(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er.

Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

A Complete Manual
of
Safety Engineering
(Seventh Semester)

Far-western University
Department of Civil Engineering
Mahendranagar, Kanchanpur

Compiled by: Er. Mahendra Singh (M.E./ M.Sc. in Construction Management)

1
 UNIT-I
Introduction [3 Hrs]

1.1 Introduction
The construction industry is the builder of our modern world. It is well recognized that the construction
industry is one of the more dangerous industries to work. The reasons for these dangers are the hazards
faced by those who work in the construction industry. Many of these hazards are caused by the equipments
used on construction worksites. Many tools, both hand and power, that have the potential to cause injuries
to hands, fingers or eyes are used by the workers. There are many construction materials that also make
their contributions to the safety and health hazards faced by the construction industry. The use of these
types of equipments, tools and materials is fundamental in construction applications, procedures and
processes. These highly interrelated activities often manifest themselves in hazardous situations. People in
the construction industry not only face the dangers of being the first on a jobsite, but face potential health
risks and exposures though out the building processes. Workers should expect to go to work each day and
return home uninjured and in good health. Workers have the right to expect safety and health on the job
without fear of punishment. The construction industry is definitely a business. Many of the larger
construction companies also conduct their businesses in the national and international areas. Keeping this
in mind, the amount of dollars, number of employers and multitude of workers involved in construction
indicate that it should be managed as a business from all aspects. Construction contractors widely vary. This
variation is noted in many different ways. Some major variations are:
 Contractors perform their specialties at unique worksites, such as buildings, darns, roads, tunneling
etc.
 The equipments vary with the tasks being performed from small tools to large earth moving
equipments, cranes etc.
 The variety of materials needed to complete the project greatly varies and can include anything,
 There is a great variety of procedures used during the work being performed,
 Each construction process has its own safety or health hazards which can dictate different
precautions from the need for fall protections to the need for respirators for asbestos abatement.
 The workers like electricians; roofers etc. possess special skills and training to perform their specific
tasks. This might include operating engineers using cranes or carpenters performing framing.
The construction industry has many employees and a great variety of individuals who have unique skills
related to constructions. These individuals include estimators, safety engineers, civil engineers, architects,
surveyors, carpenters, plumbers, skilled workers and unskilled workers as well as managers and
administrators. Contractors and safety and health professionals should make a jointly effort to assure that
construction workers are not exposed to chemicals or other physical factors which result in exposures that
might cause long term health effects.

1.2 Definition of Safety

Safety is the absence of danger, a state of protection and a condition of zero risk. It may be defined
as an act of being safe from the materials, substance and the processes at construction site. It is basically
concerned with no loss of life at the work place and minimizing injuries to the workmen including other
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

common people. It is also concerned with the safety of works and with the damage of property and loss of
time.

Why Safety?
Safety is required in every field. General knowledge of safety is required to everybody. In every
walk of life, there is danger. The major engineering fields, where safety precautions have to be taken can be
broadly classified as:

 Construction field
 Production field
 Service field
Safety is not always uppermost in Individual’s mind. A method of external governance is required
to provide some regularity in the department necessary for safety achievement. Construction sites are often
dangerous because they:
 Are carried out at dangerous construction places
 Use dangerous materials like blasting materials and other chemicals.
 Use dangerous methods like underwater drilling and blasting, tunneling etc.
 Use heavy machines which often become the cause of accident

Unsafe conditions
Unsafe conditions are those factors that are present due to defects in conditions, errors in design, faulty
planning or omission of essential safety requirements for maintaining hazard free physical environment.
The followings are the categories in which unsafe conditions may be grouped into:
 Inadequate mechanical guarding
 Defective condition of equipment, tools, floors, stairs, etc.
 Unsafe design and construction
 Unsafe process, operation or arrangement e.g. unsafe piling, stocking, storage, over loading,
overcrowding etc.
 Inadequate light and ventilation and
 Unsafe dress like loose clothing, no gloves, no aprons and shoes.
 In engineering field, many small and big works are to be executed. Both skilled and unskilled
manpower along with the various equipments are employed for the execution of the construction
works.
 Various types of machines are used these days to increase the efficiency of the work but on the other
hand, the numbers of accidents are also on increasing.

1.3 Safety Engineering

Safety engineering is an applied science closely related to systems engineering and its subset, system safety
engineering. Safety engineering assures that a life-critical system behaves as needed even when other
components fail. In practical terms, the term “safety engineering” refers to any act of accident prevention by

3
a person qualified in the field. Safety engineering is often reactionary to adverse events, which is also
described as “incidents”, as reflected in accident statistics. This arises largely because of the complexity and
difficulty of collecting and analyzing data on “near misses.” Increasingly, the importance of a safety review
is being recognized as an important risk management tool. Failure to identify risks to safety and the
according inability to address or “control” these risks, can result in massive costs, both human and
economic. The multidisciplinary nature of safety engineering means that a very broad array of professionals
are actively involved in accident prevention or safety engineering. Safety engineering is the process of
designing safer products and structures. It also can involve improving the safety of work sites,
manufacturing facilities and products as safety standards change.

1.4 Principles of Safety Engineering

 To identify potential safety risks and mitigates them. Mitigation includes reducing the odds of
accidents occurring or reducing the severity of an accident once it occurs.
 To accomplish the process by changing the product design to prevent dangerous failures from
occurring.
 To add the safety measures to protect people if a hazard does occur.

1.5 Scope of Safety Engineering

Quality control and safety are increasingly important concerns for project managers. Defects or failures in
constructed facilities can result in very large costs. Even with minor defects, re-construction may be
required and facility operations impaired. Increased costs and delays are the result. In the worst case,
failures may cause personal injuries or fatalities. Accidents during the construction process can similarly
result in personal injuries and large costs. Indirect costs of insurance, inspection and regulation are
increasing rapidly due to this increased direct cost. Good project managers try to ensure that the job is done
right the first time and that no major accidents occur on the project.
Safety engineering is a broad and diverse division of engineering that offers good pay and the flexibility to
work in different job fields. Safety engineering aims to keep people, property and the environment safe from
chemical, physical, psychological and biological hazards. Safety in the workplace is a concern for employees
and employers. Maintaining a work environment that is safe for everyone requires dedication and attention
to detail.
Safety engineering is a career whose main goal is risk management. Safety engineers are employed by
companies in order to reduce the scale and frequency of accidents. Safety engineering deals with the
conducting or supervising of something specially the executive function of planning, organizing,
coordinating, directing, controlling, and reporting any industrial or business project or activity with
responsibility for others. Safety engineering education can furnish engineers regarding the safety
management and safety measures to accomplish the desired goal without facing any problem of accidents.
General safety education can improve safety attitudes and increase knowledge about the accident
prevention. Electrical safety involves using safe practices when working with or near electricity or electrical
devices. This is important because electricity is dangerous. Fire safety engineering or fire protection
engineering minimizes the risk of buildings catching fire or collapsing during a fire. Fire safety engineering
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

for buildings includes installation of fire-fighting systems, providing ample means of escape, and fire
detections and warning methods. Safety engineers design products that cannot harm users during expected
use. Reliable engineers make designs more reliable. Safety-engineers take an early design of a system,
analyze it to find what faults can occur, and then propose safety requirements in design specifications up
front and changes to existing systems to make the system safer. A safety management system (SMS) is a
business approach to minimize safety risks. It uses procedures, practices and policies to manage safety.

1.6 Accidents
An accident can be defined as an unplanned and unexpected occurrence which upsets the planned
sequence of events and actions resulting in the loss of production, injury to the persons and damage to the
plants and equipments. It is an unexpected and unwanted event which cannot be anticipated in advance. It
is always a sudden process and a gradual one. The nature of accidents may vary from industry to industry.
An employee may be caught in a machine while working on it or he / she may fall against machine or s/he
may fall from a height while engaged on a particular task or explosives used carelessly may explode. These
accidents may result in disablement or death. Now, accidents can be defined as undesired and unexpected
or untimely released exchange or action of energy resulting or having the potential to result in system
damage or injury.
 An unwanted event of any type that has taken place can be called an accident.
 Loss of life or property or injury to health due to unnoticed or neglected reason is an accident.
 An event that occurs by chance especially one causing injury or damage.
 In construction industry most of these unhappy happenings do not occur only by chance or
unknowingly.
 Accident may be defined as a sad happening that was not properly planned to be prevented.
 Most cases, most of the accidents in the construction industry are preventable.
 Processes of prevention can and should be planned.

1.7 Nature & causes of Accident

 Mostly Known
◦ So can be planned for prevention
 Some Unknown
◦ Not foreseeable hence not preventable
 Hard Ware Causes
◦ Equipment
◦ Process
◦ Materials
◦ Physical condition of workers

A) Hardware Cause
B) Software Cause

5
A) Hardware causes are related to
◦ Men
◦ Machine
◦ Materials
 Sub – dividing Hardware Causes
1) Physical causes
 Improper condition of machine
 Improper use of machine
 Improper tools for the job
 Old and worn-out tools.
 Improper handling of materials like explosives, paints, acids, bitumen etc.
 Improper clothing of work men.
 Negligence in using personal protective equipment.
 Congested work place.
 Not maintained work place causing slippery.
 Poor light and ventilation.
 Obstructions in the working place.
 Projections and generally unsafe work place.
 Unsafe use of scaffolding and ladders.
 Improper scaffolds and ladders.
 In adequate shore during excavation.
 Undersized or un-designed temporary works.
 Improper discipline among workers.

2) Physiological causes- related to human health

 Poor eye sight of the worker- This is a very important factor for persons handling
machinery as automobiles, cranes etc. A driver while driving the vehicle may not
see an obstacle ahead clearly, especially in poor visibility conditions resulting in
accident.
 Poor health condition- Due to poor health, a worker may not control his/her load of
work and may meet an accident.
 Poor hearing condition
 Old age- In old age generally the eye-sight becomes poor and one becomes hard of
hearing along with poor general health. These factors may cause accidents easily.
 Under age children
 Intoxication (alcoholism)- Under the influence of intoxication one loses control
over his limbs and becomes prone to accidents.
 Physical disability
 Overwork- A tired worker loses control over his/her limbs easily and may meet the
accident.
 Other sickness
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

3) Psychological causes
These causes of accidents are related to mental condition of a worker and discussed as
follows:
 workers should be mentally free
 rendering work with complete zeal (eagerness) and efficiency
 Anxiety(nervousness)
 Worry- Due to worries one loses control over his mind and may meet with an
accident.
 Mental tension- Due to mental tension also one can loses control over his/her mind.
 Impulsiveness (आवेगशील)- When a person acts under impulse, without proper
thinking, the chances of accidents are more.
 Nervousness- A nervous person loses control over his limbs quickly and has more
chances of meeting of accidents.
 Carelessness- A careless worker has more chances of meeting an accident than a
conscious worker.
 Fear (terror)- Under fear also one loses control over his/her limbs quickly.
 Emotional attitude- An emotional person loses mental balance quickly.
 Anxiety of competition
 Peer relation
 Over confidence
 Relation with supervisor

B) Software Causes of Accident- knowledge based causes

◦ Inadequate plan and program for work
◦ Lack of proper safety plan
◦ Lack of training
◦ Lack of signage and signals
◦ Improper training materials
◦ Negligence
◦ Errors and Mistakes
 because of adequate information and knowledge.

 interest on the job

 monotony etc.
 lust (thirst) for more delivery

1.8 Types of Accident

Depending upon the nature of the accident and severity of the injury, accidents may be different types.
Some types of accident are:
a) Major accident (It means fatal accident. Persons are killed)

7
 b) Permanent accident (In this accident, employee loses earning capacity due to his cutting leg, arm,
hand and finger).
c) Temporary accident (In this accident, worker is unfit temporarily and loses his earning capacity
for a short time, for example, fracture of arm is temporary accident).
d) Lost time accident (In this accident, injuries are serious and workers are admitted to hospital.
They join the duty after a long time taking rest).

1.9 Why do accidents occur?

There are some safety and health factors which are unique to construction and some which are not.
Awareness of these factors will help in preventing the occurrence of incidents. Actual physical hazards such
as an unstable wall that is being erected, environmental hazards such as toxic atmospheres, oxygen
deficiency, noise, radiation, dust and human factors such as supervisor’s or worker’s failure to follow safe
work practices are the factors of the causing accident.
Lack of poorly designed safety standards such as no standard for confined space entry or a construction
standard or a chemical that is never used in the construction industry, failure to communicate within a
single trade such as one equipment operator is not following the standard travel way rules and colliding
with another operator’s equipment, resulting potential injuries and damages are another factors of the
causing accident.
The intensity of the designer’s attention often depends on safety and therefore also depends on the suspected
hazard significant. On the other hand, designer’s opinion can be influenced positively by management’s
wishes when they are clear. Normally, safety is considered to be reductive to accidents. An accident is not
considered as occupational desires and psychological shock.

1.10 Techniques of Accident Prevention

Accident prevention in construction is not just a matter of setting up a list of rules and making safety
inspections although both of these have their place. A system is required for managing health and safety.
There are seven principles to be observed in setting up strategies for control and management of health and
safety at work in the construction industry. If they are followed, accident prevention is more likely to be
achieved. These seven principles are as follows:
a) If possible, avoid a risk altogether by eliminating the hazard.
b) Tackle risks at source.
c) Adapt work to the individual when designing work areas and selecting appropriate methods of
work.
d) Use technology to improve conditions.
e) Give priority to protection for the whole workplace rather than to individuals.
f) Ensure everyone understands what they have to do to be safe and healthy at work.
g) Make sure health and safety management is accepted by everyone and that it applies to all aspects
of the organizations activities.

1.11 Benefits of accident prevention

The accident prevention saves the following:
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

a) Human life.
b) Temporary or permanent injury of workers
c) Loss of workers
d) Damage to plant or equipment
e) Loss of compensation to the workers, loss of time and investment
f) The cost of human suffering

1.12 Evolution of Safety Concept

Today’s owners face a variety of risks when they undertake a construction project. Not only must owners be
concerned with potential risks to their employees, tenants, or property, but they must also be concerned
about the risks that the contractor bears. Safety is a critical item on all construction projects for multiple
reasons including protecting the welfare of employees, providing a safe work environment and controlling
construction costs. However, the importance of safety as a cost controlling measure is often overlooked by
owners and contractors. As a means of reducing the risks associated with construction, safety can
significantly impact the overall cost. A dedicated commitment to safety by both the owner and contractor
helps ensure project success and can impact the bottom-line considerably. Owners should understand that
all of the contractor’s risks, or even the threat of them, will either add considerable cost to the contract or
decrease the potential profit a contractor is able to make on any specific contract. Since every contractor is
in business to bring profit to the bottom-line, overhead would naturally take into consideration the “costs of
doing business.” Expected losses have to be taken into consideration and included in the estimate if the
contractor wants to stay in business. Answer to the old problem of industrial safety is not easy. Probably it is
not there. Countless injuries occur because the managers and worker do not want to spend a little bit of
their wisdom in it. Even today, construction managers are concerned with progress and work output which
they call productivity. Productivity's ultimate relation to safety is seldom considered. It has been hard to
inject the concept of total safety to supervisors and the managers in construction projects. Therefore,
problem of safety is complicated and it will be unwise to try to find its solution in a single model. It has to be
taken up by comprehensive nature of solutions and activities.

1.12.1 British Labor Regulation

 Labor sickness on, Manchester Cotton Mill
 First labor Regulation 1784, drew the attention of the public who labored under very danger and
unsanitary condition
 Manchester Board of Health 1795, who advised the legislation about working hours and conditions
of the workers
 Health and Morals of apprentices act 1802
◦ Prevention of injuries
◦ Protection of labor
 Mines Act 1842
◦ Punitive or disciplinary compensation for preventable injuries
◦ Prevented women and children to work on mines

9
  First safety law 1844
 Detailed provision of health and safety appeared
 Work hours of women 12 hrs.
 Act of 1855 specified 7 general safety needs
◦ Ventilation
◦ Guarding of unused shaft
◦ Proper means of signaling
◦ Correct gauges for steam boilers
◦ Valves for steam boilers
◦ Requirements for indicators
◦ Brakes for power lifting equipment
 Mines act again extended in 1860
 Coal Mine Act 1872
◦ Employment of only certified managers in mines
◦ Extended general safety rules
◦ Initial step in regulating construction activities
 Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974
◦ Defines duty and responsibility of
 Employers
 Contractors

 Suppliers
 Managers
 Site in-charges
 General public

1.12.2 USA
 First Worker’s Compensation Law was passed in New York state (1908), which was held to be
unconstitutional (unofficial/unauthorized).
 Similar law was passed in the state of Wisconsin in 1911 was held to be constitutional.
 Later on all the states of USA passed similar laws.
 The first federal safety legislation was enacted (passed) in the year 1893 as Safety Appliance Act. But
the law was applied only to railroad equipment.
 Occupational Safety & Health Act is the primary federal law which governs occupational health &
safety in the private sector & federal (national/central/state) government. It was enacted by Congress
in the year 1970.

Objective of this act

 is to ensure that employers provide employees with an environment free from recognized
hazards, such as exposure to toxic chemicals, excessive noise levels, mechanical dangers,
heat or cold stress or unsanitary conditions. It is to assure so far as possible every working
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

man and woman in the nation safe and healthful working conditions and to preserve the
human resources.

1.12.3 INDIA
 Factory act 1948
 Regulates health, safety, welfare and other working conditions of workers working
in the factories.
 Mines Act 1952 & Dock Workers Act 1986 (Safety, Health & Welfare).
 National policy on SHE (Environment, Health & Safety) at work place
 Main objective of national policy are
 Continuous reduction in the incidence of work related injuries, fatalities, diseases,
disaster and loss of national assets.
 Continuous reduction in the cost of work place injuries and diseases.
 Extend coverage of work related injuries, fatalities, and diseases for a more
comprehensive data base as a means of better performance and monitoring.
 Continuous enhancement of community awareness regarding safety, health and
environment at workplace related areas.
 Enhance the well-being of the employee and society at large.

1.12.4 NEPAL
 Factory and Factory Workers Act 1959
 Does not cover Construction Industry/Construction laborers
 Industrial Business Act, 2018 (1961)
 Security and environment appeared for the first time
 Labor Act 2048 (1991)
 Worker’s right, welfare, facilities and safety/security
 Working hours, 8 hrs. per day (art 16)
 Rest time (art 18)
 One and half times wage for OT work (art19)
 Health and Safety/ security – Chapter 5
 Occupational Health (art 27)
 Safety of eyes (art 28)
 Safety from chemicals (art 29)
 Fire safety (art 30)
 Guarding of machines (art 31)
 Heavy weight lifting (art 32)
 Safety from pressure plant (art 33)
 Labor welfare in Nepal Act
 Compensation (art 38)
 Resting room (art 43)

11
  Construction Business (art 46)
 Construction tools (46 - 1- Ka)
 Temporary worker’s arrangement (46 - 1 - Kha)
 Accident insurance (46 - 1 - Ga)
 Safety/ security management (46 - 1 - Gha)
 PPE (46 – 2)
 Industrial Business Act, 2049 (1992), Cl. 9
 Security, Public health and Environment
 Nepal Building Code, 1993
 NBC 107, fire safety in buildings
 NBC 114, construction safety
 Building construction and demolition
 NBC Provisions
 Material handling
 First aid facility
 Fire safety
 Site preparation
 Earth work in excavation
 Foundation construction
 Construction of walls
 Construction of roofs
 Electrical works
 Temporary works
 Demolition of structures
 Miscellaneous requirement during demolition
 Use of explosives
 Access to firefighting equipment
 Safety cloth and PPE(Personal Protective Equipment)
 Storage of combustible materials
 Storage of blasting materials
 Worker insurance
 Safety requirement in NBC
 Movement of construction equipment
 Support during erection
 Safety net for working at height
 Restriction to third person.
 Labor welfare in NBC
 Drinking water ▪ Toilet facilities
 Fire extinguishers ▪ Safe shelter
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

UNIT-2
An Overview of Construction Safety [4 Hrs]
Construction is the most dangerous land-based work sector in Europe, after the fishing industry. In the
European Union, the fatal accident rate is nearly 13 workers per 100,000 as against 5 per 100,000 for the
all sector average. In the United States, there were 1,225 fatal occupational injuries in the construction
sector in 2001 with an incidence rate of 13.3 per 100,000 employed workers. For the same year the
construction industry experienced 481,400 nonfatal injuries and illnesses at a rate of 7.9 per 100 full-time
workers in the industry. Construction has about 6% of U.S. workers, but 20% of the fatalities - the largest
number of fatalities reported for any industry sector. Hong Kong is also notorious for its high construction
accidents rates. Although the accidents rate dropped from 350 per 1000 workers in mid-1980 to 60 per
1000 workers in 2007, it still accounted for nearly 20% of all the industrial accidents in Hong Kong. In the
United Kingdom, the construction industry alone represented over 40% of the total number of fatalities
reported among the four major industry sectors and was consistently reported as the first or second worst
offender for reported fatal injuries. In Australia, the construction industry experienced 5.6 fatalities per
100,000 employees which are more than twice the average for all the industries in 2007–2008.
History of construction
People have constructed buildings and other structures since prehistory, including bridges, dams, roads and
canals. Building materials in present use have a long history and some of the structures built thousands of
years ago are regarded as remarkable. The history of construction overlaps that of structural engineering
and many other fields. To understand why things were constructed the way they were in prehistory, we also
need to rely on archaeology to record the form of the parts that survive and the tools used, and other
branches of history and architecture to investigate how the builders lived and recorded their
accomplishments.
The history of building is marked by a number of trends. One is the increasing durability of the materials
used. Early building materials were perishable, such as leaves, branches, and animal hides. Later, more
durable natural materials such as clay, stone, and timber, and, finally, synthetic materials, such as brick,
concrete, metals, and plastics were used. Another is a quest for buildings of ever greater height and span;
this was made possible by the development of stronger materials and by knowledge of how materials
behave and how to exploit them to greater advantage. A third major trend involves the degree of control
exercised over the interior environment of buildings: increasingly precise regulation of air temperature,
light and sound levels, humidity, odours, air speed, and other factors that affect human comfort has been
possible. Yet another trend is the change in energy available to the construction process, starting with
human muscle power and developing toward the powerful machinery used today.
The history of construction is a complex subject encompassing the history of building materials, the history
of engineering, the history of building techniques, economic and social history of builders and workmen,
the history of construction machinery and temporary works, etc. Each of these has a complex literature
devoted to it.
Construction Industry and safety
During the last few decades the construction industry has registered an enormous growth world-wide. The
growth is characterized by a wide range of diversity in the nature of operations performed. Industrialized

13
countries, with their technological advancements, have invested more on civil works projects associated
with nuclear energy, space research, armament industry, etc. The developing countries have been engaged
in infrastructure development necessary for their economic growth and social betterment. Old structures
are being replaced by modern ones and high rise buildings are being erected everywhere, using newer and
better building materials and methods. The size of the world construction market is over 3 trillion U.S.
Dollars. Over 150 million workers are engaged in the construction trades around the globe. Construction
workers constitute about 7 percent of the world labor force; the figure climbs to as high as 20 percent in
some countries.
Construction is carried out deep under the ground or on height. Also work is done under water. Electrical
works and working with chemicals and gases makes it more dangerous. Therefore Construction is also a
high accident prone industry. It is estimated that more than 10 million workers receive injuries during one
year throughout the world. Compared with the manufacturing sector which averages 60-80 accidents per
1000 workers, construction averages 160-250 accidents per 1000 workers.
Construction is the second largest economic activity, after agriculture, in most of the developing countries
and accounts for 40 to 50 percent of the national developmental investment annually. Data regarding the
employment and accidents in construction industry are not available for most of the developing countries.
In general terms, the accident rate is about 3 times higher than that in the manufacturing sector, and one
out of every five persons employed in the construction industry suffers injury.
Some Accident Records
Country Total Accidents Fatal accidents % Fatal accidents

USA 2,000,000 15,000 0.75

UK 250,000 1,300 0.52

India 100,000 1,200 1.20

Nepal Unknown Unknown Unknown

Various aspects in construction safety

a) Organizational Aspects
Some of the major organizational aspects of the construction industry may be discussed here in
order to understand the status of safety in this industry.
i) Contracting
Construction is primarily a contracting business. The client has a construction job or a project.
Sometimes s/he may undertake the project under forced account method; most often it is contracted
out. A large project may have a prime contractor who secures the work and appoints sub-
contractors for various jobs i.e. brick layers, reinforcement workers, form work contractors,
concreters, painters, tile layers, electricians, carpenters, etc. Thus, there may be a network of
contractors from top to bottom, each concerned with his specific task. The prime contractor does
the coordination of work. Short term employment, job tenure lasting for the project duration only
and piece rate system of payment are the major features of contracting. All activities are time bound
and all relations remain contractual. Although the owner or the client is the Principal Employer
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur
having all obligations under most of the labor laws for the safety, health, working conditions and
welfare of workers, in practice he may seldom know the true picture of what is happening on work
sites.
ii) Nature of construction companies
Construction industry comprises a very large number of small firms. The number of small firms is,
in fact, so large that the construction is called a non-formal sector of the economy. As most work is
tendered out with advances given by the owner, the capital required for setting up a contracting
firm is small. Thus, entry into the industry is easy and it requires no special qualification and skills.
Consequently, there may be over half a million construction contractors in the construction
industry in Indian Subcontinent. In organized sector alone, there are about 15,000 contractors
registered under the umbrella of Contractors Association of Nepal. In the USA over 4 million
contractors are engaged in construction work. India has about half a million of them.
Small firms are less disposed toward compliance of labor laws and safety requirements. They do not
have the necessary motivation and organizational strength for these purposes. In fact, their
competitive advantage lies in lower overheads and operational costs. Safety would not be considered
important in such situation. Further, small firms are generally mobile and they have a high
mortality rate. As the small contractors go out of business, frequently, it is impractical to expect
them to invest on safety and health of workers unless this cost is included in the rate analysis or the
cost is reimbursed by the employer. The corporate sectors of the construction industry and the big
contractors have organizational apparatus to promote safety and process accidents judiciously,
lawfully and with compassion. But they are very few in number. The problem lies with the
hundreds of thousands of small contractors, sub-contractors and labor contractors who employ a
large majority of construction workers.
iii) Physical Environment
Construction work is done on sites under natural and hazardous conditions. Quite often it is at
remote places – far from cities. Labor is brought in as gangs for short durations. Employment
relationships are contractual and they exist for the project duration only. Very often, the family is
the unit of employment. Piece rate system of payment motivates workers to put in long hours of
work. They live near the work sites without adequate housing, civic amenities and other facilities.
Difficult terrain makes it impossible for government inspectors, if they want, or trade union
organizers to reach the construction sites. Accidents may not get reported. In general, the work
environment at construction sites is far from satisfactory. Both the contractors and workers are on
the site to complete the job, make money and go home. It is a peculiar situation where both
employer and employee scheme to comfort labor laws and safety requirements. The only party that
is expected to show some concern for these matters is the government but it cannot reach the sites.
iv) Safety Legislation
Labor laws that regulate the wage, welfare, health, safety and working conditions of labor at
construction sites are very confusing. In case of construction industry, law enforcing agency is
almost none acting or none active. Under the Workmen’s Compensation Act, the liability to pay
compensation for accidents at work is of the contractor. The contractor pays the compensation to
the injured workman, but he may do so through a private settlement with the party. This may be

15
cheaper at times. The injured worker also prefers prompt payment to delayed payment.
Consequently, a large number of accidents do not get reported. The problem of non-reporting is so
acute that even the basic data on accidents in construction industry is not compiled and, therefore,
it is not available.
Trade unions are supposed to be the watchdogs of workers’ interests. They are a major force for
bargaining the wage, welfare, safety and working conditions of labor. Unfortunately, construction
industry is poorly unionized. And if unionized the unions are more interested on fund raising to run
their organization. They are so much politicized that they have least interest in the real welfare of
the workers. It is blamed that the union leaders are bribed or they get some donation and grants for
their organizations from contractors for not taking interest of the workmen accident or
compensation.
v) Research & Development
Construction is one of the least researched industries in the region. It is also an industry that reports
minimal data about its internal working and safety. Contractors are not known to be research and
statistics minded anywhere in the world. In many countries, the national governments and the ILO
have been the prime movers in conducting surveys and generating data of the construction
industry. Results of some of the researches conducted by the I.L.O. and a few national governments
may be cited here. (Kilesch, 1986)
(i) The accident rate in construction is 4 to 5 times higher than that of the manufacturing
sector on the global scale. (ILO)
(ii) There is an increase in the number of work-related diseases associated with
construction all over the world. (ILO)
(iii) After initial employment, there is a dramatic increase in accident frequency over the
following 6-8 months in construction industry. (ILO)
(iv) Higher frequency of accidents is associated with the transfer of technology from
industrially developed countries. (ILO)
(v) A study conducted in four industrialized countries- Canada, Japan, U.K., and USA,
showed that the fatality rates in the construction industry were more than four times

than those in manufacturing. A second study of seven industrialized countries indicated

that the average number of fatalities per 100,000 workers was 12, with some countries
reporting 35 deaths per 100,000 workers. (ILO)
(vi) Studies conducted in the People’s Republic of China brought out the following results:
(a) There were more accidents in overhead operations in scaffolds, tower cranes and
temporary holes.
(b) There were more accidents caused by falling objects, colliding and electric shocks.
(c) Most of the injured and those responsible for accidents were young non-specialized
workers between the ages of 20-30.
(d) There were more accidents in sub-contracts and rural construction works.
(vii) Studies conducted in Hong Kong in 1984 brought out the following findings:
(a) Working at height is the most hazardous factor in construction industry.
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur
(b) Wet season and high temperature have a direct relationship with the accident
occurrence at construction sites. (HK Govt.)
(viii) The basic causes of accidents in civil engineering works are the following:
(a) Persons falling.
(b) Persons being struck or trapped by objects in motion.
(c) Persons stepping on or striking against objects.
(d) Persons handling objects in such a way so as to cause injury.
(e) Persons using hand tools.
(f) The majority of the fatal or more serious injuries are derived from causes ‘a’ to ‘e’.
(ILO)
(ix) A study carried out in Ontario province of Canada revealed that the total loss due to
accidents in construction industry was more than 6 times the profits made by
contractors. (Govt. of Canada)
(x) A study carried out in the U.K. revealed that the total loss due to accidents in
construction industry was approximately four times the corresponding average rate for
all manufacturing industries. (UK Govt.)
The above listing of 10 studies is not exhaustive. It is indicative of the role played by the national
governments and the I.L.O. in conducting pilot research and survey projects and motivating others
to pick up the work from there on.

b) Behavioral Aspects
i) Labor Behavior
Construction work is often seasonal where migratory labor is employed on piece rate or unit rate
basis to perform the assigned tasks. In view of the tenure of work and methods of wage payment,
the primary consideration of workers is to earn as much as possible, even at great personal risk.
They even improvise construction methods and expose themselves to hazards in order to earn more.
A majority of construction workers do not regard their work as a vocation and have no commitment
to the work they do. They are mostly agricultural labor who pick up jobs on construction sites and
will return to their villages when the work is over or suspended.
Certain categories of skilled workers such as expert brick layers, concreters, high-tension cable
joiners, drivers, machine operators, welders particularly the underwater welders, air conditioning
and refrigerating technicians, etc. are in acute short supply. They normally operate in gangs, work
at their own terms, and move from one job to another. They know all about the safety and the
consequences of not observing the rule.++++ However, they are in a hurry to finish the work early,
resort to improvising methods and end up with accidents. It is important to orient them to the
importance of safety and the consequences of taking shortcuts.
ii) Contractor Behaviors
In many cases, the safety attitude of contractors may not be different from that of their workers.
Contracting is a high risk business where every rupee counts. Many contractors work on very small
margins. To them, safety is a costly item which must be avoided. Many of them are not aware of the
safety rules and regulations. A labor contractor who looks after the site, materials, money and client

17
relations, may be carrying his office in his bag. He has little time and no motivation for the
technicalities of safety. He hopes there will be no accidents. If a mishap does take place, he pays a
settlement, regards it as bad luck and tries to make up the loss elsewhere.
What could be done to make contractors safety conscious? First, she has to be helped to become a
professional contractor having secure business. Second, he may be trained in the safety
requirements and conditions in construction business. And finally, he has to be forced to take to
safety by disqualifying him from contracting if he does not undergo safety training or refuses to
practice it.
iii) Education & Training
If construction is to become a safe activity, educating and training of the engineers, managers,
supervisors and workers is essential. Very little attention has been paid to this aspect. Civil engineers
who manage projects are responsible for the safety of operations as well as of the progress of the
work. Safety is not taught as a subject in engineering education. In some colleges, it appears as a
small component of a one term course on Construction Management. Safety may receive 8 teaching
hours during the 4 years of course work. The polytechnics who train supervisors and the Industrial
Training Institutes where skilled workers are trained do not handle this subject at all. Management
schools are equally unconcerned about the subject. Training in safety in construction is an equally
neglected area. Enquiries made with some large size contractors revealed that during the last 5
years, they neither conducted any in-house training or awareness program in safety nor deputed
any of their officers or supervisors to any safety training program conducted by an outside agency.
Enquiries made with the institutes who conduct training and executive development programs
regularly, revealed that no short-term programs on safety in construction were available.
iv) Trade Unions
It is hoped that considering its size and significance, trade unions will give more attention to
organizing construction labor. However, it is the workers themselves, who can improve their
working and civic conditions including safety. Trade unions can play an important role in safety
committees. They can organize safety education classes for their members. They can secure better
deals for the injured workmen. But as of now no encouraging action is noticed. Trade unions have
been busy to work for their master organizations – the political parties they are affiliated to, raise
money and enjoy power.
v) Contractor’s Organizations
Builders Association of India is the national body of contractor’s association in India. In Nepal,
Federation of Contractor’s Association (FCAN) is the national apex organization of construction
contractors with regional level organizations in 5 development regions and 73 district level
organizations out of 75 districts in the country. These bodies have significant role to play in
promoting safety among others. This central level organization has been actively involved in
training and developing construction entrepreneurs. They have joined hands with Nepal
Engineering College to create a new organization called “Construction Industry Training Centre
(CITC)”. The CITC organizes several training programs targeting different level of contractors and
imparts training including safety training. But this is only a drop in the desert. It should be useful
for a contractors association to constitute a high power sub-committee on safety. This committee
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

may devote itself to safety education, bringing out manuals on various aspects of construction safety
for its members, investigating into project disasters and serious accidents. They may institute safety
awards, organize debates and seminars on the subject and similar other activities.
vi) Government’s role
Considering the growing importance of construction to the national development and inadequate
safety work done so far, the National Planning Commission or the government of Nepal may
consider setting up National Safety Council which helps in planning monitoring and implementing
safety norms in the construction industry.

