Machining Processes And Metrology

(MEE 2006)
VL2020210101012

Dr. Jambeswar Sahu/ Assistant Professor (Sr.) /SMEC

[email protected]
203 P/SJT Annex. WTP
Module 6
Module Topics Lecture
1 Metal Cutting - Mechanics of metal cutting - cutting tool 4
materials, temperature, wear, and tool life considerations,
geometry and chip formation, surface finish and
machinability, optimization.
2 Basic Machine Tools - Lathe and its types - 4
Constructional details including accessories and
attachments, operations, types of lathe, Contructional and
operational details of Shaping - Planing - Slotting – Drilling
- Boring – Reaming – Tapping – Broaching.
3 Milling machine - Cutters - Milling operations - Indexing – 4
Gear Generation: Gear generating principles - Gear
Hobber - Gear finishing methods - Bevel gear generator.
4 Grinding machine- Operations and applications of 4
surface, cylindrical and centreless grinding processes,
dressing, truing and balancing of grinding wheels, grading
and selection of grinding wheels, micro-finishing (honing,
lapping, super-finishing).
5 Unconventional methods - Electro-chemical, electro- 4
discharge, ultrasonic, LASER, electron beam, water jet
machining.
Module Topics Lecture
6 Introduction to Metrology - Linear and angular 4
measurements – taper measurement, threads, surface
finish, inspection of straightness, flatness and alignment-–
Comparators - Gear testing.
7 Advances in Metrology - Precision Instrumentation based 4
on Laser Principals, Coordinate measuring machines,
Optical Measuring Techniques: Tool Maker’s Microscope,
Profile Projector. Nano-measurements: Scanning Electron
Microscope-.Atomic Force Microscopy-Transmission
Electron Microscopy.
8 Contemporary Discussion 2
 Metrology
• Metrology is the science of measurement

• Dimensional metrology is that branch of Metrology

which deals with measurement of “dimensions” of a
part or workpiece (lengths, angles, etc.)

• Dimensional measurements at the required level of

accuracy are the essential link between the designers’
intent and a delivered product.
 Dimensional Metrology Needs

 Linear measurements
 Angular measurements
 Geometric form measurements
Roundness
Straightness
Cylindricity
Flatness, etc
 Geometric relationships
Parallel, perpendicular, etc.
Concentric, runout, etc.
 Controlled surface texture
Types of Measurement and Instruments Used
 Introduction to Tolerances
“The allowable deviation from a standard, eg: the range of
variation permitted in maintaining a specified dimension in a
machined piece.”
 Why is it necessary?
 It is impossible to manufacture a part or a component to
an exact size and geometry.

 Since variation from the drawing is inevitable, acceptable

degree variation must be applied.

 Large variations may affect the functionality of the part.

 Small variations may affect the economy of the part.

 Consequences

• Cost generally increases with smaller tolerances.

• Parts with smaller tolerances often require the special methods

of manufacture.

• Parts with smaller tolerances often require the greater inspection

and call for rejection of parts.
 Measurements
• Measurement systems are mainly used in industries for
quality control.

• Often widely using measurements are

– Linear Measurement

– Angular measurement
 Dimensions
• A very common measurement is that of dimensions, i.e.,
length, width, height of an object

• Dimensions of the measuring instruments are classified

as follows

– Low resolution devices (up to 0.25mm)

– Medium resolution devices (up to 0.0025mm)

– High resolution devices (less than microns)

 Low resolution devices
• Steel rule

• Steel rule with assistance of

– Calipers

– Dividers &

– Surface gauges

• Thickness gauges
 Medium & high resolution devices
• Micrometer • Gauge blocks
• Micrometer with
assistance of • Gauge block with assistance of
– Telescoping – Mechanical comparator
– Extendable ball gauges
– Electronic comparator
• Vernier calipers
• Dial indicators – Pneumatic comparator

• Microscope – Optical flats

 Linear Measuring Instruments
• Vernier caliper
• Micrometer
• Slip gauge or gauge blocks
• Optical flats
• Interferometer
• Comparators
Rules

 Rules also known as steel rules or scale and graduated length of steel, used for
approximately determining linear dimension
 Simples and most common measuring instruments in inspection.
 Principle : Comparing an unknown length to the one previously calibrated one.
 The rule are graduated uniformly throughout its length. Rules are made in 150, 300,
500 and 1000 mm length.
 The degree of accuracy when measurements are made by a steel rule depends upon the
quality of the rule, and the skill of the user in estimating part of a millimeter.
 Rules are manufactured of carbon steel or stainless steel & spring Steel and many are
chrome plated with engraved graduations.
The required abilities of the steel rule:-

1. It should be mode of good quality spring steel.

2. It should be machine ground on its faces and clearly engraved line.
3. It should have graduations on both edges.
4. It should be chrome plated to present corrosion and protection against staining.
Precautions while using a steel rule.

