HERPETOLOGICAL JOURNAL, Vol. 16, pp.

297-303 (2006)

DEFENSIVE BEHAVIOUR IN PIT VIPERS OF THE GENUS BOTHROPS

(SERPENTES, VIPERIDAE)
MÁRCIO S. ARAÚJO1 AND MARCIO MARTINS2
1
Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, SP,
Brazil
2
Departamento de Ecologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil

The genus Bothrops encompasses at least six evolutionary lineages that show a great
diversification in macro and microhabitat use. We studied the defensive behaviour of one species
of each of five lineages within the genus Bothrops: B. alternatus, B. jararaca, B. jararacussu,
B. moojeni and B. pauloensis. Specifically, we investigated if this diversification in habitat use
was accompanied by a similar divergence in the characters related to defensive behaviour in the
genus. Eight behavioural categories were recorded, five of which may be classified as “threatening”
(strike, tail vibration, head and neck elevation, dorsoventral body compression and body
thrashing); two as “escape” (locomotor escape and cocking); and one as “cryptic” (head hiding).
We observed significant differences in four behavioural categories. We also detected a significant
difference in the way species elevated their head and neck. Tail vibration and strikes were the
most common behaviours presented, and snakes that displayed their tails struck more frequently
than those that did not display. A reconstruction of characters related to defensive behaviour on
a phylogeny of Bothrops indicated an increase in the use of dorsoventral body compression in
the groups alternatus and neuwiedi, which may be associated with the invasion of open areas by
these lineages.
Key words: comparative method, Crotalinae, defensive tactics, evolution of behaviour

INTRODUCTION The genus Bothrops (including Bothriopsis; e.g.,

Snakes are exposed to different kinds of predators in Wüster et al., 2002) includes about 45 described spe-
the various habitats they occupy (Greene, 1988), and, as cies (Campbell & Lamar, 2004). The phylogenetic
a result, may differ in defensive behaviour. For example, relationships within Bothrops have been explored in
snakes in open habitats may suffer a more intense preda- the last few years (e.g. Salomão et al., 1997; Vidal et
tion pressure from highly mobile predators than in al. 1997; Wüster et al., 2002). The genus encompasses
forested habitats (Greene, 1988). Microhabitat use in at least six lineages, the groups atrox, jararacussu,
snakes (e.g. terrestrial, arboreal) may also be associated jararaca, alternatus, neuwiedi and taeniatus (Wüster
with defensive behaviours (Greene, 1979). For instance, et al., 2002).
an association between gaping behaviour and arboreality Here we describe and compare the defensive behav-
has been demonstrated in snakes (Greene, 1997). In the iour of one species of each of five lineages within the
case of the genus Bothrops, the ways by which the habitat genus Bothrops, namely B. alternatus (alternatus
is used by snakes are diverse (Martins et al., 2001). group), a terrestrial species which inhabits open areas;
Within the genus, there are lineages of both open and B. jararaca (jararaca group), a semi-arboreal forest
forested areas and with varying degrees of arboreality dweller; B. jararacussu (jararacussu group), a terres-
(Martins et al., 2002). These differences in use of trial forest inhabitant; B. moojeni (atrox group), a
microhabitat (terrestrial and arboreal) and macrohabitat semi-arboreal species found in open formations, but
(open and forested areas) may be associated with differ- associated almost exclusively with riparian forests
ences in defensive behaviour of the different lineages of within these areas; and finally B. pauloensis (neuwiedi
Bothrops. In fact, with the exception of the studies on B. group), a terrestrial species exclusive to open areas
jararaca by Sazima (1988, 1992), there are no detailed (Table 1). We also explore the evolution of characters
studies of defensive behaviour in the genus Bothrops. related to defensive behaviour in the genus Bothrops
Sazima (1992) suggested that comparative studies and speculate on possible associations between
among some Bothrops species typical of forested areas changes in defensive behaviour and changes in habitat
and species of open areas could reveal similarities and use.
differences related to their ecology and their MATERIALS AND METHODS
phylogenetic relationships.
Test subjects were species of Bothrops from several
localities of southeastern (B. alternatus, B. jararaca,
Correspondence: M. S. Araújo, Departamento de
Parasitologia, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Estadual de B. jararacussu, B. pauloensis and B. moojeni) and cen-
Campinas, CP 6109, 13084-971, Campinas, SP, Brazil. tral Brazil (B. moojeni) brought to the Instituto
E-mail: [email protected] Butantan between April 1998 and February 1999. Ten
298 M. S. ARAÚJO AND M. MARTINS

