Study guide

Research Methodology

RME101Q

Department of Human Resource Management

©  2015 University of South Africa

All rights reserved

Printed and published by the

University of South Africa
Muckleneuk, Pretoria

RME101Q/1/2016–2019

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CONTENTS

1 Page
2Orientation (v)
31 QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH APPROACHES   1
2 STEPS IN RESEARCH: RESEARCH PROBLEMS, HYPOTHESIS AND
4

LITERATURE REVIEW  7
3 PLANNING THE RESEARCH PROJECT: RESEARCH DESIGN 14
5

6 4 DATA COLLECTION 20
75 DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF THE RESULTS 25
86 REPORT WRITING 28
9 APPENDIX A 30
10 CASE STUDY 1–3 32
11 REFERENCES 48

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(iv)
ORIENTATION

12 Dear Student
It is a great pleasure to welcome you to the Research Methodology module (RME101Q).
13

To make sure that you share our enthusiasm about this field of study, we urge you to read
this overview thoroughly. Refer back to it as often as you need to, since it will certainly
make your study of this module easier.
The purpose of the module is to equip you with foundational concepts in Research Meth-
14

odology and develop your understanding of research principles. It provides a foundation for
all later studies, for example compiling a research proposal at the master’s level.
The field of research is extremely dynamic, outcomes-based and challenging. The
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learning content and activities contained in this study guide and in the compulsory pre-
scribed textbook will provide opportunities to explore the latest developments in this
field and help you to discover research as it is practised today. We hope you will enjoy
the module.
The module is meant to give you the necessary skills to do the research required for a
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B-Tech degree, and to solve problems in your organisation or in service to society. You
should be able to apply the knowledge you have acquired (by learning about the theo-
ries of experts) to your work situation.
The question remains: does it always work, and will a particular theory apply to your work
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situation? You can find the scientific knowledge and answers that you need through
research according to the method explained in this subject.
Applied research in industry has four features that distinguish it from basic research at a
18

university:
The first feature is the need for research in t h e industry linked to organisational
problems. Problems arise, for example, with absenteeism, staff turnover and
job dissatisfaction. And this could be the beginning of a research study designed
to alleviate the problems and to gain an understanding to these challenges.
The second feature of research in industry is the need to improve the effectiveness
of an organisation. This usually means an increase in profitability. For example,
research is used to determine consumer preferences regarding new products and
services, to identify methods of reducing waste, or to make better use of human
talent.
The third feature of research in industry is the nature of typical participants in
such studies. The participants a r e always employees, contractors, consultants
or job applicants.
The fourth feature is that if the results of research in industry are positive and usable,
the research unit will attempt to have its conclusions accepted and implemented
by the rest of the organisation. For example, if a brief, realistic overview of the
organisation, given to job applicants for administrative posts, is found to reduce

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 staff turnover, the researchers will try to convince the rest of the organisation to use
such procedures when recruiting new employees in different functions within the
organisation. If the results are negative, the organisation will try to use secondary
ideas of value obtained from the study (Mouton & Marais 1992).

COMPOSITION OF STUDY/LEARNING PACKAGE

19The learning materials for this module include the following:
yy Study guide (this study guide)
yy Tutorial letters
yy Prescribed book
20 Prescribed book:

Bryman, A, Bell, E, Hirschsohn, P, Do Santos, A, Du Toit, J, Masenge, A, Van Aardt, I &

Wagner, C. 2014. Research methodology, business and management contexts. Cape
Town: Oxford University Press. (ISBN: 9780199076130).

yy Recommended book
De Vos, AS, Strydom, H, Fouche, CB & Delport, CSL. 2014. Research at grass roots: for
the social sciences and human service professions. 4th edition. Pretoria: Van Schaik.

SUGGESTIONS ON HOW TO APPROACH YOUR STUDIES

Tutorial Letter 101 and the study guide will direct you on how to approach your stud-
22

ies. As a distance education student, it is important for you to know who to contact on
academic and administrative matters, and how to manage your time.
In the study guide we make a definite distinction between the parts of the prescribed
23

book that you have to read and those parts that you have to study.

Studying
The sections to be studied are clearly indicated by means of appropriate icons
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and form the basis of assignments and examinations. To do the activities and as-
signments for this module, to achieve the learning outcomes and to be successful in the
examination, you will need a deep understanding of these sections in the study guide
and prescribed book. And in order to achieve such an in-depth understanding of the
learning material you must, first, accept responsibility for your own studies.
Secondly, you must remember that learning is not the same as memorising. In this module
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you w i l l find that Assignment 02 and the examination are strongly outcomes-based. In
the examination you will be expected to answer short and long questions similar to
those that occur in the activities in your study guide and prescribed book. Therefore,
you should be able to apply the information to a case study (Appendix A) and not try

(vi)
to memorise (or just hope to remember) the information. Always read this study
guide first then study the relevant sections in the prescribed book as indicated in
the study guide.

Reading
In some parts of the study guide you will be required to read a section of the prescribed
26

book (e.g. the learning outcomes for each important section of the research process). This
means taking note of the table of contents, because it usually contains useful background
information or offers another perspective or further examples. It will give you some
context, improve your ability to take notes and enhance your understanding.
You may wish to read more widely than just the study guide and prescribed book. When
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you read something in the prescribed book or any other source, do not accept it uncriti-
cally. You are expected to question all ideas and information that you come across.
To test your understanding of the ideas that you learn about in this module, you should
28

try to apply them to the real situations.

Purpose of this study guide

The purpose of this study guide is to serve as a tool that you can use to understand and
29

master the learning outcomes of this module. Mastering the contents of the prescribed
textbook with the help of this study guide will make learning easy, enjoyable and fun.
30 Importance of completing activities, self-assessment questions and assignments

Activities and self-assessment questions

You will come across various types of activities in this study guide and in the prescribed
31

textbook:
yy reflection on the work covered
yy application of the work covered
yy self-assessment questions
We regard completing such activities and assignments as crucial to your success-
32

ful completion of this module.

At the end of each section of the prescribed textbook, you will find a list of possible
33

assessment questions based on the work done in that section. We advise you to work
through these questions diligently, since they provide useful opportunities to prepare
yourself for assignments and examinations. Self-assessment (e.g. comparing your answers
to the model answers given in the exercises and activities of the study guide and
textbook) plays a very important part in the mastery of learning outcomes. Therefore,
you should make a point of completing the self-assessment activities.
As stated above, you will find the model answers to these questions in the learning
34

material covered in the study guide and prescribed book. It is our belief that you will
find no surprises in the examination. Consequently, it is in your own interest to work
through these activities.

(vii) RME101Q/1
Assignments
Assignments for this module will be listed in Tutorial Letter 101. Completing assignments
35

is crucial to achieving the learning outcomes. By completing the assignments you will
get a feel for the type of questions you can expect in the examination. It will also bring
you first-hand feedback from the lecturer. The assignment questions give you an op-
portunity to apply the theory to case studies, or to a practical situation related to your
own workplace. In the second assignment, for example, you will be expected to choose a
research problem (topic) from your own work or study environment (qualitative research).
The examination will consist of both quantitative and qualitative research questions.
Details of the assignments with their associated assessment criteria, and the format
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and requirements of the examination, are provided in Tutorial Letter 101.

Assessment criteria
During the year you will be assessed on your assignments, and in the examination at
37

the end of the year. Both assessments will be done against transparent assessment
criteria that relate directly to the outcomes for the module.
The compulsory assignment mark(s) along with your final assessment will count towards
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your total mark. Further details of the assessment and examination requirements of
this module are provided in your Tutorial Letter 101.

TABLE OF STUDY UNITS

Study unit 1: Quantitative and qualitative research approaches
Study unit 2: Steps in research: Research problems, hypothesis and literature review
Study unit 3: Planning the research project: Research design
Study unit 4: Data collection
Study unit 5: Data analysis and interpretation of the results
Study unit 6: Report writing

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 ICONS USED IN THIS STUDY GUIDE
The icons that will be used in this study guide are listed below, together with a de-
39

scription of what each one means.

40
Key concepts. The key concepts icon draws your attention to certain key words
41

or concepts that you will come across in the topic or study unit.
42
Study. The study icon indicates which sections of the prescribed book or study
43

guide you need to study and internalise.

44
Read. The read icon will direct you to read certain sections of the prescribed
45

book for background information.

46
Activity. The activity icon refers to activities you need to do in order to
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develop a deeper understanding of the study material.

48
Reflection. The reflection icon requires you to reflect on important issues or
49

problems dealt with in the study unit.

50
Feedback. The feedback icon indicates that you will receive feedback on your
51

answers to the self-assessment activities.

What you can expect from Unisa

53 You can expect us to:
yy provide you with updated and relevant learning materials
yy ensure that the learning materials are in line with the needs of industry and by con-
sulting regularly with the profession, and industry leaders
yy provide you with an opportunity to develop competencies and skills at a certain level
yy provide you with a clear indication of what we expect from you in terms of your
assessment
yy give you timeous feedback on assignments; if at all possible we would like to encour-
age you to use myUnisa to submit your assignments and receive feedback
yy support you whenever you require assistance; you can contact your lecturer by mak-
ing a personal appointment, sending an e-mail or telephoning them

What the lecturer expects from you

54 We expect you to:
yy read all tutorial letters and this study guide and act upon these where required
yy purchase and use the correct prescribed book
yy submit all assignments on or before the due dates as communicated in Tutorial Letter
101
yy use myUnisa regularly
yy prepare in advance for your examination
yy contact your lecturer if you need academic assistance
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56

(x)
Study unit 1
Quantitative and qualitative research approaches

Contents

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Quantitative and qualitative research
1.2.1 Difference between quantitative and qualitative research approach
1.3 Summary

Learning outcome

After completing this study unit and chapters 1 and 2 of prescribed book, you should
be able to:

yy Distinguish between quantitative and qualitative research approaches

yy Distinguish between different research paradigms

To achieve the topic learning outcomes, you will need to master the following key concepts:
scientific knowledge
non-scientific knowledge
quantitative research
qualitative research

1.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter will introduce you to the most important steps in the research process; the
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steps are indicated in the successive corresponding chapters of the prescribed textbook,
in the following order:
(a) Identify research problems or hypotheses
(b) Set the goal of the study
(c) Compile a literature study
(d) Decide on a research design
(e) Gather and select information regarding the goal
(f) Analyse data and interpret the information
(g) Write a report with conclusions and recommendations

The conclusions and recommendations must always be checked against the research
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problem/hypothesis, the literature study and the goal of the study. Items (a), (d), (e), (f) and
(g) may be regarded as the five most important steps in the research process.