1. The end of the rules should be prevented form wear as it generally forms the basis for
one end for dimension.
2. The rule should never be used for cleaning between parts or as s substitute for screw
driver for scraping T slots and machine table, otherwise its edges and ends will be
damaged.
3. Rusting of the role should avoid by oiling it during weekends and when it is not is used.
4. In order to maintain the sharpness of the graduations for easy and accurate reading scale
should be cleaned with grease dissolving fluids.
5. When taking measurement with rule, it should be so held that the graduation lines are as
closed as possible (Preferably touching) to the faces being measure.
6. In order to avoid the parallax error, while making measurement eye should be directly
opposite and 90° to the mark on the part to be measured.
Caliper

Calipers are used for measurement of the parts, which cannot be

measured directly with the scale. Thus, they are accessories to
scales. The calipers consist of two legs hinged at top, and the
ends of legs span part to be inspected. This span is maintained
and transferred to the scale.

Caliper are of non-graduated and graduated type manual

measuring tool
 Non graduated manual measurement tool (Two types: spring
type and firm joint type)

Outside spring Inside spring

 Non graduated manual measurement tool (firm joint type)

Outside Firm Joint Caliper Inside Firm Joint Caliper

 Non graduated manual measurement tool (firm joint type)

Transfer caliper
Hermaphrodite Caliper
Graduated manual measuring tool
(slide caliper/vernier caliper)
 Vernier caliper
• Components of vernier calipers are
– Main scale
– Vernier scale
– Fixed jaw
– Movable jaw
• Types of vernier calipers
– Type A vernier caliper
– Type B vernier caliper
– Type C vernier caliper
Type A Vernier Caliper
Type B Vernier Caliper
Type C Vernier Caliper
 VERNIER CALIPER

• Vernier calipers are available in size of 150 mm, 225

mm, 900 mm and 1200 mm.

• The selection of the size depends on the

measurements to be taken.

• Vernier calipers are precision instruments, and

extreme care should be taken while handing them.
 Vernier caliper
VERIER CALIPER WITH 0.02MM LEAST COUNT IS GENERLY USED IM WORK SHOP.
In this Vernier caliper main scale division (49mm) are divided in to 50 equal part
in the Vernier scale.
i.e. 1 main scale division =1 mm
(MSD)
1. Vernier scale division =49\50 mm
(VSD)
Least count is 1mm – 49\50 =1\50 mm
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN 1.MSD and 1. VSD=0.02MM
 Example
Main scale reading =35mm
The vernier division coinciding with the main scale is the 20th division.
Value=20 multiplied by 0.02=0.40mm.
Total reading is 35mm+0.40= 35.40mm

35.40 mm
Calculation of least count:

Now, 20 vernier scale divisions (VSD) = 19 main scale division (MSD)

\ 1 VSD = 19/20 MSD
\ Vernier constant (VC) = 1 MSD – 1 VSD
= 1 MSD – (19/20) MSD
=1/20 MSD
Now, if the smallest unit of the main scale be 1 mm, the least count of the vernier scale
LC = VC X one smallest unit of the main scale
= (1/20) x 1 mm
= 0.05 mm
Total dimension = Main scale reading + Vernier scale reading
= Main scale reading + (Vernier scale line coincide with main scale x LC)
 Vernier Depth Gauge

A vernier depth is very commonly used

precision instrument for measuring depth of holes
recesses, slot and step.

