing Operating System: In this operating system several user work on the computer through
the different terminals, which are connected to a single CPU and operates on a time sharing basis to
each user and serves them it in time. If work is not completed at the end of its time, then it is interrupted
and placed on a waiting queue. E.g. UNIX, Windows-NT, CTSS (Compatible Time Sharing System.)

v. Real-Time Operating System: In real time operating system the key parameter is time. They are
dedicated to some well-defined jobs which require very fast response time. They must be quick and
predictable in responding to different events. They are mainly used in industries and are designed to
operate in a time. In industrial system real time computers have to collect data about the production
process and user to control machines in factory. Consider an e.g. of a car assembly line where certain
actions must take place in specific time. If a welding robot welds too early or too late then
manufacturing process is disturbed. e.g. RLLINUX, QNX, OS-98

Types of operating System based on mode of User:

i. Single User operating system: A single user operating system allows one user to work at a time. The
resources of the computer system namely the CPU time and printing facilities are idle till the user logs
off. E.g. MS-DOS, PC-DOS.

ii. Multi-User operating system: A multi-User operating system allows more than one user to access the
computer system at a time. Access to the computer is normally provided through network so that users
access the computers remotely. E.g. UNIX, LINUX, NETWARE etc.

Operating system based on user interface:

i. Command user interface: This type of operating system provides the user facility of giving
commands either from keyboard or from a script. In this type of operating system the user must have
knowledge of commands and the sytax of the commands. It is very difficult to learn and operate for
beginners. E.g. MS-DOS.

ii. GUI (Graphical User Interface):- Graphical User Interface allows the user to interact with the system
using window, icons, menus, and a pointer to control the operating system. Mouse is the key input
device used in this type of operating system. One of the most important advantage of GUI is it is easy
to learn, begin and use. E.g. Window-2000, Windows-XP, Windows-Vista.

Language translator:
A translator is a programming language processor that converts a computer program from one language to
another.  It takes a program written in source code and converts it into machine code.  It discovers and
identifies the error during translation.
Different Types of Translators:
There are 3 different types of translators as follows:
Compiler:
A compiler is a translator used to convert high-level programming language to low-level
programming language.  It converts the whole program in one session and reports errors detected after the
conversion.  Compiler takes time to do its work as it translates high-level code to lower-level code all at once
and then saves it to memory.
A compiler is processor-dependent and platform-dependent.  But it has been addressed by a special
compiler, a cross-compiler and a source-to-source compiler.  Before choosing a compiler, user has to identify
first the Instruction Set Architecture (ISA), the operating system (OS) and the programming language that will
be used to ensure that it will be compatible.
 Interpreter:
Just like a compiler, is a translator used to convert high-level programming language to low-level
programming language.  It converts the program one at a time and reports errors detected at once, while doing
the conversion.  With this, it is easier to detect errors than in a compiler.  An interpreter is faster than a compiler
as it immediately executes the code upon reading the code.
It is often used as a debugging tool for software development as it can execute a single line of code at a
time.  An interpreter is also more portable than a compiler as it is not processor-dependent, you can work
between hardware architectures.
Assembler:
An assembler is a translator used to translate assembly language to machine language.  It is like a
compiler for the assembly language but interactive like an interpreter.  Assembly language is difficult to
understand as it is a low-level programming language.  An assembler translates a low-level language, an
assembly language to an even lower-level language, which is the machine code.  The machine code can be
directly understood by the CPU.
Application Software's or Application Package:
Application package are the set of one or more programs designed by the reputed software companies for
the purpose of solving specific problems. They are generalized set of software’s which helps to fulfill the user’s
requirements.

Types of Application package:

1. Word processing package:

A word processing package enables to create, edit, format, view and print documents in desire
layout. For Example: Ms-Word, WordPad etc.
2. Spreadsheet package:
A spreadsheet package in numeric data analysis tool which allows creating, calculating and printing
data in tabular form. These packages can perform simple to complex mathematical and scientific calculation. For
Example: Lotus 123, Ms-Excel etc.
3. Presentation package:
The presentation packages allows to design, modify and format slide based presentation documents.
Slides are effective tools to present and understand anything clearly. For Example: Ms-Power point, Apple etc.
4. Data based package:
Data based package are used to create data base tables to store and the retrieval purpose. For
Example: Database, Ms-access, foxpro.
5. Graphics package:
The graphics package are used for creating, drawing, editing, viewing, retrieving, formatting and
printing images, text, pictures, photos etc.
For Example: Adobe Photoshop, paint etc

Word processing (MS-Word)

Word processing is the method of processing or manipulating word, text, documents, images etc
using the suitable application software. It is the composition of editing, formatting and sometimes printing of any
style of written documents.

Features of word processing software:

i. Typing, editing and designing document
ii. Setting font application.
iii. Grammar and thesaurus checking.
iv. Automatic text correction.
v. Web integration.
vi. Applying hyperlink.
vii. Common desktop publishing.
viii. Setting of text and page layout.
ix. Printing the documents.
 Word processor:
A word processor is an application package that is used to prepare text document with different formatting
styles and print in desired layout. Actually, it is the replacement of traditional Type-Writer which allows the user
to type, edit, format, proof and save the file documents etc.

Features of word processor:

1. Document Designing:
This feature allows typing, creating and overall designing of the documents.
2. Updating:
This feature allows the overall document editing such as inserting, deleting, copying, moving,
undoing, redoing, searching and replacing the text and images according to the users’ requirement.
3. Formatting Text and Page:
This feature allows changing the size and appearance of text for making an attractive document. It
also allows setting of margins, page orientation, paragraphs and line spacing etc.
4. Object Linking and Embedding:
This feature of word processor allows inserting or adding object like pictures, clipart, word art,
drawing graphic, equation etc from the word processor itself or other application package.
5. Proofing:
This feature of word processor allows checking spellings, grammar, thesaurus, language etc of the
document for making it error free.
6. Table:
This feature is used for creating matrix of rows and columns to prepare tabular type of document.
7. Printing and Previewing:
This feature of word processor allows previewing the whole part of document before printing and
knowing how it looks after printing. Finally, it allows printing and publishing the document.

MICROSOFT-WORD (Ms-Word):
Microsoft word is one of the most popular, user friendly and commonly used word processing software
developed by Microsoft Corporation of USA.
It is included in Microsoft office package which allows creating documents such as letters to complicated
reports and books including pictures and graphics.

Advantages of Ms-word:
i. It allows easy textual input.
ii. It consists of large variety of formatting options, including variety of colors ability to change
font, underlining etc.
iii. It support drag and drop option for text and images insertion.
iv. Different lists can be easily created and formatted.
v. It supports web integration.
vi. It supports large number of standard documents formats.
vii. It increases office efficiency.
viii. It improves resource utility.

Spreadsheet (ms-excel):
Spreadsheet is a software package that accepts data in tabular form that is rows and columns and
allows user to calculate and manipulate such data according to the requirement. It is a tool which also allows
creating computerized ledger for evaluating and analysis of numeric sheet reports etc and presenting them in
graphical form. For Example: Ms-excel, lotus 123 etc.

1. Mail Merge:

Features of Worksheet or Spreadsheet:

1. Worksheet preparation:
 The basic of spreadsheet package is to create large worksheet that is the combination of rows
and columns. So, that necessary data can be entered and saved for specific purpose.
2. Formula Applying:
This is one of the very important features of spreadsheet which allows applying different types
of formulas on numbers. The formula applied on worksheet can be easily copied from one location to another.
3. Function:
The spreadsheet software supports the numerous inbuilt functions for quick performance any
calculation instead of typing long formula for the calculation. For Example: Average, max, mean etc.
4. Data based management:
This is another feather of spreadsheet which allows managing of data on the worksheet such as
sorting data, filtering data, searching data etc.
5. Charts:
This feature of spreadsheet package allows to present numeric data in graphical form called charts. For
Example: Line chart, Bar chart, Pie chart etc.
6. Data analysis:
This feature of spreadsheet is used for analyzing complex data in according to various criteria and
formula editing.

