FEATURE ARTICLE

Using Texting to Help Families Build

Their Children’s Vocabulary at Home
Emily K. Snell, Barbara A. Wasik, Annemarie H. Hindman

Discover how texting can be an effective home–school communication

tool to communicate with parents and other caregivers to support
students’ learning.

T Why Vocabulary Development Is

exting is emerging as a promising tool for facili-
tating children’s learning at home. For exam-
ple, families can sign up for programs such as Important for Young Children
Ready4K that send texts to help children meet key Over the past 30 years, considerable research has
developmental milestones (York, Loeb, & Doss, 2018). examined the important role that vocabulary devel-
Yet, less focus has been placed on the potential ben- opment plays in young children’s literacy devel-
efits of texting to bridge the home–classroom gap opment (Fernald, Marchman, & Weisleder, 2013;
specifically by supporting communication between Morgan, Farkas, Hillemeier, Hammer, & Maczuga,
teachers and families to assist with students’ learn- 2015; Suggate, Schaughency, McAnally, & Reese, 2018).
ing. In the first years of schooling, texting might be Learning to read involves many complex processes,
a particularly important tool in the effort to help including developing vocabulary, phonemic aware-
students build vocabulary, or learn the meaning of ness, fluency, and comprehension skills. Vocabulary
words, because vocabulary is very important for plays an important role in that children who have
later success in reading and beyond but is very chal- well-developed language and vocabulary skills draw
lenging to teach in school alone. on fewer cognitive resources to understand the
In this article, we lay out the evidence showing meaning of a word as they encounter it on the writ-
how texting can support family engagement and ten page. Children with larger vocabularies are more
students’ learning, focusing specifically on how likely, when recognizing or sounding out a new word,
texting might support vocabulary development. to know the meaning of that particular word, making
First, we review why vocabulary development is comprehension more efficient. Relatedly, research
so critical and how children learn words. We next has shown that, even after children have largely
share evidence about opportunities that students mastered decoding, those with limited vocabularies
have at home and school to learn new words, espe- often continue to encounter difficulties with read-
cially when they are growing up in communities ing comprehension because of a lack of knowledge
in poverty. Thereafter, we explain what research of word meanings and the structure of language
says texting-based approaches can do to support (Dickinson & Porche, 2011; Ouellette, 2006).
students’ learning and family–school engagement,
broadly speaking. Fourth, we describe an example
of an effective texting project, Text to Talk, in which Emily K. Snell is a research scientist in the College of
teachers text families the vocabulary words their Education at Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA;
children are learning in the classroom so they can email [email protected].
reinforce these words at home. Finally, we offer help- Barbara A. Wasik is a professor and the PNC Chair in
ful hints to teachers about how texting can be used Early Childhood Education in the College of Education at
in their early-grade classrooms to build a variety of Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA; email bwasik@
temple.edu.
skills among students, including vocabulary, high-
lighting how texting is different from other forms of Annemarie H. Hindman is an associate professor in the
College of Education at Temple University, Philadelphia,
family–teacher communication already employed
PA, USA; email [email protected].
by classroom teachers.

The Reading Teacher   Vol. 74   No. 1   pp. 49–57 49 doi:10.1002/trtr.1906   © 2020 International Literacy Association
 Feature Article