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 The value of research is shown in the following example of a method of investi-
gating the impact of public health policies on the growth of the AIDS epidemic
in Scotland (Pitts & Phillips 1991)

The study investigated the patterns of sharing of injecting equipment − a

crucial factor in the spread of the HIV virus (the virus that is believed to
cause AIDS by attacking the immune system).
In the cities of Glasgow and Edinburgh it was legal for pharmacists to sell
syringes and needles to intravenous drug users. However, in Edinburgh,
the police pursued a policy of arrests if they found people carrying inject-
ing equipment, whereas in Glasgow no such policy existed. In spite of this
policing policy and attitude in Edinburgh, the rate of HIV infection among
intravenous drug users grew more quickly − from 3% in 1983 to 50% in
1984 − while in Glasgow the rate at the end of 1986 was around 5%.
What the researchers found was that although sharing of equipment oc-
curred in both cities, the way that it happened was very different and this
seemed to relate directly to the policy adopted by the police force. In
Glasgow, sharing tended to occur in small local groups, between just a few
known drug users. In Edinburgh, however, many more drug users would
share equipment in places which had become known as “shooting galle­
ries”. Since the policing policy made it dangerous to be carrying needles in
Edinburgh, there was an incentive for drug users to provide “safe houses”
where users could obtain both the drugs and the means of injec]ting it.
This style of drug abuse leads to a wider mixing of blood and therefore
spreading of HIV infection.

1.2 QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

We can describe non-scientific knowledge as allegations made on the basis of authority,
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peer opinion, traditions, debate and accidental observations. Scientific knowledge, on the
other hand, can be described as knowledge based on critical evaluation of (for instance)
non-scientific claims.
60 The core features of scientific knowledge are systematic observation, control and replication.
There are two main approaches in research, namely the quantitative and the qualita-
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tive approach.
Quantitative research is based on a positivist approach. In other words, it is an approach
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where research must be limited to what can be observed and measured objectively.
Quantitative research further considers causality, generalisation and replication. Qualitative
63

research (the anti-positivist approach) is characterised by a resistance to the view that

the natural-scientific method is the only norm in human behavioural research. Qualita-
tive researchers base their approach on phenomenology, which means that research-
ers cannot detach themselves from research objects because the scientists are actually
members of the group being studied.

2
Furthermore, in qualitative research, the researchers focus on certain basic issues that
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arise from their preferred epistemological position. While quantitative researchers are
influenced by natural sciences approaches of what should be acceptable as knowledge.

1.2.1 Difference between quantitative and qualitative research approach

There are many differences between quantitative and qualitative research that should be
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understood. This will help and guide you in making a choice whether to use the quan-
titative or qualitative research approach. The differences between the quantitative and
qualitative approaches are described in the table below.
Table 1.1: Difference between quantitative and qualitative research approach

Area Quantitative Qualitative

Principal orientation Deductive, empirical Inductive, generation

to the role of theory in testing of theory of theory from data
relation to research

Epistemological Natural science Interpretative in

orientation model, in particular nature
positivism

Ontological Objectivism Constructionist

orientation

Numbers and Words and description

measures

Researcher’s Participants' viewpoint

viewpoint

Researcher de- Researcher involved

tached from subject with participants

Testing theory and Theory and concept

concept emergent from data

Static image of Interconnected pro-

social reality cess between actors

Structured data Flexible investigation

collection

Generalisation to Understanding of
the population context

Hard, reliable data Rich, deep, thick data

Behaviour of people Meaning of action

Source: Adopted from Bryman et al 2014

3 RME101Q/1
Study chapters 1 and 2 and do all the self-evaluation questions in chapter 2 of
the prescribed book.

Compare the case of an organisational change programme in organisation A

where employee attitudes to (for example) the organisation’s management style
are measured. After intervention (the organisational change programme), the
attitudes of the employees are measured again. If a significant change is found,
one might conclude that the change took place as a result of the intervention.
In other words, the intervention caused the change in attitude.

Read the research approaches and research design on page 117 of the pre-
scribed textbook.

Study chapter 2 and 3, and complete all questions for review in chapter 2 of
the prescribed book.

Activity 1.1

A researcher wish to generalise the research results to the entire population. Advise the
researcher of the important factor/s that he/she should take into consideration in order
to generalise the research findings.

Feedback
For the researcher to generalise the research findings, the researcher must make sure that
the sample used is representative of the population as much as possible. The representative
sample is mostly generated by using the probability random sampling. The researcher must
control the external validity.

Activity 1.2

Read case study 1 in appendix A and answer questions 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9. Compare your
answers with those in the case study.

Read the main preoccupations of quantitative and qualitative research on pages

39 and 46 of the prescribed book.

4
 Activity1.3

Read the following case study and answer the question. Compare your answer with the
answer given.
The manager of the JMX (Pty) Ltd Company observes that the morale of her employ-
ees in the company is low. She thinks that if the employees’ working conditions, pay
scales and leave benefits are improved, their morale will also improve. However, she
doubts that increasing the pay scales is going to raise the morale of all the employees.
Her guess is that those who have good side incomes (by doing other work in their
own time) will not be motivated by higher pay.

Question
List the variables and label the third variable. Briefly explain why it is so labelled.

Feedback
Variables: working conditions, pay scale, leave benefits and morale.

Third variable: side incomes.

If working conditions, pay scales and leave benefits are high in a work situation, then the
morale of employees is high. But more pay does not result in higher morale for all employees,
only those who do not have a good side income. Therefore, ‘‘side income’’ interferes in the
relationship between pay and morale.

Approaches such as case studies can be described as qualitative research. In qualitative

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research, the researcher is the main research instrument and becomes part of the research
situation. On the basis of thorough knowledge and his/her own insight, the researcher
deals with the objects of study (e.g. factory workers and their supervisors) objectively
and sympathetically, so that responsible conclusions can be drawn from the research.
Data collection methods such as unstructured interviews and participative observation,
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and analysing techniques such as coding, data displays and content analysis, and descrip-
tive statistical methods are used in this type of research and are dealt with in chapters
10 and 11 of the prescribed book and study unit 4 of this study guide. The qualitative
and quantitative data analysis will be dealt with in study unit 5 of the study guide and in
chapters 16 and 17 of your prescribed book.

Activity 1.4

Read case study 3 in appendix A, answer questions 1, 2 and 3 and compare your answers
with those provided.

1.3 SUMMARY
Surveying the literature and getting to know the main ideas in your relevant topic is more
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important in the research process. This will help you in refining your research problem

5 RME101Q/1
hypothesis and formulating suitable research questions. This chapter have highlighted
the importance of reference and avoiding the plagiarism in the research process.

6
Study unit 2
Steps in research: Research problems, hypothesis and
literature review

Contents

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Research problems, hypothesis and research goal
2.3 Literature review
2.3.1 Planning the literature search
2.3.2 Compiling a literature review
2.3.3 The reference system
2.4 Summary

Learning outcomes

After completing this study unit and chapters 4 and 5 of the prescribed book, you should
be able to:
yy Identify the research topic
yy Discuss basic steps in research
yy Conduct a comprehensive literature review
yy Formulate suitable research questions

2.1 INTRODUCTION
This study unit covers part two of your prescribed book. In previous study units we in-
69

troduced the concepts of quantitative and qualitative research approaches. In this study
unit we will highlight the steps in carrying out the research project from planning the
research, compiling the research proposal, research design, the importance of research
ethics, and writing up the research report.

2.2 RESEARCH PROBLEMS, HYPOTHESIS AND RESEARCH

GOALS
Before you begin with the literature review process you need to define a problem cor-
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rectly, a researcher must know what a problem is. In general, a research problem refers to
some difficulty which the researcher experiences in the context of either a theoretical or
a practical situation and to which that researcher wants to obtain a solution. (Exploratory
research studies do not start with a specific problem – the purpose in such a research

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study is to find the problem, or the hypothesis to be tested.) By rephrasing, the researcher
expresses the research problem as specifically as possible so that it may become opera-
tionally viable and help to develop hypotheses.
The technique of defining a problem can be illustrated by the following example (see
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Welman et al 2005:15–16). Let us suppose the research problem to be, in very broad,
general terms:
‘‘Why is productivity in Japan so much higher than in South Africa?’’

In this form the question or statement is much too general and has a number of ambigui-
72

ties such as: What sort of productivity is being referred to? What industries are involved?
With what period of time are we concerned? The problem may be narrowed down to:
‘‘What factors were responsible for the higher labour productivity of Japan’s manu-
facturing industries between 2005 and 2014 relative to South Africa’s manufacturing
industries?’’

This version is an improvement on the first one, but rethinking and rephrasing may pro-
73

duce an even better operational basis:

‘‘To what extent did labour productivity in 2005 to 2014 in Japan exceed that of
South Africa in respect of 15 selected manufacturing industries, and what factors
were responsible for the difference in productivity between the two countries?”

