1

Experiment No. 1

FAMILIARIZATION WITH ANALOG AND DIGITAL MULTIMETERS

Objective: To comprehend and learned practical use of analog and digital multimeter.

Apparatus:

 Analog Multimeter
 Digital Multimeter
 AC/DC Power Source
 Resisters

Basic Theory:

The perfect use of précised measuring of equipment is very important before start working with
electrical and electronics circuits. Analog meter consists of a galvanometer and a point for showing
electrical quantities while digital meters use electronics devices like A/D (Analog to Digital) converter
and seven segment displays for reading electrical quantities.

Figure 1.1a: Analog multimeter function switch Figure 1.1b: Digital multimeter function switch
on 2.5 DC FSD range on AC / DC volt

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 2

Figure 1.2: Typical voltmeter circuit for multiple ranges

Figure 1.3: The range switch selects the voltage that can produce full –scale deflection, the
reading shown over here is 0 volts on the 250 volts range (DC).

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 3

USE OF MULTIMETER

Table:

No of Position of Position of Scale Used Multiplier Actual reading

Obs. Function Range Switch
Switch
1 AC V

2 AC V

3 AC V

1 AC I

2 AC I

3 AC I

1 DC V

2 DC V

3 DC V

1 DC I

2 DC I

3 DC I

1 Ohms

2 Ohms

3 Ohms

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 4

VIVA VOCE:

Question No. 1 Can we measure power with a multimeter?

Answer: Yes, by measuring voltage and current, and their product.

Question No. 2 How a multimeter is connected in a circuit by measuring current through that
circuit?

Answer: We break the circuit for its current path and insert the meter in series with
current function.

Question No. 3 Is Ohmic scale on analog meter is linear or non-linear?

Answer: Its Nonlinear.

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 5

Experiment No. 2

TO FIND THE RESISTANCE OF RESISTORS BY COLOR-CODING TECHNIQUE

Objective: To understand the color coding technique of a resistor.

Apparatus:

 Resistor of different values

 Multimeter
 Magnifying glass

Basic Theory:

While working electronic circuit and sorting of component resistor is color coded for easy
selection of junk and enhanced working. Color bands are on the resistor associated with world-wide
known numerical values.

Table 2.1: Color code and tolerance for resistors.

Colors Number Multiplier Tolerance (%)

Black 0 1
Brown 1 101
Red 2 102
Orange 3 103
Yellow 4 104
Green 5 105
Blue 6 106
Violet 7 107
Gray 8 108
White 9 109
Gold 10-1 5%
Silver 10-2 10%
Colorless 20%

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 6

Figure 2.1: A typical 4 band resistor.

Observation Table:

No. of 1st Band 2nd Band 3rd Band Tolerance Calculated Measured Differences
Obs. (Multiplier) % Value Value
1

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 7

VIVA VOCE:

Question No. 1 What is decade resistor box?

Answer: It is a box containing series of resistances and multi switches by means of

which we can select any value of resistor as required i.e. 1 Ω to 100 k Ω.

Question No. 2 How a variable resistor is used as potential meter or rheostat?

Answer: A variable resistor has three terminal end connections and tap connections.
When voltages are applied at end connection and output is taken between one
end and tap connection, this is called potentiometer; when a variable is
inserted in the circuit by joining one end and tap connection together.

Question No. 3 What does it mean when third band of a resistor is gold or silver?

Answer: Third band, Gold or Silver indicates the decimal multiplier of a resistor: (Gold
= 0.1 & Silver = 0.01)

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 8

Experiment No. 3

TO STUDY COMBINATION OF RESISTORS IN SERIES

Objective: To objective of this lab is to study circuits with resistors connected in series.

Apparatus:

 Multimeter
 Resistors of different values
 Bread board
 Connecting wires
 Power supply

Basic Theory:

In this experiment, we will study the properties of resistors which are connected in series. Figure 3.1
shows two resistors connected in series (a) and the equivalent circuit with the two resistors replaced by an
equivalent single resistor (b).

Figure 3.1: Resistors connected in series. (a) The actual circuit, (b) The equivalent circuit.

Remember from lecture that, when resistors are connected in series, each one ‘sees’ the same current. In
lecture, we showed that the equivalent resistance of resistors in series is:

Req = R1 + R2

Of course, this equation can be extended to any number of resistors in series, so that for N number of
resistors the equivalent resistance is given by:

Req = R1 + R2 + R3 ……+ RN

So, in series circuit, total resistance is simply the sum of all the resistances. In series
combination, same current flows in each resistor. The potential difference across the source is
equal to the sum of the potential differences across the various resistors.

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 9

I= =

Observations and Calculations:

Obs. Value Value Value Total Voltage Voltage Voltage

(R1) (R2) (R3) Voltage Across R1 Across R2 Across R3
(RT) (V1=IR1) (V2=IR2) (V3=IR3)
Calculated

Measured

VIVA VOCE:

Question No. 1 What will be current through a series circuit when applied voltage is 10 volts
and circuit resistance is 5 Ohms?