Ms-Excel:
Microsoft Excel is one of the most popular and widely used spreadsheet software developed by Microsoft
Company of USA. It is included in Ms-office package that allows creating worksheet and performing varieties of
operations required such as calculating, analyzing, manipulating and printing worksheet accordingly.

Features of Ms-Excel:
 It allows creating, editing and printing worksheets and workbooks etc.
 It allows entering different types of formula for calculation.
 It supports various inbuilt functions which make calculation easier.
 It supports various type of charts for quick presentation of numeric data.
 It has the object linking and embedding feature.
 It supports database features such as filtering, sorting, and searching data.
 It provides online help when required.
 It provides advanced data analysis features such as pivot table, scenario, goal seek.
 It provides table with different format.
 It allows checking data validation and data entry rules.

Application of Ms-Excel:
 Spreadsheet preparation and calculation.
 Database management.
 Preparing charts and graphs.
 Simple and complex data analysis.
 Scientific, Commercial and Engineering data processing.

CELL:
Cell is the smallest rectangular block in a worksheet. It is the meeting point of rows and column. A cell is
also known as data entry location in Ms-Excel which accept the entered values from the keyboard by the user.

Types of Cell:
1. Relative cell:
The relative cell is one of the simple and common cell reference followed by column letter with
row number which is related to other cells while copying. For Example: B2, C5 etc.
2. Absolute cell:
This is a type of cell reference which contains sign in front of both the cell coordinate that is
column and row. For Example: $N, $9.
 3. Mixed cell:
This is the type of cell reference which makes either one of row or column is related and another
is absolute.

Formula in Ms-Excel:
A formula is a set of mathematical instructions or an entry over cell used to perform numeric
calculation. It is used to perform numeric calculation. It is a sequence of values, cell reference and different
operators that produces new value from existing values.

Components of Formula:
1. Reference: The cell or range of cells that we have to use in the calculation.
2. Operators: The symbols which are used to specify the calculations to be performed.
3. Constants: Numbers or text values that do not change.
4. Functions: The predefined or built in formulas supported by Ms-Excel.
5. Error value: The mistakes or error entered over the formula.

Functions:
Functions are readymade expressions used to perform any task quickly. They are built in formulas
which can be directly used instead of writing long and whole formula. Some of them are discussed below:
a. Average function: It is used to find out the average value in the given cell range.
Syntax: AVERAGE (cell range)
Example: AVERAGE (D5; C7)
b. Min function: It is used to find minimum value in the given cell range.
Syntax: MIN (cell range)
Example: MIN (B5; C6)
c. Max function: It is used to find maximum value in the given cell range.
Syntax: MAX (cell range)
Example: MAX (D5; A6)
d. Rank function: It is used to find rank from the number list in the given cell range.
Syntax: RANK (number, order)
Example: (B5; B10)
e. Product function: It is used to multiply number in the given cell range.
Syntax: PRODUCT (cell range)
Example: PRODUCT (B5; C6, B7; C7)

Chart in Ms-Excel:
A chart in Ms-Excel is a graphical representation of spreadsheet data which shows the data in a
diagrammatic way so, that it can be understood more clearly. Chart is very much important because it presents
numeric data at a glance. It also helps to analysis data and makes comparison between different spreadsheets
values.

PRESENTATION PACKAGE:
Presentation package is a software used to create and display information in an effective manner
normally in the form of slide show. It is very useful and interesting, for creating and displaying a series of slides
in an interactive way.

Features of presentation package:

1. Creating slides:
This feature of presentation allows creating individual page of presentation called slide in required
style. The content of presentation files display as a slide which may contain text, images etc.
2. Inserting objects:
This feature of presentation allows inserting picture, objects, graphics etc to illustrate subject matter
more clearly in the presentation file.
3. Appling animation :
 This feature of presentation allows adding animation effect to make presentation more attractive, effective
and lively.
4. Applying media clips:
This feature of presentation allows adding movies clip or sound clip on the presentation.
5. Template support:
This feature of presentation package supports a verity of per-defined templates in built in formats.
Using this feature user can create, modify and format any types of presentation quickly saving the time.
6. Setting slide time:
This feature of presentation allows setting specify time between the slide one after another while
displaying them.
7. Format and print the slide:
This feature of presentation allows formatting the slide by changing size one appearance. It also allows
designing page setup and printing the slide through printing.

Power point :
Microsoft PowerPoint is one of the popular and widely used presentation software developed by Microsoft
Corporation USA. It is included in Ms- Office family is used to create slide presentation in desire style.
Now-a-day PowerPoint is becoming very much popular in teaching, learning, interactive, seminars and
communications more effectively.
Thus, PowerPoint is very important in the field of presentation in these days.

Characteristics of PowerPoint:

a. Adding Smart Art:

The Smart Art is a comprehensive and flexible business diagram tool that greatly improves upon the
“Diagram Gallery” Feature in power point for the suitable art creation.
b. Inserting Shapes:
Inserting Shapes which allows to set and insert the default and customize shapes on the slide where
required.
c. Inserting as Image:
Inserting a image is to insert and edit the image, picture from file or insert ClipArt. Here are two content
icons which appear in new content placeholders for inserting picture. Alternatively, the Illustration group of the
inserting ribbon tab includes the same two tools.
d. Slide transition:
It is used to make the presentation clearer and more interesting and where appropriate, more fun.
e. Adding Animations:
The animations can be applied to every object on a slide including titles and other text boxes where the
transition effects are limited to a single event pre slide .For e.g. each shape in a Smart art graphic, each
paragraph in a text box and each column in a chart.

The advantages of PowerPoint:

 It allows creating, modifying and printing different types of presentation.
 It supports multimedia facility.
 It provides several slide show and slide translations.
 It allows insertion animation with sound.
 It provides hyperlink facility.

The Application of PowerPoint:

 Education and training slide preparation.
 Designing web pages.
 Advertisement and film animation.
 Graphical presentation.
 Multimedia presentation.
 Utility Software:
Utility software, often referred as utility is a system software that is designed to help analyze,
configure, optimize or maintain a computer and enhance the computer’s performance. It is a program that
performs a specific task, which is usually related to managing the system resources. Utilities are sometimes also
installed as memory-resident programs.
Utility software usually focuses on how the computer infrastructure that includes computer hardware,
application software, operating system and data storage programs operates. These utilities could range from the
small and simple to the large and complex that can perform either a single task or a multiple tasks. Some of the
functions performed by these utilities are data compression, disk defragmentation, data recovery, management
of computer resources and files, system diagnosis, virus detection, and many more.

Examples of Utility Program:

Some of the examples of the utility programs (Utilities) include: Disk defragmenters, System Profilers,
Network Managers, Application Launchers, Antivirus software, Backup software, Disk repair, Disk Cleaners,
Registry Cleaners, Disk Space analyzer, file manager, File Compression, Data Security and many more. In
addition, operating systems contains a number of utilities for managing disk drives, printers, and other devices.
Advantages of utility software
Utility software has been designed specifically to help in management and tuning of operating system,
computer hardware and application software of a system.

 It performs a specific and useful function to maintain and increase the efficiency of a computer
system
 Aids in keeping the computer free from unwanted software threats such as viruses or spyware
 Adds functionality that allow the user to customize your desktop and user interface
 Manages computer memory and enhances performance

In general, these programs assist the user to make and run their computer better. They are also used
for password protection, memory management, virus protection, and file compression in order to manage all the
computer functions, resources and files efficiently. Some of the utility software are explained below:
 File Management Tools:
All the data and information in a computer are stored in the form of files. Saving these files on the computer
keeps the information secured. These files are maintained in the computer by the file management tools.
Therefore, the file management tool is an important tool of the operating system. File management tools
include the most used file management tasks like search, update, browse etc. Archivers and file manager also
fall into the category of file management tools. The file management tool is also used to open, rename, group
or delete a file. Some examples of file management tools are Directory Opus, File Manager in Windows,
Double commanders, etc.