Many children in poverty have less developed we don’t want to get ants,” can connect a new word
vocabulary knowledge, especially for the specialized to a child’s experience or existing knowledge. Word
academic vocabulary that appears more frequently meanings are also reinforced by showing children
in books than in conversation (e.g., disappointed pictures or actual objects (Han, Moore, Vukelich, &
instead of sad, inspect instead of look). Researchers Buell, 2010; Wasik & Bond, 2001).
have shown that the gap in vocabulary knowledge Second, children need multiple exposures to
between children from lower and higher income a new word (Biemiller & Boote, 2006; Dickinson
families is present before children et al., 2019; Harris, Golinkoff, &
enter formal schooling (Dickinson PAUSE AND PONDER Hirsh-Pasek, 2011). This means
& Tabors, 2001). Although families not only hear ing the word
in poverty are involved in their many times but also hear-
■ Could texting be an efficient way to
children’s lear ning (Hindman, ing the word used in multiple
reach your full class or individual
Skibbe, Miller, & Zimmerman, 2010) family members of students in your meaningful contexts: at home,
and deeply interested in build- class? at school, in play, and while
ing essential skills (Drummond & being read to, among others.
Stipek, 2004), research has shown ■ What could you ask families to do, via Although students’ minds are
text, to help their children learn at
that there is often less talk in often described as sponges
home?
lower income households, rela- that quickly absorb new words,
tive to middle-income households, ■ What videos or website resources research has shown that chil-
particularly around the special- could you share with families via text dren can require dozens of
ized vocabulary that appears in so they know how to implement experiences with a new word
learning activities at home?
books (Lareau, 2003). This gap may to solidify their understanding
emerge in part because income is ■ Which of today’s classroom activities of its meaning (Horst, 2013).
highly correlated with language could you text families to ask their Third, apar t from hear-
status and educational attainment, children about to start an extended ing new words, students need
both of which may result in fami- conversation? to practice using a new word,
lies in poverty having less infor- ■ Can you use scheduled texts to save saying it and getting feed-
mation about the type of language yourself time and increase back on how they have used
interactions that build early liter- classroom organization by notifying it, including its correct pro-
acy and language skills (Neuman & families about classroom needs or nunciation and pragmatic use
Celano, 2015; Reardon, 2013). events? (Hindman, Wasik, & Erhart,
2012). Encouraging students to
Effective Word-Learning talk and engage in conversa-
tions with adults about new words allows students
Strategies to experiment with using words they have heard
Linguists and cognitive researchers have spent con- and get information about whether they are using
siderable effort in understanding how children learn the new words correctly.
words (Pinker, 2003), yielding four important prin- Fourth, students need to be able to make con-
ciples of word learning that are relevant for young nections between a new word and the larger world,
students. First, children need to understand the building a rich network of associated words and
meaning of a new word (Biemiller & Boote, 2006; meanings (Pollard-Durodola et al., 2011). For example,
Weizman & Snow, 2001). This understanding can when describing to a student what an ant is, it is help-
begin most simply by providing a child with an age- ful to understand what the student already knows
appropriate definition. For example, telling a young about ants and to make a connection to this exist-
child, “An ant is a small insect that you can see crawl- ing knowledge. For example, an adult might explain,
ing on the ground, and it has six legs,” facilitates “Remember the insects you learned about yesterday,
word learning; explaining the meaning of a word in beetles and flies? An ant is an insect the size of a
relation to its function is particularly helpful (Booth, small fly, but it crawls on the ground.” Helping stu-
2009). The word ant is a good example because it can dents make connections between what they know
be challenging to define the function of some words. and what is new helps them develop and refine new
Telling a child, “An ant likes to eat crumbs of food. concepts and words. Connecting labels to concepts is
That is why we are careful in cleaning up our food; an essential step to developing vocabulary.

50
The Reading Teacher   Vol. 74   No. 1   July/August 2020literacyworldwide.org
 Feature Article

Home and School de Jong, & Smeets, 2008). Although these school-based
