DISASTER

READINESS AND
RISK REDUCTION
Volcano Hazards Module
Three
Volcanology is the study of volcanoes. The role of volcanology is to gain an understanding of how volcanoes
work, to further scientific knowledge, and to provide eruption hazard assessment, monitoring, and crisis
management. A volcanologist-basically a geologist who focuses on the study of volcanic formation and
activities-plays an important role in the field by observing and conducting studies to predict geological hazards
such as earthquakes and eruptions, thereby minimizing damages and saving lives.

What is a volcano?
A volcano is an opening or vent on the earth’s surface where molten rocks, gases, and ashes are ejected. The
opening of a volcano is called crater and the path through which the ejected materials pass is known as pipe.
When molten rocks, also known as magma, come out of the ground they are called lava. This hardens and
forms a cone or dome with a tunnel and a vent in the middle. The more lava that comes out, the taller and
wider the volcano gets after the eruption.
Volcanoes significantly shaped and con continuously shape the earth’s surface and the way how people live
over time. Volcanic eruptions have resulted in the formation of new mountains and landscapes. Gases emitted
by volcanoes have impacted the atmosphere, creating oceans and seascapes. Volcanoes are indeed beneficial
as they make the soils fertile for vegetation, provide minerals useful for industrialization, and create space for
nurturing communities’ indigenous cultures. However, it cannot be denied that volcanic eruptions create
hazardous conditions, affecting millions of people and disrupting the flourishing socioeconomic conditions. In
the succeeding parts of this chapter, we will dig deeper on the science behind volcanoes.

How do volcanoes form?

The formation of volcanoes represents one of the complex processes in geological sciences. Basically,
volcanoes are formed as a result of subduction. This is a process where two tectonic plates converge one
another, with one descending below the edge of the other, causing molten rock to rise to the surface. The
magma solidifies due to relatively cool ocean waters and this creates new layers of ocean crust. The intense
earthquakes accompany rising magma, the layers of cooled magma continue to build, and formation of
volcanic arc becomes visible.

Different types of volcanoes

Volcanoes have varied characteristics and behave differently. They also create their own patterns of eruption.
When talking about volcanoes, we can classify them into three different types: cinder cones, shield volcanoes,
and strato volcanoes.
Cinder cones. These are considered as the simplest type of volcanoes. They are formed from lava particles
emitted in a vent. As the lava spewed out into air, it fragments into small debris that later on solidifies and falls
as cinders around the vent. This eventually forms a circular or oval cone. Most cinder cones have one crater
and rarely rise more than a thousand feet.

Shield cones. These volcanoes are created because of continuous lava flows coming from the vents. As the
lava flows cool down, they produce a warrior’s shield-like sloping flat cone. Some of the largest volcanoes in
the world are shield volcanoes like Mauna Loa in Hawaii which rises 4000 meters above sea level.

Composite volcanoes. Also known as “strato volcanoes”, this type of volcanoes are often steep-sided and
the cones are closely symmetrical. These are also covered with layers of lava flows and ash that rise up to
2500 meters. The special feature of this type of volcano is a conduit system of magma chamber. Some
examples of composite volcanoes include Mount Fuji in Japan and Mount Mayon in the Philippines.

Classification of volcanoes
Thousands of volcanoes on earth can be classified as either active or extinct depending on its history of
eruption.
Active volcano
According to Smithsonian Global Program, it is an active volcano has at least one eruption within the last 10
000 years. Active volcano is further classified into two categories: erupting and dormant volcanoes.
Erupting volcano
An active volcano erupts, distinguished as either explosive or quiet. An explosive eruption happens because of
a formation of gases under viscous flow of magma. This kind of eruption is often violent and rapid. It ejects
volcanic materials, lava flows, and ash onto a large area. Meanwhile, a quiet eruption is classified only when it
emits low viscous lava where gases can easily escape.
Dormant Volcano
A volcano is dormant if it has not erupted within the last 10 000 years. It is not certain when this kind of
volcano will erupt, but is expected to occur in the future. For instance, Mount St. Helens was considered
dormant before it erupted in 1980. Meanwhile, Mauna Kea, located in Big Island, Hawaii had its last eruption
3500-4000 years ago, but several experts believe that it will erupt again.
Extinct Volcano
This kind of volcano has not had an eruption within historic times and is not expected to erupt again in a
comparable time scale of the future. One such volcano is Kohala in Big Island, Hawaii. The last time that Kohala
erupted was close to 60 000 years ago. As of now volcanologists do not believe that Kohala will ever be active
again. However, there are volcanoes that are considered extinct but became suddenly active like Mt.
Pinatubo, which erupted in 1991.
Signs of an impending volcanic eruption
Several changes in the behavior of volcanoes can signify that it is about to erupt. If there are indications of
volcanic unrest, then monitoring is heightened to gather evidence of possible eruption. These are needed in
disseminating early warning precautions. Here are the signs of an impending volcanic eruption:

 There are changes in geochemical and geophysical characteristics of a volcano, such as increase in
volume and temperature of gas composition and increase in the frequency of volcanic quakes. The
color of steam emission changes from white to gray due to ash. Also, the crater glows due to the
presence of magma at or near the crater.
 Deformation of the ground because magma intrusion and appearance of fractures on the sides of
volcano can be observed. There is also an increasing frequency of landslides and rockfalls from cliffs.
Moreover, increase in the extent of drying up of vegetation around the volcano’s upper slopes
becomes noticeable.
 Continuous increase in the temperature of hot springs, wells (e.g. Bulusan and Canlaon), and lakes on
craters (e.g. Taal) near the volcano. There is also noticeable variation in the chemical content of springs
and crater lakes around the volcano.