TABLE 1. Habitat use, sizes (mm), captivity duration (days), and number of individuals of the five species of Bothrops studied. T:
terrestrial; SA: semi-arboreal; O: open areas; F: forests; SVL: snout–vent length; SD: standard deviation; CD: captivity duration;
n = number of individuals.

Species Habitat use Mean SVL SD Mean CD SD n

B. alternatus T/O 708.6 160.35 4 4.8 10
B. jararaca SA/F 803.2 169.86 1 1.3 10
B. jararacussu T/F 611.1 187.13 8 9.6 10
B. moojeni SA/F 946.5 137.48 5 3.6 10
B. pauloensis T/O 608.0 126.23 5 2.8 10

individuals of each species were tested as they arrived at Defensive behaviour was elicited with using a stimu-
the Instituto Butantan (Table 1). Upon arrival, individu- lus object, a plastic bottle (height 15 cm; diameter 10
als were housed in a large plastic container (c. 100 × 70 cm; volume 0.5 l) covered with a 0.5 cm-thick sheet of
× 60 cm high) with bark mulch as a substrate. Snakes soft black rubber to which a 1.5 m plastic pipe was at-
were not manipulated until they were removed from the tached at a 45° angle. The purpose of the rubber was to
container, measured and individually put in small wood minimize injuries to the snakes’ fangs during strikes.
containers, and taken to a temperature-controlled labo- The bottle was filled with warm water (60oC) shortly
ratory (25±2oC) where the tests were conducted. The before the tests to raise the temperature of the external
snakes were taken to the laboratory during daytime, ap- surface of the rubber to about 37oC (mean±SD =
proximately eight hours before the initiation of the tests, 37.1±0.94oC; n=17; recorded immediately before trials
and the tests were carried out on the same day, always at by a Miller & Weber Inc. quick-reading thermometer
night, from 1758 hr to 0002 hr. The snakes were tested with an accuracy of 0.1oC). The stimulus object was de-
0–16 days after arrival at the Instituto Butantan, except veloped by us and was chosen, among several others, on
for one individual of B. jararacussu that was kept for 33 the grounds that it immediately elicited typical defen-
days at the Instituto Butantan before tests were per- sive behaviours upon its introduction into the arena. We
formed. Each individual snake was tested only once. believe that the stimulus object simulated the head of a
The tests were carried out in an arena set on the mammal approaching the snake horizontally and close
ground of the laboratory (Fig. 1). The laboratory wall to the ground.
formed one of the sides of the arena; the other three Before each test, the internal surfaces of the arena as
sides were made of wood and glass. One of the sides well as the stimulus object were cleaned with ethanol.
adjacent to the wall was opaque and the other two sides The snake was then put in the centre of the arena and a
were transparent. During trials, we stayed behind the transparent acrylic box (30 cm on each side and 15 cm
opaque side of the arena to minimize possible distur- high), with the open side facing down, was put over the
bance. Two Panasonic NVRJ PR VHS cameras were snake using a hook. We used a transparent box to make
used, one over the arena set on a tripod and facing the sure that the snake could see its surrounding environ-
ground, and the other on the ground, lateral to the arena ment before the initiation of trials. The acrylic box was
and facing the wall. The ground was covered with a also cleaned with ethanol before the tests. The arena
black plastic sheet; both the plastic sheet and the wall lights were on prior to introducing snakes into the arena.
had gridlines of 1 and 2 cm, respectively, for distance Snakes were left undisturbed for 10 minutes before the
estimates. The light sources were two 60 W bulbs set on beginning of the tests. The 10 minute interval was se-
the main axis of the arena, one at each side. Although lected arbitrarily, but we believe it was enough for the
rather artificial, the light sources were necessary for the snakes to settle down before the initiation of trials.
recording of the trials on tape. Cameras were turned on by remote control and re-
corded at 30 frames/s. Trials began when the acrylic
cover was removed with a hook and the stimulus object
was introduced into the arena and moved towards the
snake, parallel to the ground and about 1 cm above it,
always by the same person. The stimulus object touched
the snake’s body and was withdrawn repeatedly, about
once every two seconds, 30 times uninterruptedly for
each snake. If the snake went out of the camera’s field
(time out; cf. Martin & Bateson, 1993), the stimulus ob-
ject was removed from the arena and the snake was
brought to its centre with a hook; this will hereafter be
termed an intervention. The stimulus object was then
reintroduced and the stimulation was resumed.
FIG. 1. Arena where the defensive behaviour of five species During trials, we never moved from behind the light
of Bothrops was elicited and filmed. bulb, even when the stimulation had to be interrupted
 DEFENSIVE BEHAVIOUR IN BOTHROPS 299