Answer: 2 Amperes.

Question No. 2 What will be the amount of current in each bulb when 12 bulbs are connected
in series?

Answer: Same current.

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 10

Experiment No. 4

TO STUDY COMBINATION OF RESISTORS IN PARALLEL

Objective: To objective of this lab is to study circuits with resistors connected in parallel.

Apparatus:

 Multimeter
 Resistors of different values
 Bread board
 Connecting wires
 Power supply

Basic Theory:

In this experiment, we will study the properties of resistors which are connected in parallel. Figure 4.1
shows two resistors connected in parallel and the equivalent circuit with the two resistors replaced by an
equivalent single resistor.

Figure 4.1: Resistors connected in parallel. (a) The actual circuit, (b) The equivalent circuit.

Remember from lecture that, when resistors are connected in parallel, each one ‘sees’ the same voltage. In
lecture, we showed that the equivalent resistance of resistors in parallel is:

Of course, this equation can be extended to any number of resistors in parallel, so that for N number of
resistors the equivalent resistance is given by:

= +…….+

So, in parallel circuit, total resistance will be the reciprocal of all the resistances. It’s important to
remember that after you do this calculation, you will have gotten 1/Req. You have to flip that over in order
to get Req. In parallel combination, different current flows in each resistor, such that:

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 11

I = I1 + I2 + ………….. + In

I1 = , I2 = , ….., In =

Then we have:

I=V(

Observations and Calculations:

Obs. Value Value Value Total Total Current Current Current

(R1) (R2) (R3) Voltage Current through through through
(RT) (A) R1 (mA) R2 (mA) R3 (mA)
Calculated

Measured

VIVA VOCE:

Question No. 1 What will be current through each branch of a circuit employing 2 resistors of
20 Ohms and 10 Ohms in parallel and voltage applied is 20 Volts?

Answer: 1 Amperes and 2 Amperes respectively.

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 12

Experiment No. 5

CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMI-CONDUCTOR DIODE

Objective: To plot forward bias and reverse bias curves for a diode.

Apparatus:

 Semi-conductor Diode apparatus

 Voltmeter
 Mili ammeter
 Micro ammeter
 Variable resistance

Basic Theory:

The diode is a device formed from a junction of n-type and p-type semiconductor material. The
lead connected to the p-type material is called the anode and the lead connected to the n-type material is
called the cathode. In general, the cathode of a diode is marked by a solid line on the diode. The primary
function of the diode is rectification. When it is forward biased (the higher potential is connected to the
anode lead), it will pass current. When it is reversed biased (the higher potential is connected to the
cathode lead), current flow is blocked. A diode symbol and its general circuit and curve looks like as
shown in the figure below:

Figure 5.1: A characteristic IV-curve for a forward and reverse biased diode.

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 13

Figure 5.2: A diode in symbolic form.

Observations and Calculations:

Forward Bias Reverse Bias

Volts mA Volts mA

0.1 2

0.2 4

0.3 6

0.4 8

0.5 10

0.6 12

0.7 14

0.8 16

0.9 18

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 14

VIVA VOCE:

Question No. 1 What is donor impurity element?

Answer: Donor impurity gave electrons to form N type semiconductor, e.g. Arsenic
(As) and Antimony (Sb) for Ge and Phosphorus (p) for Silicon (Si) are donor
elements.

Question No. 2 What is acceptor impurity element?

Answer: Acceptor impurity electrons take to form P-type semiconductor, Gallium (Ga)
and Indium (In) is used for Ge while Aluminum (Al) and Boron (B) are
acceptor impurity elements.

Question No. 3 What is intrinsic semiconductor?

Answer: A pure semiconductor without any doping is called intrinsic semiconductor.

Question No. 4 What is extrinsic semiconductor?

Answer: The doping result in an extrinsic semiconductor meaning it is not in the pure
form.

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 15

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 16

Experiment No. 6

TO STUDY THE VARIATION OF PHOTOELECTRIC CURRENT WITH

INTENSITY OF INCIDENT LIGHT

Objective: To study the photoelectric effects of metal by light incidence.

Apparatus:

 Photo cell
 Light source
 Micro ammeter

Basic Theory:

When light is incident on certain metals, they produce current, which is directly proportional to
the square of the distance between the light source and the photocell and follows inverse square law.

Figure 6.1: Experimental observation of the photoelectric current.

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 17

Observations and Calculations:

No. of Distance Square of d Intensity Current (I)

Obs. (d) (d)2 (1/d2) (mA)

VIVA VOCE:

Question No. 1 What is intensity of light?

Answer: The number of light rays per unit area.

Question No. 2 Name two metals which are sensitive to light?

Answer: Cadmium sulphate and Silver oxide.