interventions have been successful in showing gains
Vocabulary Experiences in students’ vocabulary development, an important
Families are children’s first teachers, and much of piece missing from most school-based interventions
children’s early language is learned from their par- is a family component.
ents and other adults who care for them. Mounting Enhancing school-based interventions with a
research has demonstrated that, on average, chil- family component has many advantages. First, a
dren in poverty have different language experiences family component can increase the dosage of word
at home than their more advantaged peers and that exposure. If a student hears a word at school and
these differences in home experiences translate into also hears it at home, this automatically doubles
disparate vocabulary knowledge, which later predicts the student’s exposure to the new word, which can
children’s success in learning to read (Morgan et al., accelerate word learning.
2015; Vernon-Feagans, Bratsch-Hines, Reynolds, & Second, if families know what children are learn-
Willoughby, 2019). ing about in school, this can provide opportunities
Research has shown that many children in pov- for families to have meaningful conversations with
erty specifically have less exposure at home to the their children. Instead of asking, “What did you do
type of language called academic vocabulary that is in school today?” and the child responds, “I can’t
traditionally used in school-based dialogue and text, remember,” family members can ask very specific
as compared with children from middle- and upper questions, based on teacher-supplied information,
income families (Corson, 1997; Hindman et al., 2010; about what occurred at school. For example, when
Lareau, 2003; Snow & Kim, 2007). Academic vocabulary teachers text a family, informing them what was
refers to words that are not commonly encountered learned about butterflies, family members can talk
in informal conversation yet are frequently found in specifically about butterflies with their child, find-
books. As a result of lack of exposure to academic ing out what the child knows and what they still can
vocabulary at home, children in poverty often enter learn.
preschool and kindergarten with less developed aca- Third, parents and other close family members
demic vocabularies, which puts them at a disadvan- are better able to relate new words to children’s
tage as they are learning to read. personal experiences and knowledge. At school,
Several preschool interventions have addressed teachers can relate new words to previous les-
this disparity in children’s vocabulary knowledge. sons, books, and activities that they have shared
Landry, Anthony, Swank, and Monseque-Bailey (2009) in their class. Making the home connection allows
developed a comprehensive professional develop- families to relate what children are learning in
ment package for preschool teachers that is effective school to something more specific and individual:
at supporting the development of students’ lan- children’s personal experiences. Expanding on the
guage and vocabulary. The Boston Prekindergarten butterf ly example, if a mother knows her child
Program (Weiland & Yoshikawa, 2013) showed is learning about butterf lies that week, she can
similar findings from implementing a professional evoke her child’s recent family experience by ask-
development intervention for preschool teachers ing, “Remember when we were at Aunt Gayle’s last
on student vocabulary. Using a similar approach week, and we saw that beautiful butterfly? Do you
to professional development, the findings from the remember the colors on its body? Do you remember
ExCELL project yielded similar results (Wasik & how its wings fluttered?” Or, a father may be able
Hindman, 2011). to connect a new word to a book that the family
Many of these teacher professional develop- recently read together or to a movie that the child
ment programs focus on book reading as a vehicle recently watched. These conversations can also
for exposing students to more advanced vocabulary, draw on shared cultural activities, experiences, tra-
with picture book images, the story context, and ditions, and other funds of knowledge that compose
teacher questions and feedback during book ­reading family strengths (Gonzalez, Moll, & Amanti, 2005).
identified as key components that support faster Making the home–school connection allows fami-
word learning. Parent-implemented shared book lies to remind children about and invite children to
reading can also contribute to students’ word learn- discuss what they already know, building a network
ing, especially when employing the same strategies of connections around the new word that supports
used by teachers (Dowdall et al., 2019; Mol, Bus, understanding and remembering.