number of interventions as the number of times we had

to introduce the hook into the arena and pull the snake
back to the camera’s field during a trial. The frequency
of the types of head and neck elevation were compared
with a Pearson chi-square test. The number of strikes
made by snakes that tail vibrated during tests and of
those that did not tail vibrate was compared with a t-test.
Because of the small number of individuals that did not
tail vibrate, we pooled the data of all species in this lat-
ter analysis. Variables were all transformed to fulfil test
FIG. 2. Defensive behaviour of Bothrops spp. Defensive
assumptions. We did a ln transformation on snake size;
body posture, A: coiled; and B: loose. Head and neck
elevation, C: horizontal; D: at angle of 45o; E: vertically. square-root transformations on captivity duration,
number of interventions and the behavioural variables
and the snakes brought to the centre of the arena. Trials strikes, head and neck elevation, locomotor escape,
were later analysed frame-by-frame with a Panasonic cocking and body thrashing (frequencies); and finally
NVSD475 PR VHS player. We measured the duration arcsine transformations on the behavioural variables tail
of each trial with the use of a digital chronometer; time- vibration, dorsoventral body compression and head hid-
out periods were not considered in the estimates of time. ing (proportions; Zar, 1999) . Due to the high degree of
We used the continuous sampling method (cf. Martin asymmetry in the distributions of the raw values of vari-
& Bateson, 1993) and all the behaviours were recorded ables, we decided to use their medians, instead of the
and quantified. Behavioural responses were categorized means, on the character optimization onto a phylogeny
according to Greene (1988) and Sazima (1992), and of the genus Bothrops (adapted from Wüster et al.,
were as follows: (1) strike: a rapid movement of the 2002) using Linear Parsimony Analysis with the use of
snake’s head towards the stimulus object with its jaws MacClade 4.0 (Maddison & Maddison, 2000). We were
wide open, as the lateral curves of its anterior body not able to optimize the characters head hiding and body
straightened, and the posterior part of the body re- thrashing, because the median values for all five species
mained stationary; (2) tail vibration: the tail was moved were zero.
rapidly back and forth against the substrate, with pro-
RESULTS
duction of sound; (3) head and neck elevation: the head
and anterior part of the body were lifted from the During trials the snakes remained with the anterior
substrate; this could be horizontal (Fig. 2C), at an angle part of the body in an S-shape position either coiled
of approximately 45° (Fig. 2D) or vertical (Fig. 2E); (4) (Fig. 2A) or in a loose posture (Fig. 2B), and could
dorsoventral body compression: the snake flattened its change from one position to the other. We were not able
body dorsoventrally; (5) locomotor escape: a flight re- to record the penetration of the snake’s fangs into the
sponse in which snakes moved away quickly from the rubber of the stimulus object (bite) through the analysis
stimulus object; (6) cocking: the snake retreated back- of the videotapes. However, it certainly occurred, since
wards employing the posterior part of its body, while the rubber always presented marks of perforation from
keeping the anterior portion of its body in an S-coil, and which venom drained following the tests.
facing the stimulus object; (7) head hiding: the snake Strike and tail vibration were the most used defensive
hid its head under one or more parts of its body; and (8) behaviours by the five species studied (Table 2). Fre-
body thrashing: the snake made sudden and erratic quency of head and neck elevation, dorsoventral body
movements. compression, locomotor escape and cocking varied
Depending on their type, behavioural categories among species, whereas head hiding and body thrashing
were quantified as the frequency of occurrences during were rarely used by all species (Table 2). The
trials (strikes, head and neck elevation, locomotor es- ANCOVA revealed significant differences among spe-
cape, cocking and body thrashing) or as the proportion cies in head and neck elevation, dorsoventral body
of the trial time during which the behaviour was exhib- compression, locomotor escape and cocking (Table 3).
ited, varying from 0 to 1 (tail vibration, dorsoventral The differences were related to the prevalence of head
body compression and head hiding).We carried out a and neck elevation and cocking in B. moojeni (Fig. 3),
two-factor analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) in order of dorsoventral body compression in B. alternatus and
to compare the behaviours among snakes, and test the B. pauloensis (Fig. 3) and of locomotor escape in B.
effects of sex, snake size, captivity duration and the jararacussu (Fig. 3). There was no effect of sex on the
number of interventions during trials on the snakes’ be- variables, nor any interactions between the factors sex
haviours. Factors were species and sex, whereas snake and species (Table 3). However, we found a significant
size, captivity duration and the number of interventions effect of interventions on both locomotor escape and
were covariates. We used snout–vent length (SVL) in head and neck elevations, as well as an effect of captiv-
mm as a measure of size. Captivity duration was meas- ity duration on head hiding (Table 3). We detected a
ured in days from the arrival of a given specimen at the significant difference in the frequency of horizontal and
Instituto Butantan until the day of the trial, and the 45-degree angle head and neck elevations among spe-
300 M. S. ARAÚJO AND M. MARTINS