Question No. 3 How we can get a large current through photocell?

Answer: By parallel adding the photocells.

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 18

Graph:

Square of distance (d)2

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 19

Experiment No. 7

TO DETERMINE THE WAVELENGTH OF SODIUM LIGHT USING

NEWTON’S RINGS

Objective: To determine wavelength of monochromatic light with the formation of Newton’s rings.

Apparatus:

 Newton ring apparatus

 Plano-convex lens
 Sodium light

Basic Theory:

This experiment is based on interference of light waves reflected from the surface of a thin air
film formed between the plane glass and the plano-convex lens whose thickness varies while moving
from the center towards the end. The beams produced from the monochromatic source satisfy the
condition of coherence for interference. The dark and light fringes which are of ring shaped (Newton
Rings) are produced by the air film existing between a plano-convex lens and a plane glass.

Consider a ray of light incident on the air film at a point where its thickness is t. The optical path
difference between the two reflected rays will be 2t. Taking into account the phase change of π for
reflection at the rare to dense surface, the conditions for constructive and destructive interference are:

2t = (m + ) (constructive interference / bright rings)

2t = mλ (destructive interference / dark rings)

Where m is the order of the ring and can take the values; m = 0, 1, 2, 3, ……

Figure 7.1: Apparatus for observing Newton’s rings.

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 20

Figure 7.2: Geometry of Newton’s ring arrangement.

If R is the radius of curvature of the lens and r, the distance of the point under consideration to the point
of contact of the lens and glass plate (Fig. 8.2) then:

R2 = (R -t)2 + r2
R2 = R2 – 2tR + t2 + r2
2t = r2/R = D2/4R

since t2 << r2 and D = 2r, diameter of a ring.

Figure 7.3: Measuring the diameter of the central ring (Dc) and the position of the rings on the left hand
(L1 to LM) and the right-hand sides (R1 to RM)

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 21

Combining this with the condition for, sat the mth dark ring, one gets the diameter of that ring:

D2m = 4Rmλ

Hence λ can be determined. The same equation would be obtained if the bright rings had been taken.

VIVA VOCE:

Question No. 1 What are Newton’s rings?

Answer: Alternate dark and bright rings formed due to presence of air film when
plano-convex lens is placed on glass plate is called Newton’s rings.

Question No. 2 What is the basic principle for the formation of Newton’s rings?

Answer: Interference of light.

Question No. 3 Why is the center of the ring dark?

Answer: At the point of contact the path difference is zero but one of the rays is
reflected so the effective path difference becomes λ/2, thus the condition of
minimum intensity is created and hence it is a dark spot.

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 22

Experiment No. 8

TO DETERMINE THE FREQUENCY OF AC WITH MELDE’S APPARATUS

Objective: To determine the frequency of AC with Melde’s apparatus in transverse mode of vibration.

Apparatus:

 Melde’s Apparatus
 Weights
 Thread

Basic Theory:

This experiment aims at verifying the laws of transverse vibration of a string under tension. In
such a case, the disturbance travel along the string with a velocity given by:

V=

Where T denotes the tension in absolute units and m is mass per unit length. The frequency of
fundamental mode of vibration of the string vibrates in one segment and is shown in figure 8.1 below.

n1 = =

Figure 8.1: Fundamental mode of vibration.

The Melde’s apparatus consists of a light string about 1 meter in length with one end fixed to the prong of
a large tuning fork which is maintained vibrating electrically. The other end passes over an adjustable
pulley and is fastened to a small-scale pan. The tension in the string can be varied at will by placing
weights in the pan. The vibration of the fork may be either along the string or at the right angle to the
string. The first mode is called longitudinal mode and the second is called the transverse mode of
vibration.

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 23

Figure 8.2: A string of fixed length l and constant tension T is set in motion by a tuning fork. The above
waveform occurs since an incident wave interferes with its own reflected wave.

Observations and Calculations:

Mass of thread 5 m in length = M= …………gms

Mass of thread 1 cm in length = m = M/500 = …………gms
Mass of the empty scale pan = wt = ………….gms wt.
Value of acceleration due to gravity = g= 981 cm/s

Figure 8.3: Transverse mode arrangement.

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 24

Sr# No of Distance b/w Weight Weight of the Tension in

loops extreme added to pan + weight dyne n1 =
(p) nodes scale pan added T = W*9.8
(L) (W2) W = W1+W2
(Hertz)

Mean frequency of vibrating segment = n = ……………..vibration/seconds

Frequency of AC supplu mean = ½ frequency of vibrating segment = ……………..cycle/seconds
Actual value of AC supplied = ……………….cycle/seconds
Percentage error = ………………..

VIVA VOCE:

Question No. 1 What is the important significance of Melde’s experiment?

Answer: It illustrates in an elegant manner the formation of stationary waves.

Question No. 2 What mode of vibration is made by vibrator?

Answer: Transverse mode of vibration.