51
The Reading Teacher   Vol. 74   No. 1   July/August 2020literacyworldwide.org
 Feature Article

Connecting words from school to home can also participation in parent training and education inter-
provide opportunities for families to see their child ventions (Murray, Woodruff, Moon, & Finney, 2015).
successful with more academic language than they Perhaps most encouraging are findings from
had thought their child capable of. For example, a randomized trials that texting can increase par-
butterfly unit at school might teach the words chrys- ents’ home involvement with their young children
alis or metamorphosis; when teachers send words to (Doss, Fahle, Loeb, & York, 2019; Hurwitz, Lauricella,
parents to discuss at home, parents can be surprised Hanson, Raden, & Wartella, 2015; York et al., 2018).
by and proud of how much their child is learning. Hurwitz et al. (2015) found that text messages sent
When teachers encourage families to reinforce these to preschool parents over six weeks increased par-
complex words at home in their day-to-day conver- ents’ participation in home learning activities, with
sations around mealtime, playtime, bathtime, or impacts greater for parents of boys and fathers.
bedtime, children’s knowledge is further stretched, Another texting-based intervention, Ready4K (York
deepened, and fortified. et al., 2018), sent three literacy-focused texts per
The need to better connect school and home week for eight months to parents of preschool-
learning around vocabulary instruction has long ers. The program increased the frequency of par-
challenged the field (e.g., Dickinson, 1994), but ent involvement in home literacy activities, parent
­texting provides a possible solution. involvement at school, and student literacy skills,
with some effects being sustained through kinder-
garten (Doss et al., 2019).
Texting: What We Know Texting interventions have also been used to
Texting has become a ubiquitous form of communi- address “summer slide” in elementary school (Kraft
cation in the United States, driven by nearly univer- & Monti-Nussbaum, 2017), time children spend
sal usage of cell phones; 99% of American adults ages reading with parents (Mayer, Kalil, Oreopoulos, &
18–49 have a cell phone, and more than 90% have Gallegos, 2018), and students’ school performance
a smartphone (Pew Research Center, 2019). Surveys and absenteeism in kindergarten (Smythe-Leistico &
have suggested that Millennials and Generation Z Page, 2018) and in middle and high school (Bergman
prefer to communicate via text rather than phone & Chan, 2017).
calls or email (Newport, 2014). With the near uni- Researchers are still trying to determine the
versal adoption of cell phones and preference for best use of texting that will result in significant
texting, services such as Remind, ClassDojo, and impacts on children. Cabell, Zucker, DeCoster, Copp,
Edmodo tap into this enormous market by allow- and Landry (2019) found mixed impacts of a pre-K
ing teachers to text families privately and securely parental texting program focused on actionable,
without using their personal phone number (Snell, rather than merely informational, messages; only
Hindman, & Wasik, 2018). Teachers access programs students with higher skills benefited from their par-
such as Remind via the web or an app and are able to ents receiving language and literacy-focused texts,
send messages to individuals, groups, or the whole but lower skilled students saw greater benefits from
class. These messages can arrive as text messages health-focused texts. Baroody, Ferretti, and Larsen
on the recipient’s phone and thus do not require use (2018) also found mixed effects of a texting-based
of a smartphone. Family members can also access intervention; texts were most effective for Spanish-
messages via the web or app. speaking families and increased children’s math
Human ser vice programs and health inter- and literacy interest, definitional vocabulary, and
ventions have found texting to be a useful tool to print knowledge.
enhance communication and affect parent and child Snell et al. (2018) conducted a focus group study
outcomes (Hall, Cole-Lewis, & Bernhardt, 2015), to examine whether teachers and families were
nudging parents to increase behaviors that benefit open to the idea of sending or receiving information
their child (Gennetian, Darling, & Aber, 2017; Jacob, about what students were learning in class via text
Berger, Hart, & Loeb, 2016). For example, texting is or texting-based apps. The study found that many
increasingly used in health interventions target- Head Start and public pre-K teachers use texting
ing expectant, new, and experienced parents by to communicate with families. Teachers reported
delivering targeted, personalized text messages using texting not only because it is logistically easier
(Chen, Chai, Dong, Niu, & Zhang, 2018). Texting to reach busy, working caregivers but also because of
has also been successfully used to improve parent the translation capabilities many texting programs