TABLE 2. Number of individuals of each Bothrops sp. that displayed each of the defensive behaviours (n=10 of each species).
Total: number of individuals of all species which displayed the behaviour; values in parentheses are percentages of the total number
of individuals (n=50).

Defensive behaviour B. alternatus B. jararaca B. jararacussu B. moojeni B. pauloensis Total

Strike 10 10 9 10 8 47 (94)
Tail vibration 10 7 10 10 8 45 (90)
Head and neck elevation 5 9 5 10 7 36 (72)
Dorsoventral 10 4 6 6 7 33 (66)
body compression
Locomotor escape 5 7 9 5 5 31 (62)
Cocking 3 10 4 9 5 31 (62)
Head hiding 4 2 4 1 3 14 (28)
Body thrashing 3 2 3 0 2 10 (20)

cies (χ2=64.6; df=4; P<0.0001): Bothrops alternatus DISCUSSION

and B. pauloensis elevated the head and neck parallel to In the present study, the escalation of the defensive
the ground in most cases (Fig. 2; Table 4), Bothrops sequence reported for B. jararaca (Sazima, 1988) and
jararacussu showed horizontal and 45° elevation in C. viridis (Duvall et al., 1985) was obviously not ob-
similar proportions, whereas B. jararaca and B. served, since the snakes were already in a restrained
moojeni elevated the head and neck at 45° more fre- situation at the beginning of observations. This experi-
quently (Table 4). Additionally, B. moojeni was the mental constraint may be responsible for the generally
only species to elevate the head and neck vertically (Ta- high tendency of snakes to strike during trials, as re-
ble 4). Snakes that vibrated their tails during tests struck ported for B. jararaca when constrained in the field
more than those that did not vibrate their tails (t48=2.3; (Sazima, 1988). Our observations support the sugges-
P=0.026). tions made by Duvall et al. (1985) and Sazima (1988)
In the character optimization, B. alternatus did not that pit vipers are able to evaluate their chances of es-
show any change in relation to the ancestor of the genus cape during an encounter with a potential predator and
in the median occurrence of any of the behaviours (Fig. make a decision on which defensive tactic to adopt,
3). On the other hand, B. pauloensis, B. jararaca and B. which was also suggested in relation to another viperid,
jararacussu showed four changes each, and B. moojeni Agkistrodon piscivorus (Gibbons & Dorcas, 2002).