Its construction and method of reading are

similar to those of a vernier caliper.
 VERNIER DEPTH GAUGE

Base
Graduated beam
Clamping screw
Fine adjustment
mechanism
Vernier scale
 VERNIER HEIGHT GAUGE

The main parts of a vernier height

gauge and their function are given.
1.base
2. beam
3.vernier slide
4. fine setting device
5. vernier plate
6. locking screws
7. scriber
 PARTS OF MICROMETER

A micro meter is a precision instrument used to measure a job,

generally within an accuracy of 0.01mm.Micrometer used to take
the outside measurements are know as outside micrometer

Frame
Anvil and spindle
Screwed spindle
Graduated sleeve or barrel
Ratchet or friction stop
Spindle clamp
Errors in vernier caliper
i. Error due to play between sliding jaw on the scale.
ii. If the sliding jaw frame becomes worm or warped it will not slide squarely on the main scale and will cause error in
measurement.
iii. Due to wear and warping of the jaws the zero line on main scale may not conclude with that on the vernier scale. This is
called as zero error.
iv. Errors are also caused by incorrect reading of vernier scale as the scales are difficult to read even with the aid of
magnifying glass.
v. Error is also introduced if the line of measurement does not coincide with the line of the scale.
vi. Since it to difficult to obtain correct feel due to its size and weight an error may be introduced due to incorrect feel.
Precautions in the use of vernier caliper
i. The line of measurement must coincide with line of scale.
ii. While measuring the outside diameter with vernier caliper the plane of the measuring tips of the calipers must be
perpendicular to the center line of the work piece. The caliper should not be fitted/twisted.
iii. The caliper jaws are moved on the work with light touch under pressure should not be applied.
iv. The accuracy of measurement depends on sense of sight & sense of feel.
v. The measuring instrument must be properly balanced in hand and held lightly in such a way that only fingers handle the
moving and adjustable screws.
 Angular Measurement:
Angular Measurement: instrument for angular measurement: Vernier bevel
protractor, universal bevel protractor and sine bar.

Length standards such as foot and metre are arbitrary inventions of man.
This has necessitated the use of wavelength of light as a reference standard
of length because of the difficulty in accurately replicating the earlier
standards.

But, the standard for angle, is not man-made but exists in nature, which is
which is derived with relation to a circle (an envelope of a line moving
about one of its ends).
Ex:- the circumference of a planet, path of an electron around the nucleus of an
atom, its parts always bear a unique relationship.

Units:

1 Degree (°) = 60 minutes (´) & 1 minutes = 60 second (´´)

Or

Radian:-The angle made by an arc of circle of length equal to radius.

2π radian = 360° => 1 radian = 57.2958°

Use:- precise measurement of angles is an important requirement in workshops

and tool rooms. We need to measure angles of interchangeable parts, gears, jigs,
fixtures, etc.
Instrument for angular measurement

Try square A spirit level

Protractor
Conventional and electronic clinometers
Universal bevel protractor

A simple protractor is a basic device used for measuring angles. At best, it can provide a least
count of 1° for smaller protractors and ½° for large ones.

Figure Error! No text of specified style in document.-1 engineers plane protractor

engineers plane protractor

Universal bevel gauge
Vernier bevel protractor

(a) Acute angle attachment (b) Inside bevelled face angle

measurement
Slip gauge-----------Linear measurment

Slip gauges are rectangular blocks of steel having a cross-

section of about 30 by 10 mm. The essential purpose of slip
gauges is to make available end standards of specific lengths by
temporarily combining several individual elements, each
representing a standard dimension, into a single gauge bar.
 Normal Set

Special Set
Example :

Let us consider the case where we have to arrange a dimension of 56.421 mm and normal
sets of slip gauges are available.

Always the last decimal point is to be considered first, i.e. 0.001 mm. Since gauge of 0.001
mm is not available, 1.001 mm slip gauge is to be selected.

The dimension left now is 56.421 – 1.001 = 55.42 mm.

Now considering the second decimal place, slip gauge with 1.02 mm height is selected. The
dimension left is 55.42 – 1.02 = 54.4 mm.

Next for 54.4 mm, slip gauge with 1.4 mm is to be chosen and then 3.0 mm gauge.

Finally, 50 mm gauge is to be chosen.

Thus, we have 50.000 + 3.000 + 1.400 + 1.020 + 1.001 = 56.421 mm.

All these five slip gauges are wrung properly to get the required dimension.
Sine bar
 Small type components

large and heavy type components

ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS
INDIRECT METHODS
INDIRECT METHODS-Sine Bar
 Module- 6

• Introduction to Metrology - Linear and angular

measurements – taper measurement, threads, surface finish,
inspection of straightness, flatness and alignment
Comparators - Gear testing
 Why Surfaces are Important ?
• Aesthetic reasons

• Surfaces affect safety

• Friction and wear depend on surface characteristics

• Surfaces affect mechanical and physical properties

• Assembly of parts is affected by their surfaces

• Smooth surfaces make better electrical contacts

 Surfaces
• Surface irregularities
Surfaces of any manufactured component
(machined) consist of :
• Form errors (Geometric errors)

• Surface texture (Surface finish)

 Surface Texture
• The topography and geometric features of the surface

• It has roughness, waviness, and flaws

• It also possesses a pattern and/or direction resulting from the

mechanical process that produced it
 Elements of Surface Texture
1. Roughness -small, finely-spaced deviations from nominal surface
–Determined by material characteristics and processes that formed the
surface
2. Waviness -deviations of much larger spacing
–Waviness deviations occur due to work deflection, vibration, heat
treatment, and similar factors
–Roughness is superimposed on waviness
3.Lay -predominant direction or pattern of the surface texture
4.Flaws -irregularities that occur occasionally on the surface
–Includes cracks, scratches, inclusions, and similar defects in the surface
–Although some flaws relate to surface texture, they also affect surface
integrity
Elements of Surface Texture
 Surface Roughness
Average of vertical deviations from nominal
surface over a specified length surface.

Sampling Length: It is the length of Profile necessary for the

evaluation of irregularities to be taken in account. Also called as
“Cut-off” length.
It is measured Parallel to direction of profile.
Mean line of the Profile: It is the line that divides the effective
profile such that, within sampling length the sum of squares of
vertical ordinates (y1,y2,...) between effective profile points & mean
line is minimum or Zero.

Center line of the Profile: It is the line that divides the effective
profile such that, the area contained by the profile above & below
the line are equal.
Theory:
Surface texture is deemed to include irregularities which, recurring many times
across the surface, tend to form on it a pattern or texture. The irregularities in the
surface texture which result from the inherent action of the production process is
called roughness or primary texture. That component of surface texture upon
which roughness is super imposed is called waviness or secondary texture. This
may result from such factors as machine or work deflections, vibrations, chatter,
heat treatment or warping strains. The direction of the predominant surface
pattern, ordinarily determined by the production method used is called lay. The
parameters of the surface are conveniently defined with respect to a straight
reference line. The most widely used parameter is the arithmetic average
departure of the filtered profile from the mean line. This is known as the CLA
(Centre - Line - Average) or Ra (roughness average).
Analysis of Surface Traces(surface finish)
1. Centre line Average (C.L.A. Method)
•Surface roughness is
measured as the average
deviation from nominal
surface.
•It is defined as average value
of the ordinates from mean
line, regardless of the
arithmetic sign of ordinates.
Caln of CLA Value by
equation 2 is carried out
1 by Planimeter .

= 2
2. Root Mean Square (R.M.S. Method)

•Surface roughness is
measured as the average
deviation from nominal
surface.
•It is defined as square root of
arithmetic mean of values of
square of ordinates of the
surfaces measured from mean
line.
 3. Ten Point Height Method
In this method avg.
difference between five
height peaks & five lowest
valleys of surface texture
within sampling length
measured from a line parallel
to mean line & not crossing
the profile.

It is simple method to measure total depth of surface irregularities, but it does

not give sufficient information about surface, as no account is taken of
frequency of the irregularities.

If R = Ten point height of irregularities then,

 Measurement of Surface finish
1) Stylus Probe Instrument (Contact type)

• These methods enable to determine a numerical value

of the surface finish of any surface.
•Skid or shoe which is drawn slowly over the surface
either by hand or by motor drive. The skid when moved
over the surface follows its general contours and
provides a datum for the measurements.
• A stylus or probe which moves over the surface with
the skid. The stylus should be cone shaped with a
spherical tip. This records the micro-geometrical form
of the surface. It moves vertically up and down
relative to skid movement due to roughness of the
surface.
• As the stylus tracks the surface peaks and valleys, its
vertical motion is converted to a time varying
electrical signal that represent surface profile.
• Generally it is desired that if the skid is moving up
then the stylus must also be moving up.
Stylus Probe Instrument
Stylus Probe Instrument
MarSurf XCR 20 Roughness and contour
measuring station
 COMPARATORS
• What is a Comparator?

A device that compares the size of a part with that to which is set and does not

directly indicate the actual size.

Comparators are the instruments calibrated by means of end standards to measure

unknown dimensions. The purpose of a comparator is to detect and display the small
differences between the unknown linear dimensions and the length of the standard. The
difference in lengths is detected as a displacement of a sensing probe. The important and
essential function of the instruments is to magnify or amplify the small input
displacement so that it is displayed on an analog scale.
 COMPARATORS
• Comparator should have 3 basic feature:

1. Sensing device:- Faithfully sense the input signal like change

of length or surface displacement
2. Magnifying or amplifying system:- To increase the signal to a
suitable magnitude
(Mechanical, optical, pneumatic, hydraulic and electronic
methods are utilized for this purpose)
1. Display system: - Utilizes the amplified signal to provide a
readout (May be scale or pointer).
 COMPARATORS
Types of comparators

Classification can be made according to the type of magnification devices that

are employed

– Mechanical comparators ((Dial Indicator, Johansson Mikrokator, Sigma

Comparator))
– Electrical comparators

– Optical comparators

– Pneumatic comparators
MECHANICAL COMPARATORS
 MECHANICAL COMPARATORS
Sigma comparator

Sigma comparator is a simple but ingenious mechanical comparator, where a linear

displacement of a plunger is translated into the movement of a pointer over a calibrated scale.
The plunger is the sensing element that is in contact with the work part. It moves on a slit
washer, which provides frictionless linear movement and also arrests rotation of the plunger
about its axis. A knife edge is screwed onto the plunger, which bears upon the face of the
moving member of a cross-strip hinge. This unit comprises a fixed member and a moving
block, connected by thin flexible strips at right angles to each other. Whenever the plunger
moves up or down, the knife edge drives the moving member of the cross-strip hinge assembly.
This deflects an arm, which divides into a ‘Y’ form. The extreme ends of this Y-arm are
connected to a driving drum by means of phosphor-bronze strips. The movement of the Y-arm
rotates the driving drum and, in turn, the pointer spindle. This causes the movement of the
pointer over a calibrated scale.
The magnification of the instrument is obtained in two stages. In the first stage, if the effective
length of Y-arm is L and the distance from the hinge pivot to the knife edge is x, then
magnification is L/x. The second stage of magnification is obtained with respect to the pointer
length R and driving drum radius r. The magnification is given by R/r. Therefore, overall
magnification is given by (L/x) × (R/r).
 Pneumatic comparator
Pneumatic comparators use air as a means of measurement.

Principle: - The changes in a calibrated flow respond to changes in the part

feature. This is achieved using several methods and is referred to as pneumatic
gauging, air gauging, or pneumatic metrology.

Based on the type of air gauge circuit, pneumatic gauges can be classified as
 free flow gauges
 back pressure gauges
 Free Flow Air Gauge

Principle

This uses a simple pneumatic circuit. Compressed air with a pressure in the range 1.5–2 bar
is passed through a tapered glass column that contains a small metal float. The air then
passes through a rubber or plastic hose and exits to the atmosphere through the orifice in the
gauging head. Since the gauging head is inserted inside the work part that is being inspected,
there is a small clearance between the gauging head and the work part. This restricts the
flow of air, thereby changing the position of the float inside the tapered glass column.
 Back Pressure Gauge

This system uses a two-orifice arrangement, as shown in Figure. While the

orifice O1 is called the control orifice, the orifice O2 is referred to as the
measuring orifice. The measuring head gets compressed air supply at a
constant pressure P, which is called the source pressure. It passes through the
control orifice into an intermediate chamber.
Air exits the measuring head through the measuring orifice. While the size of the
control orifice remains constant, the effective size of the measuring orifice varies
because of the gap d between the measuring orifice and the work surface.
Depending on the gap d, the back pressure Pb changes, thereby providing a
means for measuring dimension d.
Solex Pneumatic Gauge
Principle
A master gear is mounted on a fixed vertical
spindle and the gear to be tested on another
similar spindle.
These gears are maintained in mesh by spring
pressure.
Construction
The gears are mounted on the two spindles , so that they
are free to rotate without measurable clearance.
The right spindle can be moved along the table and
clamped in any desired position and The right spindle
slide is free to move.
Working
At first the dial gauge is set to zero and then both
gears are mounted on spindles
The variation in dial gauge reading are any
irregularities in gear under test.
A recorder is fitted in the form of waved circular
chart.
Specifications
Overall size : 800 × 300 × 425 mm.
Max dia. of gear : 300 mm.
Max helix angle : upto 30·.
LC for dial gauge : 0.01 mm.
Max thick. of gear : 30 mm.
Weight : 55 kg (approx).
Limitation
Friction in the floating carriage reduces sensitivity
It is not suitable for < 300 mm gear diameter.
Measurements are directly depend upon master
gear.
Error in pitch, helix and tooth thickness are not
clearly identified.
Parkinson’s gear tester
 Some Definitions
Basic Size: The size with reference to which the limits of size are
fixed.
Actual Size: Actual measured dimension of the part.
Zero Line: It is a straight line corresponding to the basic size. The
deviations are measured from this line. The positive and negative
deviations are shown above and below the zero line respectively.
Limits of Size: The two extreme permissible sizes (maximum &
minimum) of a part between which the actual size should lie.

