Technische Universität München

2 Flight Control Systems

2.1 Introduction to Flight Control Systems

2.2 Flight Control System Configuration
2.3 Flight Control System Architecture
2.4 Electronic Flight Control System

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Aircraft Systems | Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
2.1 Introduction to Flight Control Systems
Technische Universität München

Forces and Moments

Vertical axis
Pitching
moment
Longitudinal axis
y
Side force CG

Rolling
moment
Yawing
moment Lateral axis
x
Axial force

z
Normal force CG ...Center of Gravity

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Aircraft Systems | Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
2.1 Introduction to Flight Control Systems
Technische Universität München

100 Years of Flight Control

Wright Flyer (1903) Airbus A380 (2005)

Wingtip Increased
deflected lift Increased
downward Ailerons lift
Decreased deflected
lift downward Decreased
lift

Ailerons
Direction of Wingtip deflected
air flow deflected upward
Direction of
upward
air flow

• Roll control by asymmetric wingtip deflection • Roll control by asymmetric aileron deflections
at the wing trailing edge (wing warp) • Electrical linkage (fly-by wire) and flight control

• Mechanical linkage and actuation over pulleys computers

and control wires • Hydraulic servo-control actuation and electro
hydrostatic actuation as backup

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Aircraft Systems | Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
2.1 Introduction to Flight Control Systems
Technische Universität München

Principles of Flight Controls

Mechanical Flight Controls

Pilot Command Mechanical Actuation and Aircraft Response

Linkage/Transmit Surface Deflection

Electrical Flight Controls

Pilot Command Electrical Actuation and Aircraft Response

Linkage/ Transmit Surface Deflection

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Aircraft Systems | Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
2.1 Introduction to Flight Control Systems
Technische Universität München

Principles of Flight Controls

Mechanical Flight Controls

• The pilot orders are transmitted to the actuators by an arrangement of mechanical

components

• In addition, computers are modifying pilot feels on the controls, and autopilot computers
are able to control servo actuators that move the whole mechanical control chain

Pilot Command

Mechanical Actuation and

Transmit Surface Deflection
Source: Spitzer C.R., The Avionics Handbook (2007)

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Aircraft Systems | Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
2.1 Introduction to Flight Control Systems
Technische Universität München

Principles of Flight Controls

Electrical Flight Controls

• The Flight Control Computers (FCCs) interpret the pilot inputs and move the surfaces
(through actuators) as necessary

• Autopilot mode: The FCCs take their orders from the autopilot computers

• The flight controls are composed of 5-7 computers, and the autopilot of two

• The aircraft response to surfaces movement is fed back to both autopilot and flight
controls computers through specific sensors (Air Data and Inertial Reference Units)

Feedback

Electrical Actuation and

Pilot Command
Transmit Surface Deflection
Source: Spitzer C.R., The Avionics Handbook (2007)

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Aircraft Systems | Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
2.1 Introduction to Flight Control Systems
Technische Universität München

Principles of Flight Controls

Analog Electrical Flight Control System

First electrical flight control system for a civil aircraft was designed by Aerospatiale and
installed on the Concorde in 1969:
• Analog, full-authority system for all
control surfaces

• Commanded control surface positions

are directly proportional to the stick inputs

• Copies the stick commands onto the control

surfaces while adding stabilizing terms
• Mechanical back-up system

Source: concordesst.com

Schematics of the Concorde analog fly-by-wire

flight control system

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Aircraft Systems | Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
2.1 Introduction to Flight Control Systems
Technische Universität München

Principles of Flight Controls

Digital Electrical Flight Control System

The 1st generation of electrical flight control systems with digital technology (not all control
surfaces) appeared on several civil aircraft at the start of the 1980s (Airbus A310).

The 2nd generation of civil electrical flight control systems were realized within the Airbus
A320 program (certified in early 1988) followed by the A340 (end of 1992):

• All control surfaces are electrically controlled

 Fly-By-Wire flight control system

• High-level control laws in normal operation

• Very stringent dependability requirements in

terms of safety and availability

• The system is built to tolerate both hardware and

software design faults
Schematics of the A320 Family digital fly-by-wire
flight control system

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Aircraft Systems | Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
2.1 Introduction to Flight Control Systems
Technische Universität München

Incremental Introduction of New Technologies (Aérospatiale and Airbus)

First Flight In: 1955 1969 1972 1978-1983 1983 1987

Servo Controls, Artificial Feel x x x x x x

Electro-Hydraulic Actuators x x x x x

Command and Monitoring

x x x x x
Computer

Digital Computer x x x

Trim, Yaw Damper, Protection x x x x x x

Electrical Flight Controls x x x x

Side-Stick Control Laws x x

Servoed Aircraft (Auto-pilot) x x x x x x

Formal System Safety

x x x x x
Assessment

System Integration Testing x x x x x x

Flight Test
A310
Carevelle Concorde A300 Concorde A320
A300-600
A300
Source: Spitzer C.R., The Avionics Handbook (2007)

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Aircraft Systems | Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
2.1 Introduction to Flight Control Systems
Technische Universität München

Fly-By-Wire
Advantages

• Weight and parts reduction by replacement of heavy mechanical linkages

• Lower maintenance costs (less complex system)

• Pilot work reducing (automatic control features)

• Better and common aircraft handling characteristics on different aircraft types

• Greater flexibility including new functionality and changes after initial design/production

• Features of autopilot are in manual control mode available (i.e. attitude control)

“Pilot Work Reducing”

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Aircraft Systems | Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
2.1 Introduction to Flight Control Systems
Technische Universität München

Fly-By-Wire
Advantages

• Safety enhancement by highly reliable flight envelope protection systems

• Minimizing of structural loads by control law design or active load control

• Common control surfaces for different types

• Possibility to implement new control laws functions (i.e. adaptive wing, variable
camber)

Flight envelope protections (Airbus A320)

Source: Spitzer C.R., The Avionics Handbook (2007)

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Aircraft Systems | Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
2.1 Introduction to Flight Control Systems
Technische Universität München

Flight Control System Definition

Subsystems
Flight Control System

Configuration Interdependencies
Architecture
(Chapter 2.2) (Chapter 2.3)

Flight Control Flight Control

Devices Computers

Fairing and Kinematics and Linkage and

Power Systems
Integration Support Actuation

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Aircraft Systems | Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
 Technische Universität München

2 Flight Control Systems

2.1 Introduction to Flight Control Systems

2.2 Flight Control System Configuration
2.3 Flight Control System Architecture
2.4 Electronic Flight Control System

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Aircraft Systems | Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
2.2 Flight Control System Configuration
Technische Universität München

Overview

Flight Control System

Configuration

Flight Control Devices

Fairing and Integration Kinematics and Support

• Wing/Tail integration • Device types • Deployment and retraction

• Low drag and interferences • Aerodynamic performance • Number of positions
• Low complexity and weight • Functional allocation • Deflection modes

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Aircraft Systems | Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
2.2 Flight Control System Configuration
Technische Universität München

Flight Control Devices

Classification
Flight Control Devices

Primary Flight Control Secondary Flight Control

Devices Devices

Aileron Elevator Rudder High-Lift Spoiler THS

• Flight-critical surfaces • Generally less critically for a safe flight

control
• Continuously activated to maintain safe
aircraft control • SFCS are deployed intermittently or only
during certain flight segments
• PFCS operate for
• Alter the aerodynamic configuration and
• Roll control,
flight characteristics of the aircraft
• Pitch control
• Pitch control (trim) is provided by a
• Yaw control Trimmable Horizontal Stabilizer (THS)

Conventional flight control surfaces are traditionally classified as either primary or

secondary – depending on their function and criticality

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Aircraft Systems | Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
2.2 Flight Control System Configuration
Technische Universität München

Flight Control Devices

Example: Airbus A350

Outboard slats
Outboard flap

THS
Inboard droop nose Inboard flap

Rudder
A350

Inboard spoiler Elevator

Primary Flight Outboard spoiler

Control Devices
Secondary Flight Ailerons
Control Devices

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Aircraft Systems | Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
2.2 Flight Control System Configuration
Technische Universität München

Configurational Design Aspects

General

• Wing-fuselage integration

• Engine integration

• Landing gear integration

• Fuel tank integration

Source: en.wikipedia.org (© Adrian Pingstone)

• High-lift control system Boeing 777 in landing configuration – deployed

high-lift control devices and extended landing gear
 No discontinuity of high-lift flight control
devices in span-wise direction
 Large flap span
 Small wing-fuselage interferences
 Interactions between leading edge
devices, wing and trailing edge devices
Different flight control surface configurations of the
(stall, upwash angle, etc.) Airbus A380 during development (Reckzeh, 2005)

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Aircraft Systems | Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
2.2 Flight Control System Configuration
Technische Universität München

Configurational Design Aspects

Aileron

• Aileron span as small as possible  largest possible Primary Flight

Control Devices
flap span for high-lift control system Secondary Flight
Control Devices

• All-Speed aileron with small span located closer to the

wing root (to prevent aileron reversal at high speed due
to wing twist)

Spoiler

• Spoilers occupy a substantial part of the flap span, just

All-Speed
Aileron
behind the rear spar

Inboard
Spoiler
• Deflection almost in upright position (air brake/lift dump)

• To prevent wing surface spoiler flutter, stiffness of

Boeing 777 wing flight control devices
the spoiler system (surface – actuators – support
structure) is required

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Aircraft Systems | Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
2.2 Flight Control System Configuration
Technische Universität München

Configurational Design Aspects

High-Lift Control System

• Chordwise extensions of the high-lift devices are limited by the location of the front-
spar and rear-spar (wing stiffness and fuel tank volume)
• Tradeoff: low system complexity vs. aerodynamic performance

𝐶𝐿
System
Front spar Rear spar
complexity

Fuel Tank Plain Flap

Slat chord Flap chord

Single Slotted 𝛼
𝐿
Flap (SSF) 𝐷
Thin rear section
Plain Flap
SSF
Double Slotted DSF
Krueger
Flap (DSF)
Flap 𝐶𝐿

General Constraints of High-Lift Control Systems Effect of wing trailing edge devices
(Flaig, 1993 (modified)) (Reckzeh, 2005 (modified))

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Aircraft Systems | Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
2.2 Flight Control System Configuration
Technische Universität München

Configurational Design Aspects

High-Lift Control System 𝑂𝑓
𝐺𝑓
• Gap-Overlap
Larger fowler translation
for higher 𝐶𝐿,0 , 𝐶𝐿,𝑚𝑎𝑥
and 𝐿 𝐷 in start
configuration Larger maximum flap
angle for higher 𝐶𝐿,0 ,
𝐶𝐿,𝑚𝑎𝑥 in landing
configuration

Flap deflection angle 𝛿𝑓

𝑥𝑓
• Fowler Translation 𝒙𝒇
Linked-Track

Dropped-Hinge

0 Flap deflection angle 𝛿𝑓

Source: Recksiek (2004)

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Aircraft Systems | Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
 2.2 Flight Control System Configuration
Technische Universität München

High-Lift Control System

Trends and Tendencies

I/B 747-200 747-400

727-200 737-300
O/B 737-200 737-400
Boeing 737-500
System Complexity

I/B
707-320B
A300-600
O/B

I/B A310-300 777-200

Airbus 777-300
O/B
A321-200 747-8

I/B A320-200 A319-100

A340-300 A340-200 787-8
O/B
A330-300 A380-800
A330-200 A350-900

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

I/B … In-Board
Entry into Service (year)
O/B … Out-Board

Source: Recksiek (2009), LLS

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Aircraft Systems | Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
2.2 Flight Control System Configuration
Technische Universität München

High-Lift Control System

Trends and Tendencies

Boeing 747-400 – Triple Slotted Fowler Flap (TSF) Airbus A380 – Single Slotted Fowler Flap (SSF)

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Aircraft Systems | Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
2.2 Flight Control System Configuration
Technische Universität München

High-Lift Control System

State of the Art

• Leading edge devices: Slats (inboard I/B and

outboard O/B), Krueger flap (I/B and O/B), Droop
nose (I/B) extended retracted

Krueger Flap
• Trailing edge devices: Single Slotted Flap SSF,
Double Slotted Flap, Advanced Dropped Hinge Flap
(ADHF)

• Actuation systems: Mechanical, hydraulic,

electrical (as backup)

• Advanced flap tracks, stream-wise flap motion

(A350)

• Sealed slats (A350)

Stream-wise flap
• Cruise Variable Camber (VC) (A350, B787) Original flap motion
motion

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Aircraft Systems | Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
2.2 Flight Control System Configuration
Technische Universität München

High-Lift Control System

Advanced Dropped Hinge Flap (ADHF)

Fowler

ADHF

𝐶𝐿 𝐶𝐿

𝛼 @ maximum possible 𝛼
@ same deflections
deflections

Source: AIRBUS (2009)

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Aircraft Systems | Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
2.2 Flight Control System Configuration
Technische Universität München

High-Lift Control System

Advanced Dropped Hinge Flap (ADHF)

• Cruise Variable Camber (VC) 𝐿

𝐷

𝐶𝐿
Performance improvement by
drag polar optimization
• Differential Flap Setting (DFS)

Load Control Load Control

Outboard Flap

Inboard Flap
Inner and outer flaps are automatically deflected Critical loads cases reduced providing
differentially, in take-off and cruise configuration or slightly weight reduction at aircraft level
deflected together in cruise
Source: AIRBUS (2009)

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Aircraft Systems | Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
2.2 Flight Control System Configuration
Technische Universität München

Trim Control System

Trimmable Horizontal Stabilizer

Transport aircraft have a large, slow-moving Trimmable Horizontal Stabilizer (THS) and
independently-moving elevators:

• The elevators are controlled by the pilot or autopilot (for attitude change)

• The whole THS is used to trim and stabilize the aircraft in pitch axis

Δ𝜼

Jackscrew (spindle)
 High Safety Requirements (10−9 )
Δ𝜼
Source: training.deicinginnovations.com
Schematic of a THS with elevator Boeing 777 tail with THS

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Aircraft Systems | Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
2.2 Flight Control System Configuration
Technische Universität München

Trim Control System

Trim Tank

Trim tanks in the horizontal stabilizer can be used for static trimming by adjusting the position
of the center of gravity (CG). Center Tank
Inner Tank (for A330-200 only) Inner Tank
• CG position can be optimized for the Outer Tank Outer Tank
overall aircraft weight during cruise

• Lower stabilizer downforce required

 aerodynamic efficiency increase Inner Tank Division

Trim Tank
in cruise Vent Tank Vent Tank

• Positive: Additional fuel tank volume

• Negative: The static stability is

decreased in cruise

Airbus A330 Fuel Tank Arrangement

(AIRBUS, 1998)

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Aircraft Systems | Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
2.2 Flight Control System Configuration
Technische Universität München

Kinematics and Support

Design Aspects

• The basic elements to guide and structurally support a flap or a slat panel are
hinges, linkages and tracks.

• For the Fowler flap in particular (translating motion) design efforts have led to many
different kinematic solutions

• Highly multi-disciplinary setting:

 Requested aerodynamic performance
 Structural weight
 Maintenance characteristics
 Part count (complexity)
 Safety requirements
 Actuation loads
Four-Bar linkage kinematic mechanism and support of
 Fairing size the Boeing 777 out-board flap (SSF)

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Aircraft Systems | Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
2.2 Flight Control System Configuration
Technische Universität München

Kinematics and Support

Example: Airbus A380
Spoiler
kinematic
Droop nose
(in-board)

Slat (outboard) –
Rack-pinion system
Flap track fairing
kinematic

Flap kinematic
mechanism Inter flap sealing
Source: AIRBUS (2008)

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Aircraft Systems | Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
2.2 Flight Control System Configuration
Technische Universität München

Kinematics and Support

Non adjustable
Krueger Flap maximum retract

• Types:
 Simple Krueger Flap
Adjustable
 Folding bull-nose Krueger Flap retract stop Flat Panel
Retracted
(B747 (I/B))
 Variable camber (VC) Krueger flap
Non adjustable
(e.g. B747 (O/B)) extended stop
Air Slot
• Drive Idler
Curved
 Rotary Actuators Panel

Drive link
• Examples: B727 (I/B), B737 (I/B), B747 Drive
Camber Arm
link
Extended
Folding
nose Boeing 747 Variable Camber (VC)
Krueger flap (outboard)

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Aircraft Systems | Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
2.2 Flight Control System Configuration
Technische Universität München

Kinematics and Support Stop Fittings

Track Roller
Slat
Cruise (0°)
• Drive
 Hydraulic cylinder (B727, B737) Pinion Gear
Rigging Stop
 Rotary actuator and drive link Up Stop

(A330/A340)
 Rack and pinion drive (most common)
Boeing 757 slat with rack and pinion drive
 Spindle (L1011) (Rudolph, 1998)

• Motion guidance over a hooked track Bleed-air Duct

Track Support Rollers
• Examples: DC10, MD11, L1011, B727 (O/B), Track
B737 (O/B), B757, B767, B777, A300, A310, Travel Strop
A320, A330/A340, A380 (O/B) Lever
Link
Rotary Actuator
Travel Stop

Airbus A340 slat (I/B) with rotary actuator

and drive link (Rudolph, 1998)

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Aircraft Systems | Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
2.2 Flight Control System Configuration
Technische Universität München

Kinematics and Support

Droop Nose

• Drive
 Rotary Actuators

• Simple solution - entire leading edge

section rotates downwards Extended

• Examples: A350 (I/B), A380 (I/B)

Airbus A350 in-board droop nose
kinematic mechanism

Future: Smart Droop Nose with morphing Airbus A380 in-board droop nose kinematic
technology (DLR) mechanism (Recksiek, 2004)

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Aircraft Systems | Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
2.2 Flight Control System Configuration
Technische Universität München

Kinematics and Support

Dropped Hinge
Rotary
• Application: SSF and DSF actuator

• Very easy solution Drive link

• Droop hinge for realizing an acceptable fowler Hinge fitting

Hinge Bracket
motion ( deep fairing required)
Hinge Pin

• Higher aerodynamic drag due to side flow of

the fairing for swept wings

• Drive: hydraulic actuators or spindle

• Examples: DC10, MD11, B787, A350

A350 inboard flap dropped hinge

kinematic mechanism

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Aircraft Systems | Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
2.2 Flight Control System Configuration
Technische Universität München

Kinematics and Support

Rotary Actuator
Four-Bar Linkage
Retracted
• Application: SSF, DSF and TSF

• Several different solutions of four-bar Drive Link

linkages are possible

• Smaller fairing than droop nose

• Great fowler translations are possible Hinged beam

(Hinged beam) four-bar linkage of the

• Actuation: spindle or rotary actuator B767 out-board flap (SSF)

• Examples: C17, B767, B777

Drive Crank

Follower
Fixed

Schematics of a four-bar linkage kinematic

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Aircraft Systems | Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
2.2 Flight Control System Configuration
Technische Universität München

Kinematics and Support

Straight/Hooked Link-Track Flap Drive
Actuator Fairing
Operating Arm
• Application: SSF and DSF (A321 only) Retracted

• Low complex system compared to

4-bar-linkage Drive Link Straight Track
Flap Link Flap Carriage
Arm
• Large fowler translations are possible

• Actuation: Spindle and rotary drive

• Examples:
 Straight track: A320 family, A330/A340,
A380
 Hooked track: B727, B737, B747 B757, Airbus A320 Straight Link-Track Mechanism
(Zaccai, 2014 (modified))
A310, BAe146

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Aircraft Systems | Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
2.2 Flight Control System Configuration
Technische Universität München

Kinematics and Support

Fowler Motion vs. Flap Angle Comparison

Comparison of normalized Fowler motion progression

(Rudolph, 1998)

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Aircraft Systems | Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020
2.2 Flight Control System Configuration
Technische Universität München

Fairing and Integration

Fairings are aerodynamic covers used to reduce the drag of flap extension mechanism and
to provide necessary space for other aircraft systems (hydro-fluid cooling system, various
exhausts, ...)

Design Aspects:

• Design principle “Area Rule” for fairing

shape in retracted position to reduce
overall drag

• Stream-wise orientation

• Low drag at cruise and low speeds

• Low complexity and light weight

Source: airliners.net (© Jet City Photography)
• Minimal blockage of the flap slots Boeing 777 at touchdown with extended flaps

Source: FACC (2012)

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2.2 Flight Control System Configuration
Technische Universität München

Fairing and Integration

Example: Airbus A380

FTF 2 L/H
FTF 2 L/H

Source: aviation.stackexchange.com (© Herzog, A.)

Fixed Fairing Mid Fairing Tail Cone
Airbus A380 with retraced flaps

FTF 2 L/H

Source: kunstoff.or.at (© FACC)

Flight Direction

Schematic of the Flap Track Fairing 2 (FTF 2) on the left

wing of the A380. FTF 1 is integrated in the fuselage.

Source: airliners.net (© Vaermenas, M.)

Airbus A380 in climb with extended flaps

(takeoff position)

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Aircraft Systems | Prof. Dr.-Ing. M. Hornung Summer Term 2020