presented five changes (Fig. 3).

TABLE 3. F-values and levels of significance of a two-factor analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) on the defensive behaviour of
Bothrops alternatus, B. jaracaca, B. jararacussu, B. moojeni and B. neuwiedi (n=10 of each species). Factors are species and sex;
covariates are size, captivity and interventions. Species x sex is the interaction between the two factors. See text for details of the
quantification of variables. *Variables where significant differences among species were found.

Dependent variables Factors and covariates

Species Sex Species x sex Size Captivity Interventions
duration
Strike F4,45=1.18 F1,45=1.44 F4,45=0.45 F1,45=0.03 F1,45=0.16 F1,45=2.73
P=0.34 P=0.24 P=0.77 P=0.69 P=0.87 P=0.11
Tail vibration F4,45=2.01 F1,45=1.05 F4,45=0.38 F1,45=0.26 F1,45=0.00 F1,45=2.3
P=0.11 P=0.31 P=0.82 P=0.62 P=0.95 P=0.14
Head and neck F4,45=8.08 F1,45=0.29 F4,45=0.70 F1,45=1.45 F1,45=0.13 F1,45=4.57
elevation* P<0.0001 P=0.59 P=0.60 P = 0.24 P=0.72 P=0.039
Dorsoventral body F4,45=6.38 F4,45=2.02 F4,45=0.78 F1,45=0.22 F1,45=0.65 F1,45=0.92
compression* P=0.001 P=0.16 P=0.55 P=0.64 P=0.42 P=0.34
Locomotor escape* F4,45=2.64 F4,45=3.53 F4,45=0.23 F1,45=1.05 F1,45=1.34 F1,45=55.91
P=0.05 P=0.07 P=0.92 P=0.31 P=0.26 P<0.0001
Cocking* F4,45=5.16 F4,45=0.17 F4,45=0.15 F1,45=0.43 F1,45=0.24 F1,45=0.50
P=0.002 P=0.68 P=0.96 P=0.52 P=0.63 P=0.49
Head-hiding F4,45=0.67 F4,45=0.85 F4,45=0.16 F1,45=0.26 F1,45=5.90 F1,45=2.38
P=0.61 P=0.36 P=0.96 P=0.62 P=0.02 P=0.13
Body thrashing F4,45=0.92 F4,45=0.58 F4,45=0.82 F1,45=0.07 F1,45=0.05 F1,45=0.52
P=0.46 P=0.45 P=0.52 P=0.79 P=0.83 P=0.47
 DEFENSIVE BEHAVIOUR IN BOTHROPS 301

FIG. 3. Optimization using linear parsimony of defensive behaviours on a phylogenetic hypothesis for the species of Bothrops
treated herein (adapted from Wüster et al., 2002). The values for each species are medians. Tail vibration and dorsoventral body
compression were quantified as the proportion of time they were exhibited by snakes during trials (varying from 0 to 1), the
remaining characters as the frequency of occurrence during trials. A: strike; B: tail vibration; C: head and neck elevation; D:
dorsoventral body compression; E: locomotor escape; F: cocking.

