DEBRECENER STUDIEN ZUR LITERATUR I7

P. Gaal—Szabo ° “ Ah done been tuh de horizon and back”. Zora Neale Hurston’s Cultural Spaces

Peter Gaal—Szabo

“Ah done been tuh

de horizon and back”
Zora Neale Hurston’s Cultural Spaces
in Their Eyes Were Watching God
and Jonah ’S Gourd Vine

Herausgegeben von Tamas Lichtmann

LANG

PETER LANG
Internationaler Verlag der Wis senschaften
“Ah done been tuh de horizon and back”
 DEBRECENER
STUDIEN ZUR LITERATUR
Herausgegeben von Tamas Lichtmann

Band 17

Herausgeberbeirat:
Kurt Bartsch, Graz
Arpad Bernath, Szeged
Hans-Georg Kemper, Tfibingen
Karl Mfiller, Salzburg
Thomas Schestag, Frankfurt/M.

Adresse des Herausgebers:

Universitat Debrecen
Lehrstuhl ffir deutschsprachige Literatur
H-4O 10 Debrecen, Pf. 47
Ungarn

i
PETER LANG
Frankfurt am Main - Berlin - Bern - Bruxelles - New York - Oxford - Wien
 Peter Gaal—Szabé

“Ah done been tuh

de horizon and back”
Zora Neale Hurston’s Cultural Spaces
in Their Eyes Were Watching God
and Jonah ’s Gourd Vine

i
PETER LANG
Internationaler Verlag der Wissenschaften
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 toto
In toto

Acknowledgement

II deeply
deeply thank
thank my
my mentor
mentor and
and friend,
friend, Professor
Professor Zoltán
Zoltan Abádi-Nagy,
Abadi—Nagy, whose
whose
invaluable
invaluable advice,
advice, insightful
insightful comments,
comments, and and steadfast
steadfast guidance
guidance contributed
contributed
immensely
immensely to to the
the process
process ofof researching
researching andand writing
writing throughout
throughout the
the entire
entire
project.
project.
II am
am also
also greatly
greatly indebted
indebted to
to my
my family,
family, especially
especially to
to my
my wife,
wife, my
my mother,
mother, and
and
my
my grandparents,
grandparents, whose
whose patience,
patience, support,
support, and
and faith
faith did
did not
not cease
cease to
to serve
serve as
as aa
motivating
motivating and
and nurturing background for
nurturing background for my
my work.
work.

5
6
Table of Contents

1.
1. Introduction
Introduction .......................................................................................................
....................................................................................................... 9
9

2.
2. The
The Concepts
Concepts of
of Space
Space and
and Place
Place ...................................................................
................................................................... 13
13
2.1.The
2.1.The Phenomenology
Phenomenology ofof Subject,
Subject, Space,
Space, and and Place....................................
Place .................................... 14 14
2.2.
2.2. Post-Marxist
Post—Marxist Geography:
Geography:
The
The Production
Production of
of the
the Human
Human Subject
Subject in in Space
Space and and byby Place
Place .................
................. 21
21
2.3.
2.3. Hybridizing
Hybridizing Space
Space and
and Place:
Place: The
The In-between.........................................
ln—between ......................................... 29 29

3.
3. Zora
Zora Neale
Neale Hurston:
Hurston: Cultural
Cultural Space,
Space,
and
and African
African American
American Spatiality....................................................................
Spatiality .................................................................... 35
35
3.1.
3.1. Hurston’s
Hurston’s Fiction
Fiction as
as Cultural
Cultural Space
Space .........................................................
......................................................... 35
35
3.2.
3.2. Hurston’s
Hurston’s African
African American
American Spatiality
Spatiality ....................................................
.................................................... 39
39

4.
4. Black
Black Cultural
Cultural Space
Space as
as Modernist
Modernist Nonplace.................................................
Nonplace ................................................. 51 51
4.1.
4.1. Nonplace
Nonplace as
as aa Means
Means of
of Cultural
Cultural Reassertion
Reassertion ..........................................
.......................................... 51
51
4.2.
4.2. Nonplace
Nonplace in
in the
the Two
Two Novels
Novels ....................................................................
.................................................................... 56
56

5.
5. Black
Black Sacred
Sacred Cosmos:
Cosmos: Liminal
Liminal Places
Places
and
and Hurston’s
Hurston’s Religio-Cultural
Religio—Cultural Framework………………………………...65
Framework ....................................... 65

