Technische Universität München

3 Propulsion and Fuel Systems

3.1 Introduction to Propulsion Systems

3.2 Propulsion Control Systems
3.3 Fuel Control Systems

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Aircraft Systems| Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
3.1 Introduction to Propulsion Systems
Technische Universität München

Principles of Operation
Jet Engine vs. Piston Engine
Continuous
Air intake Compression Combustion Exhaust

Air/Fuel intake Compression Combustion Exhaust

Intermittent Source: Rolls-Royce, 1996

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Aircraft Systems| Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
3.1 Introduction to Propulsion Systems
Technische Universität München

Engine Technology
Propulsion/Engine Types

• Turbojet

• Turbofan

• Turboprop
Geared Turbofan PW1000G
𝐵𝑃𝑅 = 12
• Ramjet/Scramjet

Scramjet

Ramjet
H [km]

Turbojet +
afterburner

Turbo-
fan

Turboprop
Piston engine Turboprop TP400

Mach

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Aircraft Systems| Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
3.1 Introduction to Propulsion Systems
Technische Universität München

Engine Technology
Bypass Ratio (BPR)

• Turbojet 𝐵𝑃𝑅 ≈ 0 small mass flow, large velocity change

• Turbofan 𝐵𝑃𝑅 > 0 large mass flow, small velocity change

𝑚𝐵𝑦𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝐵𝑃𝑅 = [−] High Combustor
𝑚𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 Fan Pressure
Blade Compressor

Engine Shafts

• 2-shafts:
 General Electrics Low Pressure
Turbine
High-Pressure

 Pratt & Whitney

Turbine
Spinner

• 3-shafts:
Low Pressure
 Rolls-Royce Compressor Source: lyle.smu.edu (modified)

Cross-sectional view of the General Electric

GE90-115B of the Boeing 777
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Aircraft Systems| Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
3.1 Introduction to Propulsion Systems
Technische Universität München

Engine Technology
Emissions and Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC)

Turbojet
100
Turbofan
18% 1st Generation
∆𝑆𝐹𝐶, ∆𝐶𝑂2 , ∆𝑁𝑂𝑥 [%]

𝐵𝑃𝑅 2
80
2nd Generation
20% 𝐵𝑃𝑅 4 − 6
3rd Generation
𝐵𝑃𝑅 = 7 − 8
60 12% 4th Generation
𝐵𝑃𝑅 > 8 5th Generation
12-20% 𝐵𝑃𝑅 > 10
4-6% Geared Turbofan
𝐵𝑃𝑅 > 12
40
JT3C (B727) JT8D (B727) PW2000 (B757) GE90 (B777) Trent 900 (A380) PW1100G (A320neo)

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

Year Source: MTU (modified)

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Aircraft Systems| Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
3.1 Introduction to Propulsion Systems
Technische Universität München

Hybrid-Electric Propulsion
Serial Hybrid Architecture

Source: airbus.com

Source: airbus.com

Institute of Aircraft Design Slide 181

EXTRA INFORMATION
Aircraft Systems| Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
3.1 Introduction to Propulsion Systems
Technische Universität München

Engine Interfaces
The definition and control of the interfaces between the engine and the airframe is
essential to allow the airframe contractor and the engine contractor to develop their products
independently.

• Interfaces are between

 Engine and nacelle for podded under wing engine (commercial aircraft)
 Engine and fuselage (common for fast jet military aircraft)

• The definition of an Interface Control Document (ICD) enables the major project
contractor to declare and agree their interfaces. Typical interface categories are:
 Installation
 System Connections
 Power Offtakes

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Aircraft Systems| Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
3.1 Introduction to Propulsion Systems
Technische Universität München

Engine Interfaces
Installation

• Engine mass, center of mass and volume

• Engine clearances under static and dynamic

conditions

• Attachments
Source: planespotters.net (© David T. Ruiz)

• Thrust bearings and fuselage loads Boeing 737-800 with two CFM56-7B with the typical
flattened nacelle bottom and intake lip.