TABLE 4. Types of head and neck elevation in Bothrops spp. Although not a primary goal of this study, our data
shown as percentages in relation to the total number of head suggest that the defensive behaviours of the studied spe-
and neck elevations in each species. Values in parentheses
are the number of elevations. cies may be altered by captivity duration and
manipulation of the snakes, which has already been re-
Species Horizontal Angle of 45o Vertical ported for other viperid snakes (Glaudas, 2004). These
undesired effects constitute an important caveat of our
B. alternatus 88.9 (8) 11.1 (1) 0 study and may be taken as a warning by investigators
B. jararaca 26.9 (7) 73.1 (19) 0 who are designing and conducting behavioural studies
B. jararacussu 44.4 (4) 55.6 (5) 0 on snakes in captivity.
B. moojeni 8.0 (9) 91.1 (102) 0.9 (1)
The behavioural categories we observed were the
B. pauloensis 67.9 (19) 32.1 (9) 0
same as those described by Sazima (1988, 1992) for B.
302 M. S. ARAÚJO AND M. MARTINS

jararaca in field conditions. Moreover, in field condi- which is in accordance with the idea that behavioural
tions, individuals of B. jararaca showed an increase in differences in snakes, at the generic or specific levels,
the frequency of strikes (90% of the individuals struck are mainly quantitative instead of qualitative (Arnold &
at the observer) when they did not have access to escape Bennett, 1984).
routes (Sazima, 1988), a percentage very similar to that Bothrops alternatus was the most and B. moojeni the
observed in our study, considering B. jararaca alone least conservative lineage in relation to the ancestor of
(100%, Table 2) or all species pooled (94%, Table 2). It the genus (Fig. 3). There seems not to be a clear pattern
seems reasonable, therefore, that the defensive behav- relating the evolution of overall defensive behaviour
iour observed in our study can be interpreted as that of a (Fig. 3) and the great divergence of size, shape and
cornered individual in the field. In spite of the caveats habitat use in the genus Bothrops (see Martins et al.,
previously mentioned, we believe that behavioural data 2001, 2002). Nevertheless, we believe that there is an
obtained in captivity are indeed reliable, at least for association between habitat use and one of the observed
some types of behaviour (e.g. defensive), contrary to the behaviours, namely dorsoventral body compression.
suggestion of Shine et al. (2002) that responses of cap- Bothrops alternatus and B. pauloensis showed a high
tive animals do not provide a viable alternative to prevalence of dorsoventral body compression (Fig.
behavioural field studies. In fact, there are a high 3D). Bothrops itapetiningae, a species related to B.
number of behavioural studies with snakes housed in alternatus (Wüster et al., 2002), also flattens the body
captivity (Ford, 1995). Furthermore, encounters with frequently (M. Martins, personal observation), as does
lanceheads of the genus Bothrops in the field are gener- B. mattogrossensis (I. Sazima, unpublished data), of the
ally rare (see Nogueira et al., 2003) and depend on neuwiedi group, which further indicates the prevalence
long-term studies, which are time-consuming and of this behaviour in the groups alternatus and neuwiedi.
costly. Studies in captivity, therefore, may be useful and The ancestor of Bothrops was most likely a forest spe-
necessary in such cases. cies (Martins et al., 2001, 2002) that subsequently
Following the functional definitions of Mori & invaded open areas, giving rise to the alternatus and