19
 UNIT-3
Important Safety Rules [4 Hrs]

3.1 Accident Reporting

This site includes selected reports into incidents investigated by Work Safe. These reports are intended to
help employers and workers understand the causes and underlying factors that contribute to workplace
accidents. This information may help to the concerning body to prevent similar accidents in your
workplace. Management should establish procedures to ensure that all accidents are investigated, to identify
the obvious as well as the underlying causes. A thorough accident investigation will yield a number of
lessons and corrective actions leading to specific measures to eliminate or reduce the probability of
recurrence. Reports should be prepared at the conclusion of the investigation which will include:
1. Date of the accident;
2. Date when the investigation began;
3. A description of the accident and all relevant details;
4. The obvious and underlying factors which contributed to the accident;
5. Immediate actions taken;
6. All measures or recommendations to prevent a repetition.
Accident investigations should be initiated as soon as practicable and the results communicated to all those
who could be affected by similar circumstances. This could extend beyond the organization.

3.2 Near Miss Reporting (also called as “close call” or “near hit”)
A near miss is an unplanned event that did not result in injury, illness, or damage – but had the potential to
do so. Only a fortunate break in the chain of events prevented an injury, fatality or damage; in other words,
a miss that was nonetheless very near. Although the label of 'human error' is commonly applied to an
initiating event, a faulty process or system invariably permits or compounds the harm, and should be the
focus of improvement. Other familiar terms for these events are "close call", or in the case of moving objects,
"near collision", near hit or Gift.

Near miss incident reporting system (NMIRS)

Unsafe acts and unsafe conditions are also the cause of near miss/near hit accidents. “Near miss accident” is
a widely used term in the safety industry and is used in the workplace to describe an incident that did not
result in an injury. “Near miss accident" literally means that an injury actually occurred. “Near hit incident”
is a better description. Near hit incidents are incidents that result in neither injury nor property damage but
have the potential to cause injury or property damage and require corrective action to prevent their
reoccurrence.
Simple procedures for dealing with near hit incidents are:
1. Immediately report near miss incidents to your supervisor. The potential for such incidents exists
throughout the workplace and all employees are required to report them when they occur.
2. If a near miss is a result of an unsafe condition, discontinue working until the problem has been
corrected and your supervisor authorizes you to proceed.
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur
3. If the incident is a result of unsafe acts, be certain that before employees return to work they have
been alerted to the unsafe actions and advised to avoid them.
Near miss incidents are a warning that should be taken seriously. Need to report near hit incidents to your
supervisor or site administrator. If left unreported, near hit incidents may lead to serious accidents and
injuries. Correcting unsafe actions and conditions will increase safety and create a better working
environment for everyone.

3.3 Report of Property Loss

When an accident or near miss is discovered, it is an opportunity to examine the potential consequences
(सम्भाववत नवतजा) of the incident, in addition to the actual consequences. By doing this, the potential risk
associated with the incident is examined. In other words, if the incident had happened under slightly
different circumstances, could the result have been catastrophic, or is this as bad as it can be? By estimating
the potential outcomes, the proper level of response to the incident can be assessed.
Generally qualitative estimates of the potential outcomes for the incident are used. It is not practical to
develop quantitative estimates of the potential consequences for each incident. Therefore, the incident
investigation team will often use a loss potential matrix to estimate potential consequences. Although this is
a very subjective estimate, it will provide the guidance needed to develop effective corrective actions and to
perform incident trending.
Loss Potential Matrix
High Potential Severity or consequences
 Low   High
Probability (frequency) A4 B4 C4 D4
of recurrence A3 B3 C3 D3

A2 B2 C2 D2
Low
A1 B1 C1 D1

To estimate the loss potential for an incident, the investigation team must estimate the probability of
recurrence and the potential severity. The following two tables provide the categories to estimate these two
parameters.
Probability of Recurrence
Category 1 2 3 4
Less than once Once in 10 years Once a year Once a month or
Frequency
in 10 years more

Potential Consequences
Category A B C D
Personal Consequences First Aid Medical Treatment Permanent / Fatal
Injury Injury Disabling Injury Injury
Equipment / Property ≥ $ 1,000 > $10,000 > $ 100,000 > $1,000,000
Damage ≤ $ 10,000 ≤ $ 100,000 ≤ $ 1,000,000

21
Schedule Impact > 2 hours, > 10 hours, > 1 day > 7 days
≤ 10 hours ≤ 1 day ≤ 7 days

The probability of recurrence should estimate the probability that the incident occurs again, assuming that
no corrective actions are taken. When estimating the probability of recurrence, the following factors should
be considered:
1. the number of people and the number of components/equipment/vessels/etc., and
2. the number of times the activity is performed.
For example:
• If a failure of each pump is expected to occur once a year and there are 12 pumps, the
expected probability of recurrence is 1/month
• A procedure that is used once per year contains an error. The probability of recurrence is
once per year because the procedure is only performed at this frequency (this assumes
there is only one piece of equipment that uses this procedure).
When estimating the potential consequences, consider what other events could reasonably occur, not the
worst possible event that could occur. For example, fire in a trash can be in the lunch room could result in
sinking a vessel. However, it is much more likely that the worst potential consequences of this incident
would be the destruction of a small portion of the vessel, some personnel injuries, and a minor effect on the
schedule. The team leader is responsible for ensuring that, at the conclusion of the investigation, the
Incident Summary form and supporting documentation are prepared.

Purpose of Incident Report: The purpose of the report is to help others understand the incident and the
corrective actions that are recommended to prevent recurrence of the same incident and other similar
incidents. The report, regardless of the type of incident, will contain as a minimum:
• Date and time of the incident
• Date and time the investigation started
• A description of the incident
• Identification of causal (contributing) factors
• Identification of root causes
• Recommendations from the investigation
• List of investigation team members and their roles.
The level of detail required will be related to the actual and/or potential risks associated with the incident(s).
Additional supporting documentation may include the following:
• Parts testing/examination reports
• Witness statements
• Causal factor chart
• Incident investigation forms
• Test plans
• Photographs or videotapes
• Maps and diagrams.
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

Each recommendation should be coupled with a brief description of the rationale so that people not
involved in the investigation (e.g., management) can understand the recommendation. The reports should
be available for use during the next proactive analysis of the systems/equipment/process/vessel involved in
the incident, training sessions, safety meetings, and subsequent investigations. The completed reports and
documented resolutions of the recommendations will be distributed to the vessels so that they can
communicate these to personnel who work in the affected area and/or perform job tasks relevant to the
investigation findings. Contract employees are included in these reviews when applicable (e.g., a contract
worker was involved in the incident, a contract employee performed an activity related to the incident, or a
contract employee was injured). This review is accomplished by routing a copy of the approved report to
potentially affected personnel and by discussing the incident in a safety meeting. The Safety Manager is
responsible for sending out copies of the report and collecting and retaining completed (i.e., signed) routing
forms or safety meeting agendas and attendance lists.

3.4 Moving, Handling and Storing Materials

Handling and storing materials involve diverse operations such as hoisting tons of steel with a crane;
driving a truck loaded with concrete blocks; carrying bags or materials manually; and stacking palletized
bricks or other materials such as drums, barrels, etc. The efficient handling and storing of materials are vital
to industry. In addition to raw materials, these operations provide a continuous flow of parts and assemblies
through the workplace and ensure that materials are available when needed. Unfortunately, the improper
handling and storing of materials often result in costly injuries.
3.4.1 What should your employees know before moving, handling, and storing materials?
In addition to training and education, applying general safety principles—such as proper work practices,
equipment, and controls—can help reduce workplace accidents involving the moving, handling, and
storing of materials. Whether moving materials manually or mechanically, your employees should know
and understand the potential hazards associated with the task at hand and how to control their workplaces
to minimize the danger.
Because numerous injuries can result from improperly handling and storing materials, workers should also
be aware of accidents that may result from the unsafe or improper handling of equipment as well as from
improper work practices. In addition, workers should be able to recognize the methods for eliminating—or
at least minimizing—the occurrence of such accidents. Employers and employees should examine their
workplaces to detect any unsafe or unhealthful conditions, practices, or equipment and take corrective
action.
3.4.2 What precautions should workers take when moving
materials manually?
When moving materials manually, workers should attach handles or
holders to loads. In addition, workers should always wear
appropriate personal protective equipment and use proper lifting
techniques. To prevent injury from oversize loads, workers should
seek help in the following:
 When a load is so bulky that employees cannot properly grasp or lift it,

23
 When employees cannot see around or over a load, or
 When employees cannot safely handle a load.

Using the following personal protective equipment prevents needless injuries when manually moving
materials:
 Hand and forearm protection, such as gloves, for loads with sharp or rough edges.
 Eye protection.
 Steel-toed safety shoes or boots.
 Metal, fiber, or plastic metatarsal guards to protect the instep area from impact or compression.
Employees should use blocking materials to manage loads safely. Workers should also be cautious when
placing blocks under a raised load to ensure that the load is not released before removing their hands from
under the load. Blocking materials and timbers should be large and strong enough to support the load
safely. In addition to materials with cracks, workers should not use materials with rounded corners,
splintered pieces, or dry rot for blocking.

3.4.3 What precautions should workers take when moving materials mechanically?
Using mechanical equipment to move and store materials increases the potential for
employee injuries. Workers must be aware of both manual handling safety concerns
and safe equipment operating techniques. Employees should avoid overloading
equipment when moving materials mechanically by letting the weight, size, and shape
of the material being moved dictate the type of equipment used. All materials-handling
equipment has rated capacities that determine the maximum weight the equipment can
safely handle and the conditions under which it can handle that weight. Employers must ensure that the
equipment-rated capacity is displayed on each piece of equipment and is not exceeded except for load
testing. Although workers may be knowledgeable about powered equipment, they should take precautions
when stacking and storing material. When picking up items with a powered industrial truck, workers must
do the following:
 Center the load on the forks as close to the mast as
possible to minimize the potential for the truck tipping
or the load falling,
 Avoid overloading a lift truck because it impairs control
and causes tipping over,
 Do not place extra weight on the rear of a
counterbalanced forklift to allow an overload,
 Adjust the load to the lowest position when traveling,
 Follow the truck manufacturer's operational requirements, and
 Pile and cross-tier all stacked loads correctly when possible.
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

3.4.4 What precautions must workers take to avoid storage hazards?

Stored materials must not create a hazard for employees. Employers should make workers aware of such
factors as the materials height and weight, how accessible the stored materials are to the user, and the
condition of the containers where the materials are being stored when stacking and piling materials. To
prevent creating hazards when storing materials, employers must do the following:
 Keep storage areas free from accumulated materials that cause tripping, fires, or explosions, or that may
contribute to the harboring of rats and other pests;
 Place stored materials inside buildings that are under construction and at least 6 feet from hoist ways
(उचाल्ने तरिका) , or inside floor openings and at least 10 feet away from exterior walls;
 Separate non-compatible (नविल्दो) material; and
 Equip employees who work on stored grain in silos, hoppers, or tanks, with lifelines and safety belts.
 Post safe load limits of floor
In addition, workers should consider placing bound material (सीिाको सािाग्री) on racks, and secure it by
stacking, blocking, or interlocking to prevent it from sliding, falling, or collapsing.

3.4.5 What safeguards must workers follow when stacking materials?

Stacking materials can be dangerous if workers do not follow
safety guidelines. Falling materials and collapsing loads can
crush or pin workers, causing injuries or death. To help
prevent injuries when stacking materials, workers must do the
following:
 Stack lumber (काठको फल्याक सािाग्री) no more than 16 feet high if it is handled
manually, and no more than 20 feet if using a forklift;
 Remove all nails from used lumber before stacking;
 Stack and level lumber on solidly supported bracing;
 Ensure that stacks are stable and self-supporting;
 Do not store pipes and bars in racks that face main aisles (गवल्ल, passageway
between seating areas as in an auditorium) to avoid creating a hazard to
passersby when removing supplies;
 Stack bags and bundles in interlocking rows to keep them secure; and
 Stack bagged material by stepping back the layers and cross-keying the bags at least every ten layers (to
remove bags from the stack, start from the top row first).
 Materials shall not be stored on scaffolds or runways in excess of supplies needed for immediate
operations.

25
During materials stacking activities, workers must also do the following:
 Store baled paper and rags inside a building no closer than 18 inches to
the walls, partitions, or sprinkler heads;
 Band boxed materials or secure them with cross-ties or shrink plastic
fiber;
 Stack drums, barrels, and kegs symmetrically;
 Block the bottom tiers of drums, barrels, and kegs to keep them from
rolling if stored on their sides;
 Place planks, sheets of plywood dunnage, or pallets between each tier
of drums, barrels, and kegs to make a firm, flat, stacking surface when stacking on end;

Metal pipe stack on shelf Stack of new wooden studs at the lumber yard

 Chock the bottom tier of drums, barrels, and kegs on each side to prevent shifting in either direction
when stacking two or more tiers high; and
 Stack and block poles as well as structural steel, bar stock, and other cylindrical materials to prevent
spreading or tilting unless they are in racks.

In addition, workers should do the following:

 Paint walls or posts with stripes to indicate maximum stacking heights for quick reference;
 Observe height limitations when stacking materials;
 Consider the need for
availability of the material;
and
 Stack loose bricks no more
than 7 feet in height. (When
these stacks reach a height of
4 feet, taper them back 2
inches for every foot of
height above the 4-foot level.
 When masonry blocks are
stacked higher than 6 feet,
taper the stacks back one-
half block for each tier above
the 6-foot level.)
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

3.5 Atmosphere in Confined Place

Many workplaces contain areas that are considered "confined spaces" because while they are not necessarily
designed for people, they are large enough for workers to enter and perform certain jobs. A confined space
also has limited or restricted means for entry or
exit and is not designed for continuous
occupancy. Confined spaces include, but are
not limited to, tanks, vessels, silos, storage bins,
hoppers, vaults, pits, manholes, tunnels,
equipment housings, ductwork, pipelines,
boilers, kilns, sewers, manure pits, pumping
stations, water reservoirs, other similar spaces,
etc. OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health
Administration) uses the term "permit-required
confined space" (permit space) to describe a
confined space that has one or more of the following characteristics: contains or has the potential to contain
a hazardous atmosphere; contains material that has the potential to engulf ( फस्न/ु surround) an entrant; has
walls that converge inward or floors that slope downward and taper
into a smaller area which could trap or asphyxiate (वनसावसन)ु an
entrant; or contains any other recognized safety or health hazard,
such as unguarded machinery, exposed live wires, or heat stress.
Confined spaces can be categorized generally as those with open tops
and with a depth that will restrict the natural movement of air, and
enclosed spaces with very limited openings for entry. In either of
these cases, the space may contain mechanical equipment with
moving parts. Any combination of these parameters will change the
nature of the hazards encountered.
Confined spaces - such as manholes, crawl spaces, and tanks - are not designed for continuous occupancy
and are difficult to exit in the event of an emergency. People working in confined spaces face life-
threatening hazards including toxic substances, electrocutions, explosions, and asphyxiation (suffocation).
These spaces can present physical and atmospheric hazards that can be prevented if addressed prior to
entering the space to perform work.

27
3.5.1 Reasons for Entering Confined Spaces
Entering a confined space as part of the industrial activity may be done for various reasons. It is done
usually to perform a necessary function, such as inspection, repair, maintenance, cleaning, or similar
operations which would be an infrequent or irregular function of the total industrial activity. Entry may
also be made during new construction. Potential hazards should be easier to recognize during construction
since the confined space has not been used. The
types of hazards involved will be limited by the
specific work practices. One of the most difficult
entries to control is that of unauthorized entry,
especially when there are large numbers of
workers and trades involved, such as welders,
painters, electricians, and safety monitors. A final
and most important reason for entry would be
emergency rescue. This, and all other reasons for
entry, must be well planned before initial entry is
made and the hazards must be thoroughly
reviewed. The standby person and all rescue
personnel should be aware of the structural design of the space, emergency exit procedures, and life
support systems required. Reasons you have to enter confined spaces:
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur
 Because you are given a job involving work in confined spaces such as cleaning, inspection,
painting, maintenance, modification involving hot works, repairs, etc.
 Because you are the Authorized Gas Tester, and it is your job to test the atmosphere and ensure it is
safe for others to enter.
 Because you are with the emergency rescue team to rescue people in trouble in confined spaces.

3.5.2 Hazards include

- Fire and explosion
- Entrapment
- Slips and falls
- Electric shock
- Noise and vibration
- Chemical exposure
- Toxic atmospheres
- Thermal/ Chemical burns

3.5.3 Engineering controls

- Ventilation
- Locked Access
- Lighting

3.5.4 Administrative Controls

- Controlled Access
- Hazard Assessments
- Entry Permits and procedures
- Signs and lockout tag out
- Training

3.5.5 Smart Safety Rules

- Know what you are getting into
- Know how to get out in an emergency
- Know the hazards and how they are controlled
- Only authorized and trained person may enter a confined space or act as an attendant.
- No smoking in confined space or near entrance or exit area
- Attendant must be present at all times
- Constant visual or voice communication must be maintained between the attendant and entrants
- No bottom or side entry will be made or work conducted below the level any hanging material or
material which could cause engulfment
- Air and oxygen monitoring is required before entering a permit-required confined space
- Ventilation and oxygen monitoring is required when welding is performed
- All floor or surface openings to confined spaces must be protected by a barricade.

29
3.5.6 Code of practice
a) Training
 Employees who are involved in confined space work, serving as stand-by persons or issue permits
must undergo training of confined space safety program.
 Initial training and retraining at appropriate intervals must be provided for these workers

b) Health Requirement
 Employees should be proven to be certified physically and mentally fit
 Fits, blackout (a disorder of the brain) and fainting
 History of heart disease and heart disorder
 High blood pressure
 Asthma, bronchitis and shortness of breath
 Sensory problems: eyesight problems, hearing problems, defective smell etc.
 Back pain or joint trouble that limits mobility

c) Employer Duties
 To inform his employees/contractor
– Entry is allowed only if requirements of COP (code of practice) are complied
– Hazards are identified and controlled
– Precautionary measures and procedures
 Coordinate entry operation with contractors
 Conduct debriefing and end of entry
 Ensure all persons involved in entry operation carryout their duties.

d) Authorized Gas Tester (AGT) Duties

 To have knowledge of hazards in confined space
 To identify and recommend control measures to ensure safe entry
 Familiar with all equipment used in confined space entry
 Test and interpret the reading from gas detector

e) Entry Supervisor Duties

 Have knowledge of hazards that may be faced during entry operation
 Ensure the permit to work has been filled, tests specified, procedures and equipment specified in the
permit are in place before endorsing the permit and allowing the entry
 Terminate the entry and cancel the permit
 Ensure that unauthorized persons do not enter the confined space
 To ensure that entry operation remains consistent with terms in the permit
 Brief entry team on the emergency procedures.

f) Authorized Entrants Duties

 To have knowledge of hazards in the confined space
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

 To use equipment required to perform the tasks assigned correctly

 To communicate with stand-by person regularly
 To evacuate, if required, as quickly and safely as possible.

g) Stand-By Person Duties

 To have knowledge of the hazards in the confined space
 Aware of possible behavioral changes due to exposure to hazards in the confined space
 To ensure accurate count and identification of entrants in the confined space
 Stationed outside the confined space during entry operation
 Communicate with entrants regularly and to alert of the need to evacuate.
 To monitor the activities inside and outside the confined space
 To summon rescue if required; do not attempt rescue
 Perform non-entry rescue if required
 Not to perform any duties that may interfere with stand-by person duties.

h) Rescue and Emergency Duties

 The employer has to establish a rescue and first aid procedure and provide rescue equipment.
 Rescue procedures should consider:
o The shape and size of the confined space
o The nature of the task to be performed
o Obstacles within the confined space
o Size and position of access points
o Number of persons in the confined space

3.6 Drowning
Drowning is what happens when a person struggles to breath because of taking in too much water through
the nose or mouth. This makes people panic and choke and sometimes means they stop breathing. People
who drown either survive with no injuries, survive with brain injury or die. Drowning is the process of
experiencing respiratory impairment (damage) from submersion/immersion in liquid. Liquid/air interface is
present at the entrance of the victim’s airway, preventing the victim from breathing air. The drowning
victim may have 3 possible outcomes – death (mortality), sustained injury (morbidity-त्रास) or survival with
no drowning-related health issues. Whatever the outcome is, he or she has been involved in a drowning
incident. A number of injuries may result from the use of swimming pools and similar recreational water
environments. Prominent among them are:
 drowning and non-fatal or near-drowning
 major impact injuries (spinal, brain and head injuries)
 slip, trip and fall injuries

Drowning has been defined as death arising from impairment of respiratory function as a result of
immersion in liquid. Drowning is a major cause of death, and it has been estimated that, in 2002, 382

31
million people drowned worldwide, with 97% of drowning’s occurring in low- and middle-income
countries (Peden & McGee, 2003; WHO, 2004), although the majority of available data relate to developed
countries. It is the third leading cause of death in children aged 1–5 and the leading cause of mortality due
to injury, with the mortality rates in male children being almost twice as high as those in female children
(Peden & McGee, 2003).

3.6.1 Treatment for Drowning

If the worker is unconscious after being taken out of
water, s/he should be laid with his belly (stomach) on
the legs of the attendant. Slowly the leg should be lifted
up to press the belly of the patient. The worker will
vomit water. After the water stops coming out even
after small jerks on the belly of the worker, the worker
is laid on his back. Now see if the worker is breathing.
If breathing has stopped, apply artificial respiration
immediately. The following steps should be followed.

a) Remove the obstruction from the mouth

Open the mouth wide to see that there is no obstruction inside. If there is any, remove it.

b) Make the neck straight and opening clear

Support the nape of the neck and press the top of
the head backwards so that respiratory tube is not
pressed in any way.

c) Ensure the air way clear

It is important to ensure that the air way through the mouth of the injured person is clear. Kneel near the
head of the injured. Press the angle of the jaw forward from behind to ensure that the tongue is forward and
does not block the airway at the throat.

d) Blow air into the lungs

Open your mouth wide and take a deep breath. Pinch the patient’s nostrils. Seal your lips around his mouth.
Blow gently into his/her lungs until they are filled. Remove your mouth and watch the patient’s chest
movement. When exhalation is completes repeat procedure until patient breaths by him/her.

e) Apply heart massage

If an assistant is available heart massage may be employed to assist recovery by improving the blood
circulation.
The following steps should be followed.
 Kneel alongside the victim’s chest
 Place the heel of the right hand on the lower end of the victim’s chest bone.
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

 Place the left hand on the top of the right hand

 Keep arms stiff and rock forwards so that your weight depresses the victim’s chest by 3 to 5cms (not
more than 5cms)
 Repeat this movement steadily at one second interval.

When working alone, heart massage may still be applied while

carrying out mouth - to - mouth respiration. The following
procedure may be followed:
 Kneel alongside the victims chest
 Carry out inflation a few times as previously described
 Change to the heart massage position and depress the
chest five times at one second intervals.
 Give another inflation.
 Repeat heart massage five times.
Continue to alternate with one inflation and five chest depressions until help arrives or the patient is taken
to the hospital. There are many different types of works to be undertaken under water. The common ones
are the excavation or chiseling or drilling operations on the bottoms of a well foundation during sinking of
the wells for the bridge foundations. Drowning cases are reported during construction or the bridges in
deep rivers. In a country like Nepal where the bed slopes of the rivers are steep causing higher velocities of
flow, many fatal drowning cases occur. It is therefore very important to take proper care during the works
under water. The diver who works under water should be well experienced at his work. The concerned
engineer should certify that the specified work under water is inevitable to complete the project. Necessary
mask and safety equipment should be provided to ensure better safety of the diver. Quality of the tools
under water needs thorough checking for their fitness and appropriateness. The electrical machines and
appliances should be checked to ensure that no electric leakage would occur while working under water.

3.6.2 Contributory factors

 Falling unexpectedly into water
 Easy unauthorized access to pools
 Not being able to swim
 Alcohol consumption
 Swimming outside the depth of the user
 Breath-hold swimming and diving

3.6.3 Preventive and management actions

 Isolation fences with self-closing and self-latching gates around outdoor pools
 Locked steps/ladders for above-ground pools
 Locked doors for indoor pools
 Locked safety covers for domestic and outdoor hot tubs
 Continuous parental/caregiver supervision of children

33
  Provision of properly trained and equipped lifeguards
 Teaching children to stay away from water when unsupervised
 Education/public awareness that drowning can happen quickly and quietly
 Restriction of alcohol provision or supervision where alcohol is likely to be consumed
 Accessible emergency shut-off for pump
 Wearing bathing caps
 Maintaining water temperature in hot tubs below 40 °C
 Access to emergency services

3.7 Fire Prevention & Protection

Fire is a chemical reaction that requires three elements to be present for the reaction to take place and
continue. The three elements are: a) Heat, or an ignition source, b) Fuel and c) Oxygen. These three elements
typically are referred to as the “fire triangle.” Fire is the result of the reaction between the fuel and oxygen in
the air. Scientists developed the concept of a fire triangle to aid in understanding of the cause of fires and
how they can be prevented and extinguished. Heat, fuel and oxygen must combine in a precise way for a
fire to start and continue to burn. If one element of the fire triangle is not present or removed, fire will not
start or, if already burning, will extinguish. Ignition sources can include any material, equipment or
operation that emits a spark or flame-including obvious items, such as torches, as well as less obvious items,
such as static electricity and grinding operations. Equipment or components that radiate heat, such as
kettles, catalytic converters and mufflers, also can be ignition sources. Fuel sources include combustible
materials, such as wood, paper, trash and clothing; flammable liquids, such as gasoline or solvents; and
flammable gases, such as propane or natural gas.
Fire in a construction project is not an uncommon type of accident because of the use of very highly
combustible materials like petrol, kerosene, wood, plastics, polythenes, synthetic fibres, rubbers, paints etc.
Also some very highly combustible volatile liquids are used to run small construction equipments like
vibrators, tampers, generators and other power operated machines. Even small spark near open liquid can
cause a fire. Also petrol, diesel, engine oil, gear oils, hydraulic oils etc. are used on earth moving and other
equipments and vehicles. Such liquids are also highly combustible and hence are dangerous. The
construction work also involves a lot of timber and bamboos for formworks, false works and also for
permanent works. Also the temporary labour settlement is made of wood or other forest product. If proper
care is not taken to protect them from fire, they may cause large fire accidents. The following should be
maintained:
 Petroleum, kerosene and other POL (Petroleum, Oil & Lubricants) product should be stored far from
labor settlement and working area.
 They should be stored underground if in large quantities or in close metallic containers if in small
quantities.
 Only required quantities of such materials should be purchased and stored.
 Timbers should be stored in an appropriate place but sufficiently apart from POL products.
 Combustible substance like paints should be stored and handle carefully,
 Bitumen boilers should be installed away from settlement areas.
 Heating of bitumen should be done in the presence of a highly skilled and trained bitumen foreman
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

 Smoking and other ignition sources should not be allowed to go near the bitumen boiler and highly
combustible substance/liquid.
 Highly combustible gases should be handled properly by the trained personnel only and the valves
should be checked if they are closed when not in use.
 Fire safety charts should be displayed around the work place and in the store area.
 Necessary fire protection equipments should be made available to the workers.
 Firefighting equipments should be installed at the locations as planned by the safety officer.

3.7.1 Fire cause

 Burns
 Asphyxiation (सास फे नन नसवकने)
 Property damage
 Job loss
 Death

3.7.2 Possible fire sources

 Flammable liquids
 Flammable gases
 Electrical Equipment
 Gas fired equipment- boilers, heaters, etc.
 Tobacco use
 Hot Work- welding, cutting, brazing, grinding

3.7.3 Fire are caused by

 Flammable liquids – never use or store flammable liquids near open flame, hot equipment or
electrical areas.
 Electrical overload/overheating- overloading circuits is a major cause of industrial fires. Keep
electric motor air intakes unblocked and clean. Do not store any material in electrical utility areas.
 Chemical reactions- combining certain chemicals can cause fires.
 Gas fired equipment- improper operation or maintenance can cause fires or explosions
 Trash accumulation- fire needs fuel. Keep all work areas clear. Remove excess material on a routine
basis, especially before the end of work.
 Personal electric heaters- keep portable heaters away from flammable material, turn them off when
not needed and unplug them at the end of the day.
 Spontaneous combustion- certain materials, such as oily rags can heat up during reaction between
chemicals and flammable materials- if they get hot enough, a fire will start. Place all rags and
contaminated material in proper storage containers.
 Welding and hot work- get a hot work permit before welding. Use a fire watch during hot work
operations.

35
  Smoking- matches and other smoking materials start more fire each year than any other man made
source
3.7.4 Smart Safety Rules
 Store flammable liquids only in approved containers and authorized areas
 No open flames near flammable material
 Do not overload electrical circuits
 Properly maintain and operate gas fired equipment
 Follow good housekeeping procedures- don’t let trash accumulate
 Turn off Personal Electric Heaters
 Properly extinguish cigarettes
 Smoke only in approved areas

3.7.5 Fire precautions during use of bitumen boilers

 Gas cylinders to be kept away from burner
 Combustible materials to be kept away from burner
 Boiler not to be transported whilst alight (बवलिहेको अवस्थािा)
 Boiler not to be left unattended whilst alight
 Adequate means of extinguishing to be provided
 Boiler attendant to be handle the fire incidence
 Temperature indicators (Thermometers) to be tested periodically for their correctness
 Thinner not allowed to be added from the top on hot bitumen while burners are alight
 Children and unauthorized persons not allowed to go near the boiler
 Boilers to be kept away from settlement area

3.7.6 Fire Prevention plan includes

 Flammable storage requirement
 Identification and control of ignition sources
 Fire suppression system
 Employee training
 Inspections and Housekeeping
 Fire emergency procedures
 Evacuation plan and routes

3.7.7 Checkpoints for Highly flammable liquids

 Do the materials require storing?
 Is it possible to minimize the storage quantity?
 Is there a properly constructed and sited store area?
 Is the amount of flammable liquid kept to the minimum for the day’s work?
 Is smoking prohibited and are other ignition sources excluded from area where the liquids are
present?
 Are properly constructed safety containers in use?
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

 Are the gas cylinders properly stored?

 Is the gas cylinder valve fully closed when the cylinder is not in use?
 Is adequate firefighting equipment provided?
 Are the staff properly trained to handle in case of accident?
 Are the workers trained to escape the fire?
 Are the fire alarm system installed at work place?
 Have the fire alarms been checked/ tested at regular intervals?

3.8 First Aid & Medical Care

Providing immediate and effective first aid to workers or others who have been injured or become ill at the
workplace may reduce the severity of the injury or illness and promote recovery. In some cases it could
mean the difference between life and death.
First aid is the immediate treatment or care given to a person suffering from an injury or illness until more
advanced care is provided or the person recovers.
First aider is a person who has successfully completed a nationally accredited training course or an
equivalent level of training that has given them the competencies required to administer first aid.
First aid equipment includes first aid kits and other equipment used to treat injuries and illnesses.
First aid facilities include first aid rooms, health centers, clean water supplies and other facilities needed for
administering first aid.
High risk workplace means a workplace where workers are exposed to hazards that could result in serious
injury or illness and would require first aid. Examples of workplaces that may be considered high risk are
ones in which workers:
 use hazardous machinery (for example, mobile plant, chainsaws, power presses -A mechanical
power press shears, punches, forms, or assembles metal or other materials by means of tools or dies
attached to slides or rams and lathes)
 use hazardous substances (for example, chemical manufacture, laboratories, horticulture
(agriculture/बागवानी), petrol stations and food manufacturing)
 are at risk of falls that could result in serious injury (for example, construction)
 carry out hazardous forms of work (for example, working in confined spaces, welding, demolition,
electrical work and abrasive blasting)
 are exposed to the risk of physical violence (for example, working alone at night, cash handling or
having customers who are frequently physically aggressive)
 work in or around extreme heat or cold (for example, foundries and prolonged outdoor work in
extreme temperatures).