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 25

Experiment No. 9

FARADAY’S LAW OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Objective: To make an electromagnet using induction method.

Apparatus:

 Permanent Bar Magnet

 Insulated copper Wires (with ends stripped, ~200cm)
 Galvanometer (sensitive to 3.5-0-3.5 mA, 10 Ω resistance)
 LED

Basic Theory:

Electromagnetic induction is a process where a conductor placed in a changing magnetic field (or
a conductor moving through a stationary magnetic field) causes the production of a voltage across the
conductor. This process of electromagnetic induction, in turn, causes an electrical current - it is said to
induce the current. In this experiment, we take a magnet and a coil. We connect a galvanometer across the
coil. At starting, the magnet is at rest, so galvanometer does not show any deflection, that is, needle of the
galvanometer is at the center or zero position. When magnet is moved towards the coil the needle of
galvanometer deflects in one direction. When magnet is held stationary at that position, the needle of the
galvanometer returns back to zero position. Now when the magnet is moved away from the coil, it again
shows some deflection but in opposite direction and again zero when magnet becomes stationary.
Similarly, if magnet is held stationary and the coil is moved away and towards the magnet, the
galvanometer shows deflection in similar manner. It has also been observed that the faster the change in
magnetic field, greater will be the induced emf or voltage in the coil.

Figure 9.1: Phenomenon of electromagnetic induction. Induced current makes near end of S pole
(left side pic) and induced current makes near end of N pole (right side pic)

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 26

VIVA VOCE:

Question No. 1 What is Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction?

Answer: This law states that:

a) Whenever an electric conductor is linked with the changing flux or
whenever the magnetic flux is cut by an electrical conductor, there
will be an induced emf in the conductor.
b) The magnitude of the induced emf will be directly proportional to the
rate of change of flux linked with the conductor or it will be
proportional to the rate of flux cutting by the conductor.

Question No. 2 State few applications of Faraday’s law?

Answer: Faraday’s law finds it’s applications in most of the electrical machines,
industries and medical fields, e.g.,
 Electrical transformers
 Electrical generators
 Induction cookers/stoves
 Electromagnetic flow meters
 Musical instruments (electric guitars, electric violin)
 Flash light

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 27

Experiment No. 10

TO STUDY THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A TRANSISTOR

Objective: To show the basic method for plotting collector characteristic curve of a typical NPN
transistor.

Apparatus:

 Transistor
 Multimeter (with mili and micro ranges)
 Power Supply
 Resistors (1 KΩ and 10 KΩ)
 Variable Resistors (5 KΩ and 10 KΩ)

Basic Theory:

The structure and operation of PN junction transistor is similar as the PN junction diode as the
transistor is essentially made up of two PN junction diodes coupled together by a thin common base,
either P type or N type material. Therefore, there are two types of junction transistors depending upon the
material of the base, i.e. PNP and NPN transistors. In this experiment, we will follow the basic procedure
to obtain a characteristic curve using our actual data. A typical set of characteristic curves is shown in
figure 11.1. Such a group of lines is usually referred to as a family of curves, because more than one line
is drawn on the graph. Each line shows how the collector current (IC) varies as the collector-emitter
voltage (VCE) is changed, while the base current (IB) is held constant.

Figure 10.1: Ideal common-emitter characteristics curve graph (NPN transistor).

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 28

Figure 10.2: Basic circuit for measuring characteristic curves.

Procedure:

1. Set the components on breadboard as per circuit.

2. Apply 15 V DC to the circuit. The VR1 is used for adjusting the base current IB of the transistor,
while the VR2 is used for adjusting the applied voltage between emitter and collector (V CE).
3. Set VRI at its mid position. Slowly turn the VRI towards right and measure voltage drop 0.1 volt
and calculate the base current IB:
IB= =……………µA
4. Connect the voltmeter between C and E terminals. Slowly turn VR2 to obtain VCE = 1volt.
5. Measure the voltage drop across R2, using Ohms law and calculate the collector current IC
IC =………………mA
and record the result in the given table.
6. Repeat step 4 and 5 for the other values of VCE and get IC to complete the other values shown in
table.
7. Repeat all previous steps for 20 µA and 30 µA current to complete given table.
8. Plot the results of table on the graph and draw smooth curves through these plotted points. These
curves are IC-VCE characteristic curves for IB = 10 µA, 20 µA, 30 µA.
9. From the curve select a fixed value of VCE (Above 4 volts) and two curves to determine ß values
by equation:
= …………….
10. Using the calculated ß, calculate the = /(1+ ) = ………………..

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 29

Data Table:

VCE IC (mA) IC (mA) IC (mA)

(IB = 10 µA) (IB = 20 µA) (IB = 30 µA)
1V

2V

3V

4V

5V

6V

7V

8V

Figure 10.3: Characteristic curve graph.