 Antivirus:
Antivirus is a type of utility software that helps the Operating System in providing a virus-free environment
to the users. This is generally used to protect the computer from virus. A virus is a malicious program that
destroys and corrupts the computer. The work of the antivirus is to detect the virus, send notifications to the
user and secure the computer by taking the required actions. The antivirus can detect different kinds of virus-
like worms, Trojan, spyware etc. An antivirus also starts detecting the virus when external storage devices
such as pen drive, USB, etc are attached to the computer and notifies the user if any virus is found in any file.
Some of the examples of antivirus are Norton, Kaspersky, McAfee, etc.

 Disk Management Tool:

Disk Management software is available in almost all the versions of Microsoft Windows. The disk
management tool enables one to manage different drives in the computer such as flash drive, optical disk
drive and hard disk drive. This tool also enables users to manage the partitions associated with these drives.
This type of utility software was first introduced in Windows XP to replace the fdisk command. Some
examples of disk management tools are Paragon Partition Manager, MiniTool Partition Wizard, AOMEI
Partition Assistant, etc.
 Compression Tool:
Storage space is always a big problem with computers. We try our best to reduce the sizes of the files.
Keeping enough free space in the system also ensures that the computer works well. The compression tools
are used to reduce the storage space taken by different files on the computer. These type of softwares
compress or decompress a file in the computer. Most of the operating systems have compression tools
software to increase and reduce the size of a file. Some examples of compression tools are WinZip, WinRAR,
WinAce, etc.

 Disk Cleanup Tool:

Disc cleanup tool was introduced for the first time in Windows 98. Later, this software was provided to all
other releases by Windows. The disk cleanup tool is used to delete the files in the computer that are no more
necessary to the user. Deleting the unused files helps in increasing the storage space and also helps in
maintaining the pace of working of the computer. Other than removing the unused files, this tool is also used
to delete offline webpages and temporary internet files. Therefore, it is an important tool that helps to increase
the functioning power of the system. Some of the examples of disk cleanup tools are Piriform CCleaner, IObit
Advanced SystemCare, etc.

 Disk Defragmenter:
This is a type of utility software that is used to increase the access speed by rearranging the scattered files in a
disk stored on contiguous locations. Generally, when somebody uses a computer, large files are broken down
into different fragments and get stored in non-contiguous locations in the computer. Later, when the user tries
to find the files, the access speed slows down due to the fragments. The disk defragmenter tools try to find
these files, assemble them and put them in contagious locations. Perfect disk, deflaggler, MyDeFrag are some
of the examples of disk defragmenter.

 Backup:
The backup in the system helps to create a copy of files, databases and folders. The backup software is a type
of utility software that is provided by all operating systems. It ensures that there is a copy available when a
file is lost. Therefore, this is important software that saves us when we lose data accidentally. Some examples
of backup software are Norton Ghost, TotalRecovery Pro, Symantec Backup Exec etc.
 Unit IV: Business Data Management
Concept of Characters, Field, Records and File:
Data are the principal resources of an organization. Data stored in computer systems form a hierarchy
extending from a single bit to a database, the major record-keeping entity of a firm. Each higher rung of this
hierarchy is organized from the components below it.

Data are logically organized into:

1. Bits (characters)
2. Fields
3. Records
4. Files
5. Databases

Bit (Character) - a bit is the smallest unit of data representation (value of a bit may be a 0 or 1). Eight bits
make a byte which can represent a character or a special symbol in a character code.

Field - a field consists of a grouping of characters. A data field represents an attribute (a characteristic or
quality) of some entity (object, person, place, or event).

Record - a record represents a collection of attributes that describe a real-world entity. A record consists of
fields, with each field describing an attribute of the entity.

File - a group of related records. Files are frequently classified by the application for which they are
primarily used (employee file). A primary key in a file is the field (or fields) whose value identifies a record
among others in a data file.

Database - is an integrated collection of logically related records or files. A database consolidates records
previously stored in separate files into a common pool of data records that provides data for many
applications. The data is managed by systems software called database management systems (DBMS). The
data stored in a database is independent of the application programs using it and of the types of secondary
storage devices on which it is stored.

Data Management Approaches:

Remaining:

Types of data files:

1. Mater File:

Master files are files of a fairly permanent nature, e.g., customer ledger, purchase ledger, inventory
pay roll etc. They include some information which is continuously updated by recent transactions. For
example, a sales ledger might contain the customer’s names and addresses as well as their current position
which is updated periodically.
The description information in a master file may include such items as product code, description,
specifications etc. The normal means of updating a master file is by adding, deleting or amending records in
the file.

Master files can be further subdivided into two types of files:

(i) Static master files (or reference files):
The business entities that these files describe are at a permanent or semi-permanent nature (e.g.,
products, suppliers, customers, employees etc.). These are subject to occasional relation.
(ii) Dynamic master files (or table files):
The business entities these files describes are of transitory importance to the business (e.g.,
customer orders, work orders, job tickets, projects, price lists, wage rates) etc.

2. Transaction File:
Transaction files are files in which the data relating to business events is recorded, prior to a further
stage of processing and are created from source documents used for recording events or transactions. This
further processing may be the use of the transaction data to update master files, or the achieving of the
transaction for audit purposes.
After the transaction file is processed, it is usually reinitialized, and further transactions are then recorded in
it.
3. Archival file:
Archival file is a data file which consists of data that is no longer actively used to a separate storage
device for long-term retention. Archive data consists of older data that remains important to the
organization or must be retained for future reference or regulatory compliance reasons. Data archives are
indexed and have search capabilities, so files can be located and retrieved.
Archived data is stored on a lower-cost tier of storage, serving as a way to reduce primary storage
consumption and related costs. An important aspect of a business's data archiving strategy is to inventory its
data and identify what data is a candidate for archiving.
Some archive systems treat archive data as read-only to protect it from modification, while other data
archiving products enable writes, as well as reads. For example, WORM (write once, read many)
technology uses media that is not rewritable.
Data archiving is most suitable for data that must be retained due to operational or regulatory
requirements, such as document files, email messages and possibly old database records.

File organization:
File organization refers to the way data is stored in a file. File organization is very important
because it determines the methods of access, efficiency, flexibility and storage devices to use. There are
four methods of organizing files on a storage media. This includes:
 Sequential,
 Indexed-sequential
 Random
1. Sequential file organization
 Records are stored and accessed in a particular order sorted using a key field.
 Retrieval requires searching sequentially through the entire file record by record to the end.
 Because the record in a file are sorted in a particular order, better file searching methods like the
binary search technique can be used to reduce the time used for searching a file .
 Since the records are sorted, it is possible to know in which half of the file a particular record being
searched is located, Hence this method repeatedly divides the set of records in the file into two
halves and searches only the half on which the records is found.
 For example, of the file has records with key fields 20, 30, 40, 50, 60 and the computer is searching
for a record with key field 50, it starts at 40 upwards in its search, ignoring the first half of the set.
Advantages of sequential file organization:
 The sorting makes it easy to access records.
 The binary chop technique can be used to reduce record search time by as much as half the time
taken.
Disadvantages of sequential file organization:
 The sorting does not remove the need to access other records as the search looks for particular
records.
 Sequential records cannot support modern technologies that require fast access to stored records.
 The requirement that all records be of the same size is sometimes difficult to enforce.
2. Indexed-sequential file organization method:
 Almost similar to sequential method only that, an index is used to enable the computer to locate
individual records on the storage media. For example, on a magnetic drum, records are stored
sequential on the tracks. However, each record is assigned an index that can be used to access it
directly.
3. Random or direct file organization:
 Records are stored randomly but accessed directly.
 To access a file stored randomly, a record key is used to determine where a record is stored on the
storage media.
 Magnetic and optical disks allow data to be stored and accessed randomly.
Advantages of random file access
 Quick retrieval of records.
 The records can be of different sizes.