The result is a well-defined research problem, meaningful from an operational point of

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view, capable of paving the way for developing hypotheses and the means of solving
the problem itself in the case of quantitative research. In the case of qualitative research
one should pose research questions.
Hypotheses, which are derived from theory, are tested during the research
process. For example, in theory people will try to balance their input (work)
and output (payments). Employees will do only as much work as they consider
justified by the remuneration they receive. In terms of the theory, one would
predict that a worker who feels he is overpaid in terms of a piece-work system
will increase the quality of each item produced, but will reduce the quantity of
items produced. Therefore, this prediction (hypothesis) must be tested.

During the induction, facts and observations are used to make a theoretical statement
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that explains those observations and facts. By deduction one can determine whether
such a theory is a reliable version of reality. A prediction of a theory is made by means
of logic to find out what can be expected in certain circumstances and specific condi-
tions. The truth of the prediction is then determined by verification, or its falsity by
falsification and the suitability of the basic theory is checked. This is done by collecting
new data and checking whether they substantiate the prediction(s). If they do not, and
if it is assumed that the research methods and deductive logic are correct, one can then
take it that the theory on which the prediction was based must be adapted or changed.
The goal of research is threefold: to describe (define), explain and predict phenomena (such
76

as human behaviour in the workplace). This information can then be used (for example)
to screen job applicants.

8
77 Examples of the goals of research include the following (Bryman et al 2014:40, Welman
et al 2005:22–23):

yy Describing (defining) production levels, staff turnover figures and the average level of
job satisfaction: A study may be undertaken to describe the major characteristics of a
‘‘successful’’ first-line manager in a manufacturing company in Gauteng. A successful
manager may be found to have a certain leadership style.
yy Explaining why production remains at a certain level, why employees resign, why
they are dissatisfied, and so on: In the successful leader example, the researcher may
state that ‘‘authoritarian individuals are successful leaders because the nature of the
job requires that the leader tell the employee what to do and when to do it’’.
yy Predicting which employees will be productive, who will be the most likely to resign,
who will be dissatisfied: In the case of the successful leader, it may be stated that
authoritarian individuals in manufacturing companies in Gauteng will be successful
leaders.

78Because of an imperfect knowledge of research methods, the purpose of a student’s first

study may well be to describe something. However, although descriptive research may
appear less demanding than other types of research, this is often far from true. By using
descriptive methods, we try to understand the way things are; by using experimental
methods we try to understand the way things could be.

Study chapter 4 and do all the activities at the end of chapter 4 of the prescribed
textbook.

Activity 2.1

Read the following case study and answer the questions. Compare your answers with
those provided.

The manager of Lindo Company observes that the morale of her employees is low.
She thinks that if working conditions, pay scales and leave benefits are improved, the
morale will also improve. However, she doubts whether improved pay scales would
raise the morale of all the employees. Her guess is that those who have good side
incomes (by doing other work in their own time) will not be motivated by higher pay.

Questions
(a) State the researcher’s problem definition (research question) for the situation.
(b) Develop four different research hypotheses for the situation.

9 RME101Q/1
 Feedback
(a) Will an improvement in working conditions, pay scales and leave benefits improve the
morale of all employees?
(b) Research hypotheses:
(i) If working conditions improve, the morale of all employees will improve.
(ii) Better leave benefits will improve the morale of all employees.
(iii) An improvement in working conditions and leave benefits will improve the morale
of all employees.
(iv) The morale of employees who do not have good side incomes will improve if their
pay scales (and working conditions and leave benefits) improve.

Activity 2.2

Read case studies 1 and 2 in appendix A, answer question 2 in case studies 1 and 2,
and compare your answers with those provided.

2.3 LITERATURE REVIEW

The classic way to identify a research problem is to do a literature search. In discussing
79

their findings (in research reports), previous researchers may have suggested ways of
eliminating inconsistencies between their findings and those of others, or between their
findings and the theory. With this in mind, the appropriate starting point for a prospective
graduate student in the search for a topic is probably to go through professional journals
and check what research has already been done and what still needs to be done.
We usually begin the literature review section by reviewing the literature dealing with
80

our chosen topic. This will set the scene for a clear formulation of the research problem
(research hypothesis or research question). The comprehensiveness of the literature
review again depends on the kind of research report. Dissertations and theses require a
more extensive review than a journal article in which reference is made only to previous
research directly related to the proposed research. If a literature survey on a particular
topic has already been published in a review article, it may even be sufficient to reflect
only its most relevant main points in a journal article.
It is important to plan this search carefully to ensure that you locate relevant and up-
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to-date literature. Most students find literature searches a time-consuming process that
takes far longer than expected. Fortunately, time spent on planning will be repaid in time
saved. As you start to plan your search, you need to be aware of information overload.
Therefore, you need to define your research questions and objectives clearly and have
an outline of your proposal (Bryman et al 2014).
Libraries are no longer the only source of information. The development of the internet
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and electronic publishing has had an enormous impact on research supervision, peer
review of publications and general communications capabilities, and has changed the way

10
in which researchers work. Information from the internet is considered less reliable than
that of printed sources because web pages can be updated and changed on a daily basis.

2.3.1 Planning the literature search

Before starting your literature search, it is suggested that you plan further by define the
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parameters of your search, generate key words and search terms, and discuss your ideas as
widely as possible (Bryman et al 2014; Welman et al 2005). These will guide your literature
search and simplifies the process search for the relevant literature.

2.3.2 Compiling a literature review

The literature review should not be a mere compilation of separate, isolated summaries
84

of individual studies by previous researchers. It also engages with what others have writ-
ten in relation to your chosen research topic. You should clearly show how these studies
relate to one another and how the proposed research fit in with them. For example, you
should group together those studies that are in agreement and refer to this agreement
by using words like similarly when moving from one to the next.
The most glaring blunder in this regard is to present the opinions or findings of diffe-
85

rent authors, who basically are in agreement but have expressed themselves in different
ways, as different contributions. If you cite contradictory findings, you should point out
the discrepancy even if you only do this by means of phrases such as on the other hand
or by contrast (Bryman et al 2014; Welman et al 2005).
Refer to table 4.2 on page 75 of your prescribed textbook. This will help you to structure
86

your literature review according to the different arguments presented in the literature
and it will help you position your study. Examples of literature reviews for both research
approaches are presented in chapter 8 of the prescribed textbook. The provided tips and
skills listed in page 93 of your prescribed textbook are found to be a useful tool to guide
you in the literature search.

2.3.3 The reference system

When conducting the literature review, one must be warned against plagiarism. Plagia-
87

rism refers to taking someone’s words or idea without acknowledging them. This is a
serious scientific crime in the academic environment. It is always appropriate to cite all
the sources used in your literature review and all other writings. In this section we will
briefly discuss the reference system required by the South African Journal of Psychology
(SAJP). The main concern regarding the use of a specific reference method is that it must
enable the reader of your research report to locate the information sources referred to.
The reader may want to read more about the issue in the information source to which
you referred.
There are minute differences between this method of referencing (according to the
88

SAJP) and the more broadly used Harvard method. For example, references in the text
of a research proposal/report are the same as indicated in page 80–84 of the prescribed
textbook but also include specific pages as, for example, in ‘‘Strauss (1990:34)’’, where

11 RME101Q/1
the number ‘‘(34)’’ is the page where the researcher read about the reported issue even
if no text was directly quoted.

Study chapter 4 and do all the questions for review at the end of this chapter
in the prescribed book.

Evaluation criteria of the literature review

Zero = 0: Unacceptable and leaves much room for improvement;

1 = Has merit but still leaves room for improvement;

Maximum = 2: As good as possible.

Criteria 0 1 2

The topic:
a. is a true reflection of the contents of the literature review
b. is not too long yet descriptive
c. contains the important variables

The literature review:

a. relates its content to the chosen topic
b. refers correctly and consistently according to a specific
referencing system
c. starts documenting the information obtained from
the sources broadly and later narrow it down to make
it more
d. offers a logically organised and integrated summary

The reference list:

a. presents the information sources alphabetically and in
a technically correct manner
b. contains sources referred to in the text
c. contains relevant, recent and a wide variety of type of
sources

Source: Tuckman 1990; Zuber-Skerrit 1998

12
 Activity 2.3

Read any literature review and use the above list of criteria to evaluate it accordingly.

Activity 2.4

Read case study 2 in appendix A and answer question 3.

Compare your answer with the model answer.

2.4 SUMMARY
Surveying the literature and getting to know the main ideas is more important in the
89

research process. This will help you in refining your research problem hypothesis and
formulating suitable research questions. This chapter have highlighted the importance
of reference and avoiding the plagiarism in the research process.

13 RME101Q/1
Study unit 3
Planning the research project: Research design

Contents

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Research design
3.2.1 Experimental and non-experimental research (survey design)
3.2.2 Longitudinal design
3.3 Variables
3.4 Sample and population
3.5 Summary

Learning outcome

After completing this study unit you should be able to:

yy Differentiate between populations, sampling frames and samples

yy Discuss experimental research and non-experimental research
yy Explain the difference between

3.1 INTRODUCTION
In study unit 2 we introduced the research approaches. Researchers need to make choices
90

about the research design that will fit well with the chosen research approach and the
paradigm that supports the research approach. When designing a research plan, one
needs to decide how to define, operationally, the variables (e.g. leadership style or
lack of training) involved in the research problem (e.g. mass strikes or a large number
of faulty product units). This means describing the variables according to concrete and
observable behaviour so that other researchers know exactly what is meant by them.
One has to decide whether to take specific action (e.g. a change in the structure of an
91

organisation, or the promotion of certain staff and the dismissal of others) and, if so, how
to carry the action out. In addition, one must decide how many people or groups to
use in the research and how to select them (sampling); how to formulate the research
hypothesis; what method (e.g. questionnaires or interviews) to use in gathering the
information (data); and how to analyse the information statistically (e.g. by calculating
arithmetical means or correlations).
All the above decisions together represent a plan for carrying out the research, and this
92

is known as the research design. Such a research design must meet certain require-

14
ments in order to realise its goal. These requirements and different facets of design are
dealt with in this study unit.