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 30

VIVA VOCE:

Question No. 1 What is transistor? What are the types of transistors?

Answer: Transistor is a three-terminal semiconductor device. There are two types of

semiconductor, i.e., NPN and PNP.

Question No. 2 What are three basic transistor connection modes? Which mode is most
preferred? Why?

Answer: Common-Emitter, Common-Base and Common-Collector connections. CE

mode is most preferred because CE mode gives highest voltage gain.

Question No. 3 Define current amplification factor of a transistor?

Answer: It is defined as ratio of change in collector current to change in base current.

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 31

Experiment No. 11

TO DETERMINE THE WAVELENGTH (λ) OF SODIUM LIGHT USING

DIFFRACTION GRATING

Objective: To estimate the wavelength (λ) of sodium light.

Apparatus:

 Spectroscope/Spectrometer
 Diffraction Grating
 Sodium Lamp

Basic Theory:

A diffraction grating is a glass plate on which equally spaced parallel lines are drawn by means of
a fine diamond point. The lines act like fine opaque wires and space between two lines acts as a slit.
Usually 400 to 10,000 lines are ruled in 1 cm of glass plate. Consider a grating such that ‘a’ is the
thickness of each slit and ‘b’ is the separation between two consecutive slits.

Figure 11.1: Experimental set-up for measuring wavelengths with a diffraction grating.

Let the parallel beam of light falls on the grating and secondary waves are sent out from each slit. Along
certain definite directions, these secondary waves of particular wavelength (λ) either reinforce each other
as constructive interference or cancel each other as destructive interference. Consider the parallel rays
which after the diffraction through the grating make an angle (θ) with some perpendicular, say AB. They
are then brought to focus on the screen some central point, say C, by converging lens. If the path
difference between ray-1 and ray-2 is equals to one wavelength, they will reinforce each other at central
point C. Here the path difference means the difference in distance traveled by the two rays arrived at point
C, and therefore they will interfere constructively. So, the condition for constructive interference is that

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 32

path difference should be equal to wavelength (λ). Now, if ray-1 covers the extra distance, given by say rq
then than of ray-2 to reach point C, then

rq = λ (1)

But if it makes right angle triangle (rpq), then:

Sin(θ) = perpendicular/hypotenuse = rq/pq

pqSin(θ) = rq (2)

if pq = (a+b), then by putting values of pq and rq in equation (2), we get;

(a+b) Sin(θ) = λ

Where (a+b) is called the grating element and is denoted by ‘d’. So,

dSin(θ) = λ (3)

Hence, two adjacent waves will interfere constructively for the path difference λ, 2λ, 3λ……..nλ etc and
the bright image will be formed, called 1st order, 2nd order, 3rd order and so on. So, the grating equation
can be generalized as;

dSin(θ) = nλ where n = 1, 2, 3, 4…………..

The diffraction grating can be used to determine the wavelength used. As ‘d’ is always given by the
makers of the grating as: (a+b) = d = Total number of lines per millimeter, and the θ can be measured
with the help of spectrometer.

Observations and Calculations:

Order of Position of the Telescope Sin(θ)

= λ=
Spectrum

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 33

VIVA VOCE:

Question No. 1 What is a diffraction?

Answer: The bending of light around edges of an opening or obstacle planes in its path
is called diffraction of light.

Question No. 2 Why we use sodium lamp as a source of light in this experiment?
Answer: As the condition for interference or diffraction is that the light source should
be monochromatic (one color or sample wavelength) and coherent (same
phase), that’s why we use sodium light in this experiment.

Question No. 3 What is spectrometer?

Answer: The instrument used for analyzing and measuring the wavelength of light is
called spectrometer. It consists of collimator and a telescope. The
combination of variable slit and first lens is called the collimator and is used
to make the eye piece form a telescope to get the magnified view of the
image.

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 34

Experiment No. 12

WAVE PATTERN BY RIPPLE TANK

Objective: To calculate the velocity of water waves by ripple tank.

Apparatus:

 Ripple tank apparatus

Basic Theory:

A ripple tank for showing the properties of water waves (reflection, refraction,
diffraction) comprises a shallow transparent tray of water with a point light source above it and a
white screen on the floor below. Before adding the water, the tray is levelled with a spirit-level to
ensure a uniform water depth of rather less than one cm. A horizontal metal strip or circular
waves may produce straight parallel wave by a vertical ball ended rod. When either of these is
dipped into the water, a pulse of ripple is sent across the surface. The vibration of a small
eccentric electric motor moves up and down the bar. The light source produces a bright and dark
pattern on the white sheet below.

Use of stroboscope:

The eye can follow the progress of single wave pulse. So can that of continuous waves,
provided that the wavelength is not too short. If desired, however, the pattern formed by
continuous waves can be made to appear stationary using a stroboscope. One of the simplest
forms of stroboscope is a disc about 25 cm in diameter with several equidistant radial slits cut in
it. Pivoted on a handle, it is rotated by placing a finger in a hole near the center.