6.
6. Gendered
Gendered Space:
Space: Transparent
Transparent Space,
Space,
Female
Female Social
Social Space,
Space, and
and the
the Production
Production of of the
the Female
Female Body Body .....................
..................... 81
81
6.1.
6.1. Masculine
Masculine Social
Social Space
Space asas Transparent
Transparent Space Space .........................................
......................................... 81
81
6.2.
6.2. Female
Female Social
Social Space
Space .................................................................................
................................................................................. 94
94

7.
7. Female
Female Places
Places in
in Masculine
Masculine Spaces:
Spaces:
Hurston’s
Hurston’s Feminine
Feminine Spatiality
Spatiality .....................................................................
..................................................................... 101
101

8.
8. Conclusion.....................................................................................................
Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 115
1 15

Works
Works Cited.......................................................................................................
Cited ....................................................................................................... 119
1 19

Index
Index ..................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................. 131
13 1

7
8
1. Introduction
Zora
Zora NealeNeale HurstonHurston has has gone
gone through
through many many interpretations
interpretations in in thethe critical
critical
literature.
literature. Praised
Praised as as anan outstanding
outstanding artist artist of of the
the Harlem
Harlem Renaissance
Renaissance and and thenthen
neglected
neglected in in herher later
later life,
life, Hurston
Hurston died died forgotten
forgotten and and in in poverty
poverty (Hemenway(Hemenway
348).
348). ItIt waswas only only later
later thatthat Alice
Alice Walker,
Walker, in in herher “In“In Search
Search of of ZoraZora Neale Neale
Hurston,”
Hurston,” rediscovered
rediscovered and and identified
identified her her as as aa significant
significant literary
literary forebearforebear for for
contemporary
contemporary African African American
American woman woman writers.
writers. The The reason
reason for for the the renewed
renewed
interest
interest in in Hurston
Hurston on on the
the sideside ofof the
the African
African American
American literary literary community
community can can
be
be found
found in in aa quest
quest amongamong AfricanAfrican Americans
Americans for for anan African
African American
American literary literary
tradition
tradition and and forfor aa distinct
distinct African
African American
American culturalcultural identity.
identity.
The
The need need for for authentication
authentication detectable detectable in in thethe African
African American American
community
community voiced voiced by by Walker,
Walker, but but markedly
markedly manifested
manifested in in the the Harlem
Harlem
Renaissance
Renaissance renders renders Hurston’s
Hurston’s literaryliterary output
output relevant.
relevant. Herself
Herself aa writer writer and and an an
anthropologist
anthropologist (a (a student
student of of Franz
Franz Boas’s),
Boas’s), HurstonHurston was was as as much
much aa creative creative
writer
writer asas aa constant,
constant, participant
participant observerobserver of of her
her ownown culture.
culture. This This duality
duality leads leads
to
to aa characteristic
characteristic ambivalence
ambivalence in in her
her fiction.
fiction. As As Barbara
Barbara JohnsonJohnson puts puts it, it, “she
“she
constantly
constantly tried tried to to explain