3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN

Research design is a framework that guides the researcher in the process of data collec-
93

tion and analysis. The framework includes experimental design, cross-sectional design,
longitudinal design and case studies. In experimental research we have more control over
nuisance variables, and all types of experimental research have one thing in common,
namely intervention. This means that the research subjects are exposed to something
which otherwise they would not have been subjected to (Welman et al 2005).
In this module we distinguish between true experimental designs and quasi-experimental
94

designs. In true experimental designs the researcher usually has more control over the
variables, because the subjects are randomly matched or assigned to groups. In quasi-
experimental designs we cannot randomly assign subjects to groups and therefore have to
use pre-existent groups (according to sex, occupation, etc). Although quasi-experimental
research usually enables us to draw conclusions about causal relationships, it does so less
decisively than in true experimental designs (Welman et al 2005).
Regarding the ecological validity of the research design, you only have to distinguish
95

between field studies (research done in the natural everyday environment of the subjects)
and laboratory studies (a specially equipped venue, sometimes far removed from the
natural everyday environment). Research carried out in a field situation has an advantage
over laboratory studies because of the greater ecological validity they afford.
Compare the case of an organisational change programme in organisation A where
96

employee attitudes to (for example) the organisation’s management style are measured.
After intervention (the organisational change programme), the attitudes of the employees
are measured again. If a significant change is found, one might conclude that the change
took place as a result of the intervention – in other words, the intervention caused the
change in attitude.
Although we may collect data for non-experimental research in laboratory environments,
97

it is usually done in the natural everyday environment of the research respondents (field
study).

3.2.1 Experimental and non-experimental research (survey design)

Experimental design involves some form of intervention. It includes true experimental
98

research and quasi-experimental research. Conclusions about causal relationships may

be made with greater accuracy in true experimental research designs than in non-exper-
imental designs; because in non-experimental designs neither the random assignment
of subjects nor any planned intervention occurs. In this type of research we usually aim
to establish the relationships that exist between two or more variables without any
intervention. This includes survey design, correlational design, criterion group design
and cross-sectional design. Therefore, there are often many other variables (nuisance or
third variables) that co-vary with the independent variable(s). In other words, these third

15 RME101Q/1
variables occur together with the independent variable and influence the independent
and the dependent variables.
Apart from these designs, we have designs that involve the examination of respondents
99

at different times, for instance panel designs, cohort designs and trend designs. Concern-
ing prediction studies, we may differentiate between retrospective designs (observation
of already existing criterion groups) and prospective designs (where we initially measure
the supposed predictor variables and establish the criterion membership at a later point
in time).
Although we may collect data for non-experimental research in laboratory environments,
100

it is usually done in the natural everyday environment. Research is also often described as
survey design; this is an unsatisfactory term because it is associated mainly with opinion
polls. Non-experimental hypothesis-testing covers a much wider spectrum than opinion
polls (Welman et al 2005).
It is also mostly used in organisations. For example, think of the arguments that develop
101

between personnel practitioners regarding the psychological tests that would be best
suited to the screening of applicants for positions or the selection of candidates for
promotion.
To win such an argument on the basis of scientific knowledge, a prospective predictive
102

design at least should be used to investigate the predictive validity of the psychological
instruments concerned.
In experimental research we have more control over nuisance variables, and all types of
103

experimental research have one thing in common, namely intervention. This means that
the research subjects are exposed to something to which otherwise they would not have
been subjected (Bryman 2014).
In this module we distinguish between true experimental designs and quasi-experimental
104

designs. In true experimental designs the researcher usually has more control over the
variables, because the subjects are randomly matched or assigned to groups. In quasi-
experimental designs we cannot randomly assign subjects to groups and therefore have to
use pre-existent groups (according to sex, occupation, etc.). Although quasi-experimental
research usually enables us to draw conclusions about causal relationships, it does so less
decisively than in true experimental designs (Welman, Kruger & Mitchell 2005).
As to the ecological validity of the research design, you only have to distinguish between
105

field studies (research done in the natural everyday environment of the subjects) and
laboratory studies (a specially equipped venue, sometimes far removed from the natural
everyday environment). Research carried out in a field situation has an advantage over
laboratory studies because of the greater ecological validity they afford.
Although non-experimental research is often described as survey design, this is an un-
106

satisfactory term because it is associated mainly with opinion polls. Non-experimental

hypothesis-testing research covers a much wider spectrum than only opinion polls (Wel-
man et al 2005).
Non-experimental research is used mostly in organisations. For example, think of the argu-
107

ments that develop between personnel practitioners regarding the psychological tests
that would be best suited to screening applicants for positions or selecting candidates

16
for promotion. To win such an argument on the basis of scientific knowledge, a prospec-
tive predictive design at least should be used to investigate the predictive validity of the
psychological instruments concerned.

3.2.2 Longitudinal design

This is a research design that involves examining the same group at different time interval.
108

This type of design is relevant when the researcher want to investigates changes due to
passage of time, this might range between weeks to years. Longitudinal design analysis
the phenomena to establish interconnections between variables through different time
frames.

Study chapter 6 page 117 for more information on research design and their
corresponding research approaches.

Activity 3.1

Read case study 1 in appendix A and answer questions 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9. Compare your
answers with those provided in the case study.
Read the following case study and answer the question. Compare your answer with the
given answer.
A machine operator thinks that fumes emitted in the workshops play a part in the
low efficiency of operators. He would like to prove this to his supervisor by means
of a research study.

Question
Would the study be a cross-sectional or a longitudinal design? Explain your answer.

Feedback
A longitudinal design.

The efficiency of operator output at a specific level (production level) is measured against/com-
pared to the levels of the fumes and the measurement of this phenomenon (producing data)
has to occur more than once to confirm its effect.

Activity 3.2

Read the following case study and answer the question. Compare your answer with the
given answer.
A machine operator thinks that fumes emitted in the workshops play a part in the
low efficiency of operators. He would like to prove this to his supervisor by means
of a research study.

17 RME101Q/1
 Question
What would the study situation be: laboratory experiment or field experiment? Briefly
explain your answer.

Feedback
A field experiment.

Because: The research occurs in a natural, familiar environment (in a workshop) and not in a
specially designed environment (laboratory). The investigation contains an experiment where
an attempt is made to control/check the quantity/levels of fumes (as opposed to pure air) in
a workshop. The investigation contains an experiment where an attempt is made to control/
check the quantity/level of fumes (as opposed to pure air) in a workshop.

3.3 VARIABLES
As indicated earlier, a variable can be defined as a characteristic of the study object.
109

These elements may consist of individuals, groups, organisations, human products or

events and so on. The following example will show how one differentiates between in-
dependent and dependent variables. Fire (independent variable) causes smoke (dependent
variable), the more fiercely a fire burns, the more smoke there will be. It can be illustrated
as follows (Welman et al 2005:16).

FIRE SMOKE
Independent variable Dependent variable

Activity 3.3

Read the following case study and answer the question. Compare your answer with the
given answer below.
A manager believes that good supervision and training of employees in her store
will increase the production level of the workers.

Question
What would be the independent and dependent variables in this case? Give concise rea-
sons for your answer.

Feedback
Because: The manager wants to ascribe the differences (levels) in output (also called pro-
duction levels) to, or explain them in terms of, the influence of supervision levels (e.g. strict
control versus the absence of control) and training levels (e.g. rote learning versus knowledge
of application). Good supervision and training is an independent variable because it has an
influence on the dependent variable (production level).

18
 3.4 SAMPLE AND POPULATION
When conducting research, the researcher needs to identify whom she/he wants to in-
111

vestigate. This is the population (also called ‘‘universe’’). Population refers to the totality
of people, organisations, cities or units. Instead of involving an entire population (e.g. all
the employees of a large enterprise), the research could rather be carried out on a rela-
tively small sample (e.g. 60 employees) of the total population (Bryman et al 2014:168).
A sample is the segment or subject of the population that is selected for investigation. A
112

sample requires less time and financial expenditure. However, if the number of partici-
pants (units of analysis) in a research project is too small, it will influence the significance
of the results and may not be representative of the population. In other cases it does not
make scientific sense to collect data from few people and suggest that it is the view of
the entire organisation they are employed at.
We distinguish between non-probability samples (such as accidental, purposive,
113

snowball, etc.), which are not representative of the population, and probability samples
(such as simple random, stratified random, etc.), which may usually be regarded as rep-
resentative of a population. Concerning quantitative research, we should not use samples
smaller than 15 units but preferably larger than 25 units of analysis (Huysamen 1991).
If the population size is 500, we generally use a sample size of 200, this will enable the
researcher to generalise the results.

Study chapter 6 in the prescribed book and complete all the questions for
review excluding the comparative design question at the end of the chapter.

Activity 3.4

Read case studies 1 and 2 in appendix A, and answer questions 3 and 4 in case study 1 and
questions 4 and 5 in case study 2. Compare your answers with those in the case studies.

3.5 SUMMARY
Research design provides a guide in a research process. The choices of design reflect
114

decisions about the various dimensions of the research process, including: the generalisa-
tion of the research results and how to understand the behaviour in its specific context.
Population and sample are important part of research and the type of sampling used to
select the participants will have a great impact on the research results.