Maximum Limit of Size (Upper Limit): The greater of the two

limits of size (the maximum permissible size).

Minimum Limit of Size (Lower Limit): The smaller of the two

limits of size (the minimum permissible size).

Shaft: A term used by convention to designate all external

features of a part, including those which are not cylindrical.

Hole: A term used by convention to designate all internal

features of a part, including those which are not cylindrical
Allowance: It is the difference between the basic dimensions of
the mating parts.
When the shaft size is less than the hole size, then the allowance
is positive and when the shaft size is greater than the hole size,
then the allowance is negative.

Tolerance: It is the difference between the upper limit and lower

limit of a dimension.
Tolerance Zone: It is the zone between the maximum and
minimum limit size.
Upper Deviation: It is the algebraic difference between the
maximum size and the basic size. The upper deviation of a hole
is represented by a symbol ES (Ecart Superior) and of a shaft, it
is represented by es.
Lower Deviation: It is the algebraic difference between the
minimum size and the basic size. The lower deviation of a hole is
represented by a symbol EI (Ecart Inferior) and of a shaft, it is
represented by ei.
Unilateral Tolerance : In this system, the dimension of a part is
allowed to vary only on one side of the basic size, i.e. tolerance
lies wholly on one side of the basic size either above or below it.

Bilateral Tolerance : In this system, the dimension of the part is

allowed to vary on both the sides of the basic size, i.e. the limits of
tolerance lie on either side of the basic size
 Clearance fit
 In clearance fit, an air space or clearance exists between
the shaft and hole.
 Such fits give loose joint.
 A clearance fit has positive allowance, i.e. there is
minimum positive clearance between high limit of the
shaft and low limit of the hole.
 Allows rotation or sliding between the mating parts.
 e.g. Loose fit, Running fit, Slide fit
 Interference fit
 A negative difference between diameter of the hole and the
shaft is called interference.
 In such cases, the diameter of the shaft is always larger than
the hole diameter.
 It used for components where motion, power has to be
transmitted.
 Interference exists between the high limit of hole and low
limit of the shaft.
 e.g. Shrink fit, Tight fit
 Transition fit
 It may result in either clearance fit or interference fit depending
on the actual value of the individual tolerances of the mating
components.
 Transition fits are a compromise between clearance and
interference fits.
 They are used for applications where accurate location is
important but either a small amount of clearance or interference
is permissible.
 e.g. Push fit, Shrink fit
 Auto collimator
 The Autocollimator is a single instrument combining the
functions of a collimator and a telescope. It detects small
angular displacements of a mirror by means of its own
collimated light.
 Autocollimators are used to detect small misalignments.
 Used to check the straightness, small angular misalignment.
 Checking flatness of bed plates and surface tables.
 Checking squareness of column to base and parallelism of twin
slide rails.
 Autocollimation is an optical technique of projecting an
illuminated reticle ( a series if fine lines i.e. parallel light rays)
to infinity and receiving the reticle image after reflection on a
flat mirror.
Principal - If a parallel beam of light is projected from the
collimating lens and if a plane reflector R is set up normal to
the direction of the beam, light will be reflected back along the
same path and light will be brought back to focus exactly at
the position of the light source .

If the reflector is tilted through a small angle (θ), the parallel

beam will be reflected through twice the angle (2θ) and would
be brought to focus in the same plane as the light source but to
one side of it. The image will not coincide but there will be a
displacement (d) equal to focal length times the angle of
reflection (f *2θ) where f is the focal length of the collimating
lens.