Database Management System (DBMS):

User1

User2 Request DBMS Data store

DB

User3

DBMS is defined as the collection of interrelated data and set of program to access those data. The
collection of data is usually database which contains information about any particular organization.
In the above figure shows the logical structure of database management system. Users may be
person application program from external environment that supplies various activities as per the need of the
user.
Some major database activities are as follows:-
 Adding new file to the database
 Inserting data into the database file.
 Viewing data from the database.
 Updating data in existing database file.
 Deleting data from the database file.
 Removing file from the database.

Advantages of BBMS
 Sharing of data:
Data stored in a database can be shared. It refers to the capacity to make data simultaneously
accessible by many users without any interference.
 Easy in Accessing data:
Database system must provide capabilities for efficiently executing queries and updates.
Because the database is stored on the disk, the DBMS must provide specialized data structures to speed up
disk search for the desired result.
 Reduced Redundancy:
In traditional file processing, the same data may be duplicated at many times or places, is
also called data redundancy. A DBMS reduces the duplication of data from database.
 Inconsistency Avoided:
When the same data is duplicated and changes are made at one site and not on sites, it
causes data inconsistency. First it leads to duplication of effort. Second, storage repeatedly age when the
same data is stored repeatedly.
 Data integrity:
Data integrity means the data is accurate, consistent and up-to-date.
 Data Security:
 In database system unauthorized person cannot see the data. Although various departments
may share data, access to specific information can be limited to selected users.
 Data independence:
Description of data is stored in one central place. Therefore, application do not have to be
recompiled when the format of data changes.
 Providing Multiple User Interface:
DBMS provides variety of interface for various users. It provides query language
interface, forms and command interface so that users interact easily with the database.

Disadvantages of DBMS:
 Database software is very expensive for large computer system.
 It is complex to understand & implement.
 It is fast changing technology.
 Failure in one part of the system can make entire system inactive.
 Proper training is required for staff to work properly, in the database system.
 Overhead cost for maintaining and integrity functions.
 Need of extra backup.

Objectives of DBMS:
 Allow the growth of database system.
 Provide safety mechanism for database.
 Allow multiple user interface to be active at one time.
 Eliminate redundant (Duplicate) data.
 Making the latest modification to the database immediately.
 It provides large storage capacity.

RDBMS (Relational Database Management System):

A database system which stores and displays data in tabulator format of rows & column like
spreadsheet is known as relational database is made up of tables that contain data records. Each of the
records is composed of fields. RDBMS can link the data of one table to the data of another table through the
common field. E.g. :- Oracle, SQL, Ms-Access, My Sql.

Database Models:-
There are different forms of database management system, each characterized by the way data are
defined and structured, called database architecture. Following are different architecture.
 Hierarchical Database Model
 Network Database Model
 Relational Database Model
 Entity Relation data Model.
Hierarchical Database Model:
This is one of the oldest types of database model. In this model, data is represented in the form of
records. Each record multiple fields/ attributes. All records arranged in database as tree like structure the
relationship between the records called parent child relationship in which any child record relates to only a
single parents type record. Record (principal)

Record (student) Record (management) Record (department chief)

Exam Record Personal Record (principal)

Teachers record(studentl)
Employee Record (student)

Employee Record (student)

Advantages:
 It is the easiest model.
 It has one or more attributes.
 Searching is fast & easy if parent is known.
 It supports one to one and one to many relationships.

Disadvantages:
 It is old fashioned out-dated model.
 It does not support many to many relationships.
 The dependency on parent nodes is not beneficial always.
 Increase redundancy because same data is written indifferent places.

Network Model:
The network model replaced Hierarchical model due to some limitation on the model. Suppose an
employee relates to two departments, then the Hierarchical model cannot able to arrange records in proper
place. So, network database model was emerged to arrange non-hierarchical database. The structure of
database is like graph rather than tree structure. A network model consists of collection records which are
interrelated to each other with the help of relationship. Each record has multiple fields and each field has
only one data value.
Record (principal)

Record (student) Record (management) Record (department chief)

Exam Record Personal Record (principal) Teachers record(student)

Employee Record (student)

Exam Record Employee Record (student)

Advantages:-
 It accepts many-to-many relationship.
 Searching is fast because of multi-directional pointer.
 The network model is simple and easy to design.
 It reduces data redundancy.

Disadvantages:-
 Needs long programs to handle relationship.
 Pointer needed in the database increases overhead of storage.
 Less security because it is opens to all.

Relational Database Model:-

In Relational data Model, the data is organizes into tables (i.e. rows and column). These tables
are called relations. A row in a table represents a relationship among a set of values. Since, a table is a
collection of such relationship, it is generally referred to using the mathematical term relation, from which
the relational data model derives its name.
Notice from above table (student, student -) that here each student here each student has unique Roll no and
has marks of Math. Eng. and computer. Her Roll no. makes relationship between two tables which inturn
displays the 3 rd table.

Table: student

Roll Maths English computer

1 80 90 95

2 90 80 85

3 95 95 95

For example:- It we have relationship between student and student 1 table through common field roll then
we get the following.

Roll Name Math English Computer

1. Hari 80 90 95

2. Sita 90 80 85

3. Ram 95 95 95

Advantage:
 Normalization of the database is possible.
 Easy to use.
 Very less redundancy.
 Integrity rule can be easily implemented.
Disadvantages:
 It is complex than other models.
 Too many rules makes database non-user friendly.
 It needs more powerful hardware computer and data storage devices.

Entity Relationship database model:

The entity relationship models are based on a perception of a real world that contains a collection of
based
i) objectsEntity:
called entitles andisrelationship
An entity a things oramong
objectsthese objects
in the and characteristics
real world that of an entity.
distinguishes from other objects. An Entity is a "thing" or "object" in
the real world that distinguishes from other objects. An Entity has a
set of properties and the values for some of properties set of Student
properties which may uniquely identify an Entity.
ii) Attribute:-Attributes are properties possessed by an entity or
relationship. Attributes are also called elements or fields. Attribute is
represented by ellipse.
iii) Relationship:-A relationship is an association among several Stu_name
entities and represents meaningful dependencies between them. It is
represented by a diamond shape.
4. Link:The flow of information is indicated by the lines in ER-diagram.
It is a connector of entities, attributes and relationship.. Teaching
Relationship:
Relationship is the link between two tables. It shows the dependency between the tables for building
queries and makes database easy access. There are three types of relationship:
1. One-to-one relationship: Each record in table must have only one matching record in table B and
each record in table B must have only one matching record in table A.

Has
College Principal

2. One- to –many relationships: Each record in table A can have multiple matching records in table
B and each record in table B can have only one matching record in table A.

Works
Department Faculty

3. Many-to-many relationship: each record in table A have multiple matching records in table B and
each record in table B can have multiple matching records in table A.

Writes
Book Author

SQL (Structured Query Language):-

It is an international standard database query language for accessing and managing data in the
database. SQL was introduced and developed by IBM in early 1970s. SQL is not a complete programming
language; it is only used for communicating with database. SQL has statements for data definition, data
manipulation and data control which are described below:
. Data Defination Language (DDL):-
DDL is used by the database designers and programmers to specify the content and structure
of the table. It is used to define physical characteristics of records. It includes commands that
manipulate the structure of the object such as views, tables, and indexes etc. Examples of these
commands are CREATE, ALTER. DROP, RENAME.
. Data Manipulation Language (DML):-
DML is related with manipulation of records such as retrieval, sorting, display and deletion
of records or data. It helps users to use query and display reports of the table. So it provides technique
for processing the database. Examples of these commands are INSERT, DELETE, SELECT, UPDATE.
. Data Control Language (DCL):-
DCL provides additional features for security of table/ database includes commands for
controlling data and access to the database. Examples of these commands are COMMIT, ROLLBACK,
GRANT etc.