52
The Reading Teacher   Vol. 74   No. 1   July/August 2020literacyworldwide.org
 Feature Article

have, which improve communication with family Figure 1

members who do not speak English as their primary Example Vocabulary-Related Texts Sent in Text
language. Overall, teachers reported that texting to Talk
was helpful to them in facilitating ongoing dialogue,
communication, and collaboration with families.
The focus groups revealed that families did not
have concerns about teachers texting them and that
nearly all families had phone plans that allowed
for unlimited texting, making this method of com- Ms P: Our new words
munication accessible to most families. Indeed, are tunnel, bridge, track,
as multiple adults in a family (e.g., mother, father, and gaining. Click here
grandmother) could sign up to receive texts (and in to see definitions.
most cases, multiple family members did sign up),
many families felt more connected as compared
with paper-based or in-person approaches to com-
munication, when only the family member who
Ms P: Help your child
picked up children from school, attended school
look for tunnels,
meetings, or checked the bottom of children’s back-
bridges, or tracks. Play
packs would receive information from the school. a game in the car or on
Finally, it is important to note that texting is the bus, looking for
best done using apps such as Remind or ClassDojo vehicles that are gaining
that allow teachers to reach families without using on you.
their own personal phone numbers. Using such
services keeps teachers’ personal numbers private
and confidential, as desired. Parents may also opt
in or out of the service. Teachers should keep com-
munication constructive and send relevant, use-
ful messages. Teachers we have interviewed (Snell
et al., 2018) noted that they use texting for positive
and useful information but discuss behavioral or
academic problems in person or on a phone call.
Password-protected texting services such as Remind
or ClassDojo make every effort to maintain confi- Text to Talk texts introduced families to a book
dentiality and privacy but do require teachers to be read that week in class, four words from that book,
mindful of what they share over text. and ideas for ways the families could talk about the
We designed the Text to Talk intervention based words with their child. The texts also included links
on these promising results for texting-based inter- to the program’s website, which includes videos of
ventions and the evidence from the literature around the book being read, student-friendly definitions,
how young students learn words. We drew from the and other ideas for facilitating child–adult conver-
vocabulary and word-learning literature outlined at sation about the words to increase understand-
the beginning of this article to guide our design of an ing. Teachers could use the texting programs (e.g.,
evidence-based, vocabulary-focused language inter- Remind, ClassDojo) to translate the texts for fami-
vention. In Text to Talk, teachers texted informa- lies who requested receiving them in another lan-
tion about four vocabulary words each week using guage. Text to Talk was then tested in a randomized
Remind or ClassDojo (see Figure 1); they sent texts controlled trial in a large city school district. Results
to all family members who had agreed to partici- found that teachers who texted information about
pate. Family members were free to drop out at any the vocabulary aligned with what they were reading
time. These texts had been prepared ahead of time in class that week had students who learned more of
by project staff (see Figure 2) and given to teachers those words (Snell, Wasik, & Hindman, 2019).
for ease of use, although teachers were welcome to Based on the findings, we are providing some
send additional texts (and many did). evidence-based guidance to encourage texting as an

53
The Reading Teacher   Vol. 74   No. 1   July/August 2020literacyworldwide.org
 Feature Article

Figure 2
Examples of Text to Talk Books, Vocabulary Words, Definitions, and Activities

Book Word Definition Activity

A Pocket for Corduroy by laundry Clothes that need to be washed Ask your child to help you do the
Don Freeman are laundry. laundry.
pocket A pocket is a small piece of Ask your child what he or she could
material on your clothing that hide inside a pocket. Pretend to search
holds things. for the item.
inside Inside is the inner part of Play a game in which you hide objects
something. inside or outside a box or cup. Ask your
child to tell you whether the object is
inside or outside.
search To search is to look around Play a searching game in which you
very carefully in order to find ask your child to search for different
something. objects in your home.
Peeny Butter Fudge by patience Patience is the ability to be calm Ask your child to show you how to be
Toni Morrison and Slade and wait without getting upset or patient while waiting in a store or in
Morrison angry. line.
fudge Fudge is a type of candy. Look up a recipe for fudge and make it
together.
recipe A recipe is a list of ingredients Ask your child what a recipe is. Tell
and instructions for making him or her what your favorite recipe
food. is. If you have time, make the recipe
together.
rhythm A rhythm is a pattern of sounds. Play a game with your child in which he
or she makes up a clapping rhythm and
you try to copy it.
Note. Each week, the teacher sends out a text listing the words and one of the activities, along with a link to that week’s Text to Talk webpage. On the
webpage, the words are listed along with pictures, definitions, and activities. A link to a YouTube video of the book being read is also included.