Figure 12.1: Bright and dark patterns.

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 35

Figure 12.2: Ripple tank apparatus.

Observation and Calculations:

No. of Obs. Frequency ‘f’ Wavelength ‘λ’ Velocity

(Hz) (m) ‘V = fλ’

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 36

VIVA VOCE:

Question No. 1 Are the waves observed in the Ripple tank experiment stationary or
travelling?
Answer: Traveling waves.

Question No. 2 What type of the waves are formed in the experiment?
Answer: Transvers waves.

Question No. 3 Can we observe phenomenon of interference of water waves?

Answer: Yes, by producing the simultaneous circular waves.

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 37

Experiment No. 13

TO DETERMINE THE SPECIFIC ROTATION OF CANE SUGAR BY

POLARIMETER

Objective: To calculate the specific rotation of sugar cane.

Apparatus:

 Laurent’s half shade polarimeter

 Can sugar
 Distilled water
 Weight balance
 Polarimeter tubes

Basic Theory:

When plane polarized light passes through certain substances such as quartz, crystal or sugar
solution, it rotates their plane of polarization. Such substances are called optically active substances. To
measure the angle of rotation of the plane polarization, two Nicole prisms are used as analyzers. When
two Nicoles are perpendicular to each other, no light passes through them. If sugar solution is placed
between the crossed Nicoles, some of light passes through them. It can be stopped by rotating the
analyzer through a certain angle in the clockwise direction. This light passing through the solution is still
plane polarized but its plane of polarization has been rotated in the clockwise direction through an angle
by which the analyzer is rotated from its crossed position. When the substance is placed in the path of
light, it is found that angle of rotation is directly proportional to the amount of optically active substance
placed in the path of light. If C is the concentration of solution, L is the length of tube containing the
solution; angle of rotation is given by:

So,

Where S is constant of proportionality, called specific rotation.

Formula:

Where, Specific rotation

Rotation
Length of the tube
No. of grams of sugar in 100 cc of solution.

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 38

Figure 13.1: Polarimeter setup.

Observation and Calculations:

Table:

No. of gms. Length of the Reading through Reading through Rotation Specific
Of sugar in Tube distilled water sugar solution Rotation
100cc
S=
W (Gm) L Θ1 (degree) Θ2 (degree) Θ = Θ1 - Θ2 (Θx100)/LxW

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 39

Figure 13.2: Q = 9.30 degree.

Procedure:

 Fill the tube with distilled water.

 Place it in polarimeter and note down the rotation 1 when half of the circle is dark or bright.
 Measure the weight of sugar and length of tube. Prepare the solution of sugar and water up to
100cc.
 Know fill the tube with sugar can solution.
 Note down again the rotation 2.
 Take the difference in rotation .
 Put the values and measure the result.

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 40

VIVA VOCE:

Question No. 1 What is a plane-polarized light?

Answer: In natural light, the vibration take place in all directions and is known as
unpolarized light. When such a beam is passed through crystal like tourmaline
and quartz, the latter absorb all such vibrations except those which are parallel
to the crystal axis i.e. emerging the light acquires the property of one
sidedness and is said to be plane polarized light.

Question No. 2 What is polarization?

Answer: A polarized beam of transverse waves is one where vibrations occur only in a
single direction perpendicular to the direction in which the beam travels, so
that the entire wave motion is confined to a plane called the plane of
polarization.

Question No. 3 What do you understand by optically active substance?

Answer: Substance which causes rotation of the polarization plane is called an

optically active substance.

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 41

Experiment No. 14

REMOTE CONTROL FUNCTION OF LASER

Objective: To operate a device remotely by laser.

Apparatus:

 LASER gun
 Sensing Circuit

Basic Theory:

The term LASER is an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. Laser
action has been obtained using many different materials, including gases such as neon, helium or carbon
dioxide liquid and solids such as rubies. The semiconductor laser uses the solid semiconductor as the
lasing material.

Laser Classification:
All regurgitations regarding laser and radiological health (CDRH), a branch of US department of health
services.

Class Description

Class I A laser or lasers system, which does not present a hazard to skin or eyes to for any
wavelength or exposure time. Power output is 0.4 micro watt to 0.05 micro watt.
Class II Any visible laser with an output less than 1 milli watt of power. Yellow warning
light is required. Generally used as class room lab lasers and laser pointer.
Class III a Any visible laser with an output over 5 milli watt of power, Red warning label is
required. Used as levelling instruments, and alignment equipment.
Class III b Any laser with an output over 5 milli watt of power with a maximum output of
power. Red warning label is required.
Class IV Any laser with over 500 milli watt of power. Red warning label is required
showing maximum output. These are generally in industrial application such as
tooling machining, cutting and welding. Most medical laser applications also
require these high-power lasers.

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 42

Figure 14.1: Ligth sensor circuit.