19 RME101Q/1
Study unit 4
Data collection

Contents

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Data-collection methods
4.2.1 Questionnaires
4.2.2 Interviews
4.3 Levels of measurement
4.4 Validity and reliability of measurement
4.5 Measurement scales
4.5.1 Likert scale
4.5.2 Semantic differential
4.6 Summary

Learning outcomes

After completing this study unit and chapters 10 and 11 of the prescribed book, you
should be able to:

yy Select and apply data-collecting methods and measuring instruments in research

yy Different data-collecting methods
yy Differentiate between the various measuring instruments

4.1 INTRODUCTION
A researcher has to take a decision on the research approach to be followed. He or she
115

also has to choose the research design and the researcher’s methodology and decide
on a data-collection method that will best match the research approach chosen. You do
not choose the data-collection method because you like it, it must be in line with your
research approach. When collecting data, the plan that was drawn up (i.e. the research
design) must be carried out. Therefore, the subject to be investigated must be measured
by means of some valid and reliable instrument.
Remember to differentiate between the validity of measuring instruments (as mentioned
116

above) and other types of validity (see chapter 2 of the prescribed book).
According to Welman (2005) measurement involves assigning numbers, in terms of
117

fixed rules, to individuals (or objects) to reflect differences between them in respect
of some characteristic or attribute. For example, we measure length by determining to

20
which figure on a ruler the object alongside it corresponds. Measuring must meet certain
requirements, such as that the ruler should be straight and not bent.

4.2 DATA-COLLECTION METHODS

There different types of data-collection methods in research include questionnaires,
118

interviews and observation. The choice of data-collection method depends on the type
of research and the aim of research.

4.2.1 Questionnaires
Questionnaires are the most popular instrument used to gather data in a survey study.
119

It can be mailed or posted to participants or be completed electronically. This method

is relatively cheap and simple to administer as compared to other methods. Like any
other method, a questionnaire method has its own advantages and disadvantages that
should always be observed. Thus, research must always have a plan on how to deal with
the disadvantages of the questionnaire method. In using questionnaires, the researcher
can adopt previously used questionnaires or design his or her own instrument. Refer
to chapter 10 of the prescribed book for more information about this instrument. This
method is mostly used in a quantitative research approach where the sample is big, and
using the interview technique will be more expensive and likely impossible.

4.2.2 Interviews
This is a set of collections of questions used to collect data. Interviews can be structured,
120

unstructured or semi-structured. Researchers mostly make use of structured interviews

to minimise the differences between interviews so the respondents are interviewed in
a standardised manner (Bryman et al 2014). This method can be used in both research
approaches, qualitative and quantitative. The interview is a popular method in qualita-
tive research where the sample is relatively smaller. It is one of the most expensive and
time-consuming methods, but it has its advantages as well. There are different types of
interviews which include: structured or standardised interviews, semi-structured inter-
views, unstructured interviews, in-depth interviews and focused group interviews. Refer
to chapter 11 of the prescribed textbook for more information on interviews. Lastly, an-
other method which can be used is observation. This can be structured, direct or indirect
observation of selected sample behaviour (De Vos, Strydom, Fouche & Delport 2014:181).

Activity 4.1

Study chapter 11 of the prescribed textbook and complete the questions for review at
the end of the chapter.

21 RME101Q/1
 4.3 LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT
There are different levels of measurement on the basis of the following four character-
121

istics of numbers assigned (Welman et al 2005:138):

yy distinctiveness (the number 2 is different from the number 1) = nominal measurement
yy order of rank (2 has a higher rank than 1) = ordinal measurement
yy equal intervals between successively higher numbers (0 ... 1 ... 2 ... 3 ...) = interval
measurement
yy absolute size (0 – 1 = –1 = 1 – 0 = 1) = ratio measurement
These characteristics form a hierarchy in the sense that the fourth characteristic presup-
122

poses the third one; the third one presupposes the second one, and so on. If the numbers
exhibit the feature of equal intervals, there has to be a rank order among them and they
have to be distinguishable from each other. Corresponding to each of these four char-
acteristics, a different level of measurement may be distinguished (see nominal, ordinal,
interval and ratio).

Study pages 312–313 of chapter 16 in the prescribed book for more information.

4.4 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF MEASUREMENT

The validity of a measuring instrument is the extent to which the research findings ac-
123

curately represent what is really happening in the situation. An effect or test is valid if
it demonstrates or measures what the researcher thinks or claims it does (Bryman et al
2014). Research errors, such as faulty research procedures, poor samples and inaccurate
or misleading measurement, can undermine validity. There are various types of validity
that relate to the independent variable and include construct validity, criterion-related
validity, face validity, concurrent validity and predictive validity.
The reliability of a measuring instrument refers to the extent to which the obtained
124

scores may be generalised to different measuring occasions, measurement/test forms,

and measurement/test administrators (Welman et al 2005:142).

4.5 MEASUREMENT SCALES

Concerning the measurement of attitudes, we can describe an attitude as a disposition
125

towards a particular issue (the so-called attitudinal object). Attitudes may be influenced
by individuals and events, and are less permanent than personality traits. There are four
different types of attitude scales, all of which comprise sets of items that measure dif-
ferent degrees of attitudes towards the attitudinal object (Welman et al 2005), namely:
yy the summated or Likert scale
yy the semantic differential scale

22
4.5.1 Likert scale

An example of a Likert scale in the box below.

Example (compare the CD-ROM manual): an attitude scale to test the efficiency of a lo-
cal bus service

The typical service user (passenger) is asked to indicate his or her choice of answer to the
question/item by marking the preferred box.

Agree Agree Agree in Do not Strongly

strongly some cases agree disagree

Busses are
on time 1 2 3 4 5

Drivers are
reckless 1 2 3 4 5

Fares are
too high 1 2 3 4 5

Service is
regular 1 2 3 4 5

An attitude scale should contain approximately the same number of positively and nega-
126

tively formulated items to counteract the agreeable response style.

We regard all positive items as being equal in attitudinal intensity, and the same applies
127

to all negative items. In other words, a score of 5 on one positive item is interpreted as
being just as positive as a score of 5 on any other (positive) item.

4.5.2 Semantic differential

The semantic differential, which was developed by Osgood and his colleagues (Osgood,
128

Suci & Tannenbaum 1957), follows a rather different approach from that of the Likert scale.
Each item in a semantic differential scale consists mostly of a seven-point scale, of which
the two end points are two opposite adjectives (words that describe the attributes/
characteristics of an object such as a strong leader). For example, if we want to measure
attitude towards taxation on bread, we could use bipolar adjectives such as the following:

Good ——————— Bad

Moral ——————— Immoral

23 RME101Q/1
The seven scale points may be left open as in the above example, or the numbers 1 to 7
129

may appear in the corresponding sections, as follows:

130 Good Bad
———————
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Source: Welman et al 2005:156

Activity 4.2

Read case study 2 in appendix A and answer questions 10 and 11 in case study 2. Compare
your answers with those provided in the case study.

4.6 SUMMARY
In order to determine whether the independent variable is related to the dependent vari-
131

able some form of measurement must be involved. The level of measurement is informed
by the method of data-collection chosen to collect data. Each data-collection method
and measuring instrument has its own advantages and disadvantages. Reliability and
validity are important for each data-collection method used.

24
Study unit 5
Data analysis and interpretation of the results

Contents

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Qualitative data analysis
5.3 Quantitative data analysis
5.4 Summary

Learning outcome

After completing this study unit and chapters 16 and 17 of the prescribed book, you
should be able to:
yy Distinguish between different types of data analysis techniques
yy Explain the influence of sampling on the internal validity of content analysis
yy Discuss the Pearson’s correlation coefficient

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Once we have decided on an appropriate research design and suitable means of mea-
132

suring the relevant variables, we must choose an appropriate statistical procedure to

analyse the data we will eventually obtain. We should make this choice even before we
begin to collect the data.
This step therefore consists of analysing and interpreting the data (information) obtained
133

in the previous step. Thus, the results obtained then provide feedback on the tenability or
untenability of the originally formulated research hypothesis and consequently on the
theory, if a theory has been deduced: either it is supported (provisionally) or it is refuted
(especially in the case of quantitative research methods).
If the results we obtain correspond with the hypothesis, we have not proven finally and
134

irrefutably that the theory is correct. It is only provisionally supported in so far as there is
no other known theory that will explain the results obtained. In this approach (where the
theory is not finally and irrefutably proven correct but is only provisionally supported),
it is the data obtained that will finally determine whether the theory receives support or
not, for example, the authority of the person who has come up with the theory.
Data analysis is a series of overlapping steps that are revisited at different points, this
135

allows for logical systematic analysis and reflection.

25 RME101Q/1
 5.2 QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
This section will address data analysis in qualitative research. Two methods of measure-
136

ment are dealt with, namely in-depth unstructured individual interviews and group
interviews (focus groups). These methods are used in approaches such as ethnographic
and case study research as well as in participant observation.
Secondly, content analysis is used for historical and personal documents, mass media
137

and open-ended questions as well as unstructured interviews (Welman et al 2005). It is

important to note the different types of variables that will be useful in analysing qualitative
data. The use of a diagram is popular in qualitative data analysis because it is relatively
easy to interpret.
There are number of data-analysis techniques in analysing qualitative data. These tech-
138

niques include thematic analysis and qualitative content analysis. It is important to first
understand the ground theory as a framework used for analysing qualitative data. Refer
to chapter 17 of the prescribed textbook for more information.

Activity 5.1

Read case study 3 in appendix A and answer question 4. Compare your answers with
those in the case study.

5.3 QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

The student and researcher can obtain the assistance of a statistician and computer expert
139

in order to process the collected data of a research project (using computer packages
like SPSS) and to interpret it. However, a basic knowledge of descriptive statistics at the
very least is necessary to understand the core of one’s own research results so as to draw
sound conclusions in this regard.
It is equally important that the student and researcher investigate the research hypotheses
140

that have been converted to statistical hypotheses knowledge of inferential statistics. The
quantitative data analysis involves the use of variables such as dichotomous variables,
nominal variables, ordinal variable, interval variable, and ratio variable. Refer to table 16.1
in chapter 16 of the prescribed book for more information.