explain the the difference
difference betweenbetween aa reified reified ‘art’ ‘art’ and and aa livingliving
culture
culture in in which
which the the distinction
distinction between between spectator
spectator and and spectacle,
spectacle, rehearsalrehearsal and and
performance,
performance, experienceexperience and and representation,
representation, are are notnot fixed”
fixed” (161).
(161). The blending
The blending
of
of these
these seemingly
seemingly distinct distinct paradigms,
paradigms, the the cultural
cultural and and thethe literary,
literary, is is inin fact
fact aa
means
means of of subjectivation
subjectivation of of thethe African
African American
American subject subject throughthrough African African
American
American culture, culture, wherebywhereby Hurston Hurston manages manages to to establish
establish aa cultural cultural self self
in/through
in/through fiction
fiction in in aa dynamic
dynamic way. way. HerHer cultural
cultural spacespace contains
contains and builds upon
and builds upon
African
African American
American cultural cultural artifacts
artifacts in in aa playful,
playful, unfixed
unfixed manner, manner, and and thisthis
technique
technique pertains
pertains to to including
including African African American
American methodology
methodology of of cultural
cultural
inclusion.
inclusion. In In this
this way,
way, Hurston
Hurston consciously
consciously employs employs aa technique
technique to to revitalize
revitalize her her
fictional
fictional subjects
subjects by by recontextualizing
recontextualizing and and embedding
embedding them them in in an an authentic
authentic
cultural
cultural space
space rooted
rooted in in African
African American
American cosmology
cosmology and and folkfolk culture.
culture.
What
What justifyjustify the the chosen
chosen theoretical
theoretical foci foci of of the
the present
present study study are, are, on on thethe
one
one hand,
hand, the the anthropological
anthropological turn turn and and aa consequent
consequent emphasis emphasis on on spatial
spatial
thinking,
thinking, signifying
signifying aa shift shift awayaway fromfrom traditional
traditional literary
literary analyses;
analyses; on on thethe other
other
hand,
hand, regarding
regarding the the concrete
concrete analysesanalyses of of Hurston’s
Hurston’s novels, novels, validation
validation can can be be
found
found in in Johnson’s
Johnson’s conceptualization
conceptualization of of African
African American
American female female identity.
identity. In In
her
her evaluation
evaluation the black female
the black female can can be be conceptualized
conceptualized in in thethe function
function of of aa
“tetrapolar
“tetrapolar structure”
structure” (169), (169), that that is,is, in
in the
the cross-section
cross—section of of the binary pairs
the binary pairs of of
black/white
black/white and and male/female.
male/female. The The horizontal
horizontal scale scale of of gender
gender and and the the vertical
vertical
scale
scale of
of race
race in in Johnson’s
Johnson’s diagram diagram represent
represent two two major
major lines lines in in the
the function
function of of
which
which the black female
the black female is is positioned.
positioned. It It is
is clear
clear on on the basis of
the basis of Johnson’s
Johnson’s
analysis
analysis of of Their
Their Eyes Eyes WereWere Watching
Watching God God alone
alone how how bothboth sexism
sexism and and racism
racism
play
play anan important
important role role in in Hurston’s
Hurston’s life life andand fiction.
fiction. However,
However, as as regards
regards the the
omnipresence
omnipresence of of aa racialized
racialized consciousness,
consciousness, II propose propose that that Hurston’s
Hurston’s approach approach

9
is
is not
not constructed
constructed by by race but, first
race but, first and and foremost,
foremost, by by African
African American
American cultureculture
(much
(much as as race
race and and culture
culture are are interrelated
interrelated terms).terms). The The influence
influence of of Boasian
Boasian
cultural
cultural relativism
relativism serves serves as as an an explanation
explanation for for it,it, but but also also Hurston’s
Hurston’s
selfperception
selfperception as as revealed,
revealed, for for example,
example, in in her
her “How“How It It Feels
Feels to to Be
Be Colored
Colored
Me”—her
Me”—her appraisalappraisal of of African
African American
American self. self. SoSo while
while it it is
is generally
generally accepted
accepted
by
by now
now thatthat culture
culture is, is, in
in fact,
fact, cultures
cultures (see (see Geert
Geert Hofstede’s
Hofstede’s layers layers of of culture
culture
[10]),
[10]), the
the relevant
relevant aspects
aspects in in Hurston’s
Hurston’s case case are are African
African American
American cultureculture (to (to
replace
replace “race”)
“race”) and and gender.
gender.
In
In thethe present
present study study II intend
intend to to examine
examine the the dynamics
dynamics of of Hurston’s
Hurston’s
cultural
cultural space
space in in two
two of of her
her novels,
novels, Their Eyes Were
Their Eyes Were Watching
Watching God God and Jonah’s
and Jonah ’s
Gourd
Gourd Vine Vine (the(the two two major
major novels
novels that that are are regarded
regarded as as thethe peak
peak of of her
her
achievement
achievement in in fiction),
fiction), so so asas toto show
show her her method
method of of engaging
engaging the the dynamic
dynamic
interplay
interplay of of space
space and and place.
place. The The resulting
resulting richness
richness and and vitality
vitality of of her
her novels
novels
denote
denote aa particular
particular view view of of culture
culture and and an an African
African American
American way way of of
authentication
authentication that that enable
enable herher toto construct
construct aa fulfilling
fulfilling cultural
cultural universe
universe for for the
the
individual,
individual, with/despite
witlfldespite inbuilt inbuilt tensions.
tensions. The The cultural
cultural spacespace Hurston
Hurston establishes
establishes
is
is embedded
embedded in in anan African
African American
American culturalcultural context
context associated
associated with with the
the South;
South;
at
at the
the same
same time,
time, however,
however, her her cultural
cultural spacespace proves
proves to be diverse,
to be diverse, due due toto inward
inward
heterogeneity
heterogeneity and and external
external contexts
contexts (e.g., (e.g., aa white
white socio-cultural
socio—cultural frame). frame).
In
In the
the twotwo novels
novels Hurston’s
Hurston’s different
different spatial
spatial paradigms
paradigms unfold. unfold. II havehave
chosen
chosen paradigms
paradigms that that are,
are, perhaps,
perhaps, the the most
most relevant
relevant and and characteristic
characteristic ones ones
and
and play
play aa singular
singular role role inin revealing
revealing Hurston’s
Hurston’s cultural
cultural space:space: II will will therefore
therefore
1
deal
deal with
with her her Modernist
Modernist “nonplaces”
“nonplaces”1 that that signify
signify her her cultural
cultural space space especially
especially
in
in relation
relation to to the
the Harlem
Harlem Renaissance,
Renaissance, her her religio-cultural
religio—cultural space, space, as as well
well as as her
her
gendered
gendered space.space.
In
In the
the first
first chapter,
chapter, “The“The Concepts
Concepts of of Space
Space and and Place,”
Place,” II firstfirst focus
focus on on
the
the meaning
meaning of of space
space and and place
place from
from two two apparently
apparently contradictory
contradictory angles. angles. Much
Much
as
as the
the terms
terms “space”
“space” and and “place”
“place” appear appear to to bebe unambiguous
unambiguous in in an
an everyday
everyday
sense,
sense, they
they must
must be be problematized
problematized when when it it comes
comes to to theory.
theory. Reductive
Reductive as as it
it may
may
seem,
seem, II distill
distill the
the ways
ways in in which
which they they areare theorized
theorized into into twotwo opposing
opposing schools.
schools.
One
One of of them
them embraces
embraces an an understanding
understanding of of space,
space, place,
place, and and the the human
human subject
subject
as
as reflected
reflected in in phenomenology:
phenomenology: the the human
human subject
subject is is emphasized
emphasized and and proves
proves to to
be
be the
the center
center of of place-construction.
place—construction. This bears special
This bears special importance
importance in in African
African
American
American cosmological
cosmological discourse discourse as as selfassertion
selfassertion in in an
an oppressive
oppressive environment.
environment.
The
The other
other theoretical
theoretical school school reflects
reflects aa mainly
mainly post-Marxist
post—Marxist delineation
delineation of of space
space
and
and place,
place, but but from
from aa reverse
reverse point
point of of view.
view. It It formulates
formulates the the question
question how how thethe
human
human subjectsubject is is produced
produced by by spacespace or or indoctrinated
indoctrinated in in place
place within
within aa
superimposed
superimposed power power structure.
structure. The The constructive
constructive force force of of space
space is is thus
thus
emphasized,
emphasized, and and the the role
role ofof the
the human
human subjectsubject in in its
its cultural
cultural construction
construction is is de-
de—

1
1 See
See the
the chapter,
chapter, “Black
“Black Cultural
Cultural Space
Space as
as Modernist
Modernist Nonplace”
Nonplace” for
for an
an elaboration
elaboration of
of Marc
Marc
Augé’s
Auge’s concept
concept of
of nonplace.
nonplace.

10
10
focalized.
focalized. My My chapter
chapter is is anan attempt
attempt to bring the
to bring the phenomenological
phenomenological and and post-
post—
Marxist
Marxist paradigms
paradigms together.together. Not Not thatthat it it isis mymy aimaim to to synthesize
synthesize them; them; however,
however,
it
it can
can indeed
indeed be be shown
shown that that thinkers
thinkers of of respective
respective schoolsschools accommodate
accommodate
propositions
propositions of of one
one another.
another. What What it it all boils down
all boils down to to is
is that
that human
human subjects
subjects are are
able
able toto hybridize
hybridize space; space; that that is, is, to to appropriate
appropriate and and enliven
enliven it, it, despite
despite
embeddedness
embeddedness in in aa social/political/cultural
social/political/cultural context—a context—a realization
realization thatthat proves
proves to to
be
be anan extremely
extremely important
important tool tool for for thethe study
study of of Hurston’s
Hurston’s multiple
multiple positionality
positionality
in
in diverse
diverse racial,
racial, gender,
gender, class,
class, or or geographical
geographical discourses. discourses.
The
The second
second chapter,
chapter, “Zora “Zora Neale Neale Hurston:Hurston: Cultural
Cultural Space,Space, and
and African
African
American
American Spatiality,”
Spatiality,” grounds
grounds my my subsequent
subsequent analysis analysis of of her
her cultural
cultural spacespace inin
her
her two
two novels
novels in in relation
relation to to the
the major
major trend trend of of Hurston
Hurston scholarship.
scholarship. The The popular
popular
focus
focus on on herher vernacular
vernacular use, use, as as exemplified
exemplified by by Henry
Henry Louis Louis Gates,
Gates, Jr.,Jr., and
and
Houston
Houston Baker,Baker, does does notnot at at allall override
override aa concept concept of of culture
culture thatthat permeates
permeates
Hurston’s
Hurston’s lifework:
lifework: they they alsoalso examine
examine Hurston’s Hurston’s language
language use use inin terms
terms of of
African
African American
American cultural cultural phenomena,
phenomena, “signifying” “signifying” and and “blues
“blues performance,”
performance,”
both
both of of which
which reveal reveal an an important
important underlyingunderlying cultural cultural framework
framework in in African
African
American
American literature.
literature. However,
However, cultural cultural awareness
awareness becomes becomes even even more more
significant
significant in in Hurston’s
Hurston’s case case as as she
she is is also
also an an anthropologist
anthropologist with with aa substantial
substantial
record
record of of field
field research
research in in the
the South
South and and the the Caribbean.
Caribbean. A A genuine
genuine approach
approach to to
Hurston
Hurston and and her her fictional
fictional works works thus thus necessitates
necessitates aa consideration
consideration of of her
her
anthropological
anthropological research, research, her her philosophy
philosophy of of culture,
culture, and and an an approach
approach to to her
her
novels
novels which
which is is mindful
mindful of both anthropology
of both anthropology and and fiction.
fiction. II willwill show
show that
that
Hurston
Hurston consciously
consciously blends blends both both aa traditionally
traditionally African African American
American and and thethe
anthropologist’s
anthropologist’s writing writing strategy,
strategy, adding adding her her knowledge
knowledge of of African
African American
American
cultural
cultural performances
performances and and places
places as as well.
well. The The resulting
resulting cultural
cultural space
space is is not
not aa
chaotic juxtaposition of
chaotic juxtaposition of methods
methods and and elements.
elements. Much Much rather, rather, it it reflects
reflects
Hurston’s
Hurston’s principle
principle of of culture
culture and and revitalizes
revitalizes the the African
African American
American hybridizing
hybridizing
strategy, tricksterism, thereby
strategy, tricksterism, thereby refusing
refusing rigid rigid conceptualization.
conceptualization.
“Black
“Black Cultural
Cultural Space Space as as Modernist
Modernist Nonplace” Nonplace” deals deals with
with Hurston’s
Hurston’s
position
position regarding
regarding Black Black Modernism
Modernism and and the the way
way thatthat position
position permeates
permeates the the
construction
construction of of the
the novels.
novels. II introduce
introduce the the label
label “nonplace”
“nonplace” to to indicate
indicate Hurston’s
Hurston’s
dual
dual distanced
distanced and and mainstream
mainstream position position in in the
the Harlem
Harlem Renaissance.
Renaissance. RelyingRelying on on
conceptualizations
conceptualizations of of nonplaces,
nonplaces, II claim claim that, that, from
from the the point
point of of view
view ofof the black
the black
mainstream,
mainstream, Hurston Hurston occupies
occupies aa position position of of difference
difference informedinformed by by unique
unique
cultural
cultural politics.
politics. This, This, however,
however, far far fromfrom excluding
excluding her her from
from Modernism,
Modernism,
suggests
suggests solid
solid situatedness
situatedness in in it.
it. The
The trickster
trickster energy energy of of her
her works
works itself
itself cancan bebe
seen
seen as
as aa Modernist
Modernist trait, trait, but
but also
also as as recuperation
recuperation to to aa cultural
cultural whole.
whole. Thus Thus herher
works
works do do notnot undermine
undermine the the efforts
efforts of of Black
Black Modernism.
Modernism. The The works
works bear bear this
this
out:
out: nonplaces
nonplaces prove prove to to bebe constructing
constructing blocks blocks in in these
these works,
works, never
never to to debunk
debunk
or
or deconstruct
deconstruct aa social social setting,
setting, but but to to underline
underline it. it. Hurston’s
Hurston’s approachapproach delineates
delineates
aa certain
certain doubleness
doubleness that that works
works toward toward cultural cultural inclusion
inclusion along along with
with sustained
sustained
heterogeneity.
heterogeneity.