Low risk workplace means a workplace where workers are not exposed to hazards that could result in
serious injury or illness such as offices, shops or libraries. Potential work-related injuries and illnesses
requiring first aid would be minor in nature.

37
First aid requirements will vary from one workplace to the next, depending on the nature of the work, the
type of hazards, the workplace size and location, as well as the number of people at the workplace. These
factors must be taken into account when deciding what first aid arrangements need to be provided.
3.8.1 The nature of the work and workplace hazards
Certain work environments have greater risks of injury and illness due to the nature of work being carried
out and the nature of the hazards at the workplace. For example, factories, motor vehicle workshops and
forestry operations have a greater risk of injury that would require immediate medical treatment than
offices or libraries. These workplaces will therefore require different first aid arrangements.

Table 1: Injuries associated with common workplace hazards that may require first aid
Hazard Potential harm
Manual tasks Overexertion can cause muscular strain.
Working at height Slips, trips and falls can cause fractures, lacerations (scratch),
dislocations.
Electricity Potential ignition source could cause injuries from fire.
Exposure to live electrical wires can cause shock, burns and cardiac
arrest.
Machinery and equipment Being hit by moving vehicles, or being caught by moving parts of
machinery can cause fractures, amputation (ejection), lacerations,
dislocation.
Hazardous chemicals Toxic or corrosive chemicals may be inhaled, contact skin or eyes causing
poisoning, chemical burns, irritation.
Flammable chemicals could result in injuries from fire or explosion.
Extreme temperatures Hot surfaces and materials can cause burns. Exposure to heat can cause
heat stress and fatigue. Exposure to extreme cold can cause hypothermia
and frost bite.
Radiation Welding arc flashes, ionizing radiation and lasers can cause burns
Violence Behaviors including intimidation (terrorization) and physical assault can
cause nausea, shock and physical injuries
Biological Infection, allergic reactions
Animals Bites, stings, kicks, scratches

Records of injuries, illnesses, ‘near miss’ incidents and other information that has already been obtained to
assist in controlling risks at the workplace will be useful to make appropriate decisions about first aid.

3.8.2 First aid procedures

You should develop and implement first aid procedures to ensure that workers have a clear understanding
of first aid in their workplace. The procedure should cover:
 the type of first aid kits and where they are located
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

 the location of first aid facilities such as first aid rooms

 who is responsible for the first aid kits and facilities and how frequently they should be checked and
maintained
 how to establish and maintain appropriate communication systems (including equipment and
procedures) to ensure rapid emergency communication with first aiders
 the communication equipment and systems to be used when first aid is required (especially for
remote and isolated workers). These procedures should contain information about how to locate the
communication equipment, who is responsible for the equipment and how it should be maintained
 the work areas and shifts that have been allocated to each first aider. These procedures should
contain the names and contact details of each first aider
 arrangements to ensure first aiders receive appropriate training
 arrangements for ensuring that workers receive appropriate information, instruction and training
in relation to first aid
 seeking information when a worker commences work about any first aid needs that may require
specific treatment in a medical emergency, such as severe allergies. Information about a worker’s
health must be kept confidential and only provided to first aiders with the worker’s consent
 how to report injuries and illnesses that may occur in the workplace
 practices to avoid exposure to blood and body substances
 what to do when a worker or other person is too injured or ill to stay at work, for example if they
require assistance with transport to a medical service, home or somewhere else where they can rest
and recover
 access to debriefing or counseling services to support first aiders and workers after a serious
workplace incident.

3.8.3 Providing first aid information

You must provide information about first aid to your workers so that they know what to do and who to
contact if they are sick or injured.
Information should be easy to understand, accessible and should take into account the language and literacy
levels of your workers. Information may be given using verbal methods (for example, explanations and
demonstrations) or visual methods (for example, videos and posters).
The information and instruction on first aid should include:
 the location of first aid equipment and facilities
 the names and location of persons trained to administer first aid
 the procedures to be followed when first aid is required.
The information and instruction should be provided as part of workers’ induction training and when there
are any changes, for example in the location of first aid facilities or in the names, locations or contact details
of first aiders.

3.9 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

Hazards exist in every work place and in many different forms:

39
  sharp edges
 falling objects
 flying sparks
 chemicals
 noise
 other potentially dangerous situations OSHA requires employers to protect their employees from
workplace hazards that can cause injury or illness.

3.9.1 Requirements for PPE

Must have a cooperative effort between both employer and employee in establishing and maintaining a safe
and healthful work environment. Employer’s responsibility:
 Performing a "hazard assessment" of the workplace to identify and control physical and health
hazards
 Identifying and providing appropriate PPE for employees
 Training employees in the use and care of the PPE
 Maintaining PPE, including replacing worn or damaged PPE
 Periodically reviewing, updating and evaluating the effectiveness of the PPE program

3.9.2 Employees responsibility

 Properly wear PPE
 Attend training sessions on PPE
 Care for, clean and maintain PPE
 Inform a supervisor of the need to repair or replace PPE

3.9.3 PPE selection

 Should be of safe design and construction
 Should be maintained in a clean and reliable fashion
 Fit and comfort should be taken into consideration when selecting
 Make sure PPE types are compatible if worn together

3.9.4 Training employees in the proper use of PPE

Employers are required to train each employee who must use PPE on the following information:
When PPE is necessary
 What PPE is necessary
 How to properly put on, take off, adjust and wear the PPE
 The limitations of the PPE
 Proper care, maintenance, useful life and disposal of PPE

3.9.5 Types of PPE:

 Eye and face protection (safety
eye glasses, goggles, welding
shields, face shields, etc.)
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

 Head protection
 Foot and leg protection (Leggings, Metatarsal guards, Toe
guards, Boots, etc.)
 Hand and arm protection (Leather, canvas or metal mesh
gloves, Fabric and coated fabric gloves, Chemical and liquid
resistant gloves)
 Ears protection (Single-use earplugs, Pre-formed or molded earplugs, Earmuffs)
 Lungs protection (There are many hazards in farming that can cause respiratory problems.
Examples of these include pesticide vapors, dusty fields, hydrogen sulfide in manure pits, and
nitrogen dioxide in silos. Farmer's Lung and Organic Dust Toxicity Syndrome (ODTS) are allergic
reactions to dust from moldy hay or grain which can lead to permanent lung damage or death)

41
 UNIT-4
Site Safety Management [4 Hrs]

4.1 Workplace and Equipment

A safe work environment is a productive one. No matter the size or type of the business, workplace safety
procedures are a necessity for all staff. Safety measures protect employees as well as equipment and business
property. Avoiding or minimizing injuries and damage to equipment and facilities will result in fewer
expenses and more profit for a business. Each business should have a safety policy in place, created either by
management or in a joint effort between management and staff. Every employee has a role in carrying out
the safety policies. A safety handbook should be created identifying safety issues and spelling out
consequences of not following the appropriate safety procedures. To create workplace safety, components
like safety signal and signage, awareness generating slogans are important.
Safety Signal and Signage
A sign provides information or instruction about safety or health at work by means of a signboard, a color,
an illuminated sign or acoustic (audio) signal, a verbal communication or hand signal.
Construction work is
i. work to erect, construct, extend, alter, convert, fit-out, commission, renovate, repair, disassemble or
decommission a structure, or part of a structure; or
ii. work connected with site preparation, excavation and landscaping for work as above; or
iii. installation of prefabricated components to form a structure, or part of a structure
Structure work like
i. a building, a steel or reinforced concrete construction, wall, tower, structural cable or
telecommunications structure; or
ii. an underground works (including shafts and tunnels), pipeline, river works, earthworks or earth
retaining construction or other construction designed to preserve or alter a natural feature; or
iii. a road or highway, footpath or driveway, railway line or siding, airfield, dock or harbour, water
storage or supply system, sewerage or drainage system, electricity or gas generation facility,
transmission; or
iv. production, storage or distribution facilities for heavy industries; or
v. fixed plant; or
vi. a ship or submarine; or
vii. Formwork, scaffold or other construction designed or used to provide support, access.

Why display safety signage around your work area or site?

Proper safety signage may warn and prevent unauthorized persons from accessing or entering your work
area where they can be exposed to building or maintenance hazards
such as exposed steel reinforcing, trenches, excavations or electrical or
chemical sources. This access may be accidental in nature. The main
groups of persons exposed to such construction or maintenance
hazards could be:
 adult workers
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

 construction work's staff

 occasionally the children of either group or visitors
 other contractors or delivery personnel
Safety signs are meant to convey important information about a safety hazard, whether temporary or
permanent. Signs alone will not guarantee that un-authorized persons will not enter your work area. It will
not prevent those who are determined to gain access to your work area i.e. vandals (criminals) or thieves.
Safety signage should where possible, include internationally understood safety symbols, rather than just
words. As a high proportion of workers have English as a second language.

Signage display tips for best effect

 Keep signs clean and clear of objects or trees.
 Should not have sharp or rough edges
 Make signs highly visible, clear, large enough lettering with contrasting background,
 Ensure clearly illuminated, during day or night (extra lighting may be needed)
 Place at reader eye level, no more than 2 m from ground level;
 For visually impaired persons, positions to enable persons to get close enough to read the sign,
without endangering themselves.
 Securely attach to fencing or barricades to prevent removal or becoming a flying object in
severe weather.
Awareness Generating Slogans
Meaningful conversations with people are much more effective than posting safety slogans everywhere.
Please think about the unconscious messages you are sending when relying on this form of communication
and awareness.

SAFETY SLOGANS FROM RUSSELL T:

Some classic and highly original slogans from our Number 1 Contributor – Russell T. who says: “We try to
use funny slogans that are relevant to our pre-start on a daily basis”.
The word focus might be only small, but the meaning is HUGE when it comes to safety.
The shutdown finishing line is in site, so keep incident free with all your might.
Safety is the seam that joins the fabric of life. Don’t let a loose thread bring it all undone.
Pull in your head when low beams are near, or your head could be forced into your rear.
If you give somebody a hand, make sure there is a glove on it.
Use your brain. Avoid the Strain.
When rain comes down and puddles pool, cover up – protect your tool
Safety is the engine, and you are the key that starts it.
If you’re not safety conscious, you could end up unconscious. SO THINK ABOUT IT!
When working at heights and an edge is near, don’t be brave your next step could lead to a grave.

43
Equipment Safety
Construction work can be particularly hazardous. Personal protective equipment, fire safety, electrical
safety, and other precautions are essential for safe construction work. Follow these guidelines when visiting
or working at construction sites:
- Do not walk, stand, or work under suspended loads. If you raise a load, be sure to crib, block, or
otherwise secure the load as soon as possible.
- Avoid placing unusual strain on equipment or materials.
- Be prepared for unexpected hazards. BE ALERT!
Barriers and Guards
Barriers and guards as necessary to protect employees, students, contractors, and visitors from physical
hazards. If you suspect a hazard is not sufficiently protected, notify the attending workers or the
Environmental Health & Safety Office immediately. Barriers, guards, and warning signs are required to
ensure safety against existing hazards. Types of Barriers and Guards are Standard types of barriers and
guards include the following: Guardrails and handholds, Saw horses, Tape, Toe-boards and Cones other
physical barriers and solid separators (dust barriers, hazard barriers, temporary walkways, etc.). Signs that
state DANGER, WARNING, or CAUTION are also important when barriers or guards are necessary.
Remember to make signs legible, visible, and brief.
When using heavy equipment, there are five basic guidelines that employees must always follow to ensure
safety:
1. Know how to properly operate the equipment you are using.
2. Do not use heavy machinery when you are drowsy (tired/sleepy), intoxicated, or taking prescription
medication that may affect your performance.
3. Use only equipment that is appropriate for the work to be done.
4. Inspect your equipment to ensure that it is in good working condition before beginning a job. In
addition, ensure that regular inspections and maintenance are conducted as appropriate.
5. Do not stress or overload your equipment.
Accidents do not just happen, they are caused. Therefore, employees should also follow these guidelines:
 All buckets, blades, etc. are on the ground.
 Transmission is in neutral.
 Engine is off.
 Equipment is secure against movement.
 Never get on or off moving equipment.
 Do not attempt to lubricate or adjust a running engine.
 Turn the engine off before refueling.
 Keep all shields and safety guards in place.
 Avoid underground utilities and overhead power lines.
The following sections provide basic guidelines for working with forklifts, front-end loaders, and backhoes.
Refer to the product documentation that accompanied your equipment for more information and specific
instructions.
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

a) Forklifts
Only authorized employees may operate forklifts. The following list provides
general safety guidelines:
 Do not allow riders. Do not raise people on a forklift.
 Do not speed.
 Drive up and back down ramps.
 Do not walk, stand, or work under the elevated portion of a forklift
(even if it is not loaded).
 Ensure that the forklift has an overhead barrier to protect the operator from falling objects.
In addition, follow these guidelines for safe forklift operation:
 Always work within the capacity limits of your forklift. Consult with
the manufacturer before modifying the operation or capacity limits of a
forklift.
 Do not operate a forklift in areas with hazardous concentrations of
acetylene, butadiene, hydrogen, ethylene, or diethyl ether, or other
explosive environment.
 Never lift a load while moving.
 Be sure the top load sits squarely on the stack. An uneven load could topple.
 Travel with loads slightly tilted back to provide stability.
 Lift stacked loads in the same manner as loads on the floor.
 When preparing to leave the forklift unattended, lower the mast, neutralize the controls, shut the
power off, and set the brakes.
 Train and certify all operators to ensure that they operate forklifts safely.
 Do not allow any employee under 18 years to operate a forklift.
 Properly maintain haulage equipment, including tires.
 Do not modify or make attachments that affect the capacity and safe operation of the forklift
without written approval from the forklift’s manufacturer.
 Examine forklift truck for defects before using.
 Follow safe operating procedures for picking up, moving, putting down and stacking loads.
 Drive safely, never exceed 5 mph and slowdown in congested or slippery surface areas.
 Prohibit stunt driving and horseplay (rough driving).
 Do not handle loads that are heavier than the capacity of the industrial truck.
 Remove unsafe or defective forklift trucks from service.
 Operators shall always wear seatbelts.
 Avoid traveling with elevated loads.
 Assure that rollover protective structure is in place.
 Make certain that the reverse signal alarm is operational and audible above the surrounding noise
level.

45
b) Backhoes
Only authorized employees may operate backhoes and front-end
loaders. The following list offers general safety guidelines:
 Always operate at a safe speed.
 Always wear a seat belt.
 Don’t overload your attachment.
 Read machine and attachment Operation and Maintenance
manual (O &M).
 Keep attachments low for stability
 Don’t take on a passenger.
 Don’t leave operator seat when engine is running.
 Never attempt to start the machine outside the cab.
 Always keep your hands and feet inside the cab.
 Keep bystanders at a safe distance.
 When shutting down the machine part a level ground.
 Travel with the bucket low to the ground.
 Always lower the bucket before servicing the equipment or leaving the loader unattended.
 Use a rigid-type coupler when towing loads.
 Always check with the utility (convenience) company before digging.
 Be extremely careful when operating near banks and slopes.
 When cutting a bank, be careful not to cause a cave-in. Do not drive on an overhang.

c) Cranes
Significant and serious Injuries may occur if cranes are not inspected before use and if they are not used
properly. Often these injuries occur when a worker is struck by an overhead load or caught within the
crane’s swing radius. Many crane fatalities occur when the boom of a crane or its load line contacts an
overhead power line.
 Check all crane controls to insure proper operation before use.
 Inspect wire rope, chains and hook for any damage.
 Know the weight of the load that the crane is to lift.
 Ensure that the load does not exceed the crane’s rated capacity.
 Raise the load a few inches to verify balance and the effectiveness of the brake system.
 Check all rigging prior to use; do not wrap hoist ropes or chains around the load.
 Fully extend outriggers.
 Do not move a load over workers.
 Barricade accessible areas within the crane’s swing radius.
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

4.3 Working Platforms

The work at height define a working platform as any platform used as a place of work or as a means of
access to or egress (entrance/way out) from a place of work, including any scaffold, suspended scaffold,
mobile platform, trestle (bracket/framework), gangway (passage/walkway) and stairway that is so used.
Work at height using a work platform i.e. scaffold, trestle (bracket/framework), gangway
(passage/walkway), where there is a risk of a fall liable to cause personal injury. Work at height is work in
any place, including a place at, above or below ground level, where a person could be injured if they fell
from that place.
Examples of work activities that are classified as working at height:
 working on trestles (bracket/framework)
 working on a flat roof
 erecting false work or formwork
 working on a ladder
 working at ground level adjacent to an excavation
 working on formwork within an excavation
 working near or adjacent to fragile (breakable/brittle) materials

The Work at Height requires employers to ensure that:

 all work at height is properly planned and organized

47
  a risk assessment is carried out for all work conducted at height
 appropriate work equipment is selected and used
 people working at a height are competent
 equipment used for work at height is properly inspected and maintained
 risks from fragile surfaces are properly controlled
 the risk associated with the equipment during erection, maintenance and dismantling of such
equipment are taken into account

Requirements for using working platforms

In considering whether a platform is suitable for work at height, employers need to ensure that it is:
 of sufficient dimensions to allow safe passage and safe use of equipment and materials
 free from trip hazards or gaps through which persons or materials could fall
 fitted with toe boards and handrails
 kept clean and tidy, e.g. do not allow mortar and debris to
build up on platforms
 not loaded so as to give rise to a risk of collapse or to any
deformation that could affect its safe use
 erected on firm level ground to ensure equipment remains
stable during use

Width of working platforms, gangways and runs

 not less than 400 mm
 not less than 650 mm for gangway or run used for movement of materials

Construction of working platforms, gangways and runs

 closely boarded or planked (a working platform, gangway or run)
 consisting of open metal work having interstices (gaps) none of which exceeds 4000 mm 2
 the boards or planks forming it are secured to prevent movement and the space between
adjacent boards or planks does not exceed 25mm
 need not be closely boarded or planked if there is no risk of persons below it from being struck by
materials or articles falling through the platform, gangway or run
 boards or planks forming platforms etc. of sound construction, adequate strength and free from
patent defect not less than 200 mm in width and not less than 25 mm in thickness or not less than
150 mm in width when the board or plank exceeds 50 mm in thickness not protruding beyond its
end support to a distance exceeding 150 mm rest securely and evenly on its supports rest on at
least 3 supports

Coverings for opening

 so constructed as to prevent the fall of persons, materials and articles
 clearly and boldly marked as to show its purpose or securely fixed in position
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur
General safety hints for platforms and scaffolds:
 Provide safe access to and egress (exit/way-out) from all
platforms
 Keep all work platforms free from load, such as
construction wastes
 Suitably place platforms on sound base, such as scaffolds,
to prevent displacements
 Erect and dismantle scaffolds and platforms only under
the supervision of a competent person
 Each scaffold must be capable of supporting the load
intended
 The competent person must inspect scaffolds before each
use
 Use sound base plates to level or stabilize the footings

Planking
 Closely plank a scaffold to provide a safe working platform. The working platform must be free
from patent defects
 Extend planks or decking material sufficiently over the edges or cleat them to prevent
displacement.
 Avoid over extending the platform beyond the end supports to prevent tipping when workers are
stepping or working on it
 Be sure that working platforms are of a proper size and, for metal scaffolds, end hooks are available
and attached to the scaffold frame

Guardrails
 All working platforms should be
safe, with a standard guardrail
practical for the job. Otherwise,
use other fall protection devices
such as safety harnesses, and safety
nets.
 All guardrails should be provided
with a midrail.
 Toe boards on standard working
platform are also required.

Height of guardrails
The height of a guardrail above any place of work on a working platform, gangway, run or stairway shall
be
 top guardrail: not less than 900 mm and not more than 1150 mm

49
  intermediate guardrail : not less than 450 mm and not more than 600 mm
 For working platforms on bamboo scaffolds, these height dimensions may not apply if the platforms
are protected by not less than 2 horizontal bamboo members spaced at intervals between 750mm
to 900mm.

4.4 Safety Organizations

Industries are established under the Department of industry and Labors. They are employed under the Labor
Act which is inspected by the Department of Labor. There should be close consideration between two offices
regarding workers facilities and employers responsibilities. The general rules are common for all industries
and all workers but some industries do have special rules and special provisions for workers regarding
safety security and facilities due to the nature of the industries. For the equal treatment to the industries and
entertained the issues of the workers. There should be closed relationships among the different industries,
workers and other concerned agencies. Department of Labor appoints representative to inspect the
industries time to time.

Trade Union
It is an association formed by workers to secure economic welfare of the workers and bargain with their
management for the welfare of the workers. Trade unions are working effectively in the organized labor
sectors such as in factories, hotels, etc. In construction works, workers are less organized due to the nature
of their works. In democratic system, trade Unions are allowed to play their roles freely. In autocratic
System, trade unions hardly exist. In England, in 1824, workers were allowed to unite in unions. In Nepal,
in 1947, Nepal Mazdoor Sangh was established and in 1952, Nepal Mazdoor Sangathan was established. In
1961, when Panchayat system was introduced, these types of trade unions were banned. After the
restoration of the democracy in the country, many trade unions are functioning. General Federation of
Nepalese Trade Union (GEFONT), Nepal Trade Union Congress (NTUC), All Nepal Trade Union Congress
(ANTUC), Nepal Revolutionary Workers Union, Democratic Confederation of Nepalese Trade Union and
many other trade unions are existing. They demanded better wages and legal recognition of the union. June
28, 1959, Factory and Factory Workers Act legally recognized the right of the workers to form their unions
and associations to protect their interest and to give collective bargaining, provision of provident fund,
overtime, safety measures and health. There are a lot of weaknesses in trade union because of lack of unity
as they are organized by various parties. Parties do not want to go out of their interest. These trade unions
are financially supported by the political parties.
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

Principles of Trade Union

 Unity is strength and
 No exploitation (शोषण)
 Equal pay for equal job for male and female workers
 Security of service
Objectives of Trade Union
 To work for the workers’ economic and social upliftment by improving working conditions of the
workers.
 To try to maintain good relationships between the workers and the management.
 To assist for the development of the enterprise by enhancing productivity.
 To work to make the workers dutiful and disciplined.
Functions of Trade Union
 To demand adequate wages for the workers along with the improvement of their living standards.
 To work for improving working conditions safe, secured and healthy environment.
 To participate in management for controlling purpose and for taking workers demand or voice to
the management.
 To provide financial help to workers at the time of need by establishing a welfare fund.
 To help workers at the period of strike, unemployment, lock-outs etc.

51
 UNIT-5
Safety in Construction Operations [6 Hrs]

5.1 Planning for Safety

Safety planning is a process of deciding in advance the future course of action. Planning is the backbone of
the management activity including safety management. Some basic considerations while planning for safety
are involvement of workers, age and other traits of workers, experience of workers, actual working
procedures, working conditions, past experience of planning and role of employer or management. A
formal safety planning provides many benefits including systematic thinking, better coordination, sharper
objectives, improved performance standards and management involvement.
Probably most safety programs have developed simply from the appointment of a safety director who then
proceeds to do what logic and tradition indicate are necessary. This, however is not the most practical way
of optimizing the corporate safety aim. Sound management practice dictates having a plan. This furnishes
not only some specific steps mapped out for reaching the established aim, but it is also enables judicious
(careful) estimates of the strong points and the weaker ones in the safety program as it is pursued
(followed). The plan may begin with the chief executive issuing a corporate safety policy, or it may depend
on the appointment of the person who will have the normal staff responsibility for providing the resources
needed to fulfill the organization’s safety aim. Steps for developing a plan:
a) Write and announce the policy regarding the control of hazards for which the organization has a
responsibility. Designate accountability and delegate authority for implementing the policy.
b) Appoint a safety director i.e., one person who has the staff responsibility for acquiring facts about
injuries (and near misses) as they occur and for developing persuasive information which, when given
to line managers, will enable them to establish correctly the necessary priorities for safety.
c) Analyze the operational record of injuries, property damage, and work illness. Depending on the
qualification of the safety director, it may be worthwhile (useful) to obtain consultative assistance for a
short period so that the usefulness of the analysis will be maximized.
d) Appraise (evaluate) the scope and seriousness of operational hazards (The value of consultative
assistance may be significant here as well.) The appraisal should determine the quality of the existing
physical safeguards, the nature and severity of inherent operating hazards, the correctives that may be
required, and time estimates and budgets for accomplishing the corrections.
e) Select, organize, and schedule communications methods for employee safety training, and informing
general management of the organization’s safety progress and needs
f) Establish a periodic review schedule for auditing the programs and facilities. In this step it may be
advantageous to budget for an outside consultant’s review annually. Probably expert, objective
reviewing will uncover critical failure points in the program’s operation which might be undetected by
the safety director because of his closeness to the operation. Also, the consultant’s findings often carry
greater weight with the executive office than do the regular staff’s recommendations
g) Determine long-range objectives and short-term goals for the program. These will be the path marks
guiding the program and will provide check points against which progress will be measured.
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

5.2 Excavation
Trenching and excavation work presents serious hazards to all workers involved. OSHA (Operational Safety
& Health Administration) defines an excavation as any man-made cut, cavity, trench, or depression in the
earth’s surface formed by earth removal. A trench is defined as a narrow underground excavation that is
deeper than it is wide, and is no wider than 15 feet (4.5 meters). One cubic yard (1 yard = 0.914m) of soil
can weigh as much as a car. An unprotected trench can be an early grave. Employers must ensure that
workers enter trenches only after adequate protections are in place to address cave-in hazards. Other
potential hazards associated with trenching work include falling loads, hazardous atmospheres, and
hazards from mobile equipment.
Dangers of Trenching and Excavation
Cave-ins pose the greatest risk and are much more likely than other excavation related accidents to result in
worker fatalities. Other potential hazards include falls, falling loads, hazardous atmospheres, and incidents
involving mobile equipment. Trench collapses cause dozens of fatalities and hundreds of injuries each year.
Protect Yourself
Do not enter an unprotected trench. Trenches 5 feet (1.5 meters) deep or greater require a protective system
unless the excavation is made entirely in stable rock. Trenches 20 feet (6.1 meters) deep or greater require
that the protective system be de-signed by a registered professional engineer or be based on tabulated data
prepared and/ or approved by a registered professional engineer.
Protective Systems
There are different types of protective systems. Sloping involves cutting back the trench wall at an angle
inclined away from the excavation. Shoring (Shoring is the process of temporarily supporting a building,
vessel, structure, or trench with shores when in danger of collapse or during repairs or alterations. Shoring
comes from shore a timber or metal prop) requires installing aluminum hydraulic or other types of supports
to prevent soil movement and cave-ins. Shielding protects workers by using trench boxes or other types of
supports to prevent soil cave-ins. Designing a protective system can be complex because you must consider
many factors: soil classification, depth of cut, water content of soil, changes due to weather or climate,
surcharge loads (eg., spoil, other materials to be used in the trench) and other operations in the vicinity.
Competent Person
OSHA standards require that trenches be inspected daily and as conditions change by a competent person
prior to worker entry to ensure elimination of excavation hazards. A competent person is an individual who
is capable of identifying existing and predictable hazards or working conditions that are hazardous,
unsanitary, or dangerous to employees and who is authorized to take prompt corrective measures to
eliminate or control these hazards and conditions.
Access and Egress
OSHA requires safe access and egress to all excavations, including ladders, steps, ramps, or other safe means
of exit for employees working in trench excavations 4 feet (1.22 meters) or deeper. These devices must be
located within 25 feet (7.6 meters) of all workers.
Employers also need to emphasize specific practices that will help reduce the risk of on-the-job injuries at
excavation sites. Such practices can include the following:
 Know where underground utilities are located before digging.

53
  Keep excavated soil (spoils) and other materials at least 2 feet (0.61 meters) from trench edges.
 Keep heavy equipment away from trench edges.
 Identify any equipment or activities that could affect trench stability.
 Test for atmospheric hazards such as low oxygen, hazardous fumes, and toxic gases when workers
are more than 4 feet deep.
 Inspect trenches at the start of each shift.
 Inspect trenches following a rainstorm or other water intrusion.
 Inspect trenches after any occurrence that could have changed conditions in the trench.
 Do not work under suspended or raised loads and materials.
 Ensure that personnel wear high-visibility or other suitable clothing when exposed to vehicular
traffic.

5.3 Blasting
Rock blasting is generally the controlled use of explosives to excavate, and remove rock. It is practiced in
mining, quarrying and civil engineering works such as dam or road construction where rock has to be
excavated and removed. The use of explosives in mining goes back to the year 1627, when gunpowder was
first used in place of mechanical tools in the Hungarian (now Slovakian) town of Banská Štiavnica. The
innovation spread quickly throughout Europe and the Americas. Rock blasting currently utilizes many
different varieties of Explosives with different compositions and performance properties. Higher velocity
explosives are used for relatively hard rock in order to shatter and break the rock, while low velocity
explosives are used in soft rocks to generate more gas pressure and a greater heaving (crowded/packed)
effect. The most commonly used explosives in mining today are ANFO (Ammonium Nitrate, Fuel Oil) based
blends due to lower cost than Dynamite.
In 1990, 2.1 million tonnes (2.32 million short tons) of commercial explosives were consumed in the USA,
representing an estimated expenditure of 3.5 to 4 billion 1993 dollars on blasting. Australia had the highest
explosives consumption that year at 500 million tonnes (551 million short tons), with Scandinavian
countries another leader in rock blasting. Blasting is a very important activity in civil construction projects.
Most of the excavations on hard rock require blasting. Therefore, it is widely used in country like Nepal
which is full of rocky mountain. But blasting is a very hazardous activity. It involves risky operations like
drilling holes on the rocks, charging the holes with blasting materials and igniting the detonator with the
help of fuse wire or use of the electric switch for blasting. Now days, remote controlled electronic switch is
also available. It is very important to determine the amount of charge for the type of blasting being
undertaken. It is a very important and highly skilled task.
During a blasting operation while widening Mugling- Pokhara road (Nov. 1994) the charge in one of the
hole was said to have been too high. The blasting caused large land slide which blocked the road for almost
a week. (Road opened on Nov. 20, 1994)
Also large and small fragment of stone fly around depending upon the size of the blasting. Area around the
blasting spot should be cleared of people and animals. Care should be taken for the adjoining property. All
the workers in the area should be provided with safety helmets to protect their heads against flying objects
(the stone fragments). All the blasting area must be properly guarded with red flags erected all around. If
possible, effort should be made to drive away the wild animals if they are suspected to live near-by. Blasters
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

should be very highly trained and licensed to carry out the operation. In old method of rock excavation,
detonators are generally ignited manually with help of fuse wire. The fuse wire therefore must be of
reasonable length. But it cannot be very long because of economic reasons. In any case the blaster should
get enough time to run to a safe place for hide out. A safe hideout should be provided to the blaster so that
s/he can hide himself after igniting the fuse wire. The siren must be blown at least three times within an
interval of half an hour to clear all the people and cattle nearby.
Controlled Blasting
If blasting is to be done on a built up area, controlled blasting should take place. The size of the hole and
amount of the charge should be determined by an experienced blaster. Also if there is any fear of flying
objects, the blasting hole and the area must be covered by a wire mesh so that the fragments cannot fly out.
The wire mesh should be large and strong enough to cover the rock and withstand the strength of blasting.
Sometimes blasting has to be carried out to blast boulders and rocks encountered during sinking a well
foundation. The blasting has to be done under the shoe of the casted RCC well. This has to be done very
carefully and skillfully. All the necessary safety equipment should be provided to the blaster.
Following are the points to be followed while transporting, handling and using explosives:
 Vehicles carrying explosives should be marked with the words like “explosive” or “danger”.
 Explosives and detonators or other metal products, oils, matches, acids should not be carried and
stored together.
 Explosives should not be thrown or dropped from a height while moving and storing.
 A properly trained blaster should be appointed.
 Blasting site and its probable coverage area should be cleared off all people. No free movement to
unconcerned people should be allowed.
 Blasting area should be marked with adequate information or guards should be kept there.
 Signals, usually by whistling should be given at the time of blasting.
 Proper hiding adjustment should be provided for the workers involved in blasting. Hardhat is a must.
 In some cases ‘covered blasting’ is also done.
All the safety information provided with the blasting materials and equipment and the safety rules
established by site office should be strictly followed. Presence of security personnel at blasting site during
blasting is recommended.