Centralized VS Distributed Database

Centralized Database:-

Client 1 Client 2

DB Server

Client 3 Client 4
 Centralized database is a simple type which works on client server basis. They are located on a
particular location and peripherals are connected with to storing and retrieving data as requirement.
Centralized database system run on a single server basis. It is only suitable for small organization and small
scale operation. The database is centralized so there is less chance of data modification. The maintenance of
database is easier because of data or records are centrally stored. Since the data is out from access of
unauthorized person, so risk factor is also minimized.

Distributed Database System:

Client1 Client2 Client2

Client1

DB Server DB Server

Client3 Client4 Client3 Client4

Network

Client1 Client2

DB Server

Client3 Client4

This is a complex type of database system. It is a collection of multiple interrelated databases which
are distributed in many geographical locations. Data communication is harder because they should
communicate to different system to different platform. It has problem of control of security, increased
problem database and need more computer resources. It is suitable for large organizations which are spread
in large geographical area with similar objectives.
Difference between Centralized and Distributed Database System.
Centralized database system Distributed database system
1. Centralized database system is of simple type. 1. Distributed database system is of complex type
2. They are located in particular location. 2. They are located in many geographical location.
3. It does not contain servers in several locations. 3. It contains servers in different location.
4. It is suitable for small organization for small scale 4. It is suitable for large organization for large scale
operation. operations.
5. There is less chance of data lost. 5. There is more chance of data lost.
6. Maintenance is easier. 6. Maintenance is difficult.
7. Failure in server makes the whole system down. 7. Failure in one server does not affect the whole
system.
8. There is no feature of load balancing. 8. There is a feature of load balancing.

Data Security:-
Data security is protection of data in database system against unauthorized access, modification,
failure, loses or destruction. The unauthorized access means only right people can get right access to the
right database. There are different causes of database destruction such as fire, water, heat, dust, power
 failure, theft etc. It might be accidental loss or physical damage in computer system. Different types of data
recovery and data locking techniques are used for the security methods are:
 Using proper backup in disk, tapes, CD etc.
 Making physical prevention by using stabilizer and UPS to supply a regular power so that we can
prevent hardware and software from high electricity voltage and irregular power supply.
 Using strong password protection system.
 By keeping the system under lock or sage place.
Database Administrator (DBA):-
DBA is the most responsible person in an organization with sound knowledge of DBMS. He/she is
the overall administrator of the system. He/ she has maximum amount of privilege (permission) for
accessing database, setting up system and defining the role of employees who use the system. The main go
of DBA is to keep the database server up-to-date, secure and provide information on users demand.
Qualities of DBA:
 He/ She must have sound knowledge about database system: database design, normalization
process, SQQL commands, form and database report.
 He/ She should have depth knowledge of OS in which database server is running.
 He/ She should have sound knowledge of good database design.
 He/ She should have sound understanding of network architecture.
 Good knowledge of database server.
 Familiar with modern database package software.
Responsibilities of DBA:-
 Defining data security, data integrity, forms, reports, relationship and users privilege.
 Installing, monitoring and upgrading database server.
 Providing different facilities for data retrieving and making reports as required.
 Creating user's manuals give training; describe the entire facilities offered by the system.
 Maintaining database security, backup and recovery strategy, and documentation of data
dictionary.
 Supervising all the activities in the system i.e. addition, modification and deletion of data from
the database.
 Transferring data from one computer to another, scheduling jobs and replicating data in
multiple server.

Business Intelligence and Data:

Data warehouse:
A data warehouse is a type of data management system that is designed to enable and support
business intelligence (BI) activities, especially analytics. Data warehouses are solely intended to perform
queries and analysis and often contain large amounts of historical data. The data within a data warehouse is
usually derived from a wide range of sources such as application log files and transaction applications.
A data warehouse centralizes and consolidates large amounts of data from multiple sources. Its analytical
capabilities allow organizations to derive valuable business insights from their data to improve decision-
making. Over time, it builds a historical record that can be invaluable to data scientists and business analysts.
Because of these capabilities, a data warehouse can be considered an organization’s “single source of truth.”
A typical data warehouse often includes the following elements:
 A relational database to store and manage data
 An extraction, loading, and transformation (ELT) solution for preparing the data for analysis
 Statistical analysis, reporting, and data mining capabilities
 Client analysis tools for visualizing and presenting data to business users
 Other, more sophisticated analytical applications that generate actionable information by
applying machine learning and artificial intelligence (AI) algorithms.
Data Mart:
A data mart is a repository of data that is designed to serve a particular community of knowledge workers.
Data marts enable users to retrieve information for single departments or subjects, improving the user response
time. Because data marts catalog specific data, they often require less space than enterprise data warehouses,
making them easier to search and cheaper to run.
Types of data marts:
 There are three basic types of data marts:
1. A dependent data mart offers centralization and enables the sourcing of an organization's data from a single
data warehouse. There are two methods for building a dependent data mart: one where users are able to access
both the data mart and the data warehouse, and one where user access is limited only to the data mart. This
latter method can produce what is commonly referred to as a data junkyard, as all data begins with a common
source but is usually scrapped or junked.
2. An independent data mart is built without using a central data warehouse and is ideal for smaller groups within
a business or organization. Independent data marts do not have relationships with the enterprise data
warehouse or with any other data mart. The data is input from an internal or external data source, and its
analyses are performed autonomously. Because independent data marts do not work or interact with data
warehouses, users need a consistent and centralized store of enterprise data, such as a  relational database, that
can be accessed by multiple users.
3. A hybrid data mart combines input from data sources that are not part of the data warehouse, such
as operational data, and gives users ad hoc integration. Hybrid data marts require minimal data cleansing,
support large storage structures and are flexible. Hybrid data marts are well-suited for environments with
multiple databases and organizations that require quick turnaround.

Data Mining:
In simple words, data mining is defined as a process used to extract usable data from a larger set of any raw
data. It implies analyzing data patterns in large batches of data using one or more software. Data mining has
applications in multiple fields, like science and research. As an application of data mining, businesses can learn
more about their customers and develop more effective strategies related to various business functions and in
turn leverage resources in a more optimal and insightful manner. This helps businesses be closer to their
objective and make better decisions. Data mining involves effective data collection and warehousing as well as
computer processing. For segmenting the data and evaluating the probability of future events, data mining uses
sophisticated mathematical algorithms. Data mining is also known as Knowledge Discovery in Data (KDD).
Key features of data mining:
 Automatic pattern predictions based on trend and behavior analysis.
 Prediction based on likely outcomes.
 Creation of decision-oriented information.
 Focus on large data sets and databases for analysis.
 Clustering based on finding and visually documented groups of facts not previously known.

Purpose of Data Mining:

Data Mining is used for predictive and descriptive analysis in business:
(i) The derived pattern in Data Mining is helpful in better understanding of customer behavior, which leads to
better & productive future decision.
(ii) Data Mining is used for finding the hidden facts by approaching the market, which is beneficial for the
business but has not yet reached.
(iii) It is also used for identifying the area of the market, to achieve marketing goals and generate a reasonably
good ROI.
(iv) Data Mining helps in bringing down operational cost, by discovering and defining the potential areas of
investment.

Multidimensional Data:
A multidimensional model views data in the form of a data-cube. A data cube enables data to be modeled
and viewed in multiple dimensions. It is defined by dimensions and facts.
The dimensions are the perspectives or entities concerning which an organization keeps records. For
example, a shop may create a sales data warehouse to keep records of the store's sales for the dimension time,
item, and location. These dimensions allow the save to keep track of things, for example, monthly sales of items
and the locations at which the items were sold. Each dimension has a table related to it, called a dimensional
table, which describes the dimension further. For example, a dimensional table for an item may contain the
attributes item_name, brand, and type.