Tools for recognizing volcanic hazards

The Philippine Institution of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) is a specialized agency of the Department
of Science and Technology (DOST) that monitors volcano-, earthquake-, tsunami-related events in the
Philippines. PHIVOLCS is the primary and reputable source of information about volcanology in the country.
Moreover, PHIVOLCS is at the forefront of mitigating the hazards posed mainly by volcanic eruptions,
earthquakes, and tsunamis.
Part of mitigation initiatives of PHIVOLCS is assigning permanent danger zones around volcanoes. PHIVOLCS
strictly prohibits settling in permanent danger zones within a four to six kilometer radius from the summit of
volcanoes. In this way, loss of lives can be prevented.
Apart from danger zones, PHIVOLCS also developed criteria for several alert levels that indicate the current
state of an impending volcanic eruption. The alert system not just gives insight on the situation but also
triggers the public to immediately take appropriate actions. Specifically, the alert system ranges from Alert
Level 0 (lowest) to Alert Level 5 (highest):
Alert Level 0: No alert.
Alert Level 1: Abnormality observed. There is low seismic activity and no imminent eruption.
Alert Level 2: There is an increasing unrest. Moderate levels of seismic activity are observed and probable
magma movement could eventually led to eruption.
Alert Level 3: There is an increasing tendency towards eruption. Relatively high and increasing unrest are
recorded and there can be a possible eruption within two weeks.
Alert Level 4: Hazardous eruption is imminent. There is an intense unrest which includes earthquakes.
Moreover, there is possible eruption within 24 hours.
Alert Level 5: Hazardous eruption is in progress.
Undeniably, volcanoes pose various hazards that should be taken into account when assessing associated
risks. Communicating volcanic risk among experts, local governments, and the public is very crucial. Hazard
maps are an essential tool used in assessing volcanic risk. Volcanic hazard maps are used to explain the
distribution of hazards, risks, and anticipated areas to be affected.

Volcanic hazards
Lava flow. Lava flow is mildly explosive when released. It is not a major threat to human lives because of
its slow rate of movement, a property called low viscosity. Moreover, the speed and location of lava flows
depend on topography. The steep slopes encourage faster and longer flows than gentle slopes or terrain. Lava
flow poses several potential damages, including fire threat, destruction of infrastructures, and vegetation.

Pyroclastic flow and surges. Pyroclastic flow and surges are extremely hazardous and
destructive type of volcano activity, especially when there are simultaneous blasts. Pyroclastic flow is
composed of rock material, hot gas, and ash that move above ground surface at high velocities. It can burn
and suffocate people because of its rock material, hot gas, and ash that can reach up to 700°C. Also known as
nuée ardente, pyroclastic flow and surge can bury sites because of hot rocks debris and can burn forests and
other vegetation areas.

Gas emissions. Volcanic gas is one of the basic components of a magma or lava. Active and inactive
volcano may release gases to the atmosphere in the form of water vapor, hydrogen sulfide, sulfur dioxide,
carbon monoxide, hydrogen chloride, and hydrogen flourid. Aside from the major constituents, minor
amounts of nitrogen, methane, argon, and helium may be also present in volcanic gases. The proportion of
these components changes with changing temperature and the prevailing winds can blow gases thousands of
kilometers away. Volcanic gas when associated with the atmosphere can result in volcanic fog or acid rain that
can contaminate and damage vegetation. Even in relatively small amount, it can also affect the respiratory
system of animals.

Ashfall. Volcanic ash is made up of rock, mineral, and fragments created during explosion and separation
of magma into smaller pieces. Ashfalls can cause the collapse of roofs and damage houses if accumulated ash
will not be cleared immediately. When there is rainfall, ashfalls can be the source of lahars. It affects the
respiratory system of people as well as animals causing livestock problems. It also contaminates water sources
and damages agricultural landscapes.

Tephra Falls and Ballistic Projectiles. Tephra refers to fragments of volcanic rock ejected
into air by explosion. It consists of different rock particles that vary in size, shape, and composition, among
others.
Tephra can irritate eyes, throats, and cause respiratory problems due to fine particles when inhaled. It also
causes burns and destruction of buildings and infrastructure. Moreover, it causes disruptions in road and air
traffic.
Lahar. Lahar is an Indonesian term for mudflows or flows of volcanic debris. Lahar is flowing mixtures of
volcanic debris and water. It is formed due to pyroclastic flow mixed with water, snow mixed with debris, and
rainfall on ash.
Lahars are classified into two. First is the primary or hot lahar which is caused by direct volcanic eruption. The
other is called secondary or cold lahar which is caused by rainfall on and mixture of snow with debris. Lahar
can be produced by the sudden draining of a crater lake, caused by either an explosive eruption or collapse of
a crater fall. It can also be caused by the mixture of pyroclastic flow into a river or lake water.
Lahar can bury infrastructures and trap people to their homes. It can also clog rivers which further
contaminate water sources. Lahars are indeed known to become one of the deadliest volcanic phenomena.

Debris avalanche. It is typically a landslide that was triggered by intrusion of magma, earthquakes,
heavy rainfall, or explosion from volcanoes. It can generate tsunamis when entering the ocean and bury river
valleys with debris.

Volcanic tsunamis. Tsunami is a series of high water waves triggered by disruption of seafloor. It can
occur even without volcanic eruption. For instance, lahar or landslide which entered the ocean can trigger the
huge waves. Tsunamis can also cause floods that damage buildings and other infrastructures.
 DRRR Activity No. 3
Name: ____________________________________________ Date: ____________________
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Chapter Test
1.) What are the three classifications of volcanoes? Describe each.
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2.) Enumerate the different types of volcanic hazards. Describe each.

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3.) How do volcanoes form? Discuss the process of volcano formation.

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