Burghardt (2004), of the eight behavioural categories neuwiedi groups. We believe that there was an increase
observed herein five may be classified as “threatening” in the use of this behaviour in these groups in relation to
(strike, tail vibration, head and neck elevation, dorsov- their ancestors (Fig. 3D), and that this increase is associ-
entral body compression and body thrashing), two as ated with the invasion of open habitats by these
“escape” (locomotor escape and cocking) and one as lineages. Perhaps the common occurrence of dorsoven-
“cryptic” (head hiding). When cornered, snakes of the tral body compression in B. alternatus and B.
genus Bothrops will readily defend themselves with pauloensis is an adaptation to a habitat where the preda-
strikes; however, they also rely on warning signals such tion pressure by birds of prey is higher than in the
as tail vibration to warn potential predators of their will- forests inhabited by the other species of Bothrops. In-
ingness to defend themselves. As observed in the deed, four predation attempts by the owl Athene
viperid Gloydius shedaoensis (Shine et al., 2002), tail cunicularia on B. alternatus were recently described
vibration was also associated with striking in the species (Valdujo & Nogueira, 2000; Martins et al., 2003). An
of Bothrops we studied. This may indicate that in the ge- additional possibility is that the efficiency of body flat-
nus Bothrops, tail vibration provides a warning of an tening may be increased in open habitats relative to
individual’s likelihood to strike. Our results, however, forested habitats because snakes are possibly more vis-
must be interpreted with caution, because of the fact that ible to predators in the former. These two factors
we pooled all species in this analysis. combined may account for the higher occurrence of this
The differences in the types of head and neck eleva- behaviour in the open habitat species. This hypothesis
tion (Table 4) may be associated with microhabitat use could be further explored by searching for convergent
in the studied species. The terrestrial B. alternatus and behaviours in other snake lineages that are also known
B. neuwiedi (Martins et al., 2001) tended to use hori- to have invaded open areas.
zontal head and neck displays, whereas the
semi-arboreal B. jararaca and B. moojeni tended to po- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
sition the head and neck at a 45-degree angle. Bothrops We are grateful to the Instituto Butantan for provid-
jararacussu, which belongs to a terrestrial lineage that ing the snakes studied and to staff members J.
descends from a semi-arboreal ancestor (Martins et al., Cavalheiro (Seu Quim), F. Franco, V. J. Germano, and
2001), used both head elevation patterns at the same fre- O. A. V. Marques, who kindly separated the snakes for
quency. our use. L. dos Anjos, N. Hülle, O. Marques, C.
The defensive behaviour of the five species studied Nogueira, R. Nunes, J. de Oliveira, and R. Sawaya
was qualitatively very similar, since all species pre- helped in laboratory work. R. Sawaya kindly provided
sented all types of behaviour, the only exception being natural history data on B. alternatus, and O. A. V.
the absence of body thrashing in B. moojeni. However, Marques on B. jararaca and B. jararacussu. S. Koehler
we observed quantitative differences in four behav- helped in part of the analysis of the data. G. Machado,
ioural categories (head and neck elevation, dorsoventral O. A. V. Marques and R. Sawaya as well as two anony-
body compression, locomotor escape and cocking), mous reviewers made useful comments that greatly
 DEFENSIVE BEHAVIOUR IN BOTHROPS 303