additional tool to support students’ word learning. role as their child’s home teacher are more likely to
Although we focus in this article on word learning, engage in home-based strategies that will boost their
these strategies can also be applied to texting about child’s learning and development.
other literacy topics, such as phonemic awareness or
comprehension, or other topics of a teacher’s choosing.
Texting to Support Learning
Word Meanings
How Texting Can Be Used to Support Teachers can text a word and a simple, student-
Word Learning friendly definition to parents and encourage parents
To summarize the evidence for preschool word learn- to ask their child if they know what the word means.
ing, students learn words most easily when they A student-friendly definition uses simple language
understand the meaning of the word, receive mul- and relates the word to objects, concepts, or ideas
tiple exposures to the word, have the opportunity to that are familiar to the student. If a student does not
use the word and receive feedback in conversation, know the word meaning, the parent can help explain
and are given the opportunity to make connections the word meaning, either using their own knowledge
to their existing knowledge. Texting can be used to or the provided definition.
support all of these evidence-based strategies that We recommend that teachers text specific words
support vocabulary learning. In addition, parents that are being taught or discussed in their current
who feel invited, motivated, and confident in their theme, unit, or collection of books. For example, a

54
The Reading Teacher   Vol. 74   No. 1   July/August 2020literacyworldwide.org
 Feature Article

teacher can choose four words from a book that is Texting to Encourage Connections Between
being read as part of a unit. Along with these four Existing Knowledge and New Words
words, she can send pictures, definitions, and short
Students must make connections between new
notes that emphasize to parents the importance of
words and their existing knowledge. Parents are
talking about the words and explaining word mean-
well situated to provide these sorts of connections
ings. Parents can be encouraged to use real-life
through conversation because parents know more
objects, toys, and games to explain word meanings
than any other adult about their child’s background
and talk about words. The teacher can also provide
experiences, interests, and day-to-day activities.
links to online sources for further exploration. For
example, if the words come from a book, teachers can
check to see if there are YouTube videos of someone Texting to Support Parent Confidence
reading the book. Many read-aloud book videos are and Engagement
available, and parents and children can watch the vid- Studies of family–school engagement and parent
eos together and listen for the new words or discuss involvement have shown that families and parents
the words in context after hearing the book read. If who feel personally invited by teachers to engage in
words come from a science topic, teachers can look for their child’s schooling are more likely to do so (Hoover-
online extension activities on that topic. These links Dempsey & Sandler, 1995). Ongoing texts from teachers
can be shared via text more effectively and efficiently can serve as open invitations to parents to be involved
than would be possible via paper communication. at home or at school. In addition, research has shown

Texting to Provide Increased Exposure TAKE ACTION!

to New Words
Texting serves as an outstanding opportunity to pro- Teachers who may be interested in implementing a
vide students with multiple exposures to words. On similar program in their own classroom or school can
a daily basis, teachers expose students to new words use the following strategies from Text to Talk to support
in class through book reading or other classroom students’ word learning.
activities. When new words are also sent home via 1. Use a text messaging service, such as Remind,
text and parents talk about them, students receive ClassDojo, or Edmodo. These services have many
a larger dose of exposure to the new words from advantages, including privacy protection, translation
caring adults in their life. We encourage teachers to services, and ease of use. In most cases, they are free
cycle back to previously learned words and remind for educators to use.
parents, via text, to review these with their children. 2. Start the year with an initial meeting in which parents
Texting can make this process easier for teachers are introduced to what you are trying to accomplish
and more likely that students will learn new words. and how texting works to achieve your goal.
3. Send texts about specific words that are being used
Texting to Support Practice in your theme, unit, or collection of books. Include a
Using New Words picture and a child-friendly definition of each word.
Because students need opportunities to use new words 4. Ask parents to use objects, toys, and games to play
in conversation and get feedback on pronunciation with and practice using words.
and usage from adults, texting can encourage families
5. Provide families with needed guidance so they can
to have conversations about new words through ask- use the texts as you intended. Showing them what
ing open-ended questions. Teachers can text parents you mean, through video or in-person demonstration
examples of open-ended questions they can ask their at a parent meeting, can be more effective than
children, connected to what is being discussed that merely telling them.
week at school. Teachers may need to provide fami-
6. Use texts to cycle back to previously learned words,
lies with the guidance, either through in-class training to remind parents to review new vocabulary with
or through video exemplars, to help family members their children over time.
understand what it means to talk about words with
their children. Showing, through video or in-person 7. Text a minimum of once a week and maximum of three
times a week; more than this can be overwhelming to
demonstration, can be more effective than merely tell-
parents, and they may start to ignore texts.
ing (Kaminski, Valle, Filene, & Boyle, 2008).