• Interface compatibility

• Turbine/disc containment measures

• Maintenance access points

• Drains and vents

• Ground crew intake and exhaust

Source: cfmaeroengines.com
safety clearances Relocating the gearbox and accessories from beneath
the engine to the sides reduces the nacelle diameter

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Aircraft Systems| Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
3.1 Introduction to Propulsion Systems
Technische Universität München

Engine Interfaces
System Connections

• Fuel connections

• Control system connections (throttles, reverse

thrust command)

• Cockpit indications, alerts and warnings

Source: aviation.stackexchange.com

• Air start interconnections ECAM engine page of the Airbus A380

• Air data requirements

• Fire detection and protection

• Engine start/relight commands

• Engine health monitoring

• Ground equipment connections

Source: a380flightdeck.tumblr.com (© Getty Images)

• Inspection access Airbus A380 engine maintenance at Lufthansa

Technik in Frankfurt, Germany

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Aircraft Systems| Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
3.1 Introduction to Propulsion Systems
Technische Universität München

Engine Interfaces
Power Offtakes

• Hydraulic power generation Engine

Drive Shaft

• Electrical power generation

• Bleed-Air
Accessory
Gearbox Source: hispano-suiza-sa.com

An accessory gearbox is connected to the engine drive

shaft that enables several power offtakes
LP Engine HP Engine
LPP HPP
Fuel Fuel
TM Engine Speed
Accessory Gearbox

Hydraulics Indications
EDP Channel A
Supply PMA
28VDC FADEC
Oil PMA
Engine Channel B
Lubrication
-
Engine Drive
Pumps
Shaft

Bleed-Air Starter EDP Engine Driven Pump (hydraulic)

Main 3-Phase FADEC Full Authority Digital Engine Control
Electrical 115VAC HPP High Pressure Pump (fuel)
Oil- Generator 400Hz LPP Low Pressure Pump (fuel)
Brthr.
PMA Permanent Magnet Alternator
Airframe Engine TM Tachometer
Typical accessory gearbox for power offtakes with
interfaces to the airframe Source: Moir and Seabridge, Aircraft Systems (2008)

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Aircraft Systems| Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
3.1 Introduction to Propulsion Systems
Technische Universität München

Engine Interfaces
No-Bleed Engine
“Bleed Engine”
Eliminating the pneumatic bleed results in a more
efficient engine operation due to reduced overall
airplane level power requirements.
Benefits (compared to traditional bleed-air engine)

• The aircraft does not draw as much power off the

engine in cruise  fuel consumption reduction of “No-Bleed Engine”
1-2%.

• Significant simplification in engine buildup due

the elimination of the pneumatic system:
 pre-coolers
 control valves
Comparison of typical engine buildups of a
 pneumatic ducting traditional bleed engine (top) and a no-bleed
engine (bottom)

Source: BOEING, AERO Magazine 04 (2007)

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Aircraft Systems| Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
 Technische Universität München

3 Propulsion and Fuel Systems

3.1 Introduction to Propulsion Systems

3.2 Propulsion Control Systems
3.3 Fuel Control Systems

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Aircraft Systems| Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
3.2 Propulsion Control Systems
Technische Universität München

Propulsion Control Systems

Reduction
Examples Constant Gearbox
Speed
Unit Instrumentation
Instrumentation

Low Velocity Bypass Air

TP400 (Europrop Int.)

Low Velocity Bypass Air

Propeller Propeller Engine Power Turbine
1500 – 3000 rpm Control Control 20000 – 40000 rpm
Trent 1000 (Rolls-Royce)
Propulsion Control System
Ducted Fan Engine
Bypass Air
6000 – 15000 rpm Control

Instrumentation

Reheat
Fuel

Intake Engine Reheat Nozzle

Control Control Control Control EJ200 (Eurojet Turbo)
Propulsion Control System

Source: Moir and Seabridge, Aircraft Systems (2008)

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Aircraft Systems| Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
3.2 Propulsion Control Systems
Technische Universität München

The Control Problem

The basic control problem is to control fuel flow and air flow to the engine to operate at its
optimum efficiency within the aircraft flight envelope (speeds, altitudes, temperatures).