OLAP:
 OLAP (online analytical processing) is a computing method that enables users to easily and
selectively extract and query data in order to analyze it from different points of view. OLAP business
intelligence queries often aid in trends analysis, financial reporting, sales forecasting, budgeting and other
planning purposes.
For example, a user can request that data be analyzed to display a spreadsheet showing all of a company's
beach ball products sold in Florida in the month of July, compare revenue figures with those for the same
products in September and then see a comparison of other product sales in Florida in the same time period.

Types of OLAP systems:

OLAP (online analytical processing) systems typically fall into one of three types:
 Multidimensional OLAP (MOLAP) is OLAP that indexes directly into a multidimensional database.
 Relational OLAP (ROLAP) is OLAP that performs dynamic multidimensional analysis of data stored in
a relational database.
 Hybrid OLAP (HOLAP) is a combination of ROLAP and MOLAP. HOLAP was developed to combine
the greater data capacity of ROLAP with the superior processing capability of MOLAP.
 Unit V: Telecommunication and Networking
Introduction:
The history of communication started from telegraphy in 1840s. After that radio communication
made easier during the period of wars. After all the use of copper cable, optical fiber and satellite has made
communication faster, reliable and secured. Various forms of data such as text, numbers, audio, and video
can be transmitted from one place to another place Telephone, Television; Internet etc. are very popular and
widely used means of communication. Communication and Networking are changing the way of our life,
business and service action between senders and receiver.

Networking:-
Computer Network is defined as the action of two more autonomous computer resources with
the help of transmission medium and set of protocols. More over it also links computer, printer, photocopy
machine and different network devices. The transmission media help us to transfer information from one
computer to another computer and is categorized into two types in (bound) or wireless (unbound). The set
of protocols defines the common rules for data transmission among the various types of network devices.

Purpose/ Advantages of Networking:

1. Sharing of Resources:-
Hardware resources such as processor, storage, printers, scanners etc. can be shared among us using
computer network. It helps to minimize the operational cost of an organization. Similarly software can be
shared within a network. It is possible to share data or information among multiple users at the same time.
2. Faster and cheaper communication:-
Communication in modern days has become very fast and cheaper than before because of
networking. It is very fast and cheaper to send information to a long distance through network rather than
postal service. We can send letters, attach, perform voice chat and video conference with almost free of cost
with the help of internet.
3. Centralized control:-
All network resources such as computer, printers, file, database etc. can be managed and controlled
by a central connecting computer known as server. So, any rules, permission, security measures that are
necessary in the network can be automatically implemented to the computers and other devices from the
server.
4. Backup and recovery:-
Server is the main computer in a computer network. It maintains backup of data all individual
computers, so as if any data or files are lost in any computer can be recovered.
5. Remote and mobile access:-
A remote user can access resources from the distance using computer network. It is also possible to
access one computer resources from any other computers that are connected to the network.

Disadvantages of Networking:
1. Increases expenses:-
In order to install computer network we require some extra cost to purchases networking devices
such as hub, switch, router, cables etc. Networking equipment and working software are expensive too.

2. Security Problem:-
Network security is the most challenging for network, administrator. Mainly it protects from
unauthorized access and physical destruction. Various security measures are implemented in network such
as data decoding, firewall etc. The hackers, viruses are the main threat for the today's computer.

3. Need Technical Person:-

It is very difficult to install and operate computer network. In order to manage computer network,
the organization needs technical or network specialist. So it very expensive for an organization to hire
network specialist.
Direction of communication Flow (Transmission models):-
1. Simplex:
Unidirectional
Flow of communication
Sender Receiver

The flow of simplex mode of communication is unidirectional. Only one of two devices on a link
can transmit data and other can receive only. It is just like one way street. E.g.:- Radio transmission, TV
transmission, communication between keyword and computer.

2. Half-duplex:

Bidirectional communication
But one at a
Sender/ Receiver Time Sender/ Receiver

The flow of half-duplex mode of communication is bidirectional. But each device can receive and
transmit data one at a time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive and vice-versa. E.g.:-
walkie-talkie.

3. Full-duplex:
Bidirectional communication
CanBut one at
receive a send
and
Data at the
Same Time Sender/ Receiver
Sender/ Receiver

The flow of full-duplex mode of communication is bidirectional. Both devices can receive and
transmit data at the same time. It is just like two way street with the flowing in both direction at the same
time Internet.

Types of Network:
Computer Network are same classified into two categories i.e.
i. On the basis of network Architecture.
ii. On the basis of Geographical Area.
i. On the basis of network Architecture:
The network Architecture refers to various services provided by the network such as how data is
transmitted from one computer to another, how security can be implemented and how they are
interconnected using various protocols. On the basis of Network architecture, computers are classified into
two categories. i.e.
1. Peer-to-Peer Network and
2. Client-server Network.
1. Peer-to-Peer Network Architecture:
It is also known as point architecture. In this architecture each work station can have equal
capabilities and responsibilities. There is no server, each work station acts either as a client or as a server.
Networks resources are distributed thorough out the network and each work station has the responsibilities
to store, process and share data to others. It is a simple and inexperience architecture then client-servers
architecture. It is suitable for small sized private network such as personal network in home, schools and
cyber café.

Advantages:
  It has simple architecture and easy to install.
 It does not require additional server so it is inexpensive architecture.
 Each node has equal privilege to excess the resources.
 It is suitable for small sized network having maximum 10 nodes.
Disadvantages:
 It performance become very poor for large size network.
 There is no central administrator for monitoring the network.
 Network security problem due to equal privilege to all the nodes.
 There is no central backup and recovery mechanism.

2. Client-Server Network Architecture:

It is also known as broadcast architecture. In this architecture there are two types of computer, one is
server and the other is client Server is the main computer in a network that controls, manages and provide
various services to the client such as print server, file server, database server, mail server, web server etc.
server is very high performance and it is expensive to. A client is normal workstation which is connected to
the server. A client requests for services to the server and the server resources for the respective services.
Network resources are centralized to the server so all the network activities such as store, process and
transfer of data are carried inside the server.
Advantages:
 It is easier for centralized administration, controlling and monitoring the entire network from
server.
 It provides centralized backup and recovery feature.
 It is easier for managing the large size network.
Disadvantage:
 Resources are centralized to the server. So if any problem occurs in the server then the entire
network will be down.
 There may be maximum data traffic at server so there may be chances of data collision.
 It is very expensive due to dedicated server and additional network utilities.
ii. On the basis of Geographical Area:
On the basis of size or geographical area that means how much area it covers computer networks
are classified into 3 categories i.e. LAN, MAN and WAN.
1. LAN (Local Area Network):
A local area network is privately owned small size network. It covers only a small geographical area
such as within a room, office, and building or up to few kilometers (2 km-3km). It connects the network
resources such as computers, faxes, printers and various networking devices. Moreover, users also can share
the resources such as data, file, software etc. LAN is simpler, cheaper and highly secured. LAN uses
transmission medium such as optical fibers, coaxial cable, twisted pair cable etc. It has high speed data
transmission rate of 100 Mbps-1000 Mbps.

Features of LAN
 LAN is simpler, small, privately owned network.
 It has high speed data transfer rate i.e. 1 Gbps.
 It is highly secured network and has less error rate.
 It is the least expensive type of network.
 It uses transmission media such as coaxial cable, twisted pair cable, optical fiber etc.
 It can connect maximum 1024 computer in a LAN.

2. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network):-

A MAN can be either public or privately owned network. Its size is bigger than LAN and
smaller than WAN. It can connect large number of computer that is multiple LANs within a city
maximum up to 100 km. Branch offices are connected to head office through MANs. Eg. Cable TV.
MAN may use wired or wireless transmission media such as coaxial cable. Twisted pair cable,
optical fiber, radio wave, micro wave etc. It is more expensive, more complex and less secured networks
than LAN. The data transfer rate is up to 19 Mbps.
Features of MAN:-

 MAN is complex type of network and it may be either public or privilege owned.
 The size of MAN is biggest than LAN and it covers up to 100 km.
 It is less secured network and higher error rate than LAN.
 It is more expensive than LAN because it requires repeater, router, router, and gateway and microwave
station.
 It uses different types of transmission media i.e. wired of wireless media. E.g. coaxial fiber, twisted pair
cable, satellite communication, microwave, optical fiber, radio transmission etc.
 It can connect 100 of LANs.