5.4 Tunneling
Tunnel is an underground passageway, dug through the surrounding soil/earth/rock and enclosed except
for entrance and exit, commonly at each end. A pipeline is not a tunnel, though some recent tunnels have
used immersed tube construction techniques rather than traditional tunnel boring methods. Hazards
common to such work include reduced natural ventilation and light, difficult or limited access and egress,
exposure to air contaminants, fire, and explosion.
Provisions of the standard
The standard gives employers the flexibility to select from a variety of appropriate and effective methods of
controlling workplace hazards in underground construction. It includes a safety program focusing on

55
instructing workers in topics appropriate to specific jobsites, and also gives specific duties and
responsibilities to a “competent person.”
a) Competent person
A “competent person” is one capable of identifying existing and predictable workplace hazards who
is authorized to take corrective action to eliminate them. A competent person is responsible for the
following:
• Monitoring air
• Testing the atmosphere for flammable limits before restoring power and equipment and before
returning to work after a ventilation system’s been shut down due to hazardous levels of
flammable gas or methane
• Inspecting the work area for ground stability
• Inspecting all drilling equipment prior to each use
• Inspecting hauling equipment before each shift and visually checking all hoisting machinery,
equipment, anchorages, and rope at the beginning of each shift and during hoisting.
b) Safety instruction
Employers must ensure that workers are instructed on the recognition and avoidance of hazards
associated with underground construction. Instruction must include the following topics that are
appropriate to each jobsite:
• Air monitoring
• Ventilation and illumination
• Communications
• Flood control
• Mechanical and personal protective equipment
• Explosives: fire prevention and protection
• Emergency procedures: evacuation plans and check-in/check-out procedures. Access and
egress Employers must provide safe access to and egress from all workstations and prevent
unauthorized underground entry. Completed or unused sections of an underground work area
must be barricaded. Unused openings must be covered, fenced off, or posted with warning signs
indicating “Keep Out” or other appropriate language.
c) Check-in/check-out
Employers must maintain a check-in/check-out procedure that ensures above-ground personnel
can maintain an accurate count of people who are underground, in case of an emergency. At least
one designated person must be on duty at the surface whenever anyone is working underground.
That person is responsible for securing immediate aid in case of an emergency. A check-in/check-
out procedure is not required once the underground construction is completed to the point that
there is effective permanent environmental controls in place, and when remaining construction
activity won’t cause an environmental hazard or structural failure.
d) Hazardous classifications
The rule provides classification criteria for gassy or potentially gassy operations and identifies
additional requirements for work in gassy operations.
Gassy operations require additional safety precautions, including the following:
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

• Using more stringent ventilation requirements

• Using only diesel equipment approved for use in gassy operations
• Posting each entrance with warning signs and prohibiting smoking and personal sources of
ignition
• Maintaining a fire watch when hot work is performed
e) Air monitoring
Employers must assign a competent person to perform required air monitoring and to determine
proper ventilation and quantitative measurements of potentially hazardous gases.
f) Oxygen
Testing must be performed as often as necessary to ensure that the atmosphere at normal
atmospheric pressure contains at least 19.5 percent oxygen but not more than 22 percent.
g) Hydrogen sulfide
When air monitoring indicates the presence of 5 ppm (parts per million) or more of hydrogen
sulfide, the affected area must be tested at the beginning and midpoint of each shift until the
concentration of hydrogen sulfide has been less than five ppm for three consecutive days.
Continuous monitoring must be performed when hydrogen sulfide is present above 10 ppm, and
employees must be notified. At concentrations of 20 ppm, an alarm must audibly and visibly signal
to show that additional measures may be required (e.g., respirators, increased ventilation,
evacuation) to maintain proper exposure levels.
h) Ventilation
There are a number of requirements for ventilation in underground construction activities. In
general, fresh air must be supplied to all underground work areas in amounts sufficient to prevent
any dangerous or harmful accumulation of dusts, fumes, mists, vapors, or gases. A minimum of 200
cubic feet of fresh air per minute must be supplied for each employee underground. Mechanical
ventilation with reversible airflow must be provided in all of these work areas, except where natural
ventilation is clearly adequate. In blasting, drilling, or other operations that may cause harmful
amounts of dust, fumes, vapors, etc., the airflow velocity must be at least 30 feet per minute.
i) Illumination
As in all construction operations, the rule requires that proper illumination be provided during
tunneling operations. When explosives are being handled, acceptable portable lighting equipment
must be used within 50 feet of any underground heading.
j) Fire prevention and control
Fire Protection and Prevention, open flames and fires are prohibited in all underground
construction activities, except for hot-work operations. Smoking is allowed only in areas free of fire
and explosion hazards; employers must post signs prohibiting smoking and open flames where such
hazards exist. Leaks and spills of flammable or combustible fluids must be cleaned up immediately.
The rule also requires specific fire prevention and protection measures, including fire-resistant
barriers, fire-resistant hydraulic fluids, fire extinguishers, etc.

57
 k) Hot work
During hot work such as welding, noncombustible barriers must be installed below work being
performed in or over a shaft or raise. Only the amount of fuel gas and oxygen cylinders necessary to
perform welding, cutting, or other hot work in a 24-hour period may be kept underground during
these operations. Cylinders must be removed when the work is completed.

5.5 Building Works

Accident fatality rates in the construction industry are double that of the sector average, with rates of minor
accidents almost incalculably more. In such an ever-changing working environment this is hardly
surprising. But many employers are still unaware of their duty of care to employees, visitors, and even those
not directly related to their activities. The building and construction industry includes a range of work
activities such as:
 setting up working platforms and temporary power sources;
 safe operation and maintenance of equipment including hand tools, portable power tools and
specialist tools;
 taking measurements and site levels;
 performing site calculations;
 preparing sites and pouring and finishing concrete pads;
 working with internal partitioning; and,
 other trade services like plastering, painting and tiling.

The most common risks associated with working on a typical construction site, and highlighted the steps so
that those risks could be managed effectively on the site.
a) Working at Height
The construction and/or demolition of buildings frequently requires tradesmen to work at height. In 2014,
falls from height were the most common cause of construction site fatalities, accounting for nearly three in
ten fatal injuries to workers. The risks associated with working at height are often increased by added access
and mobility restrictions. Training, including safety awareness training, is essential for employees required
to work at height.
b) Slips, trips and falls
Workers in the building and construction industry may be exposed to slip, trip or fall hazards when:
 the ground surface, floors or other building surfaces are slippery, uneven, sloping, change or are
cluttered with objects such as building materials, power tools or equipment;
 using a ladder;
 when working over inadequately guarded drops or ledges;
 hit by falling objects;
 colliding with objects or moving parts of machines;
 falling onto the hot surfaces of machines;
 working from a height;
 lighting is insufficient; and,
 housekeeping is poor.
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

Safety rules
 Use anti-skid adhesive tape in high traffic areas.
 Use absorbent mats in entrance ways during inclement (rainy) weather.
 Display wet floor signs when appropriate. Note that signs are a great awareness tool but should not
be the only means of control. Clean up spills and wet floors as soon as practical.
 Have a procedure to deal with spills and ensure spills are reported and cleaned up immediately.
 Use proper mats in areas that tend to be “spill prone” (bathing facilities etc.)
 When wet processes are used, maintain proper drainage or use platform mats.
 Wear proper footwear for better traction on slippery surfaces.
 Use rails or other stable objects that you can hold onto.
 Protect the more vulnerable parts of your body like your head, neck and spine if you do fall.
 When moving from carpet to tile or dry tile to wet tile, etc. the friction (grip) between the sole of the
shoe and the floor surface lessens. Alter your stride to take shorter, slower steps.
c) Ladders
Ladders are primarily a means of access. They should only be used for light work where hand hold and
stability can be maintained and only if it is not practicable to use other temporary work platforms such as
trestles, scaffolds and elevated work platforms.
Ladders should not be used:
 in access areas, walkways, traffic ways or within the arc of swinging doors;
 where the work involves restricted vision or hot work such as welding;
 on scaffolds or elevating work platforms to gain extra height;
 in very windy or wet conditions;
 near an exposed edge or a guardrail where, if the ladder toppled, a person could fall over that edge;
 where it is possible for the ladder or user to come into contact with electrical power lines; and,
 in particular, metal or metal reinforced ladders should not be used in the vicinity of live electrical
equipment (such ladders should be permanently marked with 'do not use where electrical hazards
exist').
When working on a ladder ensure that:
 top of ladders should never be used as a step.
 never carry an object or load that could cause
 always face ladder when ascending or descending.
 always maintain 3 points of contact on the ladder i.e. 2 feet + 1 hand or 2 hands + 1 foot.
 it is an industrial grade ladder with a minimum load rating of 120kg;
 it is placed at a slope of 4 (vertical) to 1 (horizontal);
 it is on a stable, firm footing and secured top and bottom against movement;
 only tools that are easily operated with one hand are used;
 both feet rest on the ladder and are no higher than the third tread from the top plate of a step ladder
or 1000mm from the top of a single or extension ladder;
 work is not conducted above another person;
 not more than one person is on the ladder at any time;

59
  instruction and information on safety checks and safe use has been provided;
 the ladder is inspected for damage or loose or missing parts prior to each use; and,
 it is used only for light tasks of short duration such as painting a downpipe, repairing a gutter or
carrying out minor electrical installations.
d) Roof work
Roofing work is the planning, preparation and conduct of work for the installation, maintenance and
removal of roof coverings, including roof trusses, and the movement of persons working on roofs. Workers
who install roofs and work on roof framing will be exposed to the risk of falling through the roof framing
where there are no appropriate control measures in place to prevent the fall. These falls can result in serious
injuries that have a significant impact on the ability of the worker to continue in this type of work activity.
In some situations, fatalities have occurred. The nature of roof frame design and the work methods adopted
for their construction present a falling risk to workers who will be installing the framing and its cladding.
The greater the openings in the roof frame during construction, the greater the risks for a worker to fall
through those openings.
Examples of workers at risk of falling through roof framing can include workers:
 installing roof framing where trusses and rafters exceed 600mm centres;
 installing roof bracing;
 measuring the top chord for batten set out;
 installing battens and,
 installing metal or tile cladding.
Safety rules
 Make sure your work area is clean, organized and blocked off from pets and children. Take notice
of each potentially dangerous area in your site, like power lines and unsafe roof access areas.
 Never work when the roof is wet or slippery.
 Avoid working on your roof during extremely hot or cold weather. Extreme temperatures can cause
shingles to become damaged and prevent them from sealing or lying properly.
 Pick a clear, calm, cool time of day to work on roofs. Wet roofs are slippery.
 Wear shoes with a soft rubber sole for extra traction.
 Keep the bottom of your shoes free of mud and dirt, and the roof swept clear of dirt and debris.
 Rope or mark off the ground beneath your work area to let people below know you’re working
above. Even the most careful worker eventually drops a tool off the roof. Always look and call out
before tossing anything down.
 When you’re not using your power tools, secure them with short lengths of rope or Bungee cords.
Keep hand tools and supplies in a 5-gallon bucket hung on a roof bracket. Carefully position ropes
and extension cords so they’re not underfoot; they’re very slippery.
 Stay off slate and tile roofs. Loose tiles or slate can fall out and the surfaces are easily damaged if
you’re not experienced.
5.6 Scaffolding
When employees must conduct construction work above the ground and away from solid platforms,
scaffolds may be appropriate. It is required for all types of structures constructed above ground level and
for maintenance of same works. The type of scaffolding to be used depends upon the nature of the work and
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur
its situation. The following list provides guidelines for using small scaffolds. Larger scaffolds must be
designed and erected in accordance with applicable standards. Ensure that scaffold anchors are sound,
rigid, and capable of supporting the maximum intended load without shifting.
 Scaffolds and their components should be capable of supporting at least four times their maximum
load.
 For freestanding, mobile scaffolds, the height
should not exceed four times the minimum base
dimension. If workers are riding the scaffolding,
however, the base dimension should be at least
one half the heights.
 Do not use unstable objects such as barrels,
boxes, bricks, or blocks to support scaffolds or
planks.
 Keep floors free of debris where mobile scaffolds
are used. Lock scaffolds with wheels into
position.
 Install guardrails, mid-rails, or toe-boards on
the open sides and ends of platforms that are
more than 4 feet above the ground or floor level.
 Use lifelines for scaffolds that are more than 10
feet off the ground.
 Do not load scaffolds in excess of their
maximum load limits.
 Repair damaged scaffolds immediately.
 Do not work on scaffolds in high winds or
during storms.
 Remove ice or snow from scaffolds
 Do not allow tools, equipment, or other debris to
accumulate on scaffolds.
 Dismantle and remove scaffolds when they are no longer needed.
 The vertical standards should be embedded into the ground sufficiently deep so that they may
withstand the loads coming on them. On streets and pucca floors (made with high quality materials
throughout, including the floor, roof, and exterior walls, are called pucca) these standards may be
placed into the empty tar drums and packed with bricks or stones etc.
 Various stages of construction may be erected at convenient heights.
 While connecting ledgers to standards and putlogs to ledgers, lashing should be done securely. The
rope used should be thick and stout.
 The sizes of different members should be properly designed according to the load they are supposed
to carry.
 To safeguard against overturning, inclined rakers are provided and lashed at the junctions of
standards and ledgers at appropriate height and embedded in the ground at the bottom.

61
  The boarding over which the mason sits, should be of sufficient width and strength to take up the
load of workers and building material needed for immediate use.
 To avoid the risk of its sliding the putlog should be inserted sufficiently deep in the wall.
 Nobody should be allowed to stand below the scaffolding, as brick or stone may fall down from the
scaffolding and injure the person below.
 As the scaffoldings are not designed to carry huge quantity of building materials, only small
quantity of materials or load should be put on the scaffolding.
 When the work is over, the scaffolding should be dismantled step by step from upper side. Its
members should be stacked on the hard ground. They should not be stacked against wall. This will
avoid sagging and warping of the members. To avoid crack development, they should not be
exposed to direct sun rays.
 Before using members of scaffolding second time and subsequently, they should be tested for their
strength. Wooden members should be free from dry and wet rot.
 For repair work at high level of multi-storeyed building needle scaffolding is preferred as it will not
obstruct traffic it ground level.
 In sheds for ceiling works, suspended scaffolding is economical and it does not occupy floor space,
allowing workers to continue their work at ground level.
 Workers should not be allowed to lit fire near the scaffolding.

5.7 Lifting
A lift can be used for carrying personnel and general goods to facilitate
building work. A lift would be cleared to go into service as a builder's lift if
all the items critical to safe functioning of the lift have been completed and
accesses to landings required for use have been made safe by provision of
handrails and overhead protection where required.
The interior of the car should be lined with plywood or any other soft
impact absorbing material to prevent damage to the car while loading
materials and the floor of the car is covered with timber planks or with
10mm thick plywood to evenly distribute the load on floor. The lift must
only be operated by a person trained and authorized by the builder or
owner of the lift. There is a risk of damage to the lift while site personnel
are moving materials by the lift. The lift operator should maintain watch
over personnel and materials transported to ensure the lift is not damaged.
A 24 hours emergency telephone line should be provided in the lift car
which is serviced by lift installer. If telephone connection cannot be
provided because of some genuine reason, then a two way radio or
intercom must be provided from the lift car to the site office and a
procedure for calling in a lift technician in the case of an emergency put in
place. The lift should not be operated when an emergency contact is not
available. A notice must be fixed in the car giving instructions and information in letters and numerals
25mm in size and include the wording:
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

 This lift is for general goods loading only.

 Capacity of this lift is XX kg.
 Industrial forklift trucks shall not be used for loading this lift.
 The weight of any single goods shall not exceed XX kg (1/4 capacity of the lift).
 Person authorised to operate this lift - A ticketed man and materials hoist driver can be designated
as the person authorised to operate the lift. Alternatively the builder can train a person to work as a
lift operator.
For safe operation of the lift it is necessary that the load capacity of the lift must not be exceeded.

5.8 Use of Electricity

Electrical safety is a major issue in the building and construction industry. An electrical risk is a risk to a
person of death, shock or other injury caused directly or indirectly by electricity.
The main hazards associated with these risks are:
 contact with overhead wires when carrying equipment like poles and ladders, or operating
equipment with height extension such as cranes;
 contact with exposed live parts causing electric shock and burns for example exposed leads or other
electrical equipment coming into contact with metal surfaces such as metal flooring or roofs;
 the use of out-dated, poorly maintained equipment or unsafe use of equipment;
 faults which could cause fires; and,
 fire or explosion where electricity could be the source of ignition in a potentially flammable or
explosive atmosphere.
Electrocution incidents can be fatal. Non-fatal shocks can result in serious and permanent burn injuries to
skin, internal tissues and damage to the heart. Other injuries or illnesses may include muscle spasms
(contraction), nausea (वाकवावक), vomiting, collapse and unconsciousness. Electric shocks may also contribute
to related incidents including falls from ladders, scaffolding or other elevated work platforms. Those
working with electricity may not be the only ones at risk. Poor electrical installation and faulty electrical
appliances can lead to electric shock to others at or near the workplace. The following work practices must
be followed when working on live electrical parts:
 Personal protective equipment (PPE) must be used when required;
 Conductive apparel (watches, bracelets, rings, key chains, necklaces, zippers, cloth with conductive
thread, etc.) must not be worn;
 Non-conductive hand tools must be used and must be rated for the voltage at which live electrical
work is being performed;
 Barricades and signage must be posted a safe distance away from the work area and unqualified
persons must not be allowed in the work area;
 Conductive materials and tools must be kept a safe distance away from live electrical parts;
 Electrical equipment must be restored to safe conditions and all safeguards must be replaced when
work is complete;
 When electrical equipment is not required to be live during servicing or maintenance work,
equipment should be de-energized in accordance with the Lockout/Tagout policy;

63
 Ladders made from conductive materials such as aluminum or steel post an electrocution hazard
when working around overhead power lines. Refer to the Ladder Safety policy for requirements
when using ladders around live overhead power lines or when performing live electrical work;
 Confined spaces with live, exposed electrical parts are considered permit-required confined spaces.
Work inside these spaces must be conducted in accordance with the Confined Space policy;
 Employees must be aware of the dangers of misusing extension cords and power strips, which
include electrocutions and fire hazards;
 Avoid running cords over sharp corners and projections;
 Do not run cords through windows or doors unless they are protected from damage and only used
on a temporary basis;
 Storage of any material is prohibited in rooms designated for electrical equipment;
 Only qualified persons are allowed to enter High Voltage (greater than 600 volts) rooms;
 High voltage rooms must be locked at all times;
 Entrances to rooms and other guarded locations that contain exposed live electrical parts operating
at 50 volts or more above ground must be affixed with permanent signs that state “DANGER – HIGH
VOLTAGE – KEEP OUT”; and
 Electrical system components and electrical tools must be designed and constructed to be suitable
for installation and use in hazardous locations.
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

UNIT-6
Safety in the Use of Construction Equipments [4 Hrs]

6.1 Rights and Obligation of Parties

a) Liabilities of the employer in safety management
Over the past century, the principle of employer liability for death and injury resulting from accidents or
health hazards occurring at the workplace have been firmly established in common law. The following five
responsibilities of the employer in safety management at the workplace are as follows:
 To provide a reasonably safe workplace.
 To provide reasonably safe appliances tools, and equipments.
 To use reasonable care in selecting employees.
 To enforce reasonable safety rules.
 To provide reasonable instructions regarding the dangers of employment.
b) Role of top managers in safety management
The followings are the roles of top manager in safety management at the construction site:
 Knowing the safety records of all field managers, and using this knowledge in evaluating them for
promotion or salary increases.
 Communication about safety on job visits in the way that they communicate about costs and
schedules.
 Using the cost accounting system to encourage safety
o Allocating safety costs to a company account
o Allocating accident costs to projects
 Requiring detailed work planning to ensure that equipments or materials needed to perform work
safety are at hand when required.
 Insisting that newly hired employees receive training in safe work methods.
 Providing safety awards for workers and field managers.
 Making effective use of the expertise of safety departments.
c) Role of superintendents and project managers in safety management
The following are the roles of Superintendents and project managers in safety management:
 Particular attention should be given to the new workers in their first few days of employment.
 Be involved in worker - foremen conflicts, to recognize the worker’s view point. This is not to
undermine the foreman’s authority, but to assure that the workers are fairly treated.
 Actively supporting job safety policies, for example, by:
o Including safety as a part of job planning
o Giving positive support to “toolbox” meetings
 Accepting responsibility for eliminating unsafe conditions and unsafe activities from the job.
 Personally stressing the importance of job safety through their informal and formal contacts with
field supervisors.
 Keeping unnecessary pressures off the workers and foremen.

65
d) Role of construction supervisors in safety management
Safety management of the site is the major role of construction supervisor. Without the interest or sincerity
of the construction supervisors the safety program, safety procedure and good attention will be wasted.
Therefore, the role of construction supervisor is vital in safety management of the construction site. The
roles of supervisor are as follows:
 The supervisors must be properly trained in delivering the correct safety message to the craftspeople
working under their direction.
 Supervisors need to continuously monitor their areas to ensure that proper safety procedures are
practiced.
 When they are planning the execution of their works, they have to keep safety in mind to ensure
that trained workers using safe equipments are available to safely perform the tasks as planned.
 They are responsible for delivering the site safety procedures to the workers through the foremen.
 Safety procedures are a two way street. The supervisors also get feedback from the workers about
unsafe working conditions. The feedback may be in the form of worker complaints about unsafe
practices.
e) Role of foremen in safety management
The followings are the roles of foremen in construction sites:
 They handle the new worker differently like:
o They ask him / her more questions but less threatening ones.
o They are watchful and keep a connection with the new worker rather than putting him /
her right to work or putting him / her with an older worker and leaving in at that.
 They keep stress off their crews like:
o They show high ability to “keep their cool” rather than show anger toward crew members.
o Their reaction to lack of crew accomplishment is to analyze the problem rather than focus
on changing the workers by telling them to work harder.
 Their approach to safety is different like:
o They integrate safety into the job with personal work rules rather than having a set of safety
admonitions (cautions/warnings).
o They are neither safety “nitpickers” (A nitpicker is a person who finds faults, however small
or unimportant, everywhere they look) nor they are unaware of safety violation, they are in
between.
f) Role of workers in safety management
A worker is anyone working for or under the control of a contractor on a construction site. Examples of
workers include: plumbers, electricians, scaffolders, painters, decorators, steel erectors and labourers, as
well as supervisors like foremen. Workers have an important role and should take an active part in helping
to manage health and safety risks.
 They should be trained in safety measures.
 They have to know the knowledge about safety procedures.
 They need to follow clear safety rules to prevent from the injuries.
 They need to prepare with well dress, gloves, aprons and shoes during the construction work.
 They need to work in proper and adequate lighting and ventilated working conditions.
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

 They need to use good conditioned equipment and tools.

 The workers who have epilepsy, poor vision and poor hearing power should not work in
unfavorable working places.
 Alcoholic workers should not do the work at construction site.
In particular, workers must:
 Only carry out construction work if they have the relevant skills, knowledge, training and
experience - or they are provided with the training and supervision that enables them to do it safely
and without risk to health.
 Make themselves aware of the health and safety risks involved in work on every site and the way
those risks are managed.
 Always follow site rules and procedures.
 Cooperate with other duty holders, such as the contractor in control of their work and the principal
contractor (who controls the overall project when there is more than one contractor).
 Report any risks they find to whoever controls the work on site, whether the risks affect their own
health and safety or anyone else, including other workers and members of the public.
Employers must consult their workers (or their representatives) on any health and safety matters that affect
them.

6.2 Health of Equipment Operators

Manufacturers and suppliers of mechanical plant and equipment have a duty under Health and Safety
Legislation to provide information on any hazards associated with their products and advise on their safe
use. Users should ensure they are in possession of this information, and make certain that the drivers and
operators are instructed accordingly. Employers should establish a procedure designed to ensure that only
authorized drivers and operators use their plant and equipment. It is recommended that drivers and
operators should be issued with Certificates of Authorization by their employers.
Some health and safety risks face on site includes:
 Exposure to electricity, overhead and underground cables
 Falls from height
 Proximity to flammable or combustible materials
 Climbing steps and working platforms
 Risk of vehicle overturning
 Risk of eye injury from flying particles and dust
 Slips trips and falls due to untidy work area
 Manual handling activities
 Using various types of machinery and tools
 Cuts and abrasions
 Struck by machinery
 Loss of fingers/limbs
 Risk of pain or injury from performing repetitive tasks
 Exposure to noise

67
  Struck by falling objects
 Hand and foot injury
 Sun exposure

Operators should know and understand:

 The principles of machine operation
 What the machine can and cannot be used for
 What can happen if the machine is poorly maintained
 That they must report all unsafe working practices and faults with their machine to their supervisor
 That poor planning, operation, training, maintenance, supervision or working environment, (or a
combination thereof), are major contributory factors to accidents/incidents
 The increased risks when machines are being operated in the vicinity of other people and
ensure/maintain an exclusion zone wherever possible
 The need for familiarization training before operating new or unfamiliar types of machine and/or
attachment
 Their responsibilities under current legislation/regulations
 Their limitations in organizing their work or operating the machine in any given environment

Operators should be able to:

 Communicate effectively with other workers and line managers
 Interpret relevant information and follow given instructions
 Organize the work activity or part of the work activity with others
 Select and/or request resources and additional equipment required
 Carry out the checks and pre-use inspections that are required on a daily and/or weekly basis as
required
 Attach and detach an attachment in the prescribed manner
 Carry out checks to ensure the attachment has been correctly engaged
 Operate the machine according to manufacturer’s requirements and safe working practices
 Raise and address issues confidently and not be afraid of conflict or of stopping work when
necessary to ensure safety.

6.3 Vehicles
A wide variety of transportation is used within the workplace, ranging from forklifts to cars, lorries,
construction and agricultural vehicles. Workplace transport accidents are often very serious. The
opportunity for serious injury and substantial loss in financial terms due to damage to vehicles, plant and
equipment should not be underestimated. There is also the possibility of prosecution due to failure to
comply with the legislation that relates to workplace transportation.
Employers and duty holders must make sure that vehicles used in the workplace are:
 safe;
 right for the job;
 driven safely;
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

 accessed safely; and

 regularly maintained, repaired and inspected.
Key messages
By law, every employer must
 make sure that work equipment (which includes vehicles) is suitable for its purpose;
 take account of the working conditions; and
 assess the risks to the health and safety of using chosen work equipment.
Questions to ask
Your specification for a workplace vehicle should include answers to these questions:
 Does the driver have good all-round visibility?
 What warning systems (such as horns and lights) are fitted?
 Are the seat belts and restraints safe and comfortable and do they meet the needs of the job?
 What safeguards will prevent people from coming into contact with dangerous parts of the vehicle
such as power take-offs, chain drives, exposed hot exhaust pipes?
 Can drivers get in and out of the cab safely and easily?
 What protection is there from bad weather, extremes of temperature, dirt, dust and fumes?
 Is there a way to prevent injury if the vehicle overturns? For example, roll protection, operator
restraints or falling object protection?
 Is there a way to prevent the vehicle from moving? For example, by applying brakes and removing
the keys?
 Is the vehicle bright enough to be seen?
 Do the vehicle lights provide enough light for the driver to work?

Inspection, maintenance and repair

By law, every employer must make sure that work equipment is maintained in an efficient state, in efficient
working order and in good repair.

Inspection
Daily checks- Drivers should check tyres, lights and indicators at the start of every shift. They will need
instruction or training on carrying out appropriate checks and reporting problems. Employers may find it
helpful to give drivers a list of daily checks to sign off for their vehicles.
Planned maintenance
Regular preventive maintenance inspections may be based on time or mileage. Each vehicle you purchase or
hire should come with a handbook giving manufacturer's guidance on regular maintenance. Planned
maintenance helps to prevent failures during use. It should be thorough, regular and frequent enough to
meet the manufacturer's guidelines and common sense. Pay special attention to:
 brakes;
 steering;
 tyres;
 mirrors and any fittings that allow the driver to see clearly (for example, CCTV cameras);

69
  windscreen washers and wipers;
 warning devices (for example, horns, reversing alarms or lights);
 ladders, steps, or walkways;
 pipes, pneumatic or hydraulic hoses, rams, outriggers, lifting systems or other moving parts or
systems; and
 specific safety systems, for example, control interlocks to prevent the vehicle or its equipment from
moving unintentionally, racking, securing points for ropes.
Safety precautions when maintaining vehicles
 Apply brakes,
 Chock(wedge/block) wheels,
 Start engine with brakes on and in neutral gear,
 Prop or support raised parts,
 Use a tyre-cage or other restraining device when inflating tyres on split-rim wheels,
 Remove tyres from wheels before welding, cutting or heating work begins on a wheel or wheel rim
fitted with a tyre, even if the tyre is deflated (punctured),
 Beware of the risk of explosion when draining and repairing fuel tanks, and from battery gases.
Never drain or fill fuel tanks when the equipment is hot or in a confined space, or over a pit,
 Avoid short-circuiting batteries. Charge batteries should be charged in well-ventilated areas.
Suitable personal protective equipment should be provided and used for handling battery acid,
 Only allow people who have received the relevant information, instruction and training to do
maintenance work.

6.4 Cranes and Lifting Gears

The lifting of objects generally occurs on construction sites, in factories and other industrial situations.
Correct lifting can move large objects efficiently and reduce manual handling operations. Incorrect lifting
however, can lead to disastrous accidents. Every year, incorrect lifting procedures cause injuries, loss of
work time and property. People, machinery, loads, methods and the work environment, are all important
factors for correct lifting. Provided that
enough safety measures are fully
implemented, lifting accidents can be
reduced.
6.4.1 Common accidents in lifting
operation
 Overturning of the cranes
 Falling objects
 Breaking the boom sling
 Touching overhead power lines
 Collision with obstacles
6.4.2 People
Personnel related to the lifting
operation include "competent
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

examiner", "competent person", "crane operator", "slinger", "signaler" and others working nearby.
 The "competent examiner" is responsible for regular examinations of
the lifting appliances or lifting gears. S/he shall be:
 appointed by the employer or the owner of the lifting
appliances/lifting gears;
 a registered professional engineer within a relevant
discipline;
 properly trained with relevant practical experience.
 The "competent person" is responsible for regular inspections of lifting
appliances or lifting gears. S/he shall be:
 appointed by the employer or the owner of the lifting appliances/lifting gears;
 properly trained with relevant practical experience.
 The "crane operator" is responsible for operating the crane correctly and safely. S/he shall:
 be at least 18 years of age and hold a valid crane operation certificate;
 be physically fit;
 be familiar with hand signals for communication.
 The "slinger" is responsible for attaching and detaching the load to and from the crane.
s/he shall:
 have received appropriate training on general safe lifting operations;
 be capable of selecting lifting gears suitable for the loads;
 liaise with the operator and direct the movement of the crane safely.
 The "signaller" is responsible for relaying the signal from the slinger to the crane operator. S/he
shall:
 have received appropriate training on general safe lifting operations;
 be able to direct the movement of the crane and loads.

71
6.4.3 Machinery
Machinery – refers to lifting
appliances and all lifting
gears.
The lifting appliance includes
a crab, pulley block, crane,
excavator, pile driver, pile
extractor, dragline, aerial rope way, aerial cableway transporter or overhead runway, etc
The lifting gears include a chain sling, rope sling, ring or similar gear, link, hook, plate clamp, shackle,
swivel or eyebolt.
A) Cranes
Selection of cranes
For the correct selection of cranes, the following
factors shall be considered:
• Weights and dimensions of loads
• Height of lift and distances/areas of movement
of loads
• Number and frequency of lifts
• Period of time for the lifting operation
• Ground conditions
• Other factors
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

Testing, examination and inspection

All testing and examination of cranes must be carried out
by competent examiners and the regular inspections
completed by competent personnel. All testing,
examination and inspection reports and certificates shall
be properly kept.

Safe Working Loads

The Safe Working Load (SWL) for operating the crane shall be specified according to
The results of test and examination certificates and such loads must not be exceeded during the
lifting operation.

Repair and maintenance

All cranes shall have regular
maintenance, to ensure they always
kept in good operating conditions.

a) Mobile Crane
Operation points:
 The mobile crane shall only be
operated on a firm, level
ground that adequately
supports the weight of the
crane and loads.
 Before lifting, fully extend
outriggers and ensure their
stability on the ground.
 The weight of the load shall not
exceed the Safe Working Load.
 Never abruptly swing or stop
the crane.
 Loads shall not be dragged on
the ground.
 Move the load at a safe speed
- use low speeds within several metres of the load's destination.
 Adjust the boom length to ensure the crane is operating within the extent of the safe
operation radius.
 When moving uphill or downhill, the boom angle shall be adjusted to the safe
working condition.

73
b) Tower Crane
Operation points:
 Ensure that the
automatic safe load
indicator is installed.
 Provide safe means of
access and egress.
 Ensure that the lifting routes do not collide with any object.
 Lifting routes shall not come across any building or pass over any person.
 Travel speed shall be as slow as possible, to ensure the load's stability.
 Be aware of the height of lifting, the length of the crane's trolley and refer to the load
chart.
 When the tower crane is not in operation, the crane's trolley must be positioned near the
tower at minimum radius, with the hook raised to its highest position.
Safety Tips for all types of cranes:
 Periodically read the manual and review the rules.
 At the beginning of your shift, check your hoist.
 Examine the load chain for damage or twists, or the wire rope for bends or fraying (wear
out).
 Check the hook. If it's out of shape, don't use it. This may indicate internal damage.
 Don't try to lift more than the hoist rating. If you don't know the hoist's rating, find out.
 Avoid shock loads. Don't run the hook with a slack (loose) chain. Bring the chain or wire
to a taut (stretched) position before lifting.
 To avoid damage to the hoist, the rope or chain should always be in a straight line from
hoist to hook.
 Avoid snagging (catching/tearing) a load while lifting.
 Avoid jogging (bumping/hitting) a load.
 Balance a load carefully. Use the right sized sling (hang/hookup).
 Be sure your load is secure so that nothing can slip out and cause damage or injury.
 Don't bend the rope or chain over sharp edges.
 Never get help to lift something with a chain block. If it can't handle it alone, don't lift it.
 Never leave a suspended load unattended. That load is your responsibility.
 Never lift people with a hoist.
 When moving a load, look where you are going.

Checkpoints for all types of cranes:

 Who is responsible for the inspections, are they carried out and recorded?
 Has the test certificate been seen?
 Is the driver/operator trained and competent?
 Are the controls (Livers, Handles, Switches, etc.) clearly marked?
 Has the weight of the load been ascertained?
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur
 Is the crane of more than 1 ton capacity? If so, is it fitted with an automatic safe load
indicator in an efficient working order, and is it being inspected weekly?
 Is the crane sited on a hard level base?
 Has the slinger been trained to give signals and to attach loads correctly?
 If the crane can vary its operating radius, are the safe working loads and corresponding
radii plainly marked?
 Is the crane regularly maintained?
B) Lifting gears
Lifting gears play an important part in the lifting operation. Their function is to tie the objects
tightly and hang them on the crane. There is a great variety of lifting gears. If there is insufficient
knowledge or a wrong choice is made, lifting may fail and accidents may result. All lifting gears
shall be tested by qualified examiners and suitably marked
Pressed metal sleeve
with a Safe Working Load (SWL).
a) Wire rope slings
 Wire rope consists of individual wires laid into a
number of strands, which are then wrapped
around a central core.
 Different number of wires in the strands and
various methods of arrangement may affect the
characteristics of the wire rope sling. The wire
rope shall be equipped with a thimble and with
pressed metal sleeve and marked with a Safe
Working Load (SWL).
Inspection points:
 The wire rope sling shall not be used and shall be disposed if they are:
Points for attention:
 Use only suitable wire rope slings.
 Never use damaged wire rope slings.
 During lifting, the Safe Working Load must not be exceeded.

 Regular inspections shall be conducted.

 Sudden elevation is not allowed.
 If more than one wire rope sling is used in lifting, pay attention to the angle between the
slings.

75
 b) Wire rope slings- cable clip
The cable clip shall be properly installed according to the
following points:
 The wire rope sling is equipped with thimble.
 There is a minimum of 3 cable clips.
 The direction of installation shall be correct.
 The distance between the cable clips shall be the
same.

Method of connecting the wire rope slings:

c) Chain slings
Chain slings are made up of chain rings. The advantage of chain slings is that they deteriorate and
corrode less. Chain slings are made of alloys. They can maintain their Safe Working Loads under
temperatures of 50°F. However, the entire chain becomes unsafe if problems arise in any section.
A damaged chain sling will suddenly break and the damage is not as easily detectable as
compared to rope slings. Therefore, a rope sling must be selected wherever possible for lifting.

Inspection points:
The chain sling shall not be used under the following conditions:

Points for attention:

 No ordinary chains shall be used for lifting.
 The Safe Working Load (SWL) shall not be
exceeded.
 No knots or bolts that shorten the chain length
shall be used.
 Chain slings have no flexibility, so striking objects must be avoided while lifting.
 Do not use hammers to reshape a deformed chain sling.
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

 When purchasing chain slings, those marked "A" should be selected as they are of
premium for normal use.
 Regular inspections shall be conducted.

d) Shackles
Hook rings are divided into two main categories: Chain ("D" type) shackle and anchor (bow) type
shackle. Both are available with screw pins or round pins.

Points for attention:

 Never replace the shackle pin with a bolt.
 Ensure the pin is totally locked.
 Do not use screw pin shackles if the pin can roll and unscrew.
 During lifting, shackles shall not lean to one side.
 Shackle pins must always be attached to the hook.
 Washers may be used to center the shackle.

e) Eye bolts
Eye bolts are mainly classified into
plain (shoulderless) eye bolts and
shoulder type eye bolts.
 The bolt length shall be 1-1.5
times the diameter of the bolt
and totally drilled on the load.
 The bolt hole shall fit into the
bolt.

77
 Safety points:
 The hook shall not be directly fixed on to the eye bolt.
 Plain eye bolts only apply to the vertical lifting.
 The angle of lifting of shoulder eye bolts shall not be
less than 45°.
 Washers may be used to
ensure that the shoulder is
firmly in contact with the
surface.
 Never use a sling through a
pair of eye bolts.

f) Hooks
Hooks are a vital part of lifting gear. A variety of them cater for different lifting purposes.

swivel

 All hooks shall be installed with safety latches (other than the specially designed hooks).
 Hooks can be installed with swivels to allow the load to
revolve.
Points for attention:
 Select hooks of the right size.
 Do not tie or remove the safety latches.
 Maintain the hook in a vertical position. If the hook is
eccentrically loaded, the Safe Working Load will be reduced.

6.5 Temporary Power Supply

Temporary electrical power is utilized in many places, most commonly on constructions sites. It is also used
in plants and buildings during renovation (repair) operations. Any electrical installation, whether it is
permanent or temporary, should be installed according to all applicable codes, standards, and
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

regulations. Another requirement that should always be followed is the one that states, ". . . installed in a
neat and workmanlike manner." Many of today's construction sites are unsafe because the electrician or
electrical contractor did not install an adequate temporary wiring, use equipment that is in a good working
order, or take the precautions to protect the wiring and equipment being installed.
Temporary power is used on construction sites and throughout industry for maintenance, repair,
remodeling, landscaping (reforming/reshaping), or any other activity that would require the use of
extension cords. Extension cords are nothing new, they have been in use as a convenience since about the
mid-1940s. They provide a convenient method of bringing temporary AC power to a device, equipment, or
a power tool that is not located near a power outlet (receptacle). The great thing about extension cords is
that they are available in various lengths, gauges and service duties that fit most temporary power needs. If
used improperly extension cords can become a fire and shock or electrocution hazard, as well as cause
equipment damage.
Temporary power comes in many forms and is used for many different applications. Typically we look at
extension cords when we think of temporary power. This is the most common use, but we must also look at
the temporary sources of electrical power. These sources include, but are not limited to, temporary services
on a construction sites, portable generators, temporary power distribution centers, and distribution boxes
with multiple receptacles that are typically 120/240 volt single-phase, as well as 208-volt three-phase,
with some cases where 480-volt three-phase receptacles are used. Extension cords now come into play,
since they are connected to these temporary power sources, but they may also be connected to permanent
power sources for temporary use.
Good extension cords should be used all the time - heavy duty rated ones that are approved and tested by
Underwriter’s Laboratories. Cords that show wear should be repaired or thrown out. There are some
hazards in using extension cords that only you can control. First of all, no extension cord can stand rough
usage. If you kink it, knot it or crush it and even bend it, you can break the insulation, which may cause a
short circuit and a fire or even an electric shock. Most cords used carry regular 110-volt electricity. Now,
no doubt at some time you have received a shock from a 110-volt line without serious harm. But even a
10-volt current can kill. The right conditions may consist of making a good connection with a live wire
carrying a 110 voltage with wet or sweaty hands, and standing or lying on the ground, a wet floor, a water
pipe or another electrical connection. So, protect that extension cord you use. Coil it in large loops, not in
close kinked coils. Don’t bend it unnecessarily. Don't repair it yourself. In special situations, special types of
cords are needed. Some cords are water resistant, others are not. Some are insulated for heat resistance;
others are designed to stand the action of solvents and other chemicals that may be present.

These rules should be applied for the safe use of extension cords:
 Inspect all extension cords at the beginning of each work day for any signs of wear or damage.
Remove any worn/damaged cords from service immediately.
 Handle the cord gently, avoiding strain, kinking, crushing or cutting.
 String it where it will not be hit or tramped (marched/walked) on.
 If moisture, heat or chemicals are present, be sure your cord is the proper type to resist the
conditions that are present.

79
 Extension cords should not be used as ropes to raise and lower tools and materials.
 Avoid running cords over sharp corners and projections.
 Do not run cords through windows or doors unless they are protected from damage and only used
on a temporary basis.
 Do not run cords above ceilings and inside or through walls, ceilings, or floors.
 Cover cords with a cable bridge or tape when they extend into a walkway or other path of travel to
avoid tripping hazards.
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

UNIT-7
Safety & Economy [3 Hrs]

7.1 Direct/Insured Costs of Accidents

Cost is the main concern of chief executives and employers. Unfortunately, it is the misunderstanding of the
top management about the cost for safety. It is also because no adequate research has been done for cost for
safety and cost incurred without safety provision at construction site. The management wrongly believes
that each rupee spent for safety activities at construction site is the extra cost that otherwise would have
been saved. It has therefore, been necessary for the safety personnel to motivate their management. The only
way to motivate the management correctly is to show material benefit is obtained of the safety expenditure.
For this the safety personnel has to work very hard.

Direct/Insured cost due to accident:

Direct cost consists of:
 Medical cost to the injured worker
 Wages to the injured worker
 Time loss-loss of man hours because of injury
 Lost time by the supervisor
 Overhead cost while work is disrupted
These costs could be calculated reasonably accurately. The contractor will like to compare this cost with the
cost of:
 Insurance premium
 Safety management at the site and
 Training etc. for safety.
The calculator will use this judgment to determine the frequency and severity of the accident and arrive at a
cost of accident although such cost largely varies depending upon the type of construction projects. Cost for
a tunneling project may be different from that for a telecommunication cable laying project. If the
contractor feels that the cost of accident is more than the cost incurred for preventive measures, s/he may
not have any problem in spending for safety.

7.2 Indirect/Uninsured/Hidden Costs of Accidents

There is another component of the cost. It may be termed as an indirect/ hidden or uninsured cost. It
includes:
1. Loss of efficiency due to break up of construction crew:
Sometimes employees near the scene of an injury stop their work to watch or offer assistance or
to talk about what happened. On other occasions uninjured employees are unable to continue
working for a time after an injury because they need equipment damaged in the accident or
because they cannot get along without the output or aid of the injured worker. This element
covers the cost of wages paid to such employees during those periods of lost working time.

81
2. Cost of breeding in new employee:
When an injury is so serious that a new worker must be hired, or one transferred from another
job, an added cost often results from the fact that during the time it takes the worker to learn
the new job, his output is usually lower relative to his pay rate than the output of a worker
experienced on that job would be. A wage cost for time spent by supervisors or others in
training the new worker is also a valid cost.
This element seems to be negligible in first-aid and doctor’s cases, but amounts to around 4% of
the average for lost-day cases.

3. Cost to repair, replace, or straighten up material or equipment that was damaged in an

“accident”:
Property damage is an obvious cost. When replacements are necessary, however, some problems
arise in the estimating of the net loss incurred. For example, suppose that an old machine, worth
about Rs 1 Lakh, is damaged to the extent that its salvage value is Rs. 5,ooo , and the
management decides to replace it with a new, more efficient machine costing Rs 3 Lakh. The
property damage cost should be regarded as Rs 95,000, not Rs. 3 Lakh.
This element seems to be negligible in most first-aid and doctor’s cases, but it accounts for about
7% of total average uninsured cost in lost-day cases.

4. Cost of wages paid for working time lost by injured workers, other than worker’s compensation
payments:
This loss of working time occurs primarily on the day on which the injury happens or on
following days when the employee leaves work to visit the dispensary or a doctor’s office to
obtain medical treatment. It is common practice to continue an injured worker’s pay for some
time after the injury. Frequently pay is continued for the remainder of the shift on which he or
she was working when injured.

5. Loss of time of the management to attend accident:

If production lost because of an accident is made up by working overtime, the accident should
be charged with the difference between the cost of doing the work in overtime and the cost
which would have been incurred if it had been done in regular hours. This cost ordinarily is the
difference between normal wages and overtime wages for the time needed to make up lost
production, plus any extra cost for supervision, heat, light, cleaning, and so on necessitated by
the overtime operation.

6. Economic loss to employee’s family

7. Losses due to low morale of the employee
8. Losses due to low morale of the contractor
9. Loss of prestige of the contractor
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur
These costs are the very real cost.
But it is very difficult to
demonstrate and calculate this cost
in terms of numerical values. The
contractor needs figures to
compare and the safety personnel
cannot show the figures and it
becomes very difficult for safety
personnel to convince and
motivate the management to invest
on safety.
Fig.7.1 Construction workers accident rate by category

In general practice the expenditure on safety in construction is neither included as an individual item of
cost nor is it taken into account at the estimation stage. While making their bids, contractor do not generally
take into account the expenses involved in ensuring safety of workers.

7.3 Costs of Safety Programs

As discussed earlier, the main concern to the contractor and to the owner is the cost associated with the
safety measure. Another direct cost component that the contractor would account is the cost of safety
personnel employed and other safety related expenses. Such expenses include the cost of safety clothing,
first aid facilities, masks, work protection devices, extra escape routes, and so on. It is not always possible to
include each and every item required to maintain safety at construction sites into the Bill of Quantities. Also
the benefit from expenses on safety is not seen directly in monitory items i.e. in Rupees. But the cost of
casualty cannot be determined accurately. And experienced controller will be able to estimate such
uninsured cost which is incurred at the construction site. The basic principle of the modern method of
estimating the uninsured costs of work injuries and accidents is expressed in the following formula.

Uninsured cost:
A * number of lost workday cases (lost day) + B * number of doctor’s case (non lost work day cases that are
attended by a doctor) + C * number of first aid cases + D * number of no-injury accidents.
Where A, B, C and D are constants indicating respectively, the average cost for each of the categories cases.
The above formula covers the ordinary run of injuries and accidents. If something in the nature of a
catastrophe occurs, it should be investigated independently and any additional costs resulting from it added.
The number of lost days and the number of doctor cases are taken from the job site or the company record.
Even if it is hard to record each of the first aid case, it is possible to establish such a record. It is suggested
that the first aid cases are recorded correctly. The number of no injury cases may be estimated by applying a
ratio to the number of lost day cases. This ratio should vary from company to company and from job to job.
Each company and each job site should ascertain such a ratio for itself. As an approximation the ratio, of 1:1
as found in the Simonds’ studies may be used. Most of the no injury cases may not be reported to the safety

83
manager or the inspector. A ratio of 1 no injury case to 1.25 lost time case may be more appropriate in the
construction sites of Nepal.
It should be noted that fatalities and permanent total disabilities are omitted in establishing category A
under the assumption that they are very rare. Such cost can be determined separately if required.
This formula is widely used in American industries where OHSA (Occupational Health and Safety at Work
Act) record keeping is mandatory and therefore easy to establish the multipliers no study has been made in
Nepal to establish such costs. However, with reference to Simond’s data and various other literatures and
from the experience, the uninsured costs may be estimated as follows:
Lost day cases : Rs.6,500/-
Doctors cases : Rs.1,500/-
First Aid cases : Rs. 350/-
No injury cases : Rs.12,000/-
This is based upon the wage rate of skilled and unskilled manpower during 1995 (Rate of skilled worker Rs.
150 per day, rate of unskilled worker Rs. 80 per day).
To calculate the uninsured cost for one year, the following method can be adopted.
If the numbers of lost day cases are 10, Doctors cases are 30 and first aid injuries are 500, then the total
uninsured cost would be
= (10 * Rs. 6,500) + (30 * Rs. 1,500) + (500 * Rs. 350) + (8 * Rs. 12,000 (at 1.25%))
= (65,000) + (45,000) + (1,75,000) + (8*12,000*1.25/100)
The total cost including insurance comes to Rs. 2,86,200.00

It is strongly recommended that labor offices conduct studies on the construction projects to determine such
figures. Construction companies should continue their effort to minimize accidents at construction sites
with an adequate measure of control although there can be some damage. Cost of control and cost due to
damage depends upon the degree of control. In all the construction projects there are two types of cost of
safety: the cost due to accident and the cost of control of accident. If proper safety has to be considered the
cost of control has to be increased. But at a certain point the degree of control would not improve
significantly even if more money is invested. Similarly if degree of control is less, the cost due to accident
will rise remarkably. It is important to study the nature of cost implication VS degree of control. Figure 7.1
illustrates the relationship between the two.

Estimating and calculating the true cost of workplace injuries

A. Direct Cost of Injury
B. Indirect Cost of the Injury
Calculation based on Direct Cost × 4 = Indirect Cost
C. Total Cost
Total Cost = Direct Cost + Indirect Cost
D. Profit Margin of Business (%)
E. Revenue Required to offset loss
Revenue Required = (Total Cost) / (% Profit Margin / 100)
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

Explanation of Calculator
 The direct costs of an injury are the easiest to see and understand. These costs include emergency
room and doctor visits, medical bills, medicines, and rehabilitation.
 Indirect costs of an injury are often overlooked. These costs can amount up to 4 times the direct
cost of the injury. Indirect costs include administrative time dealing with the injury and medical
care, raises in insurance costs, replacing the hours loss of the injured employee with hiring another
employee, loss of reputation and confidence in employees and clients, unwanted media attention,
and more.
 The total costs of an injury are surprising. Beyond the direct costs, the indirect costs greatly
increase the overall costs. This is the true amount that the injury will cost in terms of money.
 The profit margin of a business determines the revenue (income) required to offset losses from an
injury. Even with high profit margins, no one wants to see their hard work wasted paying for
preventable injuries.
 This is the cost that a business will incur from an injury. In order to pay for the costs of the initial
injury and indirect costs, a business must make a profit on revenue to recover those costs.
 The cost of one typical injury is far more expensive than the salary of a safety professional or
upgrading an existing safety program. Safety is a smart business decision that companies must
embrace to be competitive in today's market place.

7.4 Safety Cost Optimization or Managing Safety at Construction Site

a) Cost of Insurance
Two general types of cost associated with accidents and safety at construction project are the insurance cost
and the uninsured cost. The insurance cost is easier to determine and therefore can be planned beforehand.
The cost for insurance – the premium – increases if the accident record of the company is very poor. If the
accident rate of the company is very low, the premium will also be low.
Worker’s insurance is not mandatory in many developing countries. But these days projects undertaken by
international donor agencies are adopting FIDIC (The International Federation of Consulting Engineers,
commonly known as FIDIC, acronym for its French name Fédération Internationale Des Ingénieurs-Conseils
is an international standards organization for the consulting engineering & construction ) conditions of
contracts. These conditions demands for various insurance coverage and therefore these days many
construction projects are spending money on insurance for a compensation for possible accidents at the
construction sites. The insurance premium and the associated overhead cost make the cost of insurance.

b) Work man’s Compensation Insurance

Workers are the valuable assets. A contractor does not want to lose his/her trained man power. But if an
accident happens, and that the trained worker is disable or dead s/he will leave him/her. Also if a worker is
injured, s/he has to be adequately compensated. Therefore the insurance policy for the compensation to the
workers against accidents is taken through some insurance company. The insurance premium is depends
upon the type of the insurance taken depending upon the risk coverage and the amount compensation to be
made. Some insurance covers for accidental death only and some others cover even for a minor injury. All

85
medical and other associated cost is compensated by the insurance. Some insurance covers even for the
disablement and losses of parts of the body. Some other type covers the injured employee’s wages in full
while he is disabled.

FIDIC conditions of contract fourth edition 1987, clause 24 provides insurance as follows:
 “24.1 The employer shall not be liable for or in respect of any damages or compensation payable to
any workman or other person in the employment of the contractor or any sub-contractor, other
than death or injury resulting from any act or default of the Employer, his agent or servants. The
contractor shall indemnify and keep indemnified the employer against all such damages and
compensation, other than those for which the Employer is liable as aforesaid, and against all claims,
proceedings, damages costs, charges, and expenses whatsoever in respect thereof or in relation
thereto”.

c) Insurance of the works

It is important that the work either complete or incomplete be insured for the period covering both
construction and maintenance of the project. This is very important as it safeguards the interest of the
employer as well as that the contractor. Also it is important to include the construction material and
equipment under the same policy or policies could be taken for works, construction materials and
construction equipment separately.

FIDIC conditions of contract clause 21.1, “Insurance of works and contractor’s equipment” provides
insurance conditions as follows:
“The contractor shall, without limiting his or the employer’s obligations and responsibilities under
clause 20, care for works, insure:
a. the works, together with materials and plant for incorporation therein, to the full
replacement cost
b. an additional sum of 15 percent of such replacement cost, or as may be specified in part II
of these conditions, (special condition of contract) to cover any additional costs of and
incidental to the rectification of loss or damage including professional fees and the cost of
demolishing and removing any part of the works and of removing debris of whatsoever
nature
c. the contractor’s equipment and other things brought onto the site by the contractor, for a
sum sufficient to provide for their replacement at the site”.

d) Third Party Insurance

It is very important that the safety and security of parties other than those involve in the construction
contract is also taken care of. It is important that the Employer be indemnified (insured) of all the risk
associated with the construction projects and that the contractor takes all the risk for the claims by the third
parties. And that the contractor is paid for such a risk.
FIDIC contract document clause 23.1, third party insurance provides as follows:
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

“The contractor shall, without limiting his or the employer’s obligation and responsibilities under clause 22,
insure, in the joint names of the contractor and the employer, against liabilities for death or injury to any
person (other than as provided in clause 24, the workmen) or loss of or damage to any property (other than
the works) arising out to the performance of the contract, other than exceptions defined in paragraphs (a),
(b), (c) of sub-clause 22.2”.
The clause 22.2 provides as follows:
(a) the permanent use of occupation of land by the works, or any part thereof,
(b) the right of the employer to execute the works, or any part thereof, on, over, under, in or through
any land,
(c) damage to property which is the unavoidable result of execution and completion of the works, or
the remedying of any defects therein, in accordance with the contract”.
The cost of insurance premium for the coverage of the third party is either included in the bill of quantity as
a separate pay item or is built into the rate of other items of the bill of quantity. Various provisions in the
conditions of contract and specification may not be enough for a contractor to take serious action to prevent
an accident. Mainly because the contractor may not be able to calculate the effect of cost for various
provisions, s/he may not be adequately provided provisions for safety in the item rates of the work. It is
therefore advisable that each item related to health and safety at construction site be provided as a separate
pay item in the bill of quantities of the project. By this the contractor will analyze the cost of each item and
adequate provision shall be made. Provision for insurance made in a contract document prepared by SILT
Consultants (P.) Ltd., Nepal Engineering Consultancy Services Center Ltd. and Building Design Associates (P.)
Ltd. JV for the construction of four Kathmandu Valley Bridges under Road Flood Rehabilitation in 1990 is
seen in table 8.1 below:

Table 8.1: Provision of insurances in BoQ

Item Estimated Rate
Description of item Unit
no quantity (Rs)
1.17 Insurance of works Sum Sum
1.18 Third party insurance Sum Sum
1.19 Insurance for workmen Sum Sum
Similarly provisions can be made in the bill of quantity of the projects to cover other safety items. Provision
made in the BOQ appears below:
Item Estimated Rate
Description of item Unit
No quantity (Rs)
Provide and install fire
1. 15 Nos.
fighting equipment’s
Provide safety clothing
2. to all the workers as per Lot Sum
specifications
Provide, erect and
3. 31 Nos.
maintain sign posts

87
 Illuminate the working area foe
4. Lot Sum
night work (... lux)
Provide stand by ambulance service
5. Sum Sum
during working at site
Provide safe access for underground
6. work and also for over ground Sum Sum
(height) work

Also the health care of the workers and other related social benefit to the construction workers are provided
in the contract document. Provisions can be made in the BOQ as given below:
Item Estimated Rate
Description of item Unit
No quantity (Rs)
1. Provide temporary labour camp lot Sum
Providing drinking water facility
2. lot Sum
at construction site
Providing drinking water facility
3. lot Sum
at labour camp
Provide adequate first aid facility
4. lot Sum
at construction site
Provide worker resting area at
5. lot Sum
construction site
Provide toilets and urinal at
6. lot Sum
construction site
Provide designated smoking zone
7. lot Sum
at the site

It is very important to make some provisions in the contract document to show the commitment of the
employer in the health and safety of the workers. The provisions made in the contract document are directly
or indirectly related to quality of the work. If the employer intends to save on safety, he will be losing on
quality since the contractor does not forget to take out his buck that he spends on safety, from the quality
and the workmanship of the project. Secondly, the provision in the contract document is important to
express the obligatory requirement of the contractor more firmly. It will also eliminate disputes related to
health and safety of the workers among the contracting parties.
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

UNIT-8
Psychological Aspects and Ergonomics [3 Hrs]

8.1 Carelessness
As we know that an accident takes place when we are careless or do something in a hurry. Perhaps the
oldest and most inaccurate attribution for an accident is that it was caused by carelessness. Accidents do not
just happen. Even injury has one or more causes. The cause may be external to the individual, or they may
be inherent in him/her. Also, they may arise from the both sources. Carelessness, however, has no value in
injury prevention. Consider, as an example, there may be an employee soldering who suffers burns often
because of arranging the work on the bench so that his/her arm must pass over heated objects. It might be
said that s/he is careless, but the fact probably is that s/he never thought (or was not able to think) well
enough to set the work up in order to avoid injuries. Let’s consider as another example, the mechanic who
adjusted a machine while it was in operation-even though the safe practice rule was to shut the machine
down before making repairs and lost the tips of his fingers would not agree that he was careless. His
reasoning was that he did not want to take the time to turn the machine off and then start it again, and he
did not expect to be injured in any event.
Carelessness as a given cause of injuries then, neither describes, defines, nor implies a phenomenon of
human behavior that would be useful in determining a correction for the causes of injuries. The blunt truth
is that in every case where an injury cause lies within the individual and is ascribed to carelessness, it is
thoughtlessness-the limited, incomplete, stagnated, blocked, or otherwise restricted use of sound mental
judgment-which is responsible and a corrective action is indicated. Correction may be achieved by
improving habits, training personnel, or aiding their power of concentration.

8.2 Related Physical factors

When considering the possible causes of injuries there can be no dispute over the probability that some
“accidents” are caused by unidentified physical deficiencies in the individual or physical maladjustments
(confusions/disturbances) that are recognized but not allowed for. (It should be understood when
considering this point that physically handicapped workers who are selectively placed in job assignments
which meet the worker’s physical abilities, are considered to be safe in their jobs as any other workers.) This
consideration centers on the type of case in which for example, a worker has faulty and uncorrected vision,
unknown to him and his employers, and is placed at a job where his deficiency is responsible for an
“accident”. It is not uncommon to consider such factors within the area of psychological aspects since then
may be detected, modified, or corrected through that phase of the safety program that deals directly with
the worker.
a) Vision
A relationship between visual performance and injuries has been reported in several instances. In each of
the separate studies, the results of these investigations indicate a significant differences in the injury
experience between the groups of workers who have eye defects and the others who do not.

89
 b) Reaction Time
A seemingly (really/apparently) logical is assumption might be that reaction time (i.e., the fraction of a
second elapsing in between the time when a person receives a sensory stimulus and the performance of
his/her action in response) would have a significant influence on a person’s ability to avoid accidents.
However, the evidences is disputable, and it would appear that reaction time has no important relationship
to injury causation. The reported data on studies concerned with this function include Farmer and
Chamber’s findings that the correlation between reaction time and injury frequency was so low as to be of
no significance. Fletcher, as reported by Gray, found a difference in reaction time between good and poor
driving that was considered statistically significant. The differences, however, were so small that the greater
time to react for the poorer drivers would have allowed the car to travel only a little more than one foot
longer than for the good drivers at speeds as high as 50 miles per hour, all other factors being equal. On the

other hand, Wechsler and the National Safety Council studied, respectively, taxicab drivers and motor coach
operators. Wechsler found that in the case of the taxi drivers both those who had faster and those who had
slower reaction times than the average had more accidents than the average. The National Safety Council
report indicated that the faster-reacting motor coach driver had more accidents than the one who reacted
more slowly.
c) Relation between Perception and Muscular Responses and Injuries
The possibility that a relationship might exist between visual discrimination, speed of muscular responses,
and accidents was investigated by Drake. He found that the persons who tend to react more quickly than
they perceive (notice/identify) are more likely to have accidents than are those who perceive faster than
they react.
d) Relationship between Intelligence and injury experience
It might be expected that certain minimum intelligence is necessary if a person is to avoid having injuries
the probable existence of relationship between mental ability and injury experience has been indicated by a
number of studies. Lauer reported that automobile drivers IQ’s are less than 75 are more likely to have
accidents. Chambers founded few persons who had repeated accidents were superior to the average in
learning ability, intelligence, and hand work. Other reported studies indicate a definite relation between
accidents and low scores on intelligence tests. This information may appear to be contradicted by the
reports or further investigation who found no correlation between injury reputation and level of
intelligence. Such results were reported by Farmer and the Chambers , for example. The disagreement may
be explained by the realization that a definite minimum intelligence is required to avoid injury and damage,
and that the minimum critical intelligence may be some function of the complexities of the hazards
associated with the performance of a job. Above the minimum level, it would be doubtful if any relationship
existed between intelligence and injury experience. Mental ability test might be useful, therefore, for
identifying workers with extremely low mental abilities.
e) Hearing
Reduced hearing equity may have a definite influence on an individual’s injury experience when the
hearing loss interferes with the ability to distinguish established warning signals or to recognize changes in
the normal sound of certain machine operations that would presage (warning/indication) impending
hazard to the machine or its operators. In a study of physically handicapped workers, it was reported that
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

hearing defects appeared to have a greater influence on individual injury experience than any other
physical impairment. The percentage of hearing loss that might be critical would be a function of the
frequency (cycles per second) of the sounds to be heard and the reduction of hearing perception for those
sounds, as well as other factors such as the intensity of the sounds at the normal working location of the
employee.
f) Age
Age would seem to have some relationship to “accident” experience. Skulzinger reported a declining
accident rate, for the groups of persons studied, as the age-group years increased. It is probably the result of
the increase in experience accompanying growing older plus a probable decrease in irresponsibility,
impulsiveness (thoughtlessness/hastiness), and daring. This view is supported by the survey reported by
Surry . This showed a steady decline (drop) in injury rates for employees from age 20 to 27.
H.F.King, in a study of age-injury relationships, found that the nature of the injuries (type), their causes, and
the parts of the body affected all differ with age. This led him to suggest that perhaps there should be some
differentiation in the injury prevention efforts as applied to younger and older people. A more recent study
by Shaffai-Sahrai supports the conclusion that injury rates decline with the increasing age of the workers.
In this study, each pair comprised two firms of approximately the same size in the same industry and same
states but with markedly different injury frequency rates. This sample selection provided enough
commonality for the two members of each pair to increase the apparent likelihood of casual relationships
between injuries and the factors found correlated with the higher injury frequency members. It has been
determined unequivocally that young males have an exceptionally high accident rate in automobiles.
However, it is believed that for complex, specialized tasks, such as operating high-performance aircraft, the
accident potential of older pilot’s increases.
g) Experience
There may be as close a relationship between injuries and experience as would seem to exist in the case of
age. An early report by Fisher indicated that as an individual’s years of work experience accumulated, his or
her injury potential decreased. A later report found a significant relationship between accident rate and
experience for a group of motor coach drivers and street car operators. It must be noted, however, that
other studies have indicated that work accidents increased with experience. This contradiction may be the
result of variances in the groups studied. For example, jobs that require agility (quickness/alertness) or
heavy physical exertion may be considered to present an increasing hazard to aging employees. It is
therefore necessary to apply the information on this relationship with some understanding of the work
situation involved. The Shaffai-Sahrai study mentioned above found that the length of employee service in a
company was correlated positively with the lower injury rates.
h) Emotional Instability
A relationship between emotional factors and injuries has been reported. Based on a clinical study of 400
minor injury cases, it was found that more than half occurred when the worker was “worried, apprehensive
(nervous/uneasy) or in some other low emotional state.” It was estimated that because of job and home
difficulties, loss of sleep, fatigue, and so forth, the average worker is in a low emotional state about 20
percent of the time.

91
 i) Marital Status
Shaffai-Sahrai found that the average number of married employees was higher in the firms with the better
safety records than in those with poorer records. In fact, in the pairs where one firm had a much higher
percentage of married employees, its injury frequency rate was lower than that of the other company. The
logic of this would appear to be that married workers were more settled and had greater responsibilities,
which made them more concerned about the possible consequences of an injury. For example, a seriously
unhappy marriage, one on the point of breakup, or the injury or illness of a family member could cause for
emotional upsets or inattention to work, which, in turn, might result in unsafe acts and injuries.

8.3 Other factors

There are other external factors that might have an influence on the individual and be related to industrial
injury experience.
a) Fatigue
Fatigue has frequently been mentioned as a factor in injury causation. Yet a definite relationship has never
been established, nor is there a precise understanding of the meaning of fatigue. A literature review stated
that industrial fatigue may be defined appropriately as the physical feeling that diminishes the individual’s
capacity for performing the activity which caused it. Relationships between injury experience and
conditions associated with the probable causing of fatigue (i.e., long work shifts, insufficient rest, and so on)
have been shown.
b) Illumination
Inadequate lighting can be an important cause of injuries. Workers who cannot readily see where they are
going or what they are doing, or who are confused by glare or shadows may be expected to have injuries.
Gray has reported that the Travelers Insurance Company has estimated that 24 percent of all accidents were
due to poor lighting. In workplaces where traditionally poor lighting may be expected, falls were more than
twice as great in number in evening or night hours as in daylight operations.
c) Noise
The possibility that noise may have an effect on a worker’s safe performance is indicated in studies that
reported a relation between speed of response and accuracy of performance and accident causation. A
relationship between noise and speed and accuracy of performance has been indicated that in the presence
of noise a significant increase in the average response time, gross number of errors, and number of errors
per unit of production occurred. The response time tended to be slower and the number of errors tended to
be greater when the noise levels and frequencies were highest, the response time and error averages were
largest most frequently for noises having sound levels of 90 and 100 decibels (the two highest levels
studied); the slowest response time and the largest number of errors, which occurred at the 90 and 100
decibel levels. Inability to hear the warnings because of the presence of loud, extraneous sounds may result
in injuries. Of course, noise is now under regulation by OSHA in order to reduce its deleterious effect on
worker’s hearing. Continuous exposure without protection to noise levels over 90 decibels is forbidden.
d) Atmospheric Conditions
The properties of the workroom atmosphere may have an influence on the quality of a worker’s safe
performance. For example, some materials, such as carbon tetrachloride, methyl chloride, trichloroethylene,
and carbon monoxide when inhaled can cause mental confusion, excitement, headache or visual
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

disturbances. A relation between temperature and injury rate has been reported, indicating that the injury
rate increases as the temperature increases or decreases from the normal comfort level, approximately 70
degree Fahrenheit with the lowest injury rate obtained at 67.5 degree Fahrenheit.

8.4 The Shop Environment & Safe Behavior

It is difficult to determine the casual part played by many psychological and environmental factors because
of the near impossibility of isolating there related variables. Physically comfortable and clean, well-ordered
environments appear to be associated with reduced injury experience as well as better quality production.
To a degree this may be simply because that type of environment is likely to present fewer hazards. On the
other hand, orderliness and reasonable creature comfort seem to affect worker’s mental state through the
existence of fewer things to distract attention and less frustration and irritability. A study done some time
ago that was rather extensive, although not particularly rigorous in methodology, attempted to correlate
injury experience with 10 factors psychological climate or physical environment. While the evidence on
relationships with most of the factors was judged inconclusive or minor, comfortable shop environment was
reported to appear from that “research to be a major determinant of safe behaviour.”
Zohar’s conclusions tend to affirm the hypothesis that workers are influenced by how they perceive
management’s interest in safety. He observed that worker perception of management attitudes about safety
and the relevance of safety in general production processes were the two dimensions affecting the safety
climate most strongly. The significance of management direction may be seen also in Saari’s and Lahtela’s
study of the effect on safety of job-enrichment strategies. (The tactic allows workers to influence job
planning, expecting that monotony will be relieved and production enhanced.) . Saari and his colleague
conclude that too much variety and autonomy may not be desirable from the point of view of safety.

8.5 Job Stress & its Effect

Many people experience stress on the job at some point in
their careers. However, the problem may be more pervasive
and dangerous than some employers realize. According to a
recent poll from NPR (National Public Radio of USA) News, 43
percent of working adults say their job negatively impacts
their stress levels, eating and sleeping habits and weight.
While the poll found 25 percent of workers surveyed said
their employers offer health or wellness programs in the workplace, 40 percent said the programs were
"fair" or "poor." Additionally, 22 percent of participants said something at their job was harmful to their
health, including chemicals and contaminants. This number was higher for construction workers, with 43
percent saying they had health concerns about their workplace. Construction and outdoor workers were
also the second highest ranking group for reporting negative impacts of stress in the workplace on their
personal health.
The study concluded many workers experience higher levels of stress due to being overworked. This may
include working long shifts, overtime and not taking vacation or paid time off even when available. Many
workers also work when feeling ill even when they have sick days available. In these instances, 28 percent

93
of workers said they work when sick because there is not enough staff to cover for them when they are
absent from work.
How stress impact safety
According to safety and health magazine, stress can also contribute to an increase in workplace accidents.
Speaking with the magazine, Dr. David Spiegel, medical director of the Stanford Center on Stress and
Health, said there is a direct correlation between an increase in worker stress and an increase in workplace
accidents. "It's very clear that a big proportion of safety problems are due to human error, and some of that
is related to stress," Spiegel said.
Safety and Health magazine reported some of this can be related to stress coping mechanisms – such as
alcohol or medication, which even when not consumed during work hours, can impact worker health or
reaction time. However, stress can also contribute to distraction (disturbance/diversion). A stressed worker is
more likely to be thinking about his or her stress source and be less focused on the task at hand. Poor
attention can lead to accidents and injury. Other job stressors that can lead to fatigue and inattention, and
correspondingly accidents and injury, include excessive workload, fear of being laid off, unreasonable
performance demands and infrequent breaks.

How employers can address workplace stress

Training resources for employers to help them recognize worker stress and address the issue. When
analysing the work site for common stress sources, employers must look to:
 The design of tasks: Including heavy workload, infrequent breaks, hectic routines or long hours
 Management style: Such as poor communication, unrealistic expectation and disrespect for workers'
families or personal lives
 Interpersonal relationships: Workers should not experience harassment or isolation in the
workplace
 Work roles: Including conflicting, unclear or unrealistic job expectations or responsibilities
 Career concerns: Job insecurity, poor training, and lack of career growth can all contribute to stress
There are many warning signs of stress on the job that employers should not ignore, including:
 Fatigue
 Low morale
 Anxiety (Nervousness/Worry)
 Irritability or short temper
 Alcohol or drug use
 Changes in appetite
 Frequent headaches
 Fighting in the workplace
 Difficulty concentrating
Not addressing stress early can be costly for both employer and employees. A research found the long-term
impacts of stress can lead to increased incidents of cardiovascular disease (generally refers to conditions
that involve narrowed or blocked blood vessels that can lead to a heart attack, chest pain), musculoskeletal
disorders (MSDs are injuries and disorders that affect the human body's movement i.e. muscles, ligaments,
nerves, blood vessels, etc.), psychological disorders and impaired immune systems. For employers, stress
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

even in the short term can affect health care cost and employee retention and absenteeism. A safety related
organization noted that, workers who had to take leave for stress-related issues needed an average of 20
days off before returning to the job.
One of the method is to encourage employers to reduce workplace stress by creating recognition systems to
reward employees for good work performance. Opportunities for career development and advancement
and managerial actions that are consistent with organizational values also help to lower workplace stress.
Employers can also enact administrative controls such as reducing shift length or physical demands of tasks.
Stress management and other wellness programs can also be introduced to help workers cope with stress
sources. It is also advisable that employers should be flexible in work hours and tasks when workers have
responsibilities or other factors in their personal lives that are creating stress.
The effect of workplace stress can be summarized in four categories:
a) Increased rate of illness and disability in both employees and dependents, leading to greater use
of diagnostic and treatment services.
b) Increased accidents, alcoholism and absenteeism, and their attendant costs. It is pointed out that
victims may be innocent bystanders in accidents created by stressed person.
c) Decreased productivity manifested by reduced output, quality deficiencies and impaired decision
making.
d) Low morale, which translates into higher cost because of reduced productivity, increased worker
unrest, complaints and grievances, high turnover of employees, and malicious destruction of
equipment.
Here are some interesting facts about stress in the workplace and how it translates into actual dollar
amounts
 The average direct cost of absenteeism is $3,550 per employee per year
- Watson Wyatt Canadian Staying @ Work Survey
 The annual cost to Canadian companies due to stress-related disorders is $12 billion
 Absenteeism due to stress has increased by over 300% since 1995
- Statistics Canada
 51% of Canadian employees experience a great deal of stress at work. 25% of these employees have
been physically ill from workplace stress
- Aventis Healthcare Survey 2002
 75% to 90% of all visits to primary care physicians are for stress-related complaints
 up to 80% of on-the-job accidents are stress-related
 40% of job turnover is due to stress
- American Institute Of Stress
 Stress accounts for $26 billion in medical and disability payments and $95 billion in lost
productivity per year
 Over 50% of lost work days are stress related which keeps about 1 million people per day from
attending work - Occupational Health and Safety news/National Council on Compensation
Insurance (USA)

95
  Workers who must take time off work because of stress, anxiety, or a related disorder will be off the
job for about 20 days
- Bureau of Labor Statistics
 Problems at work are more strongly associated with health complaints than are any other life
stressor; more so than even financial problems or family problems
- St. Paul Fire and Marine Insurance Co.
 Employees in extreme workplace stress conditions suffer from: more than triple the rate
of cardiovascular problems; over five times the rate of colorectal cancer; up to three times the rate
of back pain
- Health Canada

8.6 Human Factors, Biomechanics & Ergonomics

(Ergonomics: the study of people's efficiency in their working environment)
Ergonomics is defined as the study of work and is based on the principle that the job should be adapted to fit
the person rather than forcing the person to fit the job. Ergonomics focuses on the work environment, such
as its design and function, as well as items such as the design and function of work stations, controls,
displays, safety devices, tools, and lighting to fit the employees physical requirements and to ensure their
health and wellbeing.
Ergonomics includes restructuring or changing workplace conditions, to make the job easier, and reducing
stressors that cause musculoskeletal disorders. In the area of materials handling and storing, ergonomic
principles may require controls such as reducing the size or weight of the objects lifted, installing a
mechanical lifting aid etc. Although no approach completely eliminates back injuries resulting from lifting
materials, you can prevent a substantial number of lifting injuries by implementing an effective ergonomics
program and by training your employees in appropriate lifting techniques.
The influences that prompt desired (or undesired) actions and the possible ways to control hazardous
conditions that arise from incorrect human behaviour have occupied the attention of at least one major
discipline, a variety of sub disciplines, and many specialties. All have contributed to the knowledge about
controlling hazards and therefore are of interest to the safety practitioner. Several disciplines that often
overlaps may be noted frequently in the literature. Some understanding of four of them (psychology, human
factors, biomechanics, and ergonomics) that may be referred to regularly is therefore necessary.
a) Psychology can be defined as the systematic knowledge and investigation of the phenomena of
consciousness and behavior. The mind- its traits (behavior/personality), actions and attributes is the
center of interest. While such factors undoubtedly can bear on how people behave, there are
external effects that may alter human behavior and so unsafely.
b) Human factors, as a concept and professional practice, emerged from the work of experimental
psychologists during World War II. New military equipment such as higher speed aircraft, radar,
and fire control systems could not be managed effectively by their operators. Human errors were
excessive and many accidents occurred because of personnel mistakes that were attributable to
design deficiencies. Solutions were sought through a better understanding of the operator’s
interaction with the equipment. The term “man-machine system” became the popular description of
this works focus. Its narrow scope has been termed “micro-ergonomics” suggesting that the next
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur
level of development will be “macro-ergonomics” which will be concerned with organizational
design and the way in which technology, environmental factors, psychosocial, and demographic
factors influence organizational structure and function.
c) Biomechanics developed from the need to know about human and physiological differences and the
stresses on anatomy (composition/framework) that are due to incompatibilities between the
operator and the demands of the equipment or the environment to which he or she is exposed.
Biomechanics, therefore, maybe said to be a study of the anatomy of function, in other words the
structural basis of human performance.
d) Ergonomics literally means “the measurement of work.” The discipline deals with the physical as
well as the behavioral interaction between the operator, his or her tools, and the general
environment. A similarity with the areas of human factors and biomechanics is therefore evident. It
has also been related closely to the application of work physiology and is practiced in a number of
specialties (i.e., industrial engineers, safety specialists, occupational physicians, industrial hygienists,
rehabilitation specialists and industrial designers).

Ergonomics Applications
By and large it may be concluded that the application of ergonomics can address some of the problems
noted in the section on stress. In particular, harmful stimuli associated with high and low temperatures,
noise, overly bright or glaring illumination, uncomfortable work positions and their eventual orthopaedic
effects (कामगर्दैगर्दाा bones, joints, ligaments, muscles, nerves आदर्दलाई असर गर्ने कार्ाहरु) are some examples of the
concerns that lie within the realm of the ergonomist.
This field deserves thorough study by any who are interested in it. A proper discussion requires a lengthy
treatise (essay/thesis/article/discourse) in itself, and probably would exceed the interest of most users.
However, it will be useful to know the general order of subjects used by practitioners in the field. A sample
set of these titles follows:
 The anatomy of function
 Physiologic measurements
 Work tolerance
 Hand tools
 Human energy, optimising its efficient use
 Applications of skeletal-muscular forces (including the manual handling of materials and lifting)
 Effects of climate
 Problems of body size and posture (including chairs and sitting)
 Limitations of the sense organs
 Design of controls
 Design of information displays
 “Man/machine” information exchange
 Temporal, social, and economic conditions of work
 Age, fatigue, vigilance (attention/awareness), and accidents
 Design of work

97
The introduction of ergonomics at a significant point in the design process is called “system ergonomics.”
This is in contrast to “classical ergonomics” which is essentially is the solution of ergonomics problems as
they occur once a design has been put in use. Systems ergonomics is considered a higher level of practice,
involving a knowledge of
 The tasks machines can perform better than individuals.
 The relative cost (i.e., purchase, maintenance, depreciation charges, etc.) for the acquisition of
machines, as opposed to employee expenses (i.e., compensation, insurance, benefits, etc.,) that would
be incurred if the work were done by personnel.
 The ways in which personnel may be adopted to a variety of tasks and the necessity for providing
work that is satisfying. Available personnel can be assigned to other (and sometimes more) tasks,
while flexibility of machines is limited to the purpose of their design. The system, therefore, has to
be responsive to the needs of personnel as well as to the company's mission.
In summary, it may be said that the study and solution of behaviour related safety problems cannot proceed
simply in a one-dimensional mode. The psychological aspects of safety are varied and function at many
levels of complexity, thus requiring a quiet refined approach to their manipulation.
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

UNIT-9
Human Factors in Construction Safety [2 Hrs]

9.1 Employee Selection

Selecting employees is a function of major importance to the success of an enterprise. People, of
course, differ widely in physical, mental, and emotional characteristics. Their backgrounds, culture,
experience, and formal education all play a part in determining how well individuals will perform in given
jobs and the degrees of satisfaction or disaffection they will derive. The safety specialist is likely to play a
greater part in placement and training than in determining whom the company will hire. Factors related to
the probable safety of an individual in performance of the kinds of jobs for which the hiring is done will
contribute to avoidance of injuries.
The steps of the well-rounded selection and placement program consist of
a) Adopt a clear policy
It is important that a clear, well-defined policy be adopted. The success of the entire program
depends on management’s attitude and the enthusiasm with which the program is sponsored. The
objectives of the program should be announced so that policy will be clear. It should be understood,
for example, that every possible effort will be made to place the worker on a job selected according
to his/her capacities and interests and the job’s demands. Once the policy has been adopted, it
should be made known to the entire supervisory staff so that each person directing personnel can
clearly interpret it and understand what is expected.
b) The job’s requirements
The selection procedure requires a detailed investigation and listing of the working conditions to
which the operator will be exposed. The procedure is commonly termed as job analysis, and it
results in job specifications. It should consider all the activities demanded of the individual because
of the job’s location and its work requirements.
c) Determining the applicant’s abilities, experiences, interests, and attitudes
d) Determining the applicant’s physical capabilities with a medical examination
The efficiency and safety of the workers are dependent on their being placed on a job appropriate
with their physical capacities. This can best be accomplished by a preplacement medical
examination. The objective of the examination should be to concentrate on the applicant’s physical
abilities rather than his or her disabilities. The determination of an applicant’s physical capacities
should be made according to the available job’s requirements. For this reason, it is advisable to
provide the medical examiner with either the specific physical demands for the job the applicant is
being examined towards like;
 Near vision acuity (the ability to see objects at close range, usually from eye up to arm’s
length, which is approximately 14 inches from the eye)
 Far vision (the ability to see objects at distances up to 20 feet away) is required for crane
operation, truck driving, work around dangerous power machinery, etc.
 Color perception (red-green color perception is essential for vehicle operation)

99
  Depth operation (the ability to determine the sizes and shapes of the objects, the position
of one object with relation to another, and the distance of an object from the eye)
 Hearing
 Diseases (make a person unfit for employment)
 Nervous disorders
 Epilepsy (वििगी-seizures are sudden, uncontrolled changes in brain activity. They are a sign
that there is a problem in the brain. Most seizures cause a loss of awareness and shaking
of the body. A person who has repeated seizures may have a disease called epilepsy. The
persons having seizures, the work should not be: at a height from which the worker could
fall, around unprotected moving machinery, where the person might incur a severe burn,

any position where in the event of a seizure the safety of other people would be
endangered.)
 Alcoholism and other drug abuse
e) Placing the individual by
 Considering the person’s interests, background, and physical capacities
 Examining the jobs available
 Matching the available job’s requirements with the individual’s capabilities
 After placement; controlling, transferring, and replacing of workers so as to prevent later
assignment to improper jobs.
f) Acquainting (informing/familiarizing) the worker with the job, using a planned procedure
The induction of a worker to a new job is actually a part of training, but it is mentioned here to
emphasize the importance of instructing the worker with the job from the moment s/he reports for
duty. It has been estimated that fewer than 20% of companies have a thorough training program for
personnel (staff/worker).
g) Making a regular follow-up of the employee’s placement
The follow-up gathers together any loose ends that might have occurred in the placement
procedure and corrects possible errors that might cause the worker to be improperly situated. The
follow-up is done in various organizations by one of the following departments: (1) personnel
department, (2) safety department, or (3) medical department. It would be the responsibility of the
supervisor, in the normal close observation of a new employee, to follow his or her placement to
determine whether there seems to be any physical limitation on the part of the worker that
previously was unrecognized. The follow-up visit should be repeated periodically at least several
times during the first two weeks of a new worker’s assignment to a job. Then during the next 30-60
days, several more checkups should be made. The follow-up check usually includes a short chat
with the worker in a manner that does not give the impression the worker is being watched but,
rather, that the supervisor is interested in him or her.
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

9.2 Motivation: Awareness & Training

9.2.1 Motivation
Motivation may be defined as the process that impels a person to behave in a certain manner in order to
safety highly individual needs for survival, security, respect, achievement, power and sense of personal
worth. People in construction industry have to be motivated to observe safety rule and follow safety
standards. Enforcing the rule becomes easier when the operators in the industry are well motivated. Any
accident brings the morale of workers as well as that of the supervisors down. It is necessary to keep high
morale to improve productivity in the industry. Therefore, it is essential that the operator have to be
motivated for safety.
Workers quite often are not aware of the safety requirement. They do not play adequate attention to safety
training because they wrongly believe that an accident will not occur. Therefore, they fill that a serious
attention to safety is not required as long as the worker does not involve very dangerous process or material.
It is not true. Accident can happen anytime. Therefore, the workers have to be well motivated first of all to
be trained to observed safety rules and secondly to follow all the requirements at the workplace. It is
difficult to motivate the workers for safety. It may more difficult to motivate the older ones. Therefore it is
important to understand the workers and help them to understand themselves. Bittle says, as we grow older,
the gap widens between what we are and what we would like to be. It becomes natural to adopt an I-am-
what-I-am attitude- especially when someone asks to change the way or improve the method. The trainers
or supervisors must help the workers to less critical and less self-conscious. They should urged to talk to
other co-workers who are following safety rules and who have change their habit and behavior towards
safety.
9.2.2 Method of motivation for workers
It is hard to suggest a single method to motivate for construction workers. In most of the cases it is a
person to person feeling and behavior. Therefore it is the safety manager who needs to be trained to
motivate his workers. However some general guideline to motivate the employee and the worker may be as
follows:
a) Rewards or bonus:
A no accident reward or bonus could be given to a group of workers or individuals for their safe record
of performance over a period of time or on a specific job or project. A medal or a company certificate may
work as well as cash bonus in certain cases. Recognition from the management is an important factor.
b) Training:
Training could motivate people to practice safety. Selection of an employee for training may boost up the
morale of the employees.
c) Supervision:
Supervisor contacts are without question the most important means of motivating employees for safety.
Good quality supervision could be one method for motivating the workers. The supervisor could be
influence his worker by the type and quality of supervision. Practically all the motivational attempts get to
employees through their supervisors. The supervisor is, among other factors, a funnel, directing all the
managerial material and information to the employees. It is therefore important that the supervisor himself
is well motivated to be able to motivate his workers.

101
 d) Safety Media:
Media are extremely valuable to motivate people. It is more relevant in the case of motivating the
construction workers for safety. The media should be designed in such a way that they are clearly audible to
receptive ears and clearly visible to receptive eyes. They may not be able to motivate the workers
automatically. The workers must be motivated towards using the media properly. Peterson says that if the
employee believes that his management is genuinely interested in him – in his safety- the media will be
effective. It is important that the workers be motivated to become the media effective. Media may include
posters, literatures, brochures, film, slides etc.
.
Motivators Dissatisfiers
Achievement Company policy

Recognition Supervision

Quality of work Working conditions

Responsibility Relationships

Advancement Salary Status

Fig 1: Motivators and Dissatisfiers

e) Workers participation:
Direct participation of the employees in the safety program may work as a good motivator to the employees.
The traditional method of making plans and policies are that they are made at the top level management
and tried to be enforced at the bottom. If the bottom layer is involved to prepare policy, they will be happy
to implement it and to see the success of the policy they made themselves.
The participative approach of establishing safety rules can supervise employee’s sense of individual
commitment to the overall objectives of the company. Employee’s role in formulating the rules s/he must
obey reinforces his self-respect and affirms his value to the company.

ENGAGEMENT AND MOTIVATOR

TASK MOTIVATOR
Involve employee in setting safety standard Responsibility and recognition
Provide a self-monitoring system Responsibility and achievement
Make improving safety procedures Responsibility and achievement
Share reports on safety Recognition
Recognize safe procedures Recognition
Fig: 2 Employee involvement and motivator (adapted: Dan Peterson p.106)
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

9.2.3 Method of motivation to the supervisors

It is the supervisors who need to be motivated to implement the safety plan properly for it success. Also
there are moral and legal responsibilities placed on a supervisor. Evans says that in addition to the strictly
legal role, the supervisor has the task of promoting and maintaining a high level of safety consciousness
among his work force. The safety minded supervisor will not only do what the law says, but try to involve
his work force by either direct action, or in collaboration with other supervisors or where this would be
more appropriate, participate in companywide programs. It is therefore, very important to motivate the
supervisor to implement safety policy and to achieve safety at construction site. The supervisor must be well
trained so that s/he is sufficiently motivated both to put his effort show the ability. He must be able to put his
effort rightly. There are some other factors that can motivate the supervisors. They are mentioned below:
a) Authority: A safety supervisor should be given adequate authority to deal with his workers on the
matter of safety. If a worker needs some time for first aid treatment and if the safety supervisor
sends him, it is found that he is asked not to do so often for such a trivial matter. The site-incharge
may be concerned for the loss of the time of one worker. Under such a circumstance the safety
supervisor will be de-motivated. Similarly the safety supervisor may have to call short meetings
(sometimes called tool-box or tail gate meetings) with his workers to talk about safety. If the
management encourages such activities the supervisor may be better motivated.
b) Congratulatory message: A Congratulatory message from the top management plays sometimes an
important role in motivating the supervisor. A personal letter to the supervisor signed preferably by
the chief executive makes him/her proud and feel that the “big boss” is seriously interested in the
safety matters. The supervisor feels that his area of work is seriously taken by the top management.
It really motivates him/her.
c) Safety meetings: If the higher level management conducts even one or two meetings a year
concerning safety the supervisor will be greatly motivated. It is advisable that the management
should also participate in the meetings call by the safety supervisor or the management should
encourage the supervisor to call meetings involving all the senior executives of the company.

9.3 Training of Workers

It is not compulsory the training to construction workers for Health and Safety however they should be
encouraged to take up their training entitlement to provide them with the skills and knowledge to perform
their role effectively.
a) Induction
In human resource development, induction training is a form of introduction for new starters in
order to enable them to do their work in a new profession or job role within a business (or
establishment). Induction training provides employees with a smooth entry into the organization by
providing them with the information they require to get started. The goals of induction training are
in line with those of the wider induction process. These goals are to:
 Create a positive atmosphere
 Address any new job concerns
 Increase comfort level and feeling of belonging

103
  Increase knowledge of the organization and its procedures and policies
 Share organizational values
 Share job specific information

b) Tool Box Talk

A Toolbox Talk is an informal group discussion that focuses on a particular safety issue. These tools
can be used daily to promote your departments' safety culture. Toolbox talks are also intended to
facilitate health and safety discussions on the job site. Working safely is a team effort. You look out
for other workers and they look out for you. Taking responsibility for others is especially important
when it comes to new and young workers. They need you to keep an eye on them and remind them
how to work safely. Think about your workplace from the new worker's point of view for a moment.
Remember your own first day on the job. You'll see a busy place full of strange equipment,
unfamiliar chemicals and complicated tasks. Everyone else seems to know what they are doing.
More than anything, you just want to fit in with the rest of the crew and look like you know what
you are doing. Help the new worker settle in safely by following these points:
 Show them where to obtain safety materials and instructions
 Help the new worker get equipped, fitted and trained with the appropriate protective
clothing and equipment for the task at hand
 Show your new co-worker the labels for any chemicals you are dealing with. Help them
understand how to read them and what PPE is necessary to work with them.
 Point out the location of fire extinguishers, alarm boxes and other emergency equipment.
 Make sure the new worker knows what to do in case of an emergency such as a fire. Does
he or she know two exits from the workplace, and where to assemble outside
 Communicate the importance of leaving machine guards in place to prevent accidental
contact with moving equipment and stock.
 If you see anyone wearing loose clothing which could become caught in machinery, speak
up.
 Make sure the new employee knows who to talk to about any safety concerns or questions.
 If you see the new person or any worker doing something unsafe, speak up. It's not
interfering; it's looking out for the other worker.
Your advice to the new co-worker is not a replacement for proper safety orientation, training and
supervision. However, you can help make sure he or she picks up the information necessary to work safely.

c) Skill Training
Workplace Law – This module focuses on vital health and safety legislation designed to protect the
health and safety of workers. The important legal and ethical responsibilities of workers and employers
are explained. Participants are also introduced to incident reporting and tool box talks used to improve
worksite safety.
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur
Workplace Hazards – Hazard recognition is a skill that all workers need to stay safe on the worksite. This
module introduces participants to common types of hazards found in the construction industry, how to
assess their severity and the different control methods employed to prevent incidents from occurring.

Managing Worksite Conditions and Equipment – Hazards associated with housekeeping, slips, trips,
falls, and materials need to be recognized. General tool safety guidelines including rotating machinery,
air, electric and powder actuated tools are also discussed in this module.

Personal Physical Care and Conduct - Working in the construction industry requires substantial physical
health and stamina. In this module, ways to care for your body to prevent injuries and the

impacts of drugs and alcohol on your ability to work safely are examined. Professional behavior and
conduct on the worksite are also part of this module.

WHMIS (Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System) – The construction industry uses various
chemicals and materials that could be harmful to your health if not handled correctly. In this module
you will learn the purpose of WHMIS, responsibilities of workers, suppliers and employers, WHMIS
labelling, and the function of Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) in protecting yourself from the dangers
of hazardous materials.

Powered Mobile Equipment – Powered mobile equipment (PME) is used for many purposes in the
construction industry. It is important to operate and work near this equipment safely to avoid injury. In
this module you will be introduced to the different types of powered mobile equipment. Specific
legislation regarding training of PME operators, how to conduct a pre-job walk around of a machine
and how to work safely around this equipment.

Ladder and Scaffold Safety – In this module, a brief introduction to different types of ladders and
scaffolds is provided. Correct setup, usage, and contraction, along with understanding scaffold tags are
also discussed.

Fall Protection – You will learn about the basic fall protection equipment used in construction, worker
and employer responsibilities for working at heights, and common fall protection inspection points.

Environmental Safety – Protecting the environment is everyone’s responsibility. This module will help
you do this by introducing you to typical types of pollutants found in the construction industry, what to
do in case of an accidental release of hazardous materials and general Transportation of Dangerous
Goods (TDG) requirements.

Excavating and Trenching – Any excavation has the potential to harm workers that are not properly
informed of the risks associate with digging and how to prevent these hazards from becoming incidents.

105
In addition, this module explains hazards, different soil types and their properties, and important safety
precautions that should be part of all digging operations.

Defensive Driving – Whether you are driving to work, from work, or operating a piece of equipment on
the worksite, it is important to practice safe, defensive driving techniques.

Personal Protective Equipment – Although it is your last-line of defense in the prevention of injury,
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) is a regular part of the construction clothing worn.

Emergency Response – Prevention of incidents is always the best plan in preventing injury; however,
when precautions fail, it is necessary to know your emergency response plan. Here, key emergency
response plan elements, how to access first aid on the worksite, and basic firefighting techniques are
explained.
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

UNIT-10
Personal Protection Equipment [4 Hrs]

Hazards exist in every workplace in many different forms: sharp edges, falling objects, flying sparks,
chemicals, noise and a many of other potentially dangerous situations. The Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA) requires that employers protect their employees from workplace hazards that can
cause injury. Controlling a hazard at its source is the best way to protect employees. Depending on the
hazard or workplace conditions, OSHA recommends the use of engineering or work practice controls to
manage or eliminate hazards to the greatest extent possible. For example, building a barrier between the
hazard and the employees is an engineering control; changing the way in which employees perform their
work is a work practice control.
The purpose of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) is to protect employees from exposure to work place
hazards and the risk of injury. Before using or assigning PPE, steps should always be taken to eliminate or
control hazards and work procedures should be in place to limit exposure to these hazards. If hazards are
not eliminated or controlled and work procedures do not fully protect employees than PPE should be used as
a last resort for employee protection.
This chapter addresses general PPE requirements, including eye and face, head, foot, hand and arm,
respiratory, hearing and body protection. Personal protective equipment, commonly referred to as “PPE”, is
equipment worn to minimize exposure to a variety of hazards. Examples of PPE include such items as
gloves, foot and eye protection, protective hearing devices (earplugs, muffs) hard hats, respirators and full
body suits. PPE is selected based on the specific job hazards we face in the construction industry.
Examples of Job Hazards are:
 Noise
 Chemicals
 Accidental Impact
 Sharp Objects
 Flying Particles
 Dusts and Mists (vapor/steam/spray)
 Bright Light
 Vibration
What you should know about PPE:
You should know
 Limitations of PPE
 How to use PPE
 When to use PPE
 Inspect before use
 Replacement
 Cleaning & Storage

107
The Requirement for PPE
To ensure the greatest possible protection for employees in the workplace, the cooperative efforts of both
employers and employees will help in establishing and maintaining a safe and healthful work environment.
In general, employers are responsible for:
 Performing a “hazard assessment” of the workplace to identify and control physical and health
hazards.
 Identifying and providing appropriate PPE for employees.
 Training employees in the use and care of the PPE.
 Maintaining PPE, including replacing worn or damaged PPE
 Periodically reviewing, updating and evaluating the effectiveness of the PPE program.

In general, employees should:

 Properly wear PPE,
 Attend training sessions on PPE,
 Care for, clean and maintain PPE, and
 Inform a supervisor of the need to repair or replace PPE.

10.1 Eye and Face protection

Eye and face protection must be worn where there is potential for injury to the eyes or face from small
particles, toxic chemicals, flying objects or particles, large objects, thermal or radiation hazards, and lasers.
According to the types and extent of hazards, different PPE should be worn. PPE for the face and eyes
includes devices such as safety glasses, goggles, and face shields.
Employees can be exposed to a large number of hazards that pose danger to their eyes and face. OSHA
requires employers to ensure that employees have appropriate eye or face protection if they are exposed to
eye or face hazards from flying particles, molten metal, liquid chemicals, acids or caustic liquids, chemical
gases or vapors, potentially infected material or potentially harmful light radiation.
Many occupational eye injuries occur because employees are not wearing any eye protection while others
result from wearing improper or poorly fitting eye protection. Employers must be sure that their employees
wear appropriate eye and face protection and that the selected form of protection is appropriate to the work
being performed and properly fits each employee exposed to the hazard.