Activity 5.2

Read case study 2 in appendix A and answer question 12. Compare your answers with
those provided in the case study.

(a) Produce two appropriate graphs (a bar diagram and histogram), for the following
variables: attitude (e.g. scores from a semantic differential) and age.

26
 5.4 SUMMARY
The qualitative data analysis begins by data coding, this implies that the data coded will
141

not be presented in the original format, it will be represented and interpreted in a different
way by the researcher. This will also ensure anonymity. Naturally qualitative researchers
deal with large volumes of data that must be condensed. On the other hand quantitative
data analysis mostly makes use of Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, (SPSS) for
data analysis, and use graphs to present the findings.

27 RME101Q/1
Study unit 6
Report writing

Contents

6.1 Introduction
6.2 Important aspects of the research report
6.3 Research report
6.4 Summary

Learning outcome

After completing this study unit you should be able to compile a research report.

6.1 INTRODUCTION
One of the purposes of the research is to expand scientific knowledge or to make a con-
142

tribution to the body of knowledge. In order to serve this purpose, therefore, the findings
of a research project must be released.

6.2 IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF THE RESEARCH REPORT

There are certain important aspects that the research report must address; these include
143

the discussion and conclusion of the research report. The research report will provide
answers to a number of important questions in research. These include the following:
yy What was the research problem?
yy How was the problem investigated?
yy What has been found?
yy What are the implications and the meaning of the findings for the original problem?
A research report answering the above questions can be in different forms such as a thesis
144

or dissertation, or an article that is intended for publication in a professional journal. The

main objectives remains the same, namely to provide a written account of the project
and of the results obtained (Welman et al 2005).

6.3 RESEARCH REPORT

In addition to the above questions that the research report should provide answers to,
145

the research report must also make provision for the following:

28
 Activity 6.1

Evaluate case study 2 in appendix A, and compile the research discussion and conclusion.
Compare your answers with the provided respond in appendix A.

Discussion

−− Explain the procedure and methods followed to investigate the research problem.
−− Describe the results in detail, what was found and what does it mean to the
research problem under investigation.
−− Check whether the results confirm the theory and research of the literature review
or not. This should be clearly indicated.
−− State whether the sample was representative and whether the results can be
generalised or not. You should be aware by now that there are different types of
sampling and certain sampling allows the researcher to generalise the research
results to the entire population by nature.

Conclusions
−− State the hypothesis/hypotheses and whether it/they can be accepted. The research
results will make a provision for the hypothesis to either be accepted or rejected.
−− Describe the shortcomings (if any) of the internal and external validity of the
investigation. This includes the limitations if the study.
−− Future research: state how these shortcomings can be overcome in future research.

6.4 SUMMARY
The research report should have a clear, simple writing style and clearly defined sections
146

for simple access. It must address the research hypothesis or the research questions.

29 RME101Q/1
Appendix
Self-assessment questions

147 Question 1
148 Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative research.

149 Question 2
150 Describe validity and list different types of validity in research.

151 Question 3
152 Explain the importance of reliability in research.

153 Question 4
154 Discuss different types of sampling.

155 Question 5
156 Explain research design and give practical examples.

157 Question 6
158 Differentiate between a causal and a correlational approach.

159 Question 7
160 Discuss the difference between a laboratory experiment and field experiment.

161 Question 8
Rate the extent to which the research design in the case study provides for threats to
162

internal and external validity. Refer critically to the following aspects:

(a) Threats to the internal validity of the research design
(b) Third variables that could influence the results of the investigation

163 Question 9
(a) Explain the different data-collection methods available in research.

164 Question 10
(a) Construct a suitable graphical example of one scale item of the semantic differential
(tedium measure) that would probably be used to measure stress in the case study.
(b) Construct a suitable graphical example of one scale item of the Likert scale that
would probably be used to measure role ambiguity in the case study.

165

30
166 Question 11
167 Explain the difference between a population and a sample.

168 Question 12
169 Discuss the difference between internal and external validity in research.

170 Question 13
171 Distinguish between probability and non-probability samples.

172 Question 14
173 Explain the importance of a literature review in research.

174 Question 15
175 Define the concept “plagiarism”.

176 Question 16
177 Define what research is.

178 Question 17
179 Differentiate between descriptive, explanatory and predictive methods.

180 Question 18
181 Compile a mini-research proposal of your own chosen topic.

31 RME101Q/1
 CASE STUDY 1
Effect of a behaviour-modelling training programme on the
interpersonal skills of supervisors

182 INTRODUCTION
Researchers such as Wilson (1996), Fleishman (1995) and Moore (1996) found that, in addition to
183

their organisational role, first-line supervisors should also have interpersonal skills. These authors
and others are attaching increasing importance to the interpersonal skills that are required for suc-
cessful performance by supervisors.
As trade unions grow in South Africa, supervisors’ actions are often challenged as grievances and
184

industrial relations problems increase (Hopwood 1998). In this respect, severe demands are also
being made on the interpersonal skills of first-line supervisors, and there is an urgent need for new
approaches that will equip them to handle the interpersonal aspects of their jobs.
Behaviour modelling is a training process which has been used to develop interpersonal skills. Sorcher
185

and Goldstein (1999) are generally regarded as being the first to have shown that behaviour model-
ling can contribute towards developing the interpersonal skills of first-line supervisors. Unlike many
other human-relations training approaches, there is no emphasis on attitude change – behaviour
modelling focuses directly on changing behaviour.
186 The aim of the research was to establish whether a behaviour-modelling training programme would
improve the handling of interpersonal problems by first-line supervisors on the shop floor.

187 METHOD

188 Subject
The subjects were 100 first-line supervisors. The sample consisted of 50 males and 50 females.
189

They were all employed by a large manufacturing company in Gauteng and all of them agreed
to participate in the investigation. Two pre-existing groups were used as an experimental and a
control group. The subjects also represented the following language groups:
*
190 30 English speakers
*
191 20 Afrikaans speakers
*
192 30 Zulu speakers
*
193 20 Sotho speakers

PROCEDURE
194

The investigation took place at the manufacturing company’s premises in Gauteng. The in-
195

terpersonal skills of the subjects in the experimental and control groups were rated by a group of
line superiors during 1995 (premeasurement). The results showed that the interpersonal skills of
both groups were the same. Afterwards the subjects in the experimental group were exposed to
a behaviour-modelling training programme in 1996. The skills of both groups were again rated
during 1997 (postmeasurement).
The researcher worked with the company training staff in developing the in-company behaviour-
196

modelling programme. However, the training was conducted by the company’s own trainers and it

32
was done in English. The programme consisted of four behaviour-modelling frameworks aimed at
improving the interpersonal skills of the supervisors in the following respects:

yy effective supervision
yy dealing with poor worker performance
yy interviewing
yy handling complaints
197 Question 1
List the two most important variables in the case study, and state whether they are independent or
198

dependent variables.

Answer:
Independent variable = Behaviour-modelling programme
Dependent variable = Interpersonal skills

200 Question 2
201 Formulate the research hypothesis in the case study in your own words.

Answer:
The interpersonal skills of the experimental group will be rated significantly higher than
the interpersonal skills of the control group after the experimental group has been exposed
to the behaviour-modelling programme.

203 Question 3
204 What will be the units of analysis in the case study?

Answer:
First-line supervisors of a manufacturing company in Gauteng.

206 Question 4
207 What type of sampling was used in the case study?
(a) Probability sampling or non-probability sampling?
(b) Give an example of the type of sampling? Explain your answer specifically.

Answer:
(a) Non-probability
(b) Accidental
They all come from one manufacturing company in Gauteng and agreed to participate in
the study.

209

33 RME101Q/1
210 Question 5
Name three typical characteristics of the experimental research in the case study.
211

Answer:
The researcher used an experimental and a control group, had control over the intervention
(independent variable) which he or she applied to investigate a causal relationship between
the independent (behaviour-modelling training programme) and the dependent variable (in-
terpersonal skills).

212 Question 6
(a) Which type of quasi-experimental research design is involved in the case study: non-
equivalent control group design or interrupted time-series design?
(b) Briefly explain your answer.

Answer:
(a) Non-equivalent control group design
(b) Because the skills of the (pre-existing) experimental and control groups were measured
before the intervention, the intervention was applied to the experimental group
and afterwards they were measured again.

214 Question 7
Does the research design in the case study involve a causal or a correlational approach? Briefly
215

explain your answer.

Answer:
Causal approach, because the researcher wanted to investigate a causal relationship between
the independent variable (behaviour modelling) and the dependent variable (interpersonal
skills).

217 Question 8
Will the study situation in the case study involve a laboratory experiment or a field experiment?
218

Briefly explain your answer.

Answer:
Field experiment, because the investigation took place in the natural everyday environment
of the subjects (manufacturing company in Gauteng).

220 Question 9
Rate the extent to which the research design in the case study provides for threats to internal and
221

external validity. Refer critically to the following aspects:

(a) Threats to the internal validity of the research design, especially concerning the two groups

34
 (i) Which two factors beyond the researcher’s control could influence the results of the
investigation?
(ii) Which four factors could influence the researcher’s control?
(b) The ecological validity of the investigation
(c) The population validity, sampling procedure and generalisation of the results

Answer:
222

(a) The experimental and control group did not differ in terms of the premeasurement,
but the groups (pre-existing) may differ regarding a variable that has not been detected.
Therefore, the internal validity is threatened to a certain extent.
(i) History and spontaneous change
(ii) Subject effect/measurement reactivity; experimenter effect; pre-test sensitisa-
tion; instrumentation (raters more tired and experienced than others); communi-
cation between groups and the English language (training done in English while
only 30 subjects are English speakers) (any 4)
(b) Field experiment: ecological validity not threatened.
(c) Population validity is threatened, because an accidental sample has been used which
does not represent the population. Therefore, the results cannot be generalised with
confidence.

'
224

35 RME101Q/1
 225 CASE STUDY 2
Relationship between stress, role ambiguity and role conflict
experienced by workers in a work situation

INTRODUCTION
226

Stress was originally studied mainly by medical researchers interested in psychological measures.
227

The popularity of stress as a research topic among behavioural scientists and practitioners may be
attributed to the undesirable effects to which stress may lead. The focus of this study is the relation-
ship between job stress, role ambiguity and role conflict in the job situation.
For example, according to Beehr and Drexler (1999), stress in the workplace necessitates a con-
228

sideration of factors which may be regarded as causing stress. In other words, this includes those
characteristics that appear threatening to the individual. McGrath (1995) proposed that stress in
organisations originates from the worker’s physical and psychological make-up. Keenan and Newton
(1999) believe that organisational climate and the absence of social support contribute to the level
of environmental frustrations.
However, the two role problems which have been identified and empirically investigated as being
229

major contributors to stress are role ambiguity and role conflict (Jackson & Schuler 1997). Role am-
biguity may be defined as a lack of clarity about the job. This refers to a discrepancy between the
information available to the employee and that which is required for successful job performance.
Role conflict is the simultaneous occurrence of two or more opposing pressures, where the response
to one makes compliance with the other impossible (Hammer & Tossi 1999).
The basic purpose of this study was to determine the relationships between stress and role ambiguity
230

as well as between stress and role conflict in a work situation at a banking institution.

231 METHOD

232 Respondents
The sample consisted of 100 respondents, all of whom were employees at a banking institution
233

in the Western Cape. The respondents were conveniently available and agreed to participate in
the study. The average age of the respondents was 47 years and the sample consisted of 50 males
and 50 females. Of the 100 respondents

yy 40 were Afrikaans speaking

yy 40 were English speaking
yy 20 were Xhosa speaking
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
234

Stress was measured by the Tedium measure (Pines 1999) which measures physical, emotional and
235

mental exhaustion by means of 21 items scored on a 7-point scale. The 7-point scale ranges from
never experienced (1 point) to always experienced (7 points).
Role ambiguity was measured by means of a 5-point scale (Likert scale) ranging from strongly
236

agree (5 points) to strongly disagree (1 point). The questionnaire consisted of 6 items.

The measure of role conflict contained 8 items scored on a 5-point scale (Likert) ranging from
237

strongly agree (5 points) to strongly disagree (1 point).

Higher scores on the three scales indicated higher stress, role ambiguity and role conflict, while
238

lower scores indicated the contrary.

36
 PROCEDURE
239

The respondents completed the three questionnaires. The relationship between the three variables
240

(stress, role ambiguity and role conflict) was calculated by means of Pearson’s product-moment
correlation technique.

241 RESULTS
The results of the correlations between stress and role ambiguity as well as between stress and role
242

conflict are shown in table 1.

243 Table 1: Correlations between stress, role ambiguity and role conflict

Variables Role ambiguity Role conflict

Stress 0,94 0,05

The results show that a significant relationship exists between stress and role ambiguity and no
244

significant correlation between stress and role conflict.

REFERENCES
Beehr, TA. 1999. Job stress, employee health and organizational effectiveness. Personnel Psychology.
31, 665–670.
McGrath, JE. 1995. Stress and behavior in organisations. New York: Wiley.
Keenan, A & Newton, T. 1999. Frustration in organisation: Relationships to role roles, climate and stress.
Journal of Occupational Psychology. 57, 80–100.
Jackson, SE & Schuler, RS. 1997. A meta-analysis and conceptual critique of research on role ambigu-
ity and role conflict in work settings. Organisational Behaviour and Human Decision Processes.
36, 16–78.
Hammer, WC & Tossi, HC. 1999. Relationship of role conflict and role ambiguity to job involvement
measures. Journal of Applied Psychology. 59, 450–500.
Pines, AM. 1999. Burnout: From Tedium to personal growth.

245 Question 1
List the most important variables in the case study and state whether they are independent or
246

dependent variables.

Answer:

Dependent variable = stress

Independent variable = role ambiguity
Independent variable = role conflict

248 Question 2
249 Formulate the research hypothesis in the case study in your own words.

37 RME101Q/1
 Answer:
There will be a significant relationship between stress and role ambiguity as well as between
stress and role conflict among employees at a banking institution in the Western Cape.

251 Question 3
252 Briefly describe the problems in the list of references in the case study.

253 Answers:

yy The reference list is not in alphabetical order.

yy Keenan, A & Newton, T. 1999: Journal of Occupational Psychology should be in italics and
not the title of the article.
yy Pines, AM. 1999: Publisher not mentioned

255 Question 4
256 What will be the units of analysis in the case study?

257 Answer:
258 Employees at a banking institution in the Western Cape

260 Question 5
What type of sampling was used in the case study:
261

(a) Probability or non-probability?

(b) Type of sample?
Explain your answer specifically.

262 Answer:
(a) Non-probability
(b) Accidenta
263 They all come from a bank institution in the Western Cape and agreed to participate in the study.

265 Question 6
266 Which type of research design is involved in the case study? Briefly explain your answer.

267 Answer:
(a) Correlational design
(b) Because the researcher wanted to determine the relationships between stress and role
ambiguity and between stress and role conflict.

269

38
270 Question 7
Does the research design in the case study involve a causal or a correlational approach? Briefly
271

explain your answer.

272 Answer:
Correlational approach, because the researcher only wanted to investigate the relationships
273

between the independent variables (role ambiguity and role conflict) and the dependent
variable (stress).

Question 8
275

Will the study situation in the case study involve a laboratory experiment or a field experiment?
276

Briefly explain your answer.

277 Answer:
Field study, because the investigation (completing questionnaires) most probably took place
278

in the natural everyday environment of the subjects (at the banking institution).

280 Question 9
Rate the extent to which the research design in the case study provides for threats to internal and
281

external validity. Refer critically to the following aspects:

(a) Threats to the internal validity of the research design

(b) Third variables that could influence the results of the investigation study
(c) The ecological validity of the investigation
(d) The population validity, sampling procedure and generalisation of results

282 Answers:
(a) Because the research design was a non-experimental correlation design, there was no
causal relation between the independent variables (role ambiguity and role conflict) and
the dependent variable (stress). Therefore, third variables or nuisance variables could have
influenced the results. The internal validity is therefore threatened.
(b) The following third variables could have influenced the results (see introduction):
The worker’s physical and psychological make-up, the organisational climate and the
absence of social support contribute to the level of environmental frustrations.
(c) Field experiment: ecological validity not threatened.
(d) Population validity is threatened, because an accidental sample has been used which is
not representative of the population and therefore the results cannot be generalised
with confidence.

284 Question 10

(a) What type of measurement level (nominal, ordinal, and interval or ratio measurement) is
involved in the measurement of stress in the case study? Briefly explain your answer.

39 RME101Q/1
(b) What type of measurement level (nominal, ordinal, and interval or ratio measurement) is
involved in measuring role conflict in the case study? Briefly explain your answer.

Answers:
285

(a) Interval, because the stress of the respondents was measured by means of equal inter-
vals between consecutive higher numbers.
(b) Interval, because the role conflict of the respondents was measured by means of equal
intervals between consecutive higher numbers.

Question 11
287

(a) Construct a suitable graphical example of one scale item of the semantic differential
(Tedium measure) that would probably be used to measure stress in the case study.
(b) Construct a suitable graphical example of one scale item of the Likert scale that would
probably be used to measure role ambiguity in the case study.

Answers:

(a) Mental exhaustion

Never experienced — — — — — — — Always experienced
1 2 3 4 5 6  7
(b) I am not sure of what is expected of me at work.

Strongly Agree Uncertain Disagree Strongly

agree disagree

5 4 3 2 1

289

40
290 Question 12
291 Construct two suitable bar diagrams of the characteristics of the units of analysis in the case study.

292 Answers:

293

294 Question 13
Complete the research report by describing the last section, namely conclusions and discussion.
295

Pay special attention to the results, generalisation of results, hypothesis, possible shortcomings and
future research.
296

41 RME101Q/1
 297 Answer:
298 Discussion
According to the results of the investigation, there is a significant (positive) correlation be-
299

tween stress and role ambiguity (r = 0,94) but no significant correlation between stress
and role conflict (r = 0,05). Therefore, the theory of Jackson and Schuler (1997) regarding the
relationship between stress and role ambiguity has been confirmed, but not their theory
regarding stress and role conflict.
The researcher used an accidental sample and therefore the sample was not representative
300

of the population (employees at a banking institution). The results cannot be generalised to

the rest of the population with confidence.

301 Conclusion
The research hypothesis (that there is a correlation between stress and role ambiguity) has
302

been confirmed, but not the hypothesis that a correlation exists between stress and role
conflict.
A correlational design has been used and therefore the internal validity of the investigation is
303

threatened by third variables such as age, physical and psychological factors, organisational
climate, absence of social support, and so on. In future the problem should be studied by means
of a true experimental design to eliminate third variables.
Concerning population validity, a representative sample such as a stratified random sample
304

should be used to enhance the population validity of the investigation.

305 Question 14
306 Write an abstract of the research report in not more than 120 words.

307 Answer:
The purpose of the investigation was to establish whether a positive relationship exists
308

between stress and role ambiguity, and between stress and role conflict. A correlational
design has been used, while the subjects were selected by means of an accidental sample. The
stress levels of the respondents were measured by means of the Tedium measure, role ambiguity
and role conflict by means of Likert scales. The results show a significant correlation between
stress and role ambiguity but no correlation between stress and role conflict. Concerning the
hypotheses stress and role ambiguity can be accepted but not regarding stress and role conflict.
The results may not be generalised because the sample is not representative.