Figure 14.2: Typical Helium-Neon (HeNe) LASER tube structure and connections.

Rules for Laser Safety:

 Laser produces a very intense beam of light so treat them with respect. Most educational lasers
have less 3 milli watt of power and will not harm the skin.
 Never look into the laser aperture when the laser is turned ON as this could result to permanent
eye damage.
 Never stare into the oncoming beam.
 Never point laser into someone’s eye or face no matter how far they are.
 When using laser in laboratory or classroom always use beam stop.

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 43

Procedure:

In this experiment, we use an LDR light detecting resistor to automatically operate a light source.
We use two transistors and a variable resistor to control the sensing circuit. The source turned ON and
start glowing. When the LDR is in dark, it automatically turns OFF the light source.

VIVA VOCE:

Question No. 1 What does LASER stand for?

Answer: Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiations.

Question No. 2 Are lasers more intense than other visible light?
Answer: Yes, Lasers are more intense.

Question No. 3 Can we use gases in production of lasers?

Answer: Yes, Neon, Helium and carbon dioxide can be used for laser production.

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 44

Experiment No. 15

MEASUREMENT OF DIELECTRIC CONSTANT

Objective: To measure the dielectric constant of paper and plastic film.

Apparatus:

 DC Power Supply
 Digital Multimeter (with capacitance measurement function)
 A4 Paper and Plastic films (transparent) 10 sheets each
 Micrometer (to measure the thickness of paper and plastic films)

Basic Theory:

Capacitor, also known as an electrical condenser, is a device that can store electric charge or
energy. It can also be used in various types of circuit functions involving (i) Oscillator (alternate charging
and discharging of capacitor), (ii) Blocking the flow of direct current, (iii) Filter (varying impedance with
respect to frequency).

In its simplest form, a capacitor consists of two metallic plates (conductors) separated by a non-
conductive layer called the dielectric. The dielectric is a good insulator (incapable of passing electrical
current, but can pass electric flux).

Figure 15.1: two plate Capacitor with schematic diagram.

When voltage is applied across a capacitor, one plate becomes positively charged and the other one
negatively, with the corresponding electric field directed from the positive to the negative. The capacity
of a capacitor is represented by its capacitance, the amount of electric charge it can hold per volt, or C =
Q / V. So, the charge store on capacitor is given by:
Q = CV
Where,
Q = quantity of electrical charge on one plate
C = capacitance of the capacitor
V = voltage drop across the capacitor

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 45

The capacitance of a capacitor is dependent on the size of the plates, the spacing between them, and the
kind of dielectric medium used as an insulator. For a parallel plate configuration, the relationship is
expressed as follow:

=
where
C = Capacitance in farads, F
A = Overlapping area of the plates in square meters, m2
d = Separation distance between plates in meters, m
= Dielectric constant of the dielectric medium
o = Free space dielectric constant (8.854 x 10 -12 F/m)
r = Relative dielectric constant of the dielectric medium

The above equation indicates that the capacitance is directly proportional to the surface area of the plates
and the dielectric property of the dielectric medium. A capacitor can be formed with air (where r = 1) as
the insulator between the metal plates. When air space is replaced with a plastic film, capacitance is found
to be increased. If C is measured and plotted against 1/d, a straight line will be obtained, the slope of
which will be orA. Knowing oand A, the value of rcan be calculated. The common types of dielectric
media include aluminum oxide (electrolytic capacitor), mica, glass, ceramic, and plastic films
(polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, and polycarbonate).

Procedure to measure the dielectric constant:

1. Measure the overlapping area of the parallel plates, A.

2. A sheet of A4 size paper is to be inserted between the two plates. A fixed pressure is to be applied
between the two plates.
3. Measure the capacitance using a multimeter.
4. Repeat step 3 by progressively adding the number of papers between the two plates (up to 10
sheets).
5. Using a micrometer, measure the thickness for 10 sheets of papers. Assuming the thickness for
every sheet is the same, calculate the thickness for 1 sheet of paper.
6. Plot the graph of C versus 1/d and determine the relative dielectric constant (r) of the paper.
7. Repeat steps 2 – 6 with plastic sheets.

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 46

Observations and Calculations:

Overlapping Area of Parallel Plates, A = _______ m2

Thickness for 10 sheets of paper, tp10 = _________ mm
Thickness for 1 sheet of paper, tp = _________ mm

Table 15.1: Dielectric constant of paper.

No. of Papers d = n x tp 1/d Capacitance

(n) (mm) (mm-1) (nF)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Thickness for 10 sheets of plastic films, tf10 = _________ mm
Thickness for 1 sheet of plastic film, tf = _________ mm

Table 15.2: Dielectric constant of plastic.