55
The Reading Teacher   Vol. 74   No. 1   July/August 2020literacyworldwide.org
 Feature Article

that parents are more likely to engage in learning activ- texts. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 47(2), 341–356. https​://
ities when they feel confident that what they are doing doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2018.07.012
Dickinson, D.K., & Porche, M.V. (2011). Relation between lan­
with their children will pay off in the long term (Hoover- guage experiences in preschool classrooms and children’s
Dempsey, 2011). When teachers provide parents with kindergarten and fourth-grade language and reading abi­ l-­
evidence-based word-learning strategies, parents can ities. Child Development, 82(3), 870–886. https​://doi.org/10.1111/
j.1467-8624.2011.01576.x
feel assured that the role they play in helping their chil- Dickinson, D.K., & Tabors, P.O. (Eds.). (2001). Beginning literacy
dren learn and practice new words will result in long- with language: Young children learning at home and school.
term vocabulary growth for their children. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
Doss, C., Fahle, E.M., Loeb, S., & York, B.N. (2019). More than just a
nudge: Supporting kindergarten parents with differentiated
Summary and personalized text messages. Journal of Human Resources,
54(3), 567–603.
Texting is a promising strategy to enhance home– Dowdall, N., Melendez-Torres, G.J., Murray, L., Gardner, F.,
school connections and accelerate students’ learn- Hartford, L., & Cooper, P.J. (2019). Shared picture book reading
interventions for child language development: A systematic
ing. In this article, we provided guidance on how review and meta-analysis. Child Development. Advance online
texting can be useful to teachers, enrich family– publication. https​://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13225​
school communication, and improve students’ learn- Drummond, K.V., & Stipek, D. (2004). Low-income parents’
beliefs about their role in children’s academic learning.
ing outcomes. We encourage teachers to experiment
The Elementary School Journal, 104(3), 197–213. https​ ://doi.
with this new approach for supporting family com- org/10.1086/499749
munication and students’ educational success. Fernald, A., Marchman, V.A., & Weisleder, A. (2013). SES
differences in language processing skill and vocabulary
are evident at 18 months. Developmental Science, 16(2), 234–
NOTE 248. https​://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12019​
This work was supported by a William Penn Foundation grant Gennetian, L., Darling, M., & Aber, J.L. (2017). Behavioral
(44-15). economics and developmental science: A new framework
to support early childhood interventions. Journal of Applied
Research on. Children, 7(2), article 2. Retrieved from https://
REFERENCES digitalcommons.library.tmc.edu/childrenatrisk/vol7/iss2/2
Baroody, A.E., Ferretti, C., & Larsen, R. (2018). Promoting low- Gonzalez, N., Moll, L., & Amanti, C. (2005). Funds of knowledge:
income preschoolers’ school readiness through a text Theorizing practices in households, communities, and classrooms.
messaging intervention. Journal of Children & Poverty, 24(2), Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
123–143. https​://doi.org/10.1080/10796​126.2018.1517939 Hall, A.K., Cole-Lewis, H., & Bernhardt, J.M. (2015). Mobile
Bergman, P.L.S., & Chan, E.W. (2017). Leveraging technology to text messaging for health: A systematic review of reviews.
engage parents at scale: Evidence from a randomized controlled Annual Review of Public Health, 36, 393–415. https​ ://doi.
trial (CESifo Working Paper No. 6493). Munich, Germany: org/10.1146/annur​ev-publh​ealth-031914-122855
CESifo. Retrieved from https​://www.cesifo.org/en/publi​katio Han, M., Moore, N., Vukelich, C., & Buell, M. (2010). Does
​nen/2017/worki​ng-paper/ ​lever​aging-techn​ology-engage- play make a difference? How play intervention affects
paren​t s-scale-evide​nce-rando​mized​ the vocabulary learning of at-risk preschoolers. American
Biemiller, A., & Boote, C. (2006). An effective method Journal of Play, 3(1), 82–105.
for building meaning vocabulary in primary grades. Harris, J., Golinkoff, R.M., & Hirsh-Pasek, K. (2011). Lessons
Journal of Educational Psychology, 98(1), 44–62. https​ ://doi. from the crib for the classroom: How children really
org/10.1037/0022-0663.98.1.44 learn vocabulary. In S.B. Neuman & D.K. Dickinson (Eds.),
Booth, A.E. (2009). Causal supports for early word learning. Handbook of early literacy research (Vol. 3, pp. 49–65). New
Child Development, 80(4), 1243–1250. https​://doi.org/10.1111/
York, NY: Guilford.
j.1467-8624.2009.01328.x
Hindman, A.H., Skibbe, L.E., Miller, A.L., & Zimmerman, M.
Cabell, S.Q., Zucker, T.A., DeCoster, J., Copp, S.B., & Landry, S.
(2010). Ecological contexts and early learning: Contributions
(2019). Impact of a parent text messaging program on pre-
kindergarteners’ literacy development. AERA Open, 5(1). of child, family, and classroom factors during Head Start
https​://doi.org/10.1177/23328​58419​833339 to literacy and mathematics growth through first grade.
Chen, H., Chai, Y., Dong, L., Niu, W., & Zhang, P. (2018). Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 25(2), 235–250. https​://doi.
Effectiveness and appropriateness of mHealth interventions org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2009.11.003
for maternal and child health: Systematic review. JMIR Hindman, A.H., Wasik, B.A., & Erhart, A.C. (2012). Shared book
mHealth and uHealth, 6(1), article e7. https​://doi.org/10.2196/ reading and Head Start preschoolers’ vocabulary learning:
mheal​t h.8998 The role of book-related discussion and curricular con­
Corson, D. (1997). The learning and use of academic English nections. Early Education and Development, 23(4), 451–474.
words. Language Learning, 47(4), 671–718. https​://doi.org/10. https​://doi.org/10.1080/10409​289.2010.537250
1111/0023-8333.00025​ Hoover-Dempsey, K. (2011). Self-efficacy: Up to the challenge.
Dickinson, D.K. (Ed.). (1994). Bridges to literacy: Children, families, In S. Redding, M. Murphy, & P. Sheley (Eds.), Handbook on
and schools. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell. family and community engagement (pp. 61–68). Lincoln, IL:
Dickinson, D.K., Nesbitt, K.T., Collins, M.F., Hadley, E.B., Academic Development Institute.
Newman, K., Rivera, B.L., … Hirsh-Pasek, K. (2019). Teaching Hoover-Dempsey, K.V., & Sandler, H.M. (1995). Parent in­
for breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge: Learning volvement in children’s education: Why does it make a
from explicit and implicit instruction and the storybook difference? Teachers College Record, 97(2), 310–331.

56
The Reading Teacher   Vol. 74   No. 1   July/August 2020literacyworldwide.org
 Feature Article

Horst, J.S. (2013). Context and repetition in word learning. Smythe-Leistico, K., & Page, L.C. (2018). Connect-text: Lever­
Frontiers in Psychology, 4, article 149. https​://doi.org/10.3389/ aging text-message communication to mitigate chronic
fpsyg.2013.00149​ absenteeism and improve parental engagement in the
Hurwitz, L.B., Lauricella, A.R., Hanson, A., Raden, A., & earliest years of schooling. Journal of Education for Students
Wartella, E. (2015). Supporting Head Start parents: Impact Placed at Risk, 23(1/2), 139–152. https​://doi.org/10.1080/10824​
of a text message intervention on parent–child activity 669.2018.1434658
engagement. Early Child Development and Care, 185(9), 1373– Snell, E.K., Hindman, A.H., & Wasik, B.A. (2018). Exploring the
1389. https​://doi.org/10.1080/03004​430.2014.996217 use of texting to support family–school engagement in early
Jacob, B., Berger, D., Hart, C., & Loeb, S. (2016). Can technology childhood settings: Teacher and family perspectives. Early
help promote equality of educational opportunities? The Child Development and Care. Advance online publication.
Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences, 2(5), 242– https​: //doi.org/10.1080/03004 ​430.2018.1479401
271. https​://doi.org/10.7758/rsf.2016.2.5.12 Snell, E.K., Wasik, B.A., & Hindman, A.H. (2019, May). Text to Talk:
Kaminski, J.W., Valle, L.A., Filene, J.H., & Boyle, C.L. (2008).
Effects of a texting intervention on prekindergarten vocabulary.
A meta-analytic review of components associated with
Paper presented at the School District of Philadelphia
parent training program effectiveness. Journal of Abnormal
Research, Policy, and Practice Conference, Philadelphia, PA.
Child Psychology, 36(4), 567–589. https​://doi.org/10.1007/s108
02-007-9201-9 Snow, C.E., & Kim, Y.S. (2007). Large problem spaces: The
Kraft, M.A., & Monti-Nussbaum, M. (2017). Can schools challenge of vocabulary for English language learners.
enable parents to prevent summer learning loss? A text- In R.K. Wagner, A.E. Muse, & K.R. Tannenbaum (Eds.),
messaging field experiment to promote literacy skills. The Vocabulary acquisition: Implications for reading comprehension
Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, (pp. 123–139). New York, NY: Guilford.
674(1), 85–112. https​://doi.org/10.1177/00027​16217​732009 Suggate, S., Schaughency, E., McAnally, H., & Reese, E. (2018).
Landry, S.H., Anthony, J.L., Swank, P.R., & Monseque-Bailey, From infancy to adolescence: The longitudinal links
P. (2009). Effectiveness of comprehensive professional between vocabulary, early literacy skills, oral narrative,
development for teachers of at-risk preschoolers. Journal and reading comprehension. Cognitive Development, 47, 82–
of Educational Psychology, 101(2), 448–465. https​://doi.org/10. 95. https​://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogdev.2018.04.005
1037/a0013842 Vernon-Feagans, L., Bratsch-Hines, M., Reynolds, E., &
Lareau, A. (2003). Unequal childhoods: Class, race, and family life. Willoughby, M. (2019). How early maternal language input
Berkeley: University of California Press. varies by race and education and predicts later child
Mayer, S.E., Kalil, A., Oreopoulos, P., & Gallegos, S. (2018). Using language. Child Development. Advance online publication.
behavioral insights to increase parental engagement: The https​://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13281​
Parents and Children Together intervention. Journal of Wasik, B.A., & Bond, M.A. (2001). Beyond the pages of a book:
Human Resources, 54(4), 900–925. Interactive book reading and language development in
Mol, S.E., Bus, A.G., de Jong, M.T., & Smeets, D.J.H. (2008). preschool classrooms. Journal of Educational Psychology,
Added value of dialogic parent–child book readings: A 93(2), 243–250. https​://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.93.2.243
meta-analysis. Early Education and Development, 19(1), 7–26. Wasik, B.A., & Hindman, A.H. (2011). Improving vocabulary and
https​://doi.org/10.1080/10409​28070​1838603 pre-literacy skills of at-risk preschoolers through teacher
Morgan, P.L., Farkas, G., Hillemeier, M.M., Hammer, C.S., & professional development. Journal of Educational Psychology,
Maczuga, S. (2015). 24-month-old children with larger oral
103(2), 455–469. https​://doi.org/10.1037/a0023067
vocabularies display greater academic and behavioral
Weiland, C., & Yoshikawa, H. (2013). Impacts of a prekin­dergarten
functioning at kindergarten entry. Child Development, 86(5),
program on children’s mathematics, language, literacy,
1351–1370. https​://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12398​
Murray, K.W., Woodruff, K., Moon, C., & Finney, C. (2015). Using executive function, and emotional skills. Child Development,
text messaging to improve attendance and completion in a 84(6), 2112–2130. https​://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12099​
parent training program. Journal of Child and Family Studies, Weizman, Z.O., & Snow, C.E. (2001). Lexical output as related to
24(10), 3107–3116. https​://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-015-0115-9 children’s vocabulary acquisition: Effects of sophisticated
Neuman, S.B., & Celano, D.C. (2015). Giving our children a fighting exposure and support for meaning. Developmental Psychology,
chance: Poverty, literacy, and the development of information 37(2), 265–279. https​://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.37.2.265
capital. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. York, B.N., Loeb, S., & Doss, C. (2018). One step at a time: The
Newport, F. (2014, November 10). The new era of communica­ effects of an early literacy text-messaging program for
tion among Americans. Gallup News. Retrieved from http:// parents of preschoolers. Journal of Human Resources, 54(3),
www.gallup.com/poll/17928​8 /new-era-commu​n icat ​ion- 537–566.
ameri​cans.aspx
Ouellette, G.P. (2006). What’s meaning got to do with it: The role
of vocabulary in word reading and reading comprehension.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 98(3), 554–566. https​://doi. MORE TO EXPLORE
org/10.1037/0022-0663.98.3.554
Pew Research Center. (2019). Mobile fact sheet. Retrieved from https​://
www.pewre​search.org/inter​net/fact-sheet/​mobil​e/ ■■ Kraft, M.A. (2017). Engaging parents through better
Pinker, S. (2003). The language instinct: How the mind creates communication systems. Educational Leadership,
language. London, UK: Penguin. 75(1), 58–62.
Pollard-Durodola, S.D., Gonzalez, J.E., Simmons, D.C., Kwok, O.,
Taylor, A.B., Davis, M.J., … Simmons, L. (2011). The effects of ■■ Ready4K: https​://ready​4k.paren​tpowe​red.com
an intensive shared book-reading intervention for preschool
children at risk for vocabulary delay. Exceptional Children, ■■ Remind: https​://www.remind.com
77(2), 161–183. https​://doi.org/10.1177/00144​02911​07700202
Reardon, S.F. (2013). The widening income achievement gap. ■■ Text to Talk: https​://sites.temple.edu/textt​otalk/​
Educational Leadership, 70(8), 10–16.

57
The Reading Teacher   Vol. 74   No. 1   July/August 2020literacyworldwide.org