3. WAN (Wide Area Network):-

A WAN is basically public type of network. Its size is biggest and it connects millions of
computers, thousand of LANs, hundreds of MANs around the countries, countries and even the whole
world. E.g. Internet communication is done through public channel such as Telephone lines, optical fiber,
microwave, satellite and VASAT technology. It is he most expensive types of network that transfers text,
graphics, radio, video etc. around the world. It has the least speed of 64 kbps to 10 Mbps and has highest
amount of error rate.

Features of WAN:
 WAN is basically public network that cover millions of kilometer.
 It has least speed of data transfer i.e. 64 kbps-10 Mbps.
 It is the least secured network and has highest error rate.
 It is the most expensive types of network because it requires expensive devices such as router,
gateway, microwave, satellite etc.
 It uses various types of transmission media such as telephone line, optical fiber, radio wave,
microwave satellite.

LAN Topologies:
Network topology refers to the physical layout of the network. It shows the geometrical
representation of all the links and linking devices, also called nodes. Simply it refers the computers in the
network and how they are interconnected to each other. The most common LAN Topologies are:-
1. Bus Topology
2. Ring Topology
3. Star Topology
4. Mesh Topology
5. Hybrid Topology
6. Tree Topology
1. Bus Topology:
Computers are connected to a single continuous cabled 'BUS'. It acts as a backbone. A bus must be
terminated on both sides using terminator to prevent signal bounce. The nodes are connected to the bus by a
drop line by using T-connector. Messages' originating from the computers is transmitted in both directions.
It is based on client-server network architecture.

Advantages:
 It is simple and easy to install.
 It is inexpensive topology because it requires fewer amounts of cable and networking
device.
 If any computer in the network gets down, then it does not affect other computers.
 It is more flexible because we can ea connect or disconnect any nodes in the bus
Disadvantages:
 Data traffic is very high in bus so they may be chances of data collision.
 The length of bus should be small otherwise he performance of the network down.
 If there is problem in the bus then the whole network gets down.
 It is very difficult to find fault in the network.

2. Star Topology:

Computers in the network are connected to each other with the help of central connecting device
known as switch or hub. It is based on client server architecture. The communication is done through the
central server with the help of switch or hub in the entire network. The hub controls the traffic and it is one
of the most popular and widely used topology.

Advantages:
 It is simple, reliable and easy to install
 It is flexible to connect and remove nodes in the network.
 It is very easy to find fault in the network.
 If any computer in the network goes down, then other computer can continue their functions.

Disadvantages:
 It requires very large amount of cable.
 It is expensive because of cables and networking devices.
 If there is any problem in the central device then entire network goes down.
 The data traffic is high in central device so there may be chance of data collision.
3. Ring Topology:
Computers are interconnected to each other be making a closed circular structure. That means
each computer is connected to other two adjacent computers in either side. It is based on peer-to peer
network architecture. Communication is done in single direction only. When one computer receives the
message, then it compares the destination address of the message and its own address, it matches it
accepts the message otherwise the message is retransmitted to the next computer in the network.

Advantages:
 If is simple and inexpensive topology.
 There is less chances of data collision because of one directional data transfer.
 There is no server so each computer has equal access facility to all the resources.
Disadvantages:
 It is flexible topology because it is difficult to add and remove nodes.
 It is not suitable for large organization.
 If there is any problem in any nodes then the entire network goes down.
4. Mesh Topology:
Every computer in the network point to point connection to all other computers by using multi-port
connector. There multi-port connection between two computers which provide the alternate path of data
transfer. The communication is done in ho direction. It is based on peer –to-peer architecture.
Advantages:
 It is the fastest and robust type topology.
 It is the most reliable topology because of multiple connections between any two nodes.
 Failure in any node or transmission media does not affect the network.
 Less chances of data traffic because of multiple path.
Disadvantages:
 It is the most complex and expensive topology.
 It is difficult to find errors in the network.
 It requires maximum amount of cable and multi-port connector.
 It is difficult to add or remove any node in the network.
5. Tree Topology:
 The topology is the extension of or star topology. So it extends the branch of bus or star topology
allowing more stations to access the bus. The computers arranged in a distinct hierarchical structure.
Data can flow up-to down and vice versa.

Advantages:

 It is easy to manage network because many sub-networks.

 It is very flexible so we can add and remove any node.
 It is easier to find fault in the networks.

Disadvantages:
 The failure of root node will cause the failure of entire network.
 It is expensive because of large amount of cables and networking devices.
 The data traffic is high at the root network so there may be chances of data connection.

6. Hybrid Topology
If two or more topologies are combined together then it is called hybrid topology. So, it is very
difficult to design and to implement the hybrid topology. It is expensive too.

Transmission media:
A transmission media is defined as the means of communication between networking devices that
helps to transfer data from sender to receiver and vice versa. Transmission media enables computers to send
and receive messages. Transmission media provides the path through which electrons (data) flow.
Transmission media is classified into two categories.
Transmission
media

Bound Unbound
media media

Guided/ Bound/ Wired Media:

Guided transmission media uses a 'cabling' system that guides the data signals along a specific path.
A signal traveling along any of these media is directed and contained by the physical limits of the medium.
Twisted pair Cable:
It is very common transmission media. It
is made from copper wire twisted to each other. It
used either for analog or digital transmission. A
twisted pair consists of two conductors each with its
own colored plastic insulation. Colors are used both
to identify the specific conductors in a cable and to
indicate which wires belongs in pairs and how they
are relate to other pairs in a large bundle. The
twisting is done to avoid the interference of noise.

Advantages:
 It is less expensive and suitable for digital data transmission.
 It is thin and flexible for wiring purpose.
 It has higher data transfer rate up-to Gbps.

Disadvantages:
 It is not possible to transmit data for long distance
 It emits electromagnetic interference.
 It is not suitable for analog data. Such as video transmission.

Types of twisted pair cable:

1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): UTP cable is the common type flexible-communication
media today. It transmission both data and voice. A twisted pair consists of two insulation. UTP cables
are less expensive and easy to use.
2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): STP cables have metal foil or branded mesh covering each pair
of insulated conductor. The metal casing prevents penetration of electromagnetic noise So it is suitable
for environments with electrical interference, however the extra shielding can make the cables quite
bulky.
Coaxial Cable:-

Coaxial cable consists of solid copper wire as the core. It is surrounded by insulating material. The
insulator is encased by a cylindrical conductor often is encased by a cylindrical conductor, often as closely
woven braided mesh. The outer conductor is covered in protective plastic sheath.
It can span longer distance at higher speed than twisted pair. The construction and shielding of
coaxial cable give it a good combination of high bandwidth and excellent noise protection. The bandwidth
of coaxial cable depends upon quality of cable, length and signal to noise ratio of data signals. It is used for
cable TV and MAN.
Types of Coaxial Cable:-

1. Thin Coaxial Cable:- Thin coax is capable of carrying signals at the speed of 10 Mbps up to
200 meters, but in actual condition the length is only 185 meter observed for efficient communication.
This cable is popular in linear bus network.
2. Thick Coaxial Cable:- Thick coax is capable of carrying signals at the speed of 100 Mbps up
to 500 meters. Thick coax has an extra protective plastic cover that helps to keep moisture away from
the central conductor.
Advantages of Coaxial Cable
 It has higher bandwidth than twisted pair cable.
 It has less electromagnetic interference.
 It can support multiple channels in a medium.