improved the manuscript. MSA had financial support Nogueira, C., Sawaya, R. J. & Martins, M. (2003).
from CAPES and FAPESP (97/12222-3 and 98/02307- Ecology of the pitviper, Bothrops moojeni, in the
4). MM thanks FAPESP for grants (95/09642-5 and 00/ Brazilian Cerrado. Journal of Herpetology 37, 653–
12339-2) and CNPq for a fellowship. 659.
Salomão, M. G., Wüster, W., Thorpe, R. S., Touzet, J.-M.
REFERENCES & BBBSP (1997). DNA evolution of South American
Arnold, S. J. & Bennett, A. F. (1984). Behavioural pitvipers of the genus Bothrops (Reptilia: Serpentes:
variation in natural populations. III: Antipredator Viperidae). In Venomous Snakes: Ecology, Evolution
displays in the garter snake Thamnophis radix. Animal and Snakebite, 89–98. Thorpe, R. S., Wüster, W. &
Behaviour 32, 1108–1118. Malhotra, A. (Eds.). New York: Oxford University
Campbell, J. A. & Lamar, W. W. (2004). The Venomous Press Inc.
Reptiles of the Western Hemisphere, 1 and 2. Ithaca: Sazima, I. (1988). Um estudo de biologia comportamental
Cornell University Press. da jararaca, Bothrops jararaca, com uso de marcas
Duvall, D., King, M. B. & Gutzwiller, K. J. (1985). naturais. Memórias do Instituto Butantan 50, 83–99.
Behavioural ecology and ethology of the prairie Sazima, I. (1992). Natural history of the jararaca pitviper,
rattlesnake. National Geographic Research 1, 80– Bothrops jararaca, in southeastern Brazil. In Biology
111. of the Pitvipers, 199–216. Campbell, J. A. & Broodie
Ford, N. B. (1995). Experimental design in studies of Jr., E. D. (Eds.). Tyler: Selva Publ.
snake behaviour. Herpetological Monographs 9, 130– Shine, R., Li-Xin, S., Fitzgerald, M. & Kearney, M.
139. (2002). Antipredator responses of free-ranging pit
Gibbons, J. W. & Dorcas, M. E. (2002). Defensive vipers (Gloydius shedaoensis, Viperidae). Copeia
behaviour of cottonmouths (Agkistrodon piscivorus) 2002, 843–850.
toward humans. Copeia 2002, 195–198. Valdujo, P. H. & Nogueira, C. (2000). Bothrops neuwiedi
Glaudas, X. (2004). Do cottonmouths habituate to human pauloensis. Predation. Herpetological Review 31, 45.
confrontations? Southeastern Naturalist 3, 129–138. Vidal, N., Lecointre, G., Vié, J. C. & Gasc, J. P. (1997).
Greene, H. W. (1979). Behavioural convergence in the Molecular systematics of pitvipers: paraphyly of the
defensive displays of snakes. Experientia 35, 747– Bothrops complex. Comptes Rendus de l’Académie
748. des Sciences Séries III – Sciences de la Vie 320, 95–
Greene, H. W. (1988). Antipredator mechanisms in 101.
reptiles. In Biology of the Reptilia, Vol. 16, Ecology B, Wüster, W., Salomão, M. G., Quijada-Mascareñas, J. A.,
1–152. Gans, C. and Huey, R. B. (Eds). New York: Thorpe, R. S. & BBBSP (2002). Origins and evolution
Alan R. Liss, Inc. of the South American pitviper fauna: evidence from
Greene, H. W. (1997). Snakes: The Evolution of Mystery mitochondrial DNA sequence analysis. In Biology of
in Nature. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of the Vipers, 111–128. Schuett, G. W., Höggren, M.,
California Press. Douglas, M. E. & Greene, H. W. (Eds.). Eagle
Maddison, W. P. & Maddison, D. R. (2000). MacClade: Mountain: Eagle Mountain Publishing.
Analysis of Phylogeny and Character Evolution, Zar, J. H. (1999). Biostatistical Analysis. Upper Saddle
Version 4.0. Sunderland: Sinauer. River: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Martin, P. & Bateson, P. (1993). Measuring Behaviour:
An Introductory Guide. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Martins, M., Araújo, M. S., Sawaya, R. J. & Nunes, R.
(2001). Diversity and evolution of macrohabitat use,
body size and morphology in a monophyletic group of
Neotropical pitvipers (Bothrops). Journal of Zoology
254, 529–538.
Martins, M., Marques, O. A. V. & Sazima, I. (2002).
Ecological and phylogenetic correlates of feeding
habits in Neotropical pitvipers (genus Bothrops). In
Biology of the Vipers, 307–328. Schuett, G. W.,
Höggren, M., Douglas, M. E. & Greene, H. W. (Eds.).
Eagle Mountain: Eagle Mountain Publishing.
Martins, M., Spina, F., Monteiro, C., Sawaya, R. J. &
Ariedi-Junior, V. R. (2003). Bothrops alternatus.
Predation. Herpetological Review 34, 147–148.
Mori, A. & Burghardt, G. M. (2004). Thermal effects on
the antipredator behaviour of snakes: a review and
proposed terminology. Herpetological Journal 14,
79–87. Accepted: 10.12.05
304