Types of Eye Protection

Selecting the most suitable eye and face protection for employees should take into consideration the
following elements:
 Ability to protect against specific workplace hazards.
 Should fit properly and be reasonably comfortable to wear.
 Should provide unrestricted vision and movement. Should be durable and cleanable.
 Should allow unrestricted functioning of any other required PPE.
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur
An employer may choose to provide one pair of protective eyewear for each position rather than individual
eyewear for each employee. If this is done, the employer must make sure that employees disinfect shared
protective eyewear after each use. Protective eyewear with corrective lenses may only be used by the
employee for whom the corrective prescription was issued and may not be shared among employees. Some
of the most common types of eye and face protection include the following:

 Safety spectacles: These protective eyeglasses have

safety frames constructed of metal or plastic and
impact-resistant lenses. Side shields are available on
some models.
 Goggles: These are tight-fitting eye protection that
completely cover the eyes, eye sockets and the facial
area immediately surrounding the eyes and provide
protection from impact, dust and splashes. Some
goggles will fit over corrective lenses.
 Laser safety goggles: These special types of goggle
protect against intense concentrations of light produced by lasers. The type of laser safety goggles
an employer chooses will depend upon the equipment and operating conditions in the workplace.

Prescription lenses:
Regular prescription corrective lenses do not provide adequate protection against workplace hazards.
 PPE may incorporate the prescription into the design
 Employees may wear additional eye protection over prescription lenses
 Protective eyewear should not disturb the proper positioning of the prescription lenses or interfere
with the employee's vision
 Individuals with contact lenses must wear eye or face PPE when working in hazardous conditions

Face shields: These transparent sheets of plastic extend from the eyebrows to below the chin and across the
entire width of the employee’s head. Some are polarized for glare protection. Face shields protect against
nuisance dusts and potential splashes or sprays of hazardous liquids but will not provide adequate
protection against impact hazards. Face shields used in combination with goggles or safety spectacles will
provide additional protection against impact hazards. Each type of protective eyewear is designed to protect
against specific hazards. Employers can identify the specific workplace hazards that threaten employee’s
eyes and faces by completing a hazard assessment as outlined in the earlier section.
Use a face shield when any of the following hazards exists:
 Liquid spray
 Flying chips or sparks/ Flying particles
 Molten metal
 Liquid chemicals, acids or caustic liquids
 Chemical gases or vapors
 Potentially injurious light radiation

109
  High heat
 Special face shield

Type of face shields:

a) Face shield

b) Welding shield
Constructed of vulcanized fiber or fiberglass and fitted with a filtered lens, welding
shields protect eyes from burns caused by infrared or intense radiant light; they also
protect both the eyes and face from flying sparks, metal spatter and slag chips
produced during welding, soldering and cutting operations. OSHA requires filter
lenses to have a shade number appropriate to protect against the specific hazards of
the work being performed in order to protect against harmful light radiation.
When using a Face Shield
 Always use correct type eye protection with a face shield
 A face shield is NOT designed to protect your eyes
Donning/Put on Face PPE
 Safety goggles or goggles must always be worn under a face shield.
 Once goggles are in place, position face shield over face and secure on brow with headband.
 Adjust to fit comfortably.

10.2 Finger, Arm & Hand Protection

Hand injuries include cuts, burns, fractures, amputations, nerve damage and skin rashes. Skin irritation,
rashes, and even poisoning can occur from handling chemicals with bare hands.
Employer selects based on:
 Performance characteristics of the hand protection relative to the task(s) to be performed
 Conditions present
 Duration of use
 Hazards and potential hazards identified
Gloves can protect hands from:
 Knives, sharp edges, splinters
 Chemicals
 Blood and bodily fluids
 Excessive vibration
 Hot objects
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

 Electricity
 Extreme cold
Gloves do have limitations:
 Gloves can get caught on rotating machinery
 Latex gloves can cause severe allergic reactions in people allergic to latex
 Gloves can cause problems if chemicals get inside the gloves
 Gloves can fail in conditions of extreme temperatures, high mechanical force, high vibration or
extremely harsh chemicals
 If you have the wrong kind of glove, it may not protect you. For example, certain kinds of chemical
solvents can go right through standard rubber or latex gloves.
Types of Hand Protection:
 Chemical Resistant - nitrile, neoprene, vinyl, etc., protect hands from
chemical exposure
 Puncture / Cut
 Those with a latex allergy can use vinyl, nitrile, etc. based on the
compatibility charts.
 Disposable: light-weight plastic; can help guard against mild
irritants. Disposable gloves protect against blood and germs
 Fabric: cotton or fabric blend; improve grip or insulate from heat or
cold.
 Voltage Rated
 Temperature Resistant
 Infectious Agent / Biohazard Resistant
 Leather: guard against injuries from sparks or scraping against rough surfaces. Combine with an
insulated liner when working with electricity.
 Metal Mesh: protect hands from cuts and scratches; used commonly with sharp instruments.
 Aluminized Fabric: insulate hands from intense heat; commonly used with molten materials
 Special insulated gloves can protect your hands from hot objects
 Cut-resistant gloves prevent or reduce cuts from knives or sharp edges
 Anti-vibration gloves reduce the effects of vibration from hand tools and machinery
 Electrically insulated gloves are used to handle live wires or energized electrical equipment
Glove use and care:
 Use the correct size and fit of glove for the task
 Clean your hands before using gloves
 Clean fabric and leather gloves regularly or discard them
 Do not use latex gloves if you are sensitive to latex or have a latex allergy
 Replace gloves if they have cuts, tears, holes or defects
 Make sure gloves are right for the job—don’t use leather or fabric gloves to handle liquid
chemicals.
 Remove rings and bracelets

111
  Do not wear gloves if they can be caught in machinery
 Discard single use gloves after use. (Latex, Nitrile, Vinyl, etc.)
 Store in a clean area
Potential Hazards:

Traumatic Injuries Contact Injuries Repetitive Motion

- Cuts, punctures, - Contact with toxic chemicals, - Same hand movement over
sprains or crushing biological substances, electrical extended time periods
from equipment sources, extreme temperatures
“Different glove materials will protect against different types of chemicals; make sure you have the right
kind of glove for the chemical you are using’’

10.3 Foot & Leg Protection

Employees who face possible foot or leg injuries from falling or rolling objects or from crushing or
penetrating materials should wear protective footwear. Also, employees whose work involves exposure to
hot substances or corrosive or poisonous materials must have protective gear to cover exposed body parts,
including legs and feet. If an employee’s feet may be exposed to electrical hazards, non-conductive footwear
should be worn. On the other hand, workplace exposure to static electricity may necessitate the use of
conductive footwear.
Examples of situations in which an employee should wear foot and/or leg protection include:
 When heavy objects such as barrels or tools might roll onto or fall on the employee’s feet;
 Working with sharp objects such as nails or spikes that could pierce the soles or uppers of ordinary
shoes;
 Exposure to molten metal that might splash on feet or legs;
 Working on or around hot, wet or slippery surfaces; and
 Working when electrical hazards are present.

Impact Injuries Spills & Splashes Compression Injuries

(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

Electrical Shocks Slipping Heat/Cold

Foot and leg protection choices include the following:

 Leggings protect the lower legs and feet from heat hazards such as
molten metal or welding sparks. Safety snaps allow leggings to be
removed quickly.
 Metatarsal guards protect the instep area from impact and
compression. Made of aluminum, steel, fiber or plastic, these guards may be strapped to the outside
of shoes.

 Toe guards fit over the toes of regular shoes to protect the toes from impact and compression
hazards. They may be made of steel, aluminum or plastic.
 Combination foot and shin guards protect the lower legs and feet, and may be used in combination
with toe guards when greater protection is needed.

 Safety shoes have impact-resistant toes and heat-resistant soles that protect the feet against hot
work surfaces common in roofing, paving and hot metal industries. The metal insoles of some
safety shoes protect against puncture wounds. Safety shoes may also be designed to be electrically
conductive to prevent the buildup of static electricity in areas with the potential for explosive
atmospheres or nonconductive to protect employees from workplace electrical hazards.
Care & Maintenance:
 Check safety shoes prior to each use for cuts, cracks or other damage. Replace as necessary.
 Keep electrical hazard shoes dry and free from conductive materials. Replace if sole is punctured,
cut, or embedded with conductive materials.

113
  Chemical resistant shoes should be replaced if they are discolored, disfigured, or exhibit any breaks,
cracks, or other surface degradations.
 Store all shoes in a clean, dry location.

10.4 Noise Safeguard

Determining the need to provide hearing
protection for employees can be challenging.
Employee exposure to excessive noise depends
upon a number of factors, including:
 The loudness of the noise as measured in
decibels (dB).
 The duration of each employee’s
exposure to the noise.
 Whether employees move between work
areas with different noise levels.
 Whether noise is generated from one or multiple sources.
Generally, the louder the noise, the shorter the exposure time before hearing protection is required. For
instance, employees may be exposed to a noise level of 90 dB for 8 hours per day (unless they experience a
Standard threshold Shift) before hearing protection is required. On the other hand, if the noise level reaches
115 dB hearing protection is required if the anticipated exposure exceeds 15 minutes. Needed when the
average (over an 8 hour period) noise level of an area reaches 90 decibels.
Examples of high noise areas can be:
 Mechanical rooms
 Shops
 Construction Sites
 When working with machinery/power tools
Symptoms of hearing loss
 Ringing in ears
 Difficulty hearing normal conversations
 Noises are ‘’fuzzy’’ or muffled
Damage to the delicate structures in your ear can cause one of two
types of hearing loss
 Conductive
 blocks transmission of sound to inner ear
 medical/surgical treatment available for most
 Sensorineural
 is a type of hearing loss, or deafness, in which the root
cause lies in the inner ear or sensory organ or the
vestibulocochlear nerve or neural part. This accounts for about 90% of hearing loss
reported.
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

“Most hearing loss in the workplace is Sensorineural”

Types of Hearing Protection
a) Ear Plugs
Earplugs are made of foam, rubber, or plastic. They can be one size fits all or
small, medium, or large. Many earplugs are disposable, but some are
reusable. They are lightweight and require no maintenance. They are
inserted into the ear canal. At first, some people may find earplugs
uncomfortable to wear for long periods of time, but most people can find a
comfortable fit by trying different sizes or brands.
Benefits of Ear Plugs
Ear plugs have several advantages over ear muffs, such as:
 lighter weight
 can be worn without interference from eyeglasses, headgear, earrings or hair
 more comfortable in hot/humid environments
 less expensive than ear muffs
Negatives of Ear Plugs
 the amount of protection may vary among workers.
 can be difficult to fit. They rely on properly fitting the ear canal to ensure full protection, and this
can be difficult to guarantee. However, if employees are trained on how to correctly fit ear plugs,
then ear plugs are able to consistently provide their listed protection.
 are often difficult, or impossible, for people with ear infections to wear. In this case, ear plugs may
not be a good choice, as it is likely that they will be uncomfortable
Whichever type of hearing protection you choose, the most important factor is the level of noise reduction
provided. Hearing protection will have a ‘dB’ rating – this indicates how much noise is reduced. It is
important to understand exactly how much noise protection you need for your workplace. Once you know
the type of protection you need, you can browse our wide range of ear muffs and earplugs

There are several styles of ear plugs, including flanged type (right) and malleable
foam.
 When inserting your ear plugs:
 Before putting ear plugs in, wash your hands to prevent infections
from entering the ear.
 Inspect the ear plugs for tears, cracks or hardening.
 To insert a malleable foam plug, roll the plug between your fingers and
thumb to make it thinner, making sure there are no wrinkles or creases
in the plug.
 Reach one hand behind your head and pull your ear outward and
upward to widen the auditory canal. Insert the plug well into the ear

115
 and hold it in place until it expands. Don't be afraid to place the plug into the ear canal. You
cannot hurt your eardrum because the plugs are too short to reach it. If the seal is not tight, the
earplug will not be effective.
 Remember to properly clean and store your ear plugs!

b) Ear Muffs
Ear muffs cover the whole ear. They have replaceable
pads and some types can filter out specific noise pitches.
Ear muffs last longer than most earplugs, but they can be
uncomfortable in hot weather and may not fit well over
glasses or people with heavy sideburns.
Benefits of Ear Muffs
 Ear muffs hearing protection devices that are worn over the head, like headphones. Some
advantages of wearing ear muffs include:
 provide more consistent protection than plugs
 one size fits most heads
 easy to put on and take off
 good for short jobs
Negatives of Ear Muffs
The disadvantages of ear muffs:
 heavier than ear plugs
 may be uncomfortable in hot environments
 eye glass wearers may not get a good seal
 more expensive than other types
 resonate (vibrate) at lower sound frequencies (<400 Hz)

 If you wear ear muffs, remember that anything that comes between your ear and the ear muff will
make them less effective and reduce your level of protection! Also, you should choose eyewear with
thin temples so they don't interfere with the seal. Some ear muffs attach to hard hats to form a good seal
when wearing a hard hat (right).
 Also, when putting on ear muffs, remember to push your hair away from your ears. Centre the ear
muffs over your head and make sure the seal is tight. Adjust the headband so the ear muffs are resting
comfortably on your head. The cups should entirely cover your ears.
 Before you put on your earmuffs, it is important to inspect them for cracks, tears or other signs of wear.

c) Canal Caps
Canal caps have flexible tips that act as caps which plug the ear canal. They DO NOT extend into the ear
canal, only close the ear opening. Therefore, they do not give you as much protection as ear plugs or ear
muffs. Canal caps are ideal for situations where hearing protection must be taken on and off
frequently. They are NOT designed for continuous, long-term wearing. Insert canal caps much as you
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

would ear plugs. Pull the outer ear up and back, then insert the tips of the caps into the ear, firmly pushing
and wiggling (shaking) them into place.
Advantages
 Quickly inserted without soiling
 Medical fit not required
 Easily carried
 Best for intermittent noise
 Universal fit
Proper use of Hearing Protection
Hearing protection only works when used properly.
 You cannot remove hearing protection for just a minute in a noisy area.
 It takes just a few minutes of unprotected exposure at noise above 115 decibels to risk hearing
damage.
 Earplugs not inserted properly into the ear canal will not provide complete protection.
 Ear muffs not snug against the head will leak noise into the ear.
 Portable music devices do not provide protection against noise—they only add to it.
Care & Maintenance
 Check hearing protection for damage prior to each use for cuts, cracks or other damage. Replace if
damage is found.
 Store all hearing protection in a clean, dry location.
 Replace disposable ear plugs frequently.

10.5 Head Protection

Needed when employees are exposed to hazards that have
potential to cause a head injury. Employers must ensure that their
employees wear head protection if any of the following apply:
 Objects might fall from above and strike them on the head
 They might bump their heads against fixed objects, such
as exposed pipes or beams
 There is a possibility of accidental head contact with
electrical hazards
Examples of hazards:
 Flying objects.
 Falling objects or materials.
 Working near exposed energized electrical equipment.
 Working around or on scaffolds.
 Working at construction sites.
 Working around overhead tools or machinery.
Protective helmets or hard hats should do the following:
 Resist penetration by objects

117
  Absorb the shock of a blow
 Be water-resistant and slow burning
 Have clear instructions explaining proper adjustment and replacement of the suspension and
headband
 Provide shock absorption during an impact and ventilation during normal wear

Types
 Impact Protection
 Type I – Is designed to protect only against objects falling from straight overhead, hitting the
hardhat on the top.
 Type II – Is designed to protect against blows on the top of the head as well as side impacts.
 Electrical
 Class A (old American National Standards Institute standard) or Class G (new ANSI Standard)
good up to 2,200 volts.
 Class B (old ANSI standard) or Class E (new ANSI Standard) good up to 20,000 volts.
 Class C not rated for electrical protection.

Injuries to the head could involve your:

 brain
 eyes
 nose
 mouth
For this reason, head protection and safety are very important

Care & Maintenance

 Check prior to each use for cracks, damaged suspension and chalky appearance (UV damage).
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

 Be aware that stickers placed on hardhat can conceal damage.

 Replace as necessary.
 Do not store in direct sunlight.

10.6 Safety Belt

Fall from height is a primitive hazard when a worker working at height. The provisions of a suitable
working platform, safe access and egress, as well as proper fencing to a dangerous place are the primary
safety measures that the local safety regulations have asked for. The use of safety nets and safety belts are
only the last resort when it is impracticable to provide such platforms, access and egress and safe place of
work. Workers are employed to do work at heights where a fall may result in serious injury or death, it is
necessary that they wear a specially designed safety belt or harness fastened by a line to a secure anchorage.

Classification of safety belts

Safety belts work with lanyards, fixed anchorages, independent lifelines, or fall arresters. It is important that
full investigations be conducted before purchase of safety belts and selection of anchorage system to
determine the correct type of appliance that most suit the class of work and the environmental conditions.
Safety belts can be classified under various standards as:-

a) Safety harness or full body harness

General safety harnesses are harnesses incorporating thigh straps and shoulder straps used in conjunction
with safety lanyards, for attachment to anchorage points. Body harness is the combination of straps that
distribute the force of the fall over the chest, thighs, waist (stomach/abdomen), pelvis and shoulders as
shown in figure. All straps and any waist belt shall be capable of adjustment to fit the user and mean of
adjustment shall be provided. The harness should provide support for the body around the lower chest, over
the shoulders and around the thighs. The D-ring or other equivalent facility provided for the attachment of
the lanyard is located in the upper part of the harness so that angle formed between the spine of a
suspended user and the safety lanyard does not exceed a certain angle specified by the standards.

119
 b) Semi-harness or chest harness
Chest safety harnesses are used in connection with safety lanyards for
attachment to anchorage points. It incorporates a chest belt with shoulder
straps, linked together by a strong fabric, either at the front or at the rear,
capable of providing support for the body of the user. A ‘D’ ring or rings is
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur
provided on the harness be capable of accepting two safety lanyards. They are intended to limit the drop to
a specified distance by the combined effects of the position of the anchorage, the length of the lanyard, the
attachment point on the harness and the length of any extensible webbing.

c) General purpose safety belt

They are used in conjunction with safety lanyards incorporating
attachment devices, for attachment to anchorage points. It consists
of a body belt provided with one or more D-rings for attachment
to a safety line or anchorage. Depending on the specifications of
various national standards, the length of lanyards varies from 1.5
m to 3.0 m

d) Work Positioning Belt, Pole or Linesman safety belt

It consists of a waist strap, a back support, a buckle, two ‘D’ rings
for attachment of a lanyard. Some belts can be equipped with adjustable shoulder and sitting straps. The
lanyard accompanies with a rope adjuster to keep its length to a specified dimension. It is designed for use
of lines and
other
required to
work on
poles or
similar
structures
in
conditions where the belts are continuously loaded.

e) Safety Rescue harness

These harnesses are worn by persons working in confined spaces where there is a risk of being overcome by
noxious gases or fume, such as oil tank, sewage manhole and the like, where is the danger of suffocating by
immersion in the material on which they are standing. It is similar in design to a safety harness and has the
D-ring mounted so that the user will remain in an upright position while being lifted with rescue line.
Safety Notes
When using a safety belt and an anchorage, the following points should be noted:
Anchorage
 Selection and inspection of suitable anchorage points should be the subject of particular
care. A suitable anchorage point must be strong enough. Reinforced concrete beam or
column, or structural steel beam should be used for anchoring lifelines preferably after
their strength have been checked by a Professional Engineer/Safety supervisor.
 The anchorage point should be as nearly vertical as possible directly above the place of
work to reduce the liability to swing. Where the possibility of swing in the event of a fall is
unavoidable, the user should use a second line to limit the swing.

121
  It is undesirable to use a structural member with sharp edges as an anchorage for a rope
lifeline. If it is unavoidable, then the lifeline must be protected by suitable packing.
 Each lifeline should be used by one person at any particular time

Before use
 Check that each safety belt should be accompanied with clear instructions for fitting,
adjustment for use, markings of the national standard, name of manufacturer, serial
number, year and month of manufacture in the product packing. Do not use the safety belt
from unknown source and unknown standard.
 Only safety belt which is free defects should be used. Faculty equipment must be marked
‘defective’ and handed over to a competent person for replacement.
 Users should check for correct assembly and function of the safety belt before trusting
weight to the equipment.

During use
 All safety belts should be fitted and use in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions.
 Attach the snap hook at higher level than the user’s waist.
 Fasten the belt firmly around the user’s waist.
 Protect the lanyard and the belt from coming into contact with acids and alkalis.
 Keep the lanyard and the belt from spark, heat or heated structure.
 Never hooking two lanyards together.
 Do not wrap a lanyard around any sharp edge. Forces exerted during a fall could the
lanyard.

After use
 Safety equipment should always be carefully handled to ensure parts are not damaged.
Metal items such as snap hook latches are particularly vulnerable.
 After use, the equipment is to be stored away from direct sunlight in a cool, dry place.
 Keep the safety belt on the wall in the shade where it is exposed to the fresh air.
 Ensure that the safety belt will not be deformed or damaged under piled goods.
 Mop up the sweat, dust and oil on the belt or lifeline with a dry cloth.
 Mop up the sand, dust and water on the metal parts, such as buckle and snap hook, and
lubricate the movable part.
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

UNIT-11
Safety Legislation in Construction Industry [4 Hrs]

11.1 ILO Standards

Mandate: The mandate of International Labour Organization (ILO) has the following mission:
 To promote opportunities for men and women to obtain decent and productive work, in conditions of
freedom, equity, security and human dignity, which is summed up by the expression “Decent work
as a global goal”.

What the ILO is and what it does

The International Labour Organization (ILO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations system which
seeks the promotion of social justice and internationally recognized human and labour rights.
The ILO formulates international labour standards. These standards take the form of Conventions and
Recommendations, which set minimum standards in the field of fundamental labour right: freedom of
association, the right to organize, the right to collective bargaining, the abolition (elimination) of forced
labour, equality of opportunity and treatment, as well as other standards addressing conditions spanning
across the entire spectrum of work related issues.
The ILO provides technical assistance, mainly in the following fields:
 Vocational training and vocational rehabilitation,
 Employment policy,
 Labour administration,
 Labour law and industrial relations,
 Conditions of work,
 Management development,
 Cooperatives,
 Social security,
 Labour statistics, and occupational safety & health
International labour standards are legal instruments drawn up by the ILO’s constituents (governments,
employers and workers) which set out basic principles and rights at work. ILS are divided into:
a) Conventions
These are legally binding international treaties that are subject to ratification (approval/sanction) by
member states.
b) Recommendations
These serve as non-binding guidelines. They can also be autonomous, namely not linked a
Convention.
In many cases, a Convention lays down the basic principles to be implemented by ratifying countries, while
a related Recommendation supplements the Convention by providing more detailed guidelines on its
implementation. Binding means mandatory as soon as a country has ratified a Convention and integrated it
into national law.

123
The International Labour Organization has passed “Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to
Organize Convention, 1948”. Most of the countries have ratified (sanctioned/approved) the convention.
Therefore, it is hoped that voice of the laborers and their union can thus reach the governments and the
governments can prepare legislation regarding safety and fix penalties for the violators. The problem in “the
new democratic” countries like Nepal is to find the violators-because they always have access to the court
and it takes time to enforce legislation. The enforcement system itself becomes very complicated and
expensive to the poor countries.
Also the legislations to check and enforce legislations have come up in many countries but eliminating the
accidents has been a dream. Therefore a second thought is probably required. Safety has grown largely
under the support of governmental regulation. In some respects this may have handicapped safety process
significantly. The concept of making laws and statutory provisions to pay the compensation to the sufferer
has always influenced the other industrial nations including USA and Japan. The basic philosophy till now
is the indemnification for accidents. Probably this has been the only consideration. Perhaps still the move
towards protection has been noticeably limited to regulating the employer and punishing him. This is not
enough to stop occurrence and re-occurrence of the accidents resulting sometimes serious injuries, death
and disaster in the industry.
Therefore, it is important to investigate the causes of accident. Of course the legislation and the penalties
provisions have reduced the early alarming rate of accidents. For further control, a detailed study in each
industry sector is important. Various studies were made during the middle of 20 th century. The purpose of
such studies in the industry was to minimize the rate of accident and to increase productivity. The studies of
industries rather concentrated on increasing productivity. Various standards were set for the safety at work.
The International Labour Organization (ILO) set the first standard in safety for workers through the first
standard relating to white lead painting which was passed by its convention number 21 in 1921.
Employments of minors under 18 and of women in painting work are prohibited. Convention No.62 in the
year 1937 set the standard for safety in construction for the first time. The convention was called “Safety
Provisions (Building) Convention-1937”. It was later revised as “Safety and Health in Construction”
Convention in 1988.
Convention No.115 passed the standard for protection of workers against ionizing radiation. Convention
No.119 of ILO in the year 1963 passed the standard for guarding of machinery. It was aimed at the
prevention of hazards arising out of moving parts of machinery. Convention No. 120 set the standard of
hygiene. Convention No. 127 set the standard for maximum weight. This convention provides the general
rule that no worker shall be required or permitted to engage in the manual transport of load which, by
reason of its weight, is likely to endanger his or her health or safety. The convention No.148 passed a
standard for working environment (Air Pollution, Noise and Vibration) in the year 1977. The purpose
obviously is to keep the working environment free from any hazard due to air pollution, noise and
vibration. Chemical Convention 1990 – No. 170 regulates the use of toxic chemicals in the industry. The
convention No. 155, Occupational Safety and Health Convention 1981 set a standard to form a coherent
policy on work safety, occupational health and the working environment. The convention which applies to
all branches of economic activities to all workers provides that each ratifying state shall, in the light of
national condition and practice and in consultation with the most representative organization of employers
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

and workers, formulate, implement and periodically review a coherent national policy on occupational
safety, occupational health and the working environment.
The aim of policy shall be to prevent accidents and injuries to health arising out of, linked with or occurring
in the course of work, by minimizing, as far as practicable, the causes of hazards inherent in the working
environment. The Occupational Health Services Convention 1985 (No. 161) sets are a standard to maintain,
by means of preventive services, safe, healthy and well adopted working environment to promote the
physical and mental health of all the workers.

Convention Number 167

It is the “Safety and Health in Construction: Convention 1988”. This Convention revises the Safety Provisions
(Building) (Convention 1937 No.62). The aim of this standard is to ensure safety and health in construction
work. This Convention applies to all construction activities after consultation with organizations of
employers and workers.
All appropriate precautions shall be taken to ensure that all work places are safe and without risk of injury
to health. All the principal technical requirements are defined concerning:
 scaffolds and ladders
 lifting equipment and gears
 vehicles and earthmoving or material handling equipment, plant, machinery and tools
 working at height
 Deep excavation and shafts
 earthworks
 underground works and tunnels
 cofferdams and caissons
 work in compressed air
 structural frames and formwork
 work closer to water
 demolition
 lighting and electricity
 explosives and fire precautions
 chemical and other hazards
 personal protective equipment and clothing
 first aid and welfare
 information
 training and reporting of accidents and disease

The application of the provisions of the Convention should be ensured through laws and regulations based
on and assessment of hazards after consultation with the organizations of employers and workers. These
laws and regulation may be supplemented by technical standards or code of practice in which due regard
should be given to the standards adopted by international organization of standardization.

125
The cooperation between employers and workers in this field should be promoted, and the responsibilities
and corresponding rights should be defined, along with the duties of those who design and plan projects. In
particular, the principal contractor shall be responsible for coordinating the prescribed measures and the
each employer shall remain responsible for their application in respect of workers under his authority.
Worker shall co-operate closely, and shall notably report risks; they have the right to remove themselves
from an imminent and serious danger and, at the same time, the duty to inform their supervisor
immediately

11.2 OSHA
OSHA stands for the Occupational Safety and Health Administration, an agency of the U.S. Department of
Labor. On December 29, 1970, President Nixon signed the OSH Act. This Act created OSHA, the agency,
which formally came into being on April 28, 1971. Some of the things OSHA does to carry out its mission
are:
 Developing job safety and health standards and enforcing them through worksite inspections
 Providing training programs to increase knowledge about occupational safety and health

Rights under OSHA

a) A safe and healthful workplace
 OSHA was created to provide workers the right to a safe and healthful workplace
 It is the duty of the employers to provide workplaces that are free of known dangers that
could harm their employees
 This law also gives workers important rights to participate in activities to ensure their
protection from job hazards
b) Know about hazardous chemicals
 Employers must have a written, complete hazard communication program that includes
information on:
Container labeling,
Safety Data Sheets (SDSs), and
 The Hazard Communication Standard (HCS) requires chemical
manufacturers, distributors, or importers to provide Safety Data
Sheets (formerly known as Material Safety Data Sheets or MSDSs) to
communicate the hazards of hazardous chemical products. As of
June 1, 2015, the HCS will require new SDSs to be in a uniform
format.
Worker training.
 The training must include the physical and health hazards of the
chemicals and how workers can protect themselves
c) Report injury to employer
 OSHA’s Recordkeeping rule requires most employers with more than 10 workers to keep a
log of injuries and illnesses
 Workers have the right to report an injury and review current log
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

 Workers also have the right to view the annually posted summary of the injuries and
illnesses (OSHA 300A)
It is against the OSHA law to retaliate or discriminate against a worker for reporting an injury or
illness

d) Complain or request hazard correction from employer

 Workers may bring up safety and health concerns in the workplace to their employers
without fear of discharge or discrimination
 OSHA rules protect workers who raise concerns to their employer or OSHA about unsafe or
unhealthful conditions in the workplace

e) Training
 Workers have a right to get training from employers on a variety of health and safety
hazards and standards that employers must follow
 Some required training covers topics such as, chemical hazards, equipment hazards, noise,
confined spaces, fall hazards in construction, personal protective equipment, along with a
variety of other subjects
 Training must be in a language and vocabulary workers can understand

f) Hazard exposure and medical records

 Right to examine & copy records
 Examples of toxic substances and harmful physical agents are:
Metals and dusts, such as, lead, cadmium, and silica
Biological agents, such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi
Physical stress, such as noise, heat, cold, vibration, repetitive motion, and ionizing
and non-ionizing radiation

g) File a complaint with OSHA

 Workers may file a confidential complaint with OSHA if they believe a violation of a safety
or health standard, or an imminent danger situation, exists in the workplace
 Workers may request that their name not be revealed (exposed) to the employer
 If a worker files a complaint, they have the right to find out OSHA’s action on the complaint
and request a review if an inspection is not made

h) Participate in an OSHA inspection

 Employee representative can accompany OSHA inspector
 Workers can talk to the inspector privately
 Workers may point out hazards, describe injuries, illnesses or near misses that resulted from
those hazards and describe any concern you have about a safety or health issue

127
  Workers can find out about inspection results, abatement (decrease) measures and may
object to dates set for violation to be corrected

i) Be free from retaliation (बदला) for exercising safety and health rights
 Workers have the right to be free from retaliation for exercising safety and health rights
 Workers have a right to seek safety and health on the job without fear of punishment
 This right is spelled out in Section 11(c) of the OSH Act
 Workers have 30 days to contact OSHA if they feel they have been punished for exercising
their safety and health rights

Responsibilities of an employer have under OSHA

 Provide a workplace free from recognized hazards and comply with OSHA standards
 Provide training required by OSHA standards
 Keep records of injuries and illnesses
 Provide medical exams when required by OSHA standards and provide workers access to
their exposure and medical records
 Not discriminate against workers who exercise their rights under the Act
 Post OSHA citations and hazard correction notices
 Provide and pay for most PPE

Employers must (reporting and recording checklist):

 Report each worker death to OSHA
 Report each work-related hospitalization, amputation, or loss of an eye
 Maintain injury & illness records
 Inform workers how to report an injury or illness to the employer
 Make records available to workers
 Allow OSHA access to records
 Post annual summary of injuries & illnesses

OSHA Standards
 Rules that describe the methods employers must use to protect employees from hazards
 Designed to protect workers from a wide range of hazards
 There are four groups of OSHA Standards
General Industry
Construction
Maritime (Sea/Ocean)
Agriculture
These standards also:
 Limit the amount of hazardous chemicals, substances, or noise that workers can be exposed
to
 Require the use of certain safe work practices and equipment
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

 Require employers to monitor certain hazards and keep records of workplace injuries and
illnesses

OSHA Inspections Conducted

 The OSH Act authorizes OSHA compliance safety and health officers (CSHOs) to conduct
workplace inspections at reasonable times
 OSHA conducts inspections without advance notice, except in rare circumstances (e.g.
Imminent Danger)
 In fact, anyone who tells an employer about an OSHA inspection in advance can receive
fines and a jail term

Types of OSHA Inspections

 Imminent danger (act defines imminent danger as "... any conditions or practices in any
place of employment which are such that a danger exists which could reasonably be
expected to cause death or serious physical harm immediately or before the imminence of
such danger can be eliminated through the enforcement procedures otherwise provided by
this act.")
 Fatality or hospitalizations
 Worker complaints/referrals
 Targeted inspections—Local Emphasis Program (LEP), National Emphasis Program (NEP),
particular hazards or industries
 Follow-up Inspections
Citations (credential) and Penalties
VIOLATION TYPE PENALTY
WILLFUL
OSHA may propose penalties of up to $70,000 for
A violation that the employer intentionally and
each willful violation, with a minimum penalty of
knowingly commits or a violation that the employer
$5,000 for each willful violation.
commits with plain indifference to the law.
SERIOUS
A violation where there is substantial probability that
There is a mandatory penalty for serious violations
death or serious physical harm could result and that
which may be up to $7,000.
the employer knew, or should have known, of the
hazard.
OTHER-THAN-SERIOUS
A violation that has a direct relationship to safety and OSHA may propose a penalty of up to $7,000 for
health, but probably would not cause death or serious each other-than-serious violation.
physical harm.
REPEATED
OSHA may propose penalties of up to $70,000 for
A violation that is the same or similar to a previous
each repeated violation.
violation.