No. of Plastic d = n x tf 1/d Capacitance

films (n) (mm) (mm-1) (nF)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 47

For paper, the gradient of the graph, ΔC/Δ (1/d) = ________ nF-mm
The relative dielectric constant of paper, (r)paper = _________
For plastic, the gradient of the graph, ΔC/Δ (1/d) = ________ nF-mm
The relative dielectric constant of plastic, (r)plastic = _________

VIVA VOCE:

Question No. 1 What is dielectric constant k?

Answer: Dielectric constant (k) is the ratio of the field without the dielectric (0) to
the net field () with the dielectric. (K = 0/)

Question No. 2 Define permittivity?

Answer: It is the ratio of electric displacement vector in a dielectric medium to the

applied electric field strength (Ԑ =D/E)

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 48

Experiment No. 16

DRAWING MAGNETIC FIELD LINES OF FORCES OF A BAR MAGNET

Objective:

 To understand the properties of magnetic field.

 To draw the line of force of flux lines and to understand and utilize
electromagnet.

Apparatus:

 Magnetic Bars
 Multimeter
 Compass Needle
 Electromagnet

Basic Theory:

As you can see by the attraction and repulsion of the magnetic poles, there are forces coming out
of magnetic poles to cause those actions. These actions are not limited to poles only, the magnetic force
so surrounds the magnet in a field, this can be seen when the compass is moved around the bar magnet.
One end of the compass needle will point to the opposite pole on the bar.

The magnetic field of magnet is made of lines of force that extend out into space from the North
pole of the magnet to South pole. These lines of forces do not cross and they become wider apart from the
magnet. The closer the lines of force are and the greater the number of force lines, the stronger the
magnetic field.

Procedure:

 Set the bar magnet on the table as shown in figure 16.1.

 Place the compass around the magnet for at least 20 positions and record the directions pointed by
the compass needle.
 Plot your recorded directions and draw the smooth curve to show the lines of force.

Results and Conclusion:

A good demonstration to show the existence of the magnetic lines of force is by

sprinkling iron filling on a flat surface and then placing a bar magnet near to them. These lines of
force are also known as flux lines.

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 49

Figure 16.1: Plotting magnetic lines of forces around a bar magnet.

Figure 16.2: Schematic diagram of an electromagnet.

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 50

VIVA VOCE:

Question No. 1 What is a magnet?

Answer: Magnet is an object which produces magnetic field around it. Magnets can be
made by placing a magnetic material, such as iron or steel, in a strong
magnetic field. Permanent, temporary, and electromagnets can be produces in
this manner.

Question No. 2 What might affect a magnet’s strength?

Answer: Factors that can affect a magnet’s strength includes, heat, radiation, strong
electrical currents in close proximity to the magnet, other magnets in close
proximity to the magnet etc. Shock and vibration do not affect modern
magnetic materials, unless sufficient to physically damage the material.

Question No. 3 How can you tell which is the North pole of the magnet if it is not marked?
Answer: You can’t tell by looking. You can tell by placing a compass close to the
magnet. The end of the needle that normally points towards the North pole of
the earth would point to the South pole of the magnet.

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 51

Experiment No. 17

VOLTAGE DIVIDER AND CURRENT DIVIDER

Objective: To verify the voltage and current division properties.

Apparatus:

 Power Supply
 Multimeter
 Rheostat ((200 Ω, 1.5 A)
 Connecting Wires

Basic Theory:

Voltage and current division allow us to simplify the task of analyzing a circuit. Voltage
Division allows us to calculate what fraction of the total voltage is dropped across any one
resistor value. Current Division allows us to calculate what fraction of the total current flows
through any one of the resistor given value. A rheostat is a variable resistor made of a wire
wound around a cylindrical shape insulator. There are connections for each end of the wire,
which have a constant resistance. There is also a ‘tap’ connection which varies between the
minimum and maximum value of the constant resistance. The variable resistor with a minor
change in connection change can both be used as voltage divider or rheostat.

Figure 17.1: Variable resistor schematic diagram.

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 52

Observations and Calculations:

Table 17.1:

Voltage Applied Circuit Resistance Current Product

(V) (Ω) (I) (I x R)
10 20

10 40

10 60

10 80

10 100

10 120

10 140

10 160

Voltage Divider:

Table 17.2:

Voltage Applied Tap R = Ω Current Tap Voltage

(V) (I) (V)

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS
 53

Current Divider:

Table 17.3:

Voltage Applied Tap Current (I) Tap Current

(V) Volts (I)

VIVA VOCE:

Question No. 1 What is a rheostat?

Answer: When a variable resistor is used for current controlling through a circuit, is
called a rheostat.

Question No. 2 What two electrical factors for the variable resistor are important to mention?
Answer: Voltage and Current rating (or power)

Question No. 3 How a variable resistor made?

Answer: Variable resistor is made by winding a metallic wire with specific resistance
around an insulating body or by a thin carbon film

Applied Physics for Engineers (PHY-121) Lab Manual CUI, ABBOTTABAD CAMPUS