Disadvantages
 It is expensive than twisted pair cable.
 It is not suitable for digital data transmission.
 It is easily tapped.
Optical Fiber Cable:-
It is made up of glass or plastic that
transmits signals in the form of light. It is similar
to coaxial cable except without the braid. Optical
fiber cable is made of a light conducting glass or
plastic core through which light propagates.
 Advantages:
 It has much greater bandwidth than twisted pair and coaxial cable.
 They do not have speed limitation or bandwidth limitation.
 They are much lighter than twisted pair and coaxial cable.
 A signal can run for miles without requiring regeneration.
 They ate difficult to tap.
 They are not affected by EMI (Electro Magnetic Interference.)
Disadvantages:
 They have limited bend radius.
 They are expensive.
 They are difficult to connect two fiber optic cable.
 They are inflexible.

Unbound/ Unguided/ Wireless Media:

Unbound media does not use any physical connectors between the two device communicating.
Usually, the transmission media is send through the atmosphere. Wireless media is uses when physical
obstruction or distance blocks are used with cable media. Unbound media transports electro-magnetic
waves without using physical conductor. Instead signals are broadcast through air and available to anyone
who has a device capable of receiving them.
Some unbound media are radio wave, microwaves, informed waves, satellite etc.

1. Microwave: It is an electromagnetic wave and frequency between 1-300 GHz. This system uses
high frequency radio signal transmit data through space. Microwaves frequencies wave cannot send and
pass obstacles like hill or building, it is necessary that microwave transmission be in a line-of-sight.
Microwave signals become weaker after traveling a certain distance and require power
amplification. That's why repeaters are used at regular intervals of 25-30 km in between transmitting
and receiving station. Microwave system permits data rate of 16 Gbps.
Advantages:
 It has a speed of light.
 It has high bandwidth.
 It is relatively expensive.
Disadvantages:
 The microwave should be in line-of-sight.
 It does not cover large space.
 It uses encryption for security.
2. Satellite: Communication satellite in a space orbiting 22,000 miles above the Earth, are also used
as microwave relay station because they rotate at the precise point and speed above the equator that
makes them appear stationery to microwave transmitters on the ground Satellite links use microwave
frequencies in the order of 4-12 GHz.
Transmitting of signals from ground to satellite is called up linking the reverse is called down
linking. The data transfer rate of uplink is lower than that of downlink.
Advantages:
 It has very high bandwidth.
 It covers large space.
Disadvantages:
 It is expensive.
 It has signal propagation delay.
Network Connecting Devices:

1. MODEM (Modulator and Demodulator):

 The word MODEM stand for Modulator and Demodulator. It is a device which translates data from binary
code (digital) to analog data that can be transmitted over the telephone network. Modulation is the conversion
from analog to digital. When we send a file from our PC it is converted to analog signal and converted back to
digital signal when it arrives at the destination by the MODEM connected to that computer.
2. NIC (Network Interface Card):
A Network Interface card is interface for connecting the computer to the network devices through
communication media. It is basically a circuit board that is commonly inbuilt inside the main board of
computer. Each Network Interface card is uniquely identified by a special number called MAC Address (Media
Access Control).
3. HUB: Hub is the Networking device which has multiple ports for connecting different computers in single
LAN. It is generally used in star topology. It accepts data, amplify and retransmit them to their destination. It
cannot filter the network traffic and it has limited number of ports so that only a fixed number of computers can
be connected with it.
4. Routers: It is a highly intelligent, protocol sensitive linking device used to link similar or dissimilar LANs.
A router which can be hardware, software or both is a device that connects two networks.
5. Gateway: A Gateway is a node or a device that servers as an entrance to another network. The gateway
routes the traffic from a workstation to the outside network that is in the network or in the websites. The
gateway is used to connect the users to the internet. The gateway also acts as a firewall in the network.
6. Repeaters: Since a signal loses strength as it passes along a cable, it is often necessary to boost the
signal with a device called repeater. The repeater electrically amplifies the signal it receives and rebroadcasts it.
They are used when the total length of your network cable exceeds the standards set for the type of cable being
used.
7. Bluetooth: It is a low cost, low power, wireless radio frequency technology that allows various devices to
communicate with each other. One advantage of Bluetooth over infrared is that close proximity between the
communication devices is not required distance of up to 10 m or 32 feet are allowed.
8. Infrared: It is an unguided communication medium that uses a red light (below the visibility of human eye)
to transmit information. In the area of network infrared is used to connect the local area network in the same
room and to connect computer with peripheral device such as, keyword etc.
9. Wi-Fi: The full form of Wi-Fi is wire fidelity, Wi-Fi is the popular wireless networking technology that
used radio wave to provides wireless high speed internet and network connection. Wi-Fi works with no physical
connected between sender and receiver by us RF (radio frequency).
OSI Reference model of Networking:
 An OSI Reference model of network is ISO certified model that entirely describe how information
is transmitted from an application of one computer to another application of other computer.

1. Physical layer: It is responsible for transmitting raw bits over communication channel. So, it defines
the mechanical, electrical, functional and procedural standards for the physical transmission of data over the
communication medium.
2. Data Link Layer: It provides the functions and protocol to transfer data between network resources and
to detect errors that may occurs in the physical layer.
3. Network Layer: It is the agent for establishing connection between heterogeneous networking
systems.
4. Transport Layer: It is responsible for transport and reliable transfer of data. It divides the message
into blocks and transports them.
5. Session Layer: This layer provides the mechanism for organizing and structuring interaction between
application and devices.
6. Presentation Layer: It is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information transmitted. It is
also responsible for representation of the data to the end-user or application.
7. Application Layer: It allows application to access network services such as file transfer, access
relocate file, database, E-mail etc.
 Unit VII: Internet and Business

Evolution of Internet:
The origins of the Internet date back nearly 40 years, with the U.S. military's funding of a research
network dubbed Arpanet in 1969. Since then, the Internet has undergone more than just a name change. The
number of computers connected to the Internet has grown exponentially, while the number of users has
risen from a handful of computer scientists to 1.5 billion consumers. The network's reach has expanded
beyond the United States to every corner of the globe. But its popularity has a dark side, as it has evolved
from a friendly research network to a hotbed of criminal activity including fraud and identity theft.
The world's largest network of computer networks got its original name from the U.S. military arm
that funded it: Arpanet was for the Advanced Research Projects Agency. Back in 1969 when Arpanet was
created, it connected five sites: UCLA, Stanford, UC Santa Barbara, the University of Utah and BBN. In
1983, the U.S. Defense Department spun-off MILNET*, which was the part of Arpanet that carried
unclassified military communications. Arpanet was renamed the Internet in 1984, when it linked 1,000
hosts at university and corporate labs.
*MILNET was later re-named the Defense Data Network and finally NIPRNET, for Non-classified IP
Router Network.
The number of computers connected to the Internet has grown dramatically from the network's
humble beginnings, when it connected four computers at university research labs. Today, the Internet links
more than 440 million computers directly, and millions more have Internet access through private
addressing schemes.
Internet usage has exploded since 1995, when researchers first started tracking this statistic.
Although estimates vary from the Internet having 1 billion to 1.5 billion users, everyone agrees that the 'Net
has room for growth as the worldwide population tops 6 billion. That leaves more than 4 billion people
around the world without Internet access today.
 The Internet's Domain Name System was created in 1984 to match complex IP addresses with easy-
to-remember names ending in extensions such as .com, .org, .edu, .gov, .mil and country codes including
.de for Germany. In 1998, the U.S. Department of Commerce privatized domain name registrations and
operations through the creation of the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers. Since then,
domain name sales have risen nearly 10-fold, but .com remains the most popular domain.
In 1990, Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web as a method of publishing information in
a hypertext format on the Internet. The Web began to take off in 1993, after computer science student Marc
Andreessen created the first popular Web browser, known as Mosaic. Since then the number of Web sites
and Web pages has exploded.

Addresses in the Internet: