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International Journal of Pavement Research and Technology 11 (2018) 176–184
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Aggregate fatigue failure on macro texture polishing of

asphalt pavement
Zhenyu Qian a, Yinghao Miao b, Haocheng Xiong a, Linbing Wang c,d,⇑
a
National Center for Material Service Safety, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
b
Beijing Key Laboratory of Traffic Engineering, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, China
c
Joint USTB-Virginia Tech Lab on Multifunctional Materials, USTB, Beijing, China
d
Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, United States

Received 14 June 2017; received in revised form 9 August 2017; accepted 13 September 2017
Available online 20 September 2017

Abstract

The macro-texture of asphalt pavement greatly affects the traffic safety of driving. In this study, the 3D laser scanning data, which is
captured from the pavements, is used for reverse modeling. FE software ANSYS is used to analyze the contact stress distribution of
pavement macro-texture and tire. The results show that the macro texture will be affected by fatigue failure considering the size effect
of coarse aggregate. The fatigue life distribution of pavements is analyzed using the fatigue analysis software FE-SAFE which is based
on linear cumulative damage theory. The developing tendency of texture depth with respect to the number of loading times is obtained by
analyzing the results of fatigue life. Compared with the results of accelerated loading test shows that the factor of fatigue failure has
remarkably affected the macro texture under low loading times. This effect is gradually decreased with the increasing of cyclic loading
times.
Ó 2017 Chinese Society of Pavement Engineering. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND
license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Keywords: Fatigue failure; Reverse modeling; FE simulation; Pavement macro-texture; Fatigue life analysis

1. Introduction macro texture and micro texture according to different

scales [1–6]. Analysis based on the energy loss of rubber
Nowadays, the asphalt pavement is the primary pave- tires shows that the higher the height of pavement macro
ment type in road engineering, because of its great skid texture, the greater the hysteresis energy loss of the tire
resistance performance which is a prerequisite for ensuring with elastic deformation, resulting in a better pavement
the safety and comfort of traffic. The skid resistance perfor- skid resistance performance [7]. Cairney [8] suggested that
mance of asphalt pavement is closely related to the surface traffic accident rate will be raised, when the pavement
texture which is mainly determined by the shape, size, and macro texture was degraded to a lower level. Laganier [9]
distribution of asphalt aggregate. It can be divided into concluded that pavement roughness and surface macro tex-
ture would significantly affect the vehicle fuel consumption.
Therefore, research on the resistance mechanism of the
⇑ Corresponding author at: Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061,
macro texture of asphalt pavement is of great importance.
United States.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (Z. Qian), miaoyinghao@b-
jut.edu.cn (Y. Miao), [email protected] (H. Xiong), wangl@vt.
edu, [email protected] (L. Wang).
Peer review under responsibility of Chinese Society of Pavement
Engineering.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijprt.2017.09.009
1996-6814/Ó 2017 Chinese Society of Pavement Engineering. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
 Z. Qian et al. / International Journal of Pavement Research and Technology 11 (2018) 176–184 177

2. Fatigue failure mechanism of pavement macro texture micro structures will increase and expand, and the cracks
will also be connected with each other. After unloading,
A large number of studies show that the damage of these micro structures will be closed till the cyclic loading
pavement macro texture is mainly influenced by the prop- is loaded again, the micro structures will expand continu-
erty of asphalt aggregate and traffic condition [10–13]. In ously along the fractures, and the fractures gradually
actual use of the pavement, the contact surface of tire develop until rock failure [20]. Therefore, if the internal
and pavement is an approximately elliptical rectangle, fatigue damage of exposed coarse aggregate of asphalt
due to the vehicle load and the influence of the inner pres- pavement is generated by the stress, then with the increase
sure of the tire [14,15]. The tire and the macro texture of of cyclic times, the damage is continuously accumulated till
pavement are in contact closely with this contact surface, failure.
which makes the tire to an elastic deformation of flexure
in the vertical direction to wrap the rough edges of macro 3. Numerical simulation analysis
texture, as shown in Fig. 1(a). Meanwhile, micro slip phe-
nomenon could occur between tire and pavement. Even if 3.1. Establishment of the pavement macro texture model
the contact condition is pretty good, the slip rate of the tire
will still reach 5–10% [16]. Therefore, the macro texture of In order to analyze the stress distribution of pavement
pavement will bear the vehicle load in the vertical direction macro texture accurately, reverse models based on real
and the friction force in the longitudinal direction, which is pavement is used for finite element analysis. This study uses
generated by the micro slip of the tire, as shown in Fig. 1 hand-held high-resolution 3D laser scanner produced by
(b). With the repeated actions of the vehicle, the macro tex- Creaform Inc. to capture the spatial coordinates of macro
ture of pavement is under the cyclic stress constantly, texture from the real pavement, as shown in Fig. 2. The
resulting in a periodic disturbance of coarse aggregates
exposed on the pavement surface.
The coarse aggregate used in asphalt pavement is mainly
composed of rock material. As a kind of quasi-brittle mate-
rial, the process of rock failure caused by cyclic loading is
quite complicated [17–19]. There are a large number of
micro cracks, pores, and other micro structures in natural
rock when the rock is affected by external loading, these

(a) Hand-held 3D laser scanner

(a)

(b) (b) Field acquisition of pavement macro texture

Fig. 1. The micro scale contact between tire and pavement. Fig. 2. Acquisition of the spatial coordinates of pavement macro texture.
178 Z. Qian et al. / International Journal of Pavement Research and Technology 11 (2018) 176–184

principle is based on laser triangulation technique, where

its maximum scanning resolution is up to 0.05 mm.
This study considers the asphalt pavement which grada-
tion is SMA-13, as shown in Fig. 3, which coarse aggregate
type is basalt, the project area of scanned pavement was
90 mm
90 mm [21]. After that, the spatial coordinates
of pavement texture are imported into Rhinoceros 3D
modeling software, to generate the point cloud of pave-
ment texture, then to reversely create the surface model
of pavement texture based on the point cloud. After that,
the reconstructed model is imported into the finite element
analysis software ANSYS for further simulation. Since this
study is mainly focused on the contact stress on exposed
pavement aggregate, the pavement model is considered
Fig. 4. Pavement texture model in ANSYS.
as a rock with specific texture, as shown in Fig. 4.

3.2. Finite element analysis of the pavement macro texture

To analyze the contact stress between tire and pavement

in ANSYS, the following assumptions need to be estab-
lished. Firstly, considering the computing capability of
computer, this study considers the central part of the pave-
ment texture model, where the pavement contact area is
28 mm
31 mm, meanwhile, according to the actual con-
tact conditions of tire and pavement, the tire contact area
is regarded as a rectangular area whose projected area is
21 mm
21 mm. In this study, the thickness of pavement
model is considered based on the size of coarse aggregate
which is 13 mm, and the final contact model is shown in
Fig. 5. The material model of tire is using the three order Fig. 5. Tire-pavement contact model.
Ogden model, where the parameters of Ogden model deter-
two load steps, where the first step is to apply pressure on
mines the physically realistic response and material stabil-
the tire, and the tire is affected by the rough edges of the
ity of the tire [22]. The friction coefficient is taking as 0.6.
asphalt aggregate, resulting in a radial elastic deformation
The pavement is assumed as a continuum model, and the
to wrap the macro texture of asphalt pavement. The second
material parameters are referenced to basalt, as shown in
step is to simulate the micro slip between tire and pavement
Table 1.
by controlling the displacement of the tire. It is actually a
The boundary conditions of the model are the BZZ-100
quasi-static simulation, where the slip distance does not
standard axial load. The simulation process is divided into
affect the final static stress distribution of pavement. Thus
the tire only needs to be controlled to slip in a reasonable
range. In this study, the tire is controlled to slip 2 mm to
the X direction.

3.3. Finite element simulation results

The first principal stress distribution of the pavement

texture is shown in Fig. 6(a), where the stress concentration
occurs in many locations, especially on the rough edges of
the coarse aggregate. The maximum stress in the red
labeled area is 392.7 MPa. Fig. 6(b) is the first principal
stress distribution from the perspective of XZ cross section
which is in the red labeled area.

3.4. The size effect of pavement aggregate

The simulation results show that a significant stress con-

Fig. 3. Image of acquired pavement area. centration could occur when the tire is in contact with the
 Z. Qian et al. / International Journal of Pavement Research and Technology 11 (2018) 176–184 179

Table 1 strength rm, bc is the strength attenuation coefficient of

Material parameters. rock.
Pavement Tire According to the compressive strength of standard
Elastic modulus (MPa) 9.0
104 basalt specimen is 67.7 MPa [26], from Formula (1), the
Poisson ratio 0.25 strength of basalt coarse aggregate which is affected by
The parameters of three-order Ogden model l1 6.3 the size effect rc is 125.8 MPa.
l2 0.012 GE [27] considered that there is a stress threshold of fati-
l3 0.1 gue failure of rock, only when the maximum stress of cyclic
a1 1.3
loading exceeds the threshold value, then the rock will
a2 5
a3 2 accumulate the fatigue damage. If the stress of the cyclic
loading is below the threshold value, the rock would not
be damaged, no matter how many cyclic loading times.
The size of fatigue threshold is various which is depending
road surface [23,24]. However, the size effect of rock on the types of rock, the value is usually 65–80% of the sta-
strength also needs to be considered. Liu [25] proposed tic strength of rock [28–30]. In this study, assuming that
an empirical formula as follows: fatigue threshold value is 70% of the static strength of
the aggregate, then the basalt aggregate will accumulate
rc ¼ rm þ ac expðbc DÞ ð1Þ
fatigue damage once the concentrated stress is more than
about 88 MPa.
where rc is the uniaxial compressive strength of rock spec- Take the pavement in the last chapter as an example, the
imen whose length or diameter of the section is D, rm is the maximum stress loaded on exposed pavement aggregate
test strength of the corresponding type of rock, ac is the dif- can be reached to 392.7 MPa based on the stress results
ference between the strength of original rock r0 and the test of pavement model simulated by ANSYS. It is far greater

Fig. 6. 1st principle stress distribution of pavement macro texture.

180 Z. Qian et al. / International Journal of Pavement Research and Technology 11 (2018) 176–184

than the threshold value of rock fatigue damage. Thus the cracked rock under different cyclic stresses are obtained
concentrated stress could produce a small range of direct based on the high-frequency uniaxial compression fatigue
failure at the rough edges of the exposed pavement aggre- test. According to the fatigue test data, the S–N curve of
gate, and then leads to change the macro texture of pave- the rock material as shown in Fig. 7.
ment. While if the concentrated stress did not cause a Input the stress results of ANSYS into FE-SAFE, the
direct failure, but the stress is still greater than the fatigue fatigue life of aggregate is calculated based on the S–N
threshold of the rock, the fatigue damage would be accu- curve of rock material. As shown in Fig. 8, the fatigue life
mulated continuously inside the aggregate [31]. distribution is coincident with the results of stress, the fati-
gue life is displayed in base-10 logarithm, in which the
3.5. Fatigue life analysis of pavement macro texture pavement area of fatigue life over 109 loading times is the
infinite area, means that the pavement texture would not
The macro texture of asphalt pavement mainly consists be affected by fatigue failure.
of aggregate particles. There was very limited research on While the fatigue failure occurs on pavement aggregate,
fatigue failure of aggregate rock at present. The influence which will lead to the changes of pavement macro texture,
factors of the rock fatigue failure include the maximum the contact condition between tire and pavement, as shown
and minimum cyclic stress, the frequency of the cycle, the in Fig. 1, will also be changed. As shown in Fig. 9, using a
cycle times and the loading wave, in which the main factors sine wave to represent these two kinds of macro texture
are the maximum cyclic stress and stress amplitude [29,32]. model, the length of these two model are the same, while
Under real traffic, the stress on pavement is very compli- the wavelength of the sine waves are various. Obviously,
cated, thus this study assumed the traffic load is based on the first model is much sharper than the latter one. Assum-
BZZ-100 standard axle load, when a vehicle passes over ing the former model is the initial state of pavement macro
the pavement, the standard axle load of this vehicle is texture, and the latter model is the macro texture which has
applied onto the pavement, the stress at this moment is been affected by aggregate fatigue failure. Once the mor-
assumed as the maximum cyclic stress, once the vehicle phology of macro texture is changed, the contact condition
leaves, the pavement is no longer under loaded, which will also be changed, which leads to the changes of stress
means the lower limit of cyclic stress on pavement is 0. distribution on pavement texture. ANSYS is used to simu-
Therefore, the stress conditions of pavement are assumed late the stress on the pavement with different texture mor-
as a constant amplitude cyclic loading, and the loading phologies and to compare the changes of stress on
sequence does not affect the fatigue life of pavement pavement texture before and after the failure. The simula-
texture. tion boundary conditions are the same with last chapter.
The density of the hysteresis loop curve of the typical As shown in Fig. 9(a), the maximum first principal stress
rock fatigue failure test under the effects of constant ampli- is reached to 6.17 MPa and reduced to 5.29 MPa in
tude cyclic loading is basically unchanged [33]. Thus, the Fig. 9(b). Results show that the changes in the morphology
accumulation tendency of fatigue damage of rock can be of macro texture will lead to the changes of stress distribu-
approximately considered as linear increasing. According tion on pavement. It means that the stress which concen-
to the Miner damage model in linear fatigue damage the- trated on macro texture could be gradually reduced with
ory, the fatigue damage of coarse aggregate rock can be the continued failure of aggregate, till the concentrated
calculated by stress amplitude and a number of repetition stress is finally reduced to less than fatigue threshold stress
curves (hereinafter referred to as S–N curve) [30].
The linear Miner fatigue cumulative damage model con-
sidered that the fatigue damage degree is calculated by the
following equation:
X
n
ni
D¼ ¼1 ð2Þ
i¼1
Ni

where N i is the fatigue life under current stress S i , ni is the

number of cyclic loading times under current stress S i , n is
the current cyclic loading times.
In this study, FE-SAFE software is used to analyze the
fatigue life of the exposed coarse aggregate of asphalt pave-
ment, according to the Formula (2). Since the material
database in FE-SAFE is mainly metal material, so it is
needed to define a kind of rock material including the S–
N curve in FE-SAFE.
Zhou [34] used high strength white cement specimen to
simulate rock material, the fatigue test data of the non- Fig. 7. S–N curve of non-cracked rock.
 Z. Qian et al. / International Journal of Pavement Research and Technology 11 (2018) 176–184 181

Fig. 8. Fatigue life distribution of pavement.

of aggregate, then the pavement macro texture will be no

longer affected by fatigue damage.
In addition, in order to analyze the characteristics of
fatigue failure distribution of pavement macro texture, this
study extract the elements which is affected by fatigue fail-
ure, from the peak of the pavement texture layer by layer
with the distance of 0.3 mm, then calculate the average fati-
gue life of the elements in each layer, so the developing ten-
dency of average fatigue life with the depth of macro
texture is shown in Fig. 10. It can be found in Fig. 10 that
the fatigue life of pavement texture is firstly decreased and
then increased with depth, the shortest fatigue life of pave-
ment layer is located at about 1.7 mm from a peak of the
texture. It shows that the fatigue damage will firstly occur
at the side of aggregate edges. The reason is also shown in
Fig. 6(b) and Fig. 9, the maximum stress concentration
generally occurs at the side of the aggregate, which is
caused by tire slip. Therefore a larger stress concentration
would cause fatigue failure of aggregate firstly.
Fig. 9. Two kinds of macro texture model represented with sine wave.
4. Results analysis

4.1. Generalized macro texture evaluation method

In order to find the developing tendency of fatigue life of

coarse aggregate with loading times, however, the tradi-
tional sand patch method cannot be used in the 3D pave-
ment model. Thus an evaluation method of pavement
macro texture under different loading times is proposed.
A new evaluation parameter MTD is ideal to evaluate
and describe the average depth of 3D pavement macro tex-
ture under different cyclic loading times.
According to the standard sand patch method, the vol-
ume of the micro hexahedral element was used to calculate
the volume of the entire pavement texture model. As long
as the element size is small enough, any morphology
changes of pavement macro texture can be regarded as
Fig. 10. The developing tendency of fatigue life with the depth.
the changes of several micro elements. MTD is the ratio
182 Z. Qian et al. / International Journal of Pavement Research and Technology 11 (2018) 176–184

of the model volume between the texture peak and bottom

point with the projected area of pavement model. Accord-
ing to the principle of MTD , the relationship between the
MTD (which is calculated by element volume) and the
MTD (which is measured by sand patch method) is approx-
imately linear on numerical.
The calculation of MTD is similar to the sand patch
method, the formula is as follow:
N V
MTD ¼ ð3Þ
S
where N is the number of elements under current pavement
model, V is the average volume of the element, S is the pro-
jected area of the pavement model.
The lowest place of the texture is assumed as the bottom
plane, then, from the top to the bottom plane, eliminate the
element which exceeded its fatigue life in a sequence of Fig. 12. The developing tendency of MTD with the number of cyclic
loading times, until all the elements which affected by fati- loading times.
gue failure are eliminated, the processed pavement model is
shown in Fig. 11. is basalt and gradation are also SMA-13, this is the same
To calculate the processed model in Fig. 11, according as the pavement model in this paper. In order to compare
to Formula (3), the developing tendency of MTD with simulation results and test results, considering that the
the number of the cyclic loads is shown in Fig. 12. It shows numerical error caused by different calculation methods
that the decreasing rate of MTD is remarkably great when need to be excluded. Therefore, this study proposed wear
the number of loading times is small. However, with the rate x to represent the change rate of pavement texture
increase of cyclic loading times, the rough edges of coarse depth under different loading times, which is the ratio of
aggregate becomes smooth, then leads to the gradual MTD (or MTD ) with loading times.
reduction of the concentrated stress. The curve is then turn- According to this method, till about 1 million 600 thou-
ing to be obviously gentle at about 500 thousand loading sand loading times, the wear rate of tested pavement is cal-
times, which means that when it in a high number of load- culated as x1 , and the wear rate of pavement model is
ing times, the pavement macro texture is relatively smooth calculated as x2 . Thus the developing tendency of the wear
changed, the effect of fatigue failure on the pavement rate x1 and wear rate x2 with the axle loading times is
macro texture is reduced either. shown in Fig. 13. As can be seen in the figure, these two
curves are consistent with the tendency of loading times,
4.2. Compared with accelerated loading test the wear rate under high axle loading times are both grad-
ually tending to 0. While the wear rate x2 is greater than
Sun [35] concluded the decreasing tendency of MTD x1 , because of the value of MTD is also greater than the
with loading times based on accelerated loading test on MTD, therefore, this study only considers the developing
asphalt pavement sample, in which the coarse aggregate tendency of wear rate here.

Fig. 13. Comparison of the test pavement wear rate x1 and the simulated
Fig. 11. The pavement model which is eliminated the failure elements. pavement wear rate x2 .
 Z. Qian et al. / International Journal of Pavement Research and Technology 11 (2018) 176–184 183

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