11
ll
 A
A similar
similar cultural
cultural investigation
investigation follows follows in in “Black
“Black Sacred Sacred Cosmos:
Cosmos:
Liminal
Liminal Places
Places and and Hurston’s
Hurston’s Religio-Cultural
Religio—Cultural Framework.” Framework.” Sacred Sacred places
places
fulfill
fulfill aa similar
similar function
function to to nonplaces,
nonplaces, but but fromfrom aa different
different point point of of view.
view.
Hurston’s
Hurston’s treatment
treatment of of liminal
liminal places
places reveals
reveals African
African American
American cosmological
cosmological
understanding,
understanding, aa “black“black sacred
sacred cosmos”
cosmos” (see (see Lincoln
Lincoln and and Mamiya
Mamiya [2]), [2]), as
as well
well
as
as aa dynamic
dynamic pattern
pattern of of anchoring
anchoring the the individual
individual in in the
the African
African American
American
community.
community. LiminalLiminal places
places signify
signify sites
sites ofof initiation
initiation that that initially
initially distance
distance the the
individual
individual from from thethe community
community only only to to allow
allow him/her
him/her to to reemerge
reemerge as as itsits
member.
member. Hurston
Hurston reevokes
reevokes the the anthropological
anthropological category category of of liminality
liminality to to
dynamize
dynamize her her cultural
cultural space
space by by reactualizing
reactualizing it it (see
(see Eliade
Eliade [3]); [3]); that
that is,
is, toto
revitalize
revitalize subjectivity
subjectivity withwith aa view
view of of aa unique
unique African
African American
American cultural cultural self.
self.
Following
Following the the conceptual
conceptual dichotomy
dichotomy established
established in in the
the first
first chapter,
chapter, II willwill
divide
divide my my investigation
investigation of of Hurston’s
Hurston’s gendered
gendered space space into into two two inquiries.
inquiries. In In
“Gendered
“Gendered Space:Space: Transparent
Transparent Space,Space, Female
Female SocialSocial Space,Space, and and the the Production
Production
of
of the
the Female
Female Body”Body” II will will identify
identify the the gendered
gendered social social spacespace into into which
which
Hurston’s
Hurston’s female
female characters
characters are are placed.
placed. Employing
Employing feminist feminist criticism,
criticism, II propose
propose
that
that Hurston’s
Hurston’s gendered
gendered spacespace is is transparent,
transparent, in in which
which the the female
female subject
subject is is
trapped
trapped in in aa concerted
concerted interaction
interaction with with male
male oppression.
oppression. Female Female places places are are thus
thus
also
also gendered
gendered concerning
concerning theirtheir nature,
nature, structure,
structure, as as well
well as as their
their geographical
geographical
placement.
placement. Such Such places
places are
are produced
produced and and maintained
maintained by by the
the power
power mechanism
mechanism
of
of masculine
masculine socialsocial space,
space, and,
and, similarly,
similarly, the the female
female body body is is produced
produced in/by irflby
these
these places.
places. This
This framework
framework does does notnot only
only influence
influence individual
individual female female subjects,
subjects,
but
but also
also determines
determines the the female
female social
social networks,
networks, producing
producing aa female female version
version of of
transparent
transparent space.
space. Much
Much in in the
the wayway dispositifs
dispositifs function
function (see (see Gilles
Gilles Deleuze),
Deleuze),
female
female transparent
transparent spacespace mediates
mediates powerpower to to socialize
socialize the the female
female subject
subject intointo
place.
place.
In
In “Female
“Female PlacesPlaces in in Masculine
Masculine Spaces:Spaces: Hurston’s
Hurston’s FeminineFeminine Spatiality”
Spatiality”
my
my ultimate
ultimate question
question isis how
how Hurston’s
Hurston’s female female subject
subject is is able
able to to establish
establish her her
individual
individual places
places andand space
space and and to to contribute
contribute to to forming
forming aa communal
communal space space of of
women.
women. II argue argue that
that Hurston’s
Hurston’s female female subjects
subjects do do retain
retain subjectivity
subjectivity also also
through
through place-construction
place—construction in in two
two ways:
ways: a) by reinscribing
a) by reinscribing space, space, whereby
whereby they they
use
use places
places of of masculine
masculine social
social space
space to to invert
invert them them into into their
their own own meaningful
meaningful
places;
places; b) by establishing,
b) by establishing, whatwhat Teresa
Teresa De De Lauretis
Lauretis calls, calls, “space
“space off” off ’ (26).
(26). In In
this
this fashion,
fashion, Hurston’s
Hurston’s womenwomen hybridize
hybridize space, space, creating
creating also also aa framework,
framework,
where
where aa genuine
genuine female
female communal
communal space space cancan evolve.
evolve.