The major design aspects are reliable, economical and long-term operation under
defined predictable conditions.

Control Objectives

• Fuel flow: Allow varying engine speeds

without damage by limiting rotating
assembly speeds, rates of acceleration
and temperatures

• Air flow: Allow the engines to be operated

efficiently throughout the aircraft flight
envelope (with adequate safety margins)

• Exhaust gas flow (military): Afterburner,

to provide extra thrust
Engine/compressor surge during takeoff of a Boeing 777
(see also Extra Information Slides 189-192)
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Aircraft Systems| Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
3.2 Propulsion Control Systems
Technische Universität München

Fuel Flow Control

Control of power or thrust is achieved by regulating the fuel flow into the combustor

Turbojet/Turbofan thrust control over

• Engine Pressure Ratio (EPR)

Spray
Electronic Engine
Oil Nozzles
• Fan speed (N1) Fuel/
Controller
Oil
Fuel
Flow
Engine
HP
SOV
Filter …
Fuel Flow Control LP Filter
HP
Pump
FMU F TX

Bypass Loop
• Fuel Control Unit (FCU) or VSV

Fuel Management Unit (FMU) Servo Fuel PRSOV

Airframe Engine Bleed Valves

• FCU/FMU achieve steady state Schematic of a typical aircraft fuel control circuit

and transient control

Note: A complete description of an FCU can be

found in the Rolls-Royce, The Jet Engine
Source: Moir and Seabridge, Aircraft Systems (2008)

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Aircraft Systems| Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
3.2 Propulsion Control Systems
Technische Universität München

Air Flow Control

Primary
Engine Air Management Variable Ramps
Secondary
Air Doors Nozzle

• Ensure efficient operation

• Maintain safety margin to engine

Spill Door Engine Bay
surge line Vent Door
Air flow through the engine area is changed at different speeds via a
variable geometry intake control system of the Concorde
• Optimum acceleration without surge

• Variable intake area/shock control for Inlet Guide Variable 7th Stage 12th Stage
Vane Guide Fixe Stator Air Air
high Mach (e.g. Concorde and Tornado) (Variable) Vane Vane

7th Stage 12th Stage

Bleed-Air Control Bleed-Air
Valve
Bleed-Air
Valve

• Engine stability

• Source for conditioning systems

Engine Compressor Stages 13
12
11
• Anti-Icing systems 7 8
9
10
6
4 5
2 3
1

Schematic of an typical engine air management with variable guide vanes

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Aircraft Systems| Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
3.2 Propulsion Control Systems
Technische Universität München

Principles of Engine Control

System Parameters

• Input Signals
 Throttle position
 Air data Air Data
Control System
Throttle
 Total temperature position

 Engine speed (N1, N2, N3) Speed

Fuel
Temperature
Demand
 Engine temperature (TGT, EGT)
 Nozzle position Thrust
Heat
Noise
 Fuel flow
Air
 Pressure ratio (EPR)

• Output Signals
 Fuel Flow Control Fuel
Power Off Take
 Air Flow Control
Engine control system schematic with basic inputs and outputs

Source: Moir and Seabridge, Aircraft Systems (2008)

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Aircraft Systems| Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
3.2 Propulsion Control Systems
Technische Universität München

Principles of Engine Control

Full Authority Digital Engine Control

The Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC) also called Engine Control Unit or
Engine Electronic Controller is a fully redundant digital control system which provides
complete engine management and control. The FADEC is mounted on the fan casing.

Principal Functions
• Optimized engine efficiency
Electrical wiring

• Protection from operation Air data

Engine
outside engine limits T1
Control Unit

• Coordination of engine/aircraft TGT

NH
Speeds
FCU

control functions Pump

• Saves weight, reduces Gearbox

TGT NH
pilot workload and reduces Fuel
maintenance costs
Full authority engine control system with electrical throttle signaling

Source: Moir and Seabridge, Aircraft Systems (2008)

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Aircraft Systems| Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
3.2 Propulsion Control Systems
Technische Universität München

Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC)

Main Benefits

• Enhance basic control functions:

Engine start, idle, acceleration,
deceleration, stability thrust

• Optimized engine control:

air management, bleed-air control
(anti-surge), cooling

• Enhanced engine protection: thrust

limitation, critical speed and pressure

• Improved pilot/engine interface

• Improved reliability and safety:

redundancy (dual channel), automatic fault
detections
Typical interfaces of the FADEC with engine
and airframe systems

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Aircraft Systems| Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
3.2 Propulsion Control Systems
Technische Universität München

Engine Starting System

Main Controls
• Fuel Control Isolation
Valve

•
Ground
Ignition Control Supply
Ignition
Unit
• Engine Rotation Igniter
APU Air
Valve
Plug
APU
Supply
Starting Sequence (by FADEC) Igniter
Plug Isolation
Ignition
1. Open low pressure cocks (fuel) Unit Starter
Valve
Control
Valve PRSOV
2. Rotate engine (electric/pneumatic) Accessory Engine
Gearbox Supply
Starter
3. Supply ignition energy
Electronic Engine
Control Start Switch
4. Set throttle levers to idle
– open high pressure cocks Schematic of a typical engine ignition control system

5. Switch off ignition (when self-

sustaining)
6. Switch off or disconnect rotation
power source
Source: Moir and Seabridge, Aircraft Systems (2008)

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Aircraft Systems| Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
3.2 Propulsion Control Systems
Technische Universität München

Engine Indication
Indication of certain engine parameters for pilots – displayed by the EICAS (Boeing) or the
ECAM (Airbus)
Electronic
Main Parameters Engine Control
N2
N3
• Engine Speed (N1, N2, N3) N1
RCC Vibration
• Engine Temperatures EPR
N3

P20/T20
• Engine Pressure Ratio (EPR) Accelerometer P50
EPR

•
EGT
Engine Vibration N1
OPR Probe
T44
N1 Probe
N2
N2 Probe
N3 and Power
• Thrust (or torque) Alternator

Engine indication system of the Rolls-Royce Trent 800 (Boeing 777)

Source: Moir and Seabridge, Aircraft Systems (2008)

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Aircraft Systems| Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
3.2 Propulsion Control Systems
Technische Universität München

Engine Oil System

Lubrication is vital for continued operation of the engine and all its high speed rotating
mechanisms. Typical monitoring parameters are pressure, temperature, cleanliness.

Fuel Cooled
Oil Cooler

Fuel
Oil Tank
Servo
Fuel

Scavenge Air
Oil Filter
Air/Oil Heat
Exchanger
Oil Pump

Pressure
Oil Filter

Engine
Gear Box
Breather

Schematic of a typical engine oil system Engine oil system of the Rolls-Royce Trent 900 (Airbus A380)

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Aircraft Systems| Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
 Technische Universität München

3 Propulsion and Fuel Systems

3.1 Introduction to Propulsion Systems

3.2 Propulsion Control Systems
3.3 Fuel Control Systems

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Aircraft Systems| Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
3.3 Fuel Control Systems
Technische Universität München

Introduction
Evolution of Fuel Control Systems

• In early days aircraft and general aviation aircraft fuel is gravity fed to the engines

• For transport aircraft with high performance engines more fuel and higher flow rates
are required

• Today: highly complex fuel systems

Major Fuel Control System Functions

• Engine and APU Feed

• Fuel Transfer

• Refuel/Defuel

• Fuel Jettison

• Monitoring and indication

Airbus A340 fuel system schematic

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Aircraft Systems| Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
3.3 Fuel Control Systems
Technische Universität München

Introduction
Example: Boeing 777 Fuel System

Source: lessonslearned.faa.gov

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3.3 Fuel Control Systems
Technische Universität München

Introduction
Aviation Fuels

Large transport aircraft use turbofan gas turbine engine which are designed to operate on a
distillate fuel, called jet fuel:

• Hydrocarbons with little more carbon and higher sulfur content than gasoline to reduce
corrosion and oxidation

• Anti-icing additives to prevent fuel icing

• Jet fuels for turbine engines

 JET A-1: Standard jet fuel in civil aviation

 JET A: Similar to A1, only available in U.S.

 JET B: lighter fuel, enhanced cold-

temperature performance, lower flame point
Refueling of the Boeing 787

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Aircraft Systems| Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
3.3 Fuel Control Systems
Technische Universität München

Introduction
Major Subsystems

• Fuel jettison system

• Fuel heating system

• Cross feeding fuel system

• Fuel tank ventilation Source: commons.wikimedia.org (© Bobmil42)

Fuel jettison (dumping) of an Airbus A340-600

• Central refueling

Major Components

• Fuel Tanks

• Fuel Lines, Fittings and Valves

• Fuel flow indicators

• Filters Source: aviationweek.com (

Synoptic fuel system display of the Boeing 787

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Aircraft Systems| Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
3.3 Fuel Control Systems
Technische Universität München

Fuel Tank
Fuel Tank Configuration

• The location, size, shape and construction of fuel tanks vary with the type and intended
use of the aircraft

• Transport aircraft: Fuel tanks are integral with the wing or other structural portions of
aircraft (e.g. fuselage, horizontal tail)

• Each tank is vented to the outside air through a ventilation system to maintain atmospheric
pressure within the fuel tanks

Engine Feed Engine Feed

Center Tank Right Wing

Tank
Left Right Wing
Wing Tank Tank
Fuel Fuel
Transfer Transfer

Fuel
Refuel/ Refuel/ Transfer
Air/Oil Heat
Defuel Defuel
Fuel Exchanger Fuel
Jettison Jettison

APU Aft
Feed Tank

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Aircraft Systems| Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
3.3 Fuel Control Systems
Technische Universität München

Fuel Tank
Fuel Tank Configuration Examples

Airbus A380

Concorde Boeing 767-200 Airbus A340-500

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Aircraft Systems| Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
3.3 Fuel Control Systems
Technische Universität München

Fuel Tank
Design Aspects (1)

• Wing compartments
 Wing tanks are often subdivided for fuel
management concerns
 Avoid the displacement of large fuel masses
during maneuvers
 Baffle valves restrict outboard flow

• Dry Bays in Rotor Burst Zones

 The potentially failure mode of an
uncontained rotor burst of an engine has to
be considered in fuel storage design
 The zone normal to the engines axis called
rotor burst zone is not suitable for tanks
(Dry Bay), fuel, hydraulic and electric lines
Source: Langton R., Aircraft Fuel Systems (2009)

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Aircraft Systems| Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
3.3 Fuel Control Systems
Technische Universität München

Fuel Tank
Design Aspects (2)

• Fuel Drain
 Fuel systems must contain at least one drain
 The position has to allow a draining of the entire fuel (aircraft is on the ground)
 An automatic and manual locking is required
 The locking has to be indicated

• Fuel Tank Expansion Space

 At least 2% of the tank capacity have to be left as an expansion space
 It must not be possible to fill this space with the fueling system
 An alternative system to avoid problems caused by volume expansion of the fuel is a
design of tank vents that allows discharging of excessive fuel

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Aircraft Systems| Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
3.3 Fuel Control Systems
Technische Universität München

Fuel Transfer
Apart from fuel feed to the engines and the APU, some fuel systems can perform the
following fuel transfers:

• Forward and aft fuel transfers to modify the aircraft’s CG position

• Inboard and outboard fuel transfers within the wing to reduce wing bending moments
and hence structural fatigue

Generic forward and aft fuel transfer Generic inboard and outboard fuel transfer

Source: Moir and Seabridge, Aircraft Systems (2008)

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Aircraft Systems| Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
3.3 Fuel Control Systems
Technische Universität München

Engine and APU Feed

Engine and APU feed is by far the most critical element of the fuel control system.
• Each engine is typically supplied by two fuel pumps with independent power supply
• The cross-feed valve allows the supply of an engine by the opposite side pumps (in case
of failure)
• In cruise conditions, a single booster pump is able to supply flow to both engines
• The engine Low Pressure (LP) valves shut off the fuel supply in case of an engine fire

Engine and APU feed system of the Airbus A320

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Aircraft Systems| Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
3.3 Fuel Control Systems
Technische Universität München

Fuel Jettison
• At the beginning of a flight, fuel constitutes a
large portion of the MTOW

• In case of an emergency or malfunction shortly

after take-off and a following in-flight turn back, a
large proportion of the fuel can be jettisoned to
reduce weight rapidly for landing.

• Jettison Systems have to be designed in a way Jettison tube of an Airbus A340

that catastrophic failures are less probable than
10−9 per flight hour:

 Uncommand jettison has to be avoided

 Dumping of a not quantified amount of fuel (in

the worst case the total mass)

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Aircraft Systems| Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
3.3 Fuel Control Systems
Technische Universität München

Central Refueling System

Fueling of transport aircraft lasts between 15 and 40 minutes depending on aircraft type and
mission.
Refueling system control panel

On modern transport category aircraft an automatic

refueling system controls the refuel valves to give
preselected fuel load and correct distribution:

• High-pressure hoses are connected to a single point

and the fuel is pumped into all tanks

• For large aircraft two or more hoses are attached

(double single-point)

• Usually fueling is done underwing, thus pressurizing

is required

Source: commons.wikimedia.org

Refueling and refueling system control panel

of the Airbus A350

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Aircraft Systems| Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
3.3 Fuel Control Systems
Technische Universität München

Fuel Management System

The fuel management function provides the following:

• Control, status and Built-In Test (BIT) of all system pumps, valves and pressure sensors

• Flight crew and ground crew interface

• Automatic/manual refuel/defuel operation

• Fuel transfer – burn sequence and lateral balance (programmed transfer sequence):
 Center tank is used to keep the four feed tanks topped up via center-to-feed transfer
 Once the center tank is emptied, the feed tanks are depleted
 Low fuel tank level: fuel from the trim tank and finally the wing outer tanks is
transferred to the feed tanks

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Aircraft Systems| Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
3.3 Fuel Control Systems
Technische Universität München

Fuel Management System

Example: Boeing 777

Fuel gauging and fuel management system of the Boeing 777 (simplified)

Institute of Aircraft Design Slide 216

EXTRA INFORMATION
Aircraft Systems| Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
3.3 Fuel Control Systems
Technische Universität München

Fuel Management System

Center of Gravity Control (Airbus A330)

Center of gravity control of the Airbus A330 (simplified)

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EXTRA INFORMATION
Aircraft Systems| Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
3.3 Fuel Control Systems
Technische Universität München

In-Flight Refueling
The ability to refuel an aircraft in the air greatly adds to
the flexibility of air power giving what is termed in
military parlance a force multiplier effect.

• In-flight refueling was first carried out in 1934

• Today in-flight refueling is limited to military

application
Handley Page W 10 tanker refueling Sir Alan
• Fighter aircraft are typically short range aircraft, Cobham’s Airspeed Courier in October 1934

thus areas of application can be extended by in-

flight refueling

• Two different methods are common today

 Probe and drogue (Royal Airforce)
 Boom and receptacle (US Airforce)
Source: dfrc.nasa.gov

In-flight Refueling of a SR71 Blackbird during

a flight in 1997

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Aircraft Systems| Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020