129
11.3 Health & Safety Provision in Nepal
Still more than 80 percent of the global workforces live without adequate access to OSH (Rantanen, 2005).
In this connection, ILO estimates that more than 250 million workers meet occupational accidents and 160
million are suffering from occupational diseases each year at the global level. Among them about 1.2
million workers die annually caused by occupational diseases and accidents (ILO, 2001). OSH is one of the
major issues directly related to the worker’s rights. The concept of OSH in Nepal is in its initial stage. Almost
all of the Nepali labour force involves in informal sector and they are still unaware of the concept and
importance of OSH. As a result of continuous struggle of Nepali workers and trade unions as well as
solidarity from international centers of trade unions and supportive organizations this issue is gradually
coming in the limelight (attention/publicity) among Nepali working masses (Rimal et al., 2003).
Occupational safety is considered significant in mechanized industries while its importance in other sector
is equally important. The scenario has been continuously changing since the last few years and gradually
accepted as a business tools. In spite of that, there is a lot to improve. Presently, it is estimated that 11,779
thousand Nepali aged 15 year and more are engaged in one or the other occupation in Nepal. Among them
74 percent are engaged in agriculture and forestry sector where rest 26 percent are in non-agriculture
sector (CBS, 2009). It is estimated that each year approximately 20,000 workers suffers from accidents at
workplace which lead to about 200 lives lost in Nepal (Pun, 2011).

For the first time in 1971 (2028 B.S.), the Department of Labour (DoL) was established in Nepal under the
Ministry of Industry. Later when the Ministry of Labour was established in 1981 (2038 B.S.), it took the DoL
under its wing. Once the Foreign Employment Act 1985 (2042 B.S.) was introduced, the DoL was renamed
as the Department of Labour & Employment Promotion. To manage the growing challenges of implementing
foreign employment regulations, a new Foreign Employment Act 2007 (2064 B.S.) was enacted. Following
the new Act, the former Department of Labour & Employment Promotion was split into two separate
organizational entities, namely the Department of Foreign Employment (DoFE), established in 2008 (2065
B.S.), and the Department of Labour (DoL), established in 2009 (2065 B.S.).

It seems, after the advent of multiparty democracy in 1990 (2046 B.S.), the Government of Nepal started
taking worker’s health and safety relatively seriously. Labour Act 1992 (2048 B.S.) was introduced to secure
the rights, interests and safety of workers and employees working in enterprises of various sectors. More
specifically, Section 27 through 36 of Chapter V of Labour Act 1992 explains about Health & Safety
Provisions for enterprises and workers or employees. Shortly after that followed the Labour Rules 1993
(2050 B.S.) which came in effect to exercise the powers conferred by the Labour Act 1992.

Until the 1988 (2045 BS) Udayapur Earthquake in Nepal, we did not have any regulation or good practice
document in place to guide earthquake safe construction in the country, although the disaster pointed us in
the right direction. Under the Ministry of Physical Planning and Works (MPPW), the Department of Urban
Development and Building Construction (DUDBC) developed the Nepal National Building Code (NBC) in
1993. The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the United Nations Centre for Human
Settlement (UNCHS) and few domestic as well as foreign subcontractor’s teams provided their technical
assistance in developing the NBC. The NBC implementation went into effect after the authorization provided
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

by the Building Construction System Improvement Committee (established by the Building Act 1998).
Following a government notice in the Nepal Gazette in 2006, the NBC implementation became mandatory
in all the municipalities in Nepal.
Under the safety section of the requirements, the NBC included Construction Safety (NBC 114: 1994)
standard and provisional recommendation on Fire Safety (NBC 107: 1994) standard. NBC 114 standard
covers provisions for Health & Safety of workers in building construction/demolition works being
performed under a formal contract between the employer and the contractor. In the case of owner-built
construction sites the requirements are advisory. Similarly, NBC 107 provides fundamental requirements
for Fire Safety in commercial, official or ordinary residential buildings.

NBC 114: 1994

Given below are the provisions for the maintenance of Construction Safety control measures and their
corresponding safety requirements as per NBC 114.
1) Material Handling – Safe storage and handling of materials including flammable liquids, explosives,
mechanical equipment, adequate warning signs, Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) as well as slip,
trip & fall protection.
2) First Aid – First Aid facility including stretchers, paramedic and regular health check-ups.
3) Fire Fighting – Fire prevention measures including fire-fighting equipment, electrical safety and fire
escape routes.
4) Site Preparation – Site safety preparation includes prevention from falling, dust,
flying/falling/piercing objects, etc. PPE such as hard hat, safety harness, safety goggles, mask, gloves,
boots, etc. and first aid facility should be provided or available at all times.
5) Excavation Safety – Trenching and excavation safety allows safety provisions such escape routes,
precautions against the collapse of retaining wall or damage of service lines, oxygen masks for
underwater/underground works, adequate fencing/barriers/barricades, etc.
6) Foundation Construction – Application of safe construction design and practices including
protection of health & property of workers/neighbours, reinforcing adjoining infrastructures,
shoring of excavation walls in deep excavation, etc.
7) Wall Construction – Provisions for safe manual/material handling of pre-cast
elements/doors/windows, canvas-covered guard, scaffolding safety and adequate design of safe
working platforms.
8) Roof Construction – Slip, trip and fall protection by requiring safety harness & belt, designated
walking/working platforms, railings and other protective guards including hard hat, safety boot and
protective gloves.
9) Electrical Works – Electrical safety program should require protective measures such as avoiding
bare wires, not placing electrical equipment on wet floor, protecting floor-laid/overhead wires from
moving machinery and workers, isolating combustible substances/clothing away from electric
switch board/work, quick access to CO2/Dry Powder extinguishers, employing qualified electrician,
covering of exposed high or low tension lines, etc.

131
10) Temporary Works – Temporary works require safety provisions such as safe design of temporary
framework structures, adequate load bearing capacity, ladder safety, guard/hand rails, etc.
11) Demolition of Structures – Safety of workers and adjoining properties must not be compromised
while undertaking demolition plan. Care must be taken regarding hazard communication including
warning signs, barricades, posters, etc., bracing/shoring to prevent accidental collapse,
disconnection of electric/water service lines, public safety, and prevention of slip, trip and falling
objects.
12) Requirements During Demolition – Other specific requirements during building demolition
includes, adequate lighting arrangements for night demolition (only if night demolition is
necessary), enough warning signs for public/workers, use of adequate PPE including hard-hats,
goggles, gloves, boots, etc., fall protection measures, use of explosives only if approved by
authorities.
13) Use of Explosives – Explosives can be sued only after consulting engineers and authorities. Specifics
must be maintained as per safety requirements such as marking/guarding of blasting area,
appropriate audible signal before each blast, alerting workers/public/animals, adequate protection
during controlled blasting in a confined space, safety of adjoining properties, strict supervision of
authorities, record keeping of every minute detail of the operation, safe storage/handling of
explosives.
14) Labour Welfare – All workers should be provided with basic facilities such as drinking water,
shelter outside the danger zone, toilets, adequate number/type of fire extinguishers, access to fire
fighting equipment, adequate safety clothing and PPE as demanded by the job, isolated storage of
highly combustible or blasting materials away from labour settlement area, insurance against
workplace accidents, etc.
15) Other Safety Requirements – To ensure workplace safety, NBC 114 provides other safety
requirements such as safe handling of moving vehicle/equipment, protection from falling
structures/objects, installation of safety nets, restriction/control of people in construction or
demolition sites, etc.

NBC 107: 1994

Given below are the provisions for the maintenance of the basic Fire Safety measures and their
corresponding Fire Safety requirements as per NBC 107.
1) Types of construction and appliances
 Provision of fire place and chimney where applicable
 Elimination of fire sources near combustible materials
 Encouragement to occupants to install applicable fire extinguishers
 Sufficient water storage where open hearth or kerosene stoves are used
2) Fire Zones
 Demarcation of fire zones by coordinating with proper authorities in urban areas
3) General Requirements
 Adequate building designs for containment of fire and thus to reduce its spread to other
buildings
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

 Provision for wide enough access and wide/tall entry doors (as per Architectural Design
Requirements NBC 206) to enable firemen to approach the building site
 Sufficient escape routes and open spaces (as per Architectural Design Requirements NBC 206)
to allow rapid evacuation of occupants
4) Exit Requirements
 Exit routes should be free of obstruction and with clearly visible signs
 Stairs, Fire Escapes and Exit Doors should meet minimum NBC 107 Requirements in regards to
their design, size and location in the building
5) Access to a Building
 Compliance with applicable zoning requirements and road accessibility requirements
6) Lightening Arresters/Conductors
 Installation of lightening arresters/conductors as per NBC 107 Requirements

[Note:- A lightning arrester also called as lightning diverter is a device used

on electric power systems and telecommunication systems to protect
the insulation and conductors of the system from the damaging effects
of lightning. The typical lightning arrester has a high-voltage terminal and a
ground terminal. When a lightning surge (or switching surge, which is very
similar) travels along the power line to the arrester, the current from the surge
is diverted through the arrester, in most cases to earth.]

The causes of accidents are varied but the major causes are – unsafe working
environment; congested workplace; lack of supervision, monitoring and
training; negligence in the government inspection, monitoring and supervision system; ignorance as well as
carelessness of the workers and employers; use of old or outdated machine or equipment; lack of regular
repair and maintenance of tools, machine and equipment’s; bad house-keeping practices; lack of safety
equipment’s of standard quality; violation of safety rules and unsuitable conditions. Similarly, in practice,
there is no any incentive
and disincentive for
installing safety and
healthy devices to replace
worn out and
unsafe machinery or to
provide occupational
health diagnosis and
treatment facilities in the
industries also contributes
to be reluctant
(वहचवकचाउन/ु अवनच्छा) to the
concerned stakeholders.

133
General Federation of Nepalese Trade Unions
Established in 1989, the General Federation of Nepalese Trade Unions (GEFONT), with 27 affiliated union-
members nationwide, works as an umbrella organization for various trade unions in the field of agriculture,
industry and service sectors. In 2007, with an effort to examine the issues of occupational safety and health
through social dialogues with industrial stakeholders in the country, GEFONT published its results of
surveyed data and focus group discussions conducted in 159 enterprises. Demands for safe drinking water,
clean toilet facilities and protective safety equipment were at the top of the list.

National legal provisions

Enactment of Labour Act 1992 and its regulation (1993) Legal Provisions Relating to OSH is only the legal
document that covers safety and health provisions of workers in industrial sector that confined to the
industries. Chapter V, section 27-36 of the Labour Act 1992 explains the health and safety of workers in the
establishment.
The Act has prescribe arrangements for garbage management; provision of modern toilets; supply of
adequate safe drinking water; provision of appropriate volume of ventilation, condition of light,
temperature and sound; protection from dust; smoke, fumes and other impurities; avoidance of
overcrowding in any room of the establishment and provision of extinguishing fire.
The Act also includes the provision of medical check-up for the workers at least once a year in the
establishment which are hazard prone. But the Act is silent which establishment is hazardous and which
one is safe. It also suggests a number of preventive measures such as – protection of eyes, protection against
chemical hazards and fire, guarding against dangerous machinery, prohibition on lifting heavy load and
safety measures for pressure plants.
The Act further mentions provision for compulsory notice of any kind of accident or disease to the
concerned labour office. In spite of such provisions in practice, as of the officials of the concerned labour
office, only few accident cases which could not solved in the enterprises are reported in labour office even
after the period that the law has provisioned. The Act has given authority to the concerned inspector to
collect samples of any finished and semi-finished products as well as any material being used that may
cause harm to the workers or damage their health. The concerned labour office has also right to close down
the whole establishment or unsecured parts, plant or machinery of it. Inspectors have been assigned
responsibility to ensure that the building, machinery and manufacturing processes are safe for workers.
Violations of these provisions are punishable with fines (Nepal Government, 1992).
Based on the legal framework related to OSH the management of the enterprises shall have to make
following arrangements (GEFONT, 2007).
 To keep each enterprise clean and tidy by cleaning daily with germicidal medicines also if so
required necessary and arrangements of proper drainage and painting or whitewashing from
time to time and preventing from bad odour.
 To make arrangements for adequate supply of fresh air and light as well as proper temperature
in the workplace.
 To make arrangement for removal and disposal of solid waste and sewage out coming from
production process.
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

 To make arrangement for prevention of accumulation of dust, smoke, vapour and other impure
materials in working place which might adversely affect the health of the workers.
 To make arrangement for necessary preventive personal devices for protection of health from
adverse effects of noise coming during work process or from any other source and make
provisions which would produce less noise in accordance with the nature of the work process.
 To make arrangement for avoiding any congestion in the workplace leading to injurious to the
health of workers or employees and to make available the working space to each worker or
employee considering the nature of work. Generally, fifteen cubic meters per person and
however, the height above four meters from the floor surface shall not be considered for such
purposes.
 To make arrangement for sufficient supply of pure potable water during the working hours and
to make arrangement for sufficient water in the enterprises where chemical substances are used
or produced which may cause hazards to the health for the purpose of extinguishing fire or
washing and cleansing during emergency situations.
 To make arrangement for separate modern type of toilets for male and female workers at
convenient place.
 To declare non-smoking zone in all or some parts of the enterprise according to the nature of its
work.
 To conduct compulsory health check-up of the workers or employees at least once a year in the
enterprises where the nature of works is likely to affect the health adversely.
 Necessary protective measures shall have to be arranged for the protection of eyes of the
workers and employees from possible injuries likely to be caused by dust or pieces exhausted
from production process while working in the enterprise where glass, lead, mercury, magnet,
plates, iron, concrete, cement, lime, stone and explosive substances are used.
 The establishment shall have to make arrangement for necessary modern equipment for safety
against fire in each enterprise.
 Strong fence shall have to be placed around every part of hazardous machines, instruments and
equipment to be operated by energy. In case it is required to do inspecting, lubricating or
adjusting any part of hazardous machines during its operation, only experienced and well
trained adult worker or employee shall have to be engaged to perform such works.
 No worker or employee shall be engaged in the works of lifting, loading or transporting any
load likely to cause physical injury or harm to the health.

11.5 Contract Conditions on Safety in Civil Works Projects

SBD for procurement of works, (NCB) For Nrs.20 Million to 1 Billion (Two envelope procedure)
General Conditions of Contract (GCC)
A) General
17. Employer’s 17.1 From the Start Date until the Defects Liability Certificate has been issued, the
Risks following are Employer’s risks:
(a) The risk of personal injury, death, or loss of or damage

135
 to property (excluding the Works, Plant, Materials, and Equipment), which are
due to
(i) use or occupation of the Site by the Works or for the purpose of the
Works, which is the unavoidable result of the Works or
(ii) negligence, breach of statutory duty, or interference with any legal
right by the Employer or by any person employed by or contracted to
him except the Contractor.
(b) The risk of damage to the Works, Plant, Materials, and Equipment to the
extent that it is due to a fault of the Employer or in the Employer’s
design, or due to war or radioactive contamination directly affecting the
country where the Works are to be executed.
17.2 From the Completion Date until the Defects Liability Certificate has been issued, the
risk of loss of or damage to the Works, Plant, and Materials is an Employer’s risk
except loss or damage due to
(a) a Defect which existed on the Completion Date,
(b) an event occurring before the Completion Date, which was not itself an
Employer’s risk, or
(c) the activities of the Contractor on the Site after the Completion Date.
18. Contractor’s 18.1 From the Starting Date until the Defects Liability Certificate has been issued, the
Risks risks of personal injury, death, and loss of or damage to property (including,
without limitation, the Works, Plant, Materials, and Equipment) which are not
Employer’s risks are Contractor’s risks.
19. Insurance 19.1 The Contractor shall provide insurance in the joint names of the Employer and
the Contractor from the Start Date to the end of the Defects Liability Period, in
the amounts and deductibles stated in the SCC for the following events which
are due to the Contractor’s risks:
(a) loss of or damage to the Works, Plant, and Materials;
(b) loss of or damage to Equipment;
(c) loss of or damage to property (except the Works, Plant, Materials, and Equipment)
in connection with the Contract; and
(d) Personal injury or death.
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

19.2 Policies and certificates for insurance shall be delivered by the Contractor to the
Project Manager for the Project Manager’s approval before the Start Date. All
such insurance shall provide for compensation to be payable in the proportions
of Nepalese Rupees required to rectify the loss or damage incurred.
19.3 If the Contractor does not provide any of the policies and certificates
required, the Employer may affect the insurance which the Contractor should
have provided and recover the premiums the Employer has paid from payments
otherwise due to the Contractor or, if no payment is due, the payment of the
premiums shall be a debt due.
19.4 Alterations to the terms of insurance shall not be made without the approval of
the Project Manager.
19.5 Both parties shall comply with any conditions of the insurance policies.

24. Safety, Security 24.1 The Contractor shall, throughout the execution, and completion of the
and Protection of works and remedying of any defects therein:
the Environment a. Have full regard for the safety of all persons entitled to be upon the site and keep
the site (so as the same is under his control) and the works (so far as the
same are not completed or occupied by the Employer) in an orderly state
appropriate to the avoidance of danger to such persons.
b. Provide and maintain at his own cost all lights, guards, fencing, warning signs
and watching, when necessary or required by the Project Manager or by any
duly constituted authority, for the protection of the Works of for the safety
and convenience of the public or others.
c. Take all reasonable steps to protect the environment on and off the site and to
avoid damage or nuisance to persons
or to property of the public or others resulting from pollution, noise or other
causes arising as a consequence of his methods of operation.
d. Provide on the Site such lifesaving apparatus as may be appropriate and an
adequate and easily accessible first aid outfit or such outfits as may be
required by any government ordinance, factory act, etc., subsequently
published and amended from time to time.
B) Staff & labour
31. Forced Labor 31.1 The Contractor shall not employ forced labor, which consists of any work or
service, not voluntarily performed, that is exacted from an individual under
threat of force or penalty.
32. Child Labor 32.1 The Contractor shall not employ children in a manner that is economically
exploitative, or is likely to be hazardous, or to interfere with, the child's
education, or to be harmful to the child's health or physical, mental, spiritual,
moral, or social development. Where national laws have provisions for
employment of minors, the Contractor shall follow those laws applicable to the
Contractor. Children below the age of 18 years shall not be employed in

137
 dangerous work.

33. Non- 33.1 The Contractor shall not make employment decisions on the basis of personal
discrimination and characteristics unrelated to inherent job requirements. The Contractor shall
Equal Opportunity base the employment relationship on the principle of equal opportunity and
fair treatment, and shall not discriminate with respect to aspects of the
employment relationship, including recruitment and hiring, compensation
(including wages and benefits), working conditions and terms of employment,
access to training, promotion, termination of employment or retirement, and
discipline. In countries where national law provides for non-discrimination in
employment, the Contractor shall comply with national law. When national
laws are silent on nondiscrimination in employment, the Contractor shall meet
this Sub clause's requirements.
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

UNIT-12
Safety Management: Roles of Various Parties [4 Hrs]

12.1 Employer's responsibilities in safety management

Under the law employers are responsible for health and safety management. The following provides a broad
outline of how the law applies to employers.
 It is an employer's duty to protect the health, safety and welfare of their employees and other people
who might be affected by their business. Employers must do whatever is reasonably practicable to
achieve this.
 This means making sure that workers and others are protected from anything that may cause harm,
effectively controlling any risks to injury or health that could arise in the workplace.
 Employers have duties under health and safety law to assess risks in the workplace. Risk assessments
should be carried out that address all risks that might cause harm in your workplace.
 Employers must give you information about the risks in your workplace and how you are protected,
also instruct and train you on how to deal with the risks.
 Employers must consult employees on health and safety issues. Consultation must be either direct or
through a safety representative that is either elected by the workforce or appointed by a trade union

Responsibility according to OSHA

 Provide a workplace free from serious recognized hazards and comply with standards, rules and
regulations issued under the OSH Act.
 Examine workplace conditions to make sure they conform to applicable OSHA standards.
 Make sure employees have and use safe tools and equipment and properly maintain this equipment.
 Use color codes, posters, labels or signs to warn employees of potential hazards.
 Establish or update operating procedures and communicate them so that employees follow safety
and health requirements.
 Employers must provide safety training in a language and vocabulary workers can understand.
 Employers with hazardous chemicals in the workplace must develop and implement a written
hazard communication program and train employees on the hazards they are exposed to and
proper precautions (and a copy of safety data sheets must be readily available).
 Provide medical examinations and training when required by OSHA standards.
 Post, at a prominent location within the workplace, the OSHA poster informing employees of their
rights and responsibilities.
 Report to the nearest OSHA office all work-related fatalities within 8 hours, and all work-related
inpatient hospitalizations, all amputations and all losses of an eye within 24 hours.
 Keep records of work-related injuries and illnesses
 Provide employees, former employees and their representative’s access to the Log of Work-Related
Injuries and Illnesses (OSHA Form 300).
 Provide access to employee medical records and exposure records to employees or their authorized
representatives.

139
  Provide to the OSHA compliance officer the names of authorized employee representatives who may
be asked to accompany the compliance officer during an inspection.
 Not discriminate against employees who exercise their rights under the Act.
 Post OSHA citations at or near the work area involved. Each citation must remain posted until the
violation has been corrected, or for three working days, whichever is longer.

12.2 Designer's responsibilities in safety management

The term designer would include:
 architects and engineers contributing to, or
having overall responsibility for the design
 building services engineers designing details of
fixed plant
 surveyors specifying articles or substances or
drawing up specifications
 contractors carrying out design work as part of
a design and build project
 anyone with authority to specify, or alter the
specification or designs to be used for the
structure
 designers of temporary works or specialist suppliers designing formwork and false work
 interior designers, shop fitters and landscape architects; and
 specialist suppliers, specialist contractors or sub-contractors with design input

What are the duties of Designers?

The duties of designers requires to ensure that the project is capable to being constructed to be safe, can be
maintained safely and complies with all relevant health and safety legislation.
Designers must:
 Identify any hazards that their design may present during construction and subsequent
maintenance;
 Where possible, eliminate the hazards or reduce the risk e.g. can roof-mounted equipment be
placed at ground level or can guardrails be provided to protect workers from falling?
 Communicate necessary control measures, design assumptions or remaining risks to the PSDP so
they can be dealt with in the safety and health plan;
 Co-operate with other designers, PSDP (Project Supervisor for the Design Process) and PSCS (Project
Supervisor for the Construction Stage) ;
 Take account of any existing safety and health plan or safety file;
 Comply with directions issued by the PSDP or PSCS;
 Where no PSDP has been appointed, inform the client that a PSDP must be appointed.

12.3 Supervisor's responsibilities in safety management

 Ensure the health and safety of all workers under your direct supervision.
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

 Know the Work Safe requirements that apply to the work under your supervision and make sure
those requirements are met.
 Ensure workers under your supervision are aware of all known hazards.
 Ensure workers under your supervision have the appropriate personal protective equipment, which
is being used properly, regularly inspected, and maintained.
 Familiarize yourself with and take responsibility for development of, procedures and practices
which are applicable to the workplace you supervise.
 Ensure you are familiar with control of hazards from resources in your workplace and identify
training needs to ensure optimum worker competency.
 Promote discussion, toolbox talks and consideration of work health and safety aspects of planned
tasks and activities.
 Engage with and embrace monitoring processes as a valuable tool to assist and enhance your
perspective of the current status of work health and safety.
 Ensure that workers report injuries, incidents, near misses and hazards promptly and in accordance
with the prescribed procedures.
 Apply allocated resources appropriately to strengthen and enhance work health and safety practices
wherever applicable.
 Consult and cooperate with appointed safety personnel to enable them to fulfil the duties of their
role.
 Make use of the Health and Safety Committee and Health and Safety Representatives to engage and
consult regarding work health and safety matters.
 Apply your understanding of work health and safety and reinforce its most relevant messages in
your workplace in all communication with workers.
 Engage with assessment of proposed tasks and activities which are planned for your workplace to
ensure personal understanding and also to provide the benefit of your close personal knowledge of
local working conditions and constraints.
 Investigate incidents, seeking to thoroughly identify the contributing factors, absent or failed
defenses and improvements required in order to prevent recurrence.
 Co-operate fully in the rehabilitation of injured employees.
 Ensure that all workers are familiar with emergency and evacuation procedures and the location of
first aid kits, personnel and emergency equipment, and if appropriately trained, the use of
emergency equipment.
 Ensure that you understand the resolution of issues process and ensure that workers are aware of it
and can use it as needed.
 Refer work health and safety issues that are beyond your control to the relevant manager(s) for their
attention, but ensure that interim action is taken to reduce the risks in a practical way.

12.4 Manufacturer's/Dealers responsibilities in safety management

There is an important role safety plays in manufacturing facilities to ensure your company is maintaining
the highest levels of output. Without safety as a top priority in manufacturing operations, you are sure to

141
experience delays in getting your product finished and shipped to your customer, thus impacting,
ultimately, your company's bottom line. The following are five of the main responsibilities OSHA places on
employers:

1. Provide a workplace that is free from serious safety and health hazards
 Ensure that the workplace is monitored and is fully in compliance with all applicable OSHA
standards, rules and regulations in order to maintain safety in manufacturing facilities.
 Use labels, signs, posters, floor marking, and color coding to warn employees about potential
hazards.

2. Monitor the workplace to ensure employees follow safety in manufacturing

 Have and use safe tools and equipment.
 Tools and equipment are properly maintained.
 Ensure that Safety Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) are maintained, and communicated
to employees.
In addition, the safety manager is usually the person responsible for ensuring the company is in
compliance with OSHA employer requirements. These types of requirements include:
 Fatal accidents that result in the hospitalization of three or more employees, must be reported to the
nearest OSHA office within eight hours.
If the company is not exempt (excused/released), or partially exempt from the OSHA record keeping
requirements, the safety manager ensures that records of work-related injuries and illnesses are
maintained. To be partially exempt an employer must meet one of the following requirements:
 Have ten or fewer workers, or
 Be a type of business that OSHA has classified as a lower-hazard industry.
o Ensure medical examinations and training are provided as required by OSHA standards.
o Ensure the required OSHA poster is posted in a prominent location.
o Provide the names of the authorized employee representatives, who may be asked to
accompany an OSHA compliance officer during an inspection, to the OSHA compliance
officer.
o Ensure OSHA citations, and abatement verification documents, are posted at or near the
work area where the accident happened. Each citation must remain posted until the
violation has been corrected, or for three working days, whichever is longer.
o Ensure any violations cited by OSHA as a result of an OSHA inspection are corrected by the
deadline set in the OSHA citation, and submit the required abatement verification
documentation.

3. Getting the Safety Responsibility Done

The following are some of the functions that are the responsibility of a safety manager, and that result in
compliance with OSHA requirements. In larger organizations safety assistants will be responsible for some
of these functions. In a smaller organization the owner, or HR manager, may be responsible for safety.
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

The responsibilities of a safety manager may include:

 Participating in workplace safety and health planning meetings.
 Ensuring managers and supervisors have the appropriate safety and health; accident prevention;
and investigation training.
 Ensure that managers/supervisors provide safety training and information to workers.
 Providing leadership in developing measures and practices that prevent accidents and ensure
compliance with OSHA standards. This includes:
o Continuously monitor the workplace for hazardous safety and health conditions.
o Ensure safety and health hazards are corrected, eliminated or guarded.
o Assessing engineering controls, administrative controls, and PPE on an on-going basis.
 Assisting in the investigation of accidents. This includes:
o Identifying hazardous situations that are associated with the accident.
o Having the authority to:
B) Stop and prevent unsafe actions
C) Stop the use of unsafe equipment and tools.
D) Stop work and/or have employees leave a work area.
E) Investigating all close calls and other safety-related incidents that have occurred
within the accident area.
F) Ensure the results of safety inspections are documented; monitoring the
investigation of accidents and injuries; ensuring that corrective actions are taken;
and providing recommendations for ways to prevent similar accidents.
G) Ensure that all accident reports are recorded in a timely, complete, and accurate
manner.
Overall, the responsibilities of a safety manager include anything required to ensure complete compliance
with OSHA standards, and for maintaining a safe and healthy workplace. What this means will be different
in each workplace. At a minimum it requires familiarity with OSHA standards and implementing
management practices to ensure compliance with those requirements

4. Improve Safety in Manufacturing Facilities with Good Signage

One of the critical responsibilities of a safety manager is to ensure that durable, clear and effective signs and
labels are used. The best way to accomplish this is by using a label printer and tough-tested labeling
supplies.

5. Note Safety Violations with Clear Tags

In order to keep employees and supervisors focused on the importance of safety in the organization, the
safety manager should TAG ANY safety violations with different colored TAGS. When operations personnel
see these TAGS, they must fill them out as to what action was taken to correct the safety violation and what
will be done to avoid it the next time.

143
12.5 Workers/Employees responsibilities in safety management
Some of the duties of workers under our Occupational Health & Safety Act and Regulations are listed on this
site and should not be viewed as a comprehensive list or a definitive guide to government regulations. Its
use does not relieve individuals or organizations from their responsibilities under any or all applicable
legislation.
 Workers’ duties:
o Protect his/her health & safety and that of co-workers and others at or near the workplace;
and
o Co-operate with employer, co-workers, OH&S committee/worker health and safety
representative/workplace health and safety designate, and anyone exercising a duty
imposed under OH&S legislation.
 Follow instructions and training
 Report hazardous conditions
 Properly use all safety equipment/devices/clothing
 Workers' rights:
o Know about workplace hazards;
o Participate and assist in identifying and resolving OH&S issues; and
o Refuse unsafe work.
(B.E. CIVIL, Safety Engineering 7th Sem.) / Note collected by: Er. Mahendra Singh /Assistant Professor- Far Western University, Kanchanpur

References:

 Grimaldi John. V. and Simonds R.H., “Safety management” 1991, All India Traveller Book Seller, Fifth
Edition
 Notes provided by Dr. Madhav Pd. Koirala
 A Text Book of Safety Engineering by Er. Hari Mohan Shrestha
 https://www.osha.gov/Publications/OSHA2236/osha2236.html
 Quinn, Kyle, "An in depth study of how the psychological behaviors affect construction safety" (2010).
College of Technology Directed Projects. Paper 17.http://docs.lib.purdue.edu/techdirproj/17
 Identification of Psychological Factors Affecting among the Construction Workers. Identification of
Psychological Factors Affecting among the Construction Workers.
 North American Industries, Inc.
 Cal/OSHA Pocket Guide for the Construction Industry | June 2015
 Bureau of Labor Statistics Data, 2009
 Nepal National Building Code NBC 114 : 1994
 Current Situation of Occupational Safety and Health in Nepal A Study Report
Prepared by Rudra Prasad Gautam, Ph D. Jiba Nath Prasain, Ph D.
 Health and Safety Guidance – Designers Construction Design and Management Regulations 2015
 Supervisor Roles and Responsibilities: an occupational health and safety handbook, © 2015
Government of Alberta, Jobs, Skills, Training and Labour
 Module 13 Personal Protective Equipment, OSHA Training Institute, South West Education Center
 Instructions for Employee PPE, PENN State
 www.osha.gov., Fall Protection in Construction, U.S. Department of Labour
 www.osha.gov., PPE, U.S. Department of Labour
 Safety Info.inc
 Washington State Department of Labor and Industries training tools:
Noise Exposure at Work
 Phil Lewis, CSP, Assistant Director of Environmental Health and Safety, 210 East Fourth Street,
Greenville, NC 27858, [email protected], [email protected]
 Personal Protective Equipment – Trainer, Module 7 - 23, Center for Dairy Farm Safety - University of
Wisconsin - River Falls & Wisconsin Extension
 https://www.google.com.np/search?q=Stack+bagged+material+by+stepping&source
 OTI 501, Trainer Course in Occupational Safety and Health Standards for General Industry, Georgia
Technology Research Institute.
 Guidance Notes on Classification and Use of Safety Belts and their Anchorage Systems, OSHA, Labour
Department, 2005 Edition
 Essential tips for safe mobile crane operations, PURDUE UNIVERSITY, COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
 Oregon Occupational Safety & Health Division, Department of Consumer Business and Services
 Best practice guidelines for working on roofs JUNE 2012, Ministry of Business, Innovation and
Employment (MBIE) Hikina – Whakatutuki Lifting to make successful

145
 www.OSHC.org.hk, Copyright 2002 Occupational Safety & Health Council 11/02 (01)
 Safetyinfo.com, Identifying Confined Space
 Safety Handbook for Construction Site Workers,www.labour.gov.hk/eng/public/b69.htm.
 Some essential safety factors in Tunneling, United States Department of the Interior, Harold L. Ickes,
Secretary, Bureau of Mines, Bulletin 439
 Industrial Health Division Department of Occupational Safety and Health Ministry of Human
Resources Malaysia July 1998, Guidelines on Occupational Safety and health in Tunnel
Construction.
 Construction Site Safety Handbook Published by The Real Estate Developers Association of Hong Kong
and The Hong Kong Construction Association