42
 CASE STUDY 3
Attitudes of nurses towards patients who suffer from HIV/AIDS

310 INTRODUCTION
Attitudes can be described as any general evaluations people have of others, themselves and other
311

issues and they are manifested in feelings of liking, dislike, favour and disfavour (Petty 1995). Some
attitudes have an ego-defensive function by protecting people from threatening truths about them-
selves or enhancing their self-image. Attitudes can be either negative or positive. Discrimination
follows from negative attitudes (prejudice). It can be described as a display of negative behaviour
reflecting negative thoughts and feelings (Bremer & Byrne 1991).
Social categorisation is a strategy by means of which we reduce the complexity of the social world by
312

demarcating similarities and differences between people. Groups sharing similarities with the person
who holds the attitude are classified as in-groups; out-groups are those people who are perceived as
different. Initially AIDS was blamed on socially undesirable victims. The mass media quickly labelled
AIDS the gay plague or the black African disease. This stigmatisation caused prejudice to increase
towards the minority group (Van Dyk 2001). Devine (1995) wrote that self-esteem is enhanced by
maintaining negative attitudes towards out-group members such as HIV/AIDS patients. When people
are living with HIV/AIDS, the reaction is often one of disapproval, fear, prejudice and condemnation.
These negative attitudes are carried over into the health-care setting, leading to prejudices against
313

HIV/AIDS patients among nurses. Although the causes of AIDS are known, many nurses are locked in
the negative and emotive feelings associated with the initial stage of AIDS. Nurses therefore adopt
discriminatory behaviour towards HIV/AIDS patients by avoiding such patients in the implementation
of care. Although overt and direct forms of prejudice have decreased, prejudiced feelings have not
been reduced and overt forms of prejudice have been replaced by covert and subtle forms.
The aim of this investigation was to study the attitudes of nurses towards HIV/AIDS patients at a
314

specific hospital in South Africa and to establish whether there is a difference in attitude towards
HIV/AIDS patients between younger and older nurses.
315 METHOD
316 Subject
The target population consisted of a convenience sample of nurses at a public hospital in South
317

Africa. The nurses were specifically selected as having had at least 2 years’ experience in the care of
HIV/AIDS patients. The respondents consisted of two groups of female nurses. One group consisted
of 10 nurses between the ages of 20–30 years and the other group of 10 nurses between the ages
of 30–50 years. The age categories were used to establish whether differences in attitude exist. The
average education level of the younger nurses was matric plus 2 years’ training and the average level
of the older nurses was grade 10.

318 Measuring instrument

The respondents were interviewed individually by means of unstructured in-depth interviews.
319

Field notes were taken by the researcher. The questions related to the different treatments of patients
affected by HIV/AIDS and interpersonal relations with and behaviour towards HIV/AIDS patients.

PROCEDURE
320

Respondents were given a case study which reflected nurses’ interpersonal relations with and imple-
321

mentation of care in the case of patients with HIV/AIDS. By viewing this situation from a distance,
respondents could say things about it that they would not be able to say from within the situation.
Respondents were also presented with a cartoon sketch of a nurse caring for an HIV/AIDS patient as

43 RME101Q/1
a stimulus to respond to. The respondents were asked to explore possible responses on the part of
the nurse presented in the sketch. This method provided a much richer understanding of attitudes
than abstract questions.
Permission was obtained from the appropriate authorities to carry out a project of such a sensitive
322

nature. The respondents were made aware that there were no correct or incorrect responses and
that confidentiality would be maintained.
The purpose of analysing the field notes was to identify the most important themes (key words
323

or sentences) by means of content analysis. The codes were used to attach meaning to the de-
scriptive information that had been collected during the field work. They were used to retrieve and
organise the chunks of words that had been categorised according to the particular themes within
the original raw data or field notes.

324RESULTS
The frequencies and percentages of answers per age group of the four themes, identified by analys-
325

ing the field notes, are shown in table 2 (see also the number/frequencies of the responses from the
respondents on the spreadsheet (matrix) provided in table 1).
326 Table 1: Spreadsheet for analysing interviews

Theme Age Theme Age

1 1 3 1
1 1 3 1
1 1 3 2
1 1 3 2
1 1 3 2
1 1 3 2
1 1 3 2
1 1 3 2
1 2 3 2
1 2 4 1
1 2 4 1
1 2 4 1
1 2 4 1
1 2 4 1
2 1 4 1
2 1 4 1
2 1 4 1
2 1 4 1
2 1 4 1
2 2 4 2
2 2 4 2
2 2 4 2
3 1 4 2
3 1 4 2
3 1 4 2
3 1 4 2
3 1 4 2
3 1 4 2
3 1 4 2

327

328

44
329 Table 2: Frequencies of answers per theme and age group

Number of
Theme Age group Percentage
responses
20–30 years 8 40%
Fear of contracting AIDS
30–50 years 6 30%
Discriminatory
330
20–30 years 5 25%
behaviour 30–50 years 3 15%
Experience of stress
331
20–30 years 9 45%
while nursing patients 30–50 years 7 35%
Experience of mixed
332
20–30 years 10 50%
feelings 30–50 years 10 50%

333 REFERENCES
Bremer, AT & Byrne D. 1991. Understanding human behavior. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Devine, PG. 1995. Prejudice and outgroup perception. In A Tesser (ed.). Advanced Social Psychology
(pp 467–524). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Petty, RE. 1995. Attitude change. In A Tesser (ed.). Advanced Social Psychology
(pp 195–255). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Van Dyk, A. 2001. HIV/AIDS care and counselling. A multidisciplinary approach. Pretoria: Pearson
Education.

334 Question 1
335Describe two research questions for the research situation.

336 Answers:
(a) What are the attitudes of nurses towards HIV/AIDS patients?
(b) Is there a difference between the attitudes of older and younger nurses towards HIV/AIDS
patients?

Question 2
What type of research design (approach) is involved in the case study? Explain your
338

answer specifically.

339Answer:
The qualitative case study design, because the objective of this investigation was to investigate
340

the attitudes of a limited number of units of analysis (20 nurses). A qualitative case study differs
from hypothesis-testing research because its purpose is not to examine the effect of some or
other intervention but to understand the uniqueness and idiosyncrasy of a particular case (such
as the attitudes of nurses towards HIV/AIDS patients at a specific hospital).

342 Question 3
Which type of data-collection method has been used to measure the attitudes of the nurses towards
343

HIV/AIDS patients? Explain your answer specifically.

45 RME101Q/1
 344 Answer:
Unstructured in-depth interviews, because it is employed in this explorative study to iden-
345

tify important themes (variables) regarding the attitudes of nurses towards HIV/AIDS patients.
Unstructured interviews are also used to formulate penetrating questions and to generate
hypotheses for further investigation.

Question 4
346

(a) Report at which measurement level the data in the case study were captured (nominal, or-
dinal, interval or ratio).
(b) Choose an appropriate graphical technique (bar diagrams, pie charts or histograms – see
section 9.4 of the prescribed textbook) to represent the results in the case study per theme
(key word or sentence).
(c) Present your results according to your chosen technique in 4(b) graphically by means of
a hand-drawn diagram or by means of the CD-ROM’s printout procedure (compare pp
319–333 of the prescribed textbook).

46
347 Answers:
(a) Nominal (see section 7.3.2.1 in prescribed textbook).
(b) Bar diagrams or pie charts (because of nominal measurement – see chapter 9 in the
prescribed textbook).
(c) Examples of bar diagrams and pie charts of the results (themes keywords or
sentences):

Value 1 = Fear of contracting HIV/AIDS

Value 2 = Discriminatory behaviour towards patients
Value 3 = Experience of stress while nursing patients
Value 4 = Experience of mixed feelings (doubt, fear, sympathy, empathy,
uncertainty)

Value 1 = Fear of contracting HIV/AIDS

Value 2 = Discriminatory behaviour towards patients
Value 3 = Experience of stress while nursing patients
Value 4 = Experience of mixed feelings (doubt, fear, sympathy, empathy,
uncertainty)

47 RME101Q/1
REFERENCES
Bryman, A, Bell, E, Hirschsohn, P, Do Santos, A, Du Toit, J, Masenge, A, Van Aardt, I &
­Wagner, C. 2014. Research methodology; business and management contexts. Cape
Town: Oxford.
Coolican, H. 1992. Research methods and statistics in psychology. London: Hodder &
Stoughton.
De Vos, AS, Strydom, H, Fouche, CB & Delport, CSL. 2014. Research at grass roots: for
the social sciences and human service professions. 4th edition. Pretoria: Van Schaik.
Huysamen, G. 1991. Steekproefgroottes in plaaslik gepubliseerde psigologiese navorsing.
Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Sielkunde 21(3):183–190.
Mouton, J & Marais, HC. 1992. Basic concepts in the methodoloqy of the social sciences.
Pretoria: HSRC.
Osgood, CE, Suci, CJ & Tannenbaum, PH. 1957. The measurement of meaning. Urbana IL:
University of Illinois Press.
Pitts, M & Phillips, K. 1991. The psychology of health. London: Routledge.
Stevens, SS. 1951. Mathematics, measurement and psychophysics, edited by SS Stevens.
Handbook of Experimental Psychology. New York: Wiley.
Tuckman, BW. 1990. A proposal for improving the quality of published educational re­
search. Educational Researcher 19(9):22–25.
Welman, JC, Kruger, SJ & Mitchell, B. 2005. Research methodology. 3rd edition. Cape Town:
Oxford University Press.
Zuber-Skerritt, O. 1998. Postgraduate research training and supervision. (Workshop notes)
Gordon’s Bay Centre for Higher Adult.

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