12
l2
2. The Concepts of Space and Place

Before
Before addressing
addressing African African American
American understanding
understanding of of spatiality
spatiality in in
general
general and and aa possible
possible interpretation
interpretation of of Hurston’s
Hurston’s cultural
cultural spaces
spaces in in particular,
particular, it it
is
is necessary
necessary to to delineate
delineate the the main
main trends
trends of of spatial
spatial theory
theory in in the
the critical
critical
literature.
literature. In In considering
considering the the relevance
relevance of, of, and
and significant
significant contributions
contributions to, to, the
the
academic
academic discourse
discourse of of space
space and and place,
place, II will
will subsequently
subsequently ground ground my my analysis
analysis
in
in three
three focal
focal points
points that that also
also comprise
comprise the the three
three parts
parts ofof the
the present
present chapter.
chapter. TheThe
first
first two
two parts
parts are are opposite
opposite in in approach
approach and and inin the
the resulting
resulting conceptconcept of of the
the
human
human subject,
subject, space, space, and and place
place inhabited
inhabited by by that
that subject.
subject. II will will also
also show
show that
that
thinkers
thinkers representing
representing one one school
school do do not
not at at all
all exclude
exclude propositions
propositions of of the
the other.
other.
In
In fact,
fact, in
in the
the third
third part
part II will
will offer
offer aa balanced
balanced approach
approach to to the
the three
three discourses.
discourses.
Phenomenologists,
Phenomenologists, centering centering the the world
world around
around the the subject,
subject, endowendow the the
latter
latter with
with thethe freedom
freedom to to construct
construct his/her
his/her subjective
subjective world.
world. More More concretely,
concretely, it it
is
is the
the active
active subject’s
subject’s engagement
engagement that that determines
determines the the nature
nature of of his
his oror her
her
surrounding
surrounding world. world. In In thethe first
first part
part II will
will focus
focus on on leading
leading thinkers
thinkers who who have
have
dealt
dealt with
with space
space and and place
place and and are
are considered
considered by by the
the critical
critical literature
literature to be the
to be the
founding
founding fathers
fathers of of thinking
thinking about about space
space and and place.
place. Because
Because of of the
the specific
specific
focus,
focus, II will
will have
have to to omit
omit relevant
relevant phenomenologists
phenomenologists such such as as Edmund
Edmund Husserl,
Husserl,
Paul
Paul Ricoeur,
Ricoeur, and and others,
others, while being aware
while being aware of of their
their seminal
seminal contribution
contribution to to
phenomenology.
phenomenology.
Marxist
Marxist thinkers
thinkers seek seek to to show
show how how the the subject
subject is produced by
is produced by space,
space,
claiming
claiming that that thethe human
human subjectsubject has has aa limited
limited scope
scope of of action
action in in his/her
his/her social
social
environment.
environment. They They position
position him/her
him/her in in the
the focal
focal point
point ofof discourses,
discourses, such such asas the
the
capitalist
capitalist state,
state, race,race, gender,
gender, or or class,
class, that
that determine
determine the quality of
the quality of action
action forfor the
the
subject.
subject.
For
For Hurston,
Hurston, theoretical
theoretical investigation
investigation bears bears special
special relevance,
relevance, and and my my
analysis
analysis of of her
her cultural
cultural space
space will will be based on
be based on these
these three
three theoretical
theoretical strands.
strands.
Even
Even though
though Hurston
Hurston is is not
not aa phenomenologist,
phenomenologist, she she conceptualizes
conceptualizes her her subjects
subjects
much
much in in the
the lineline of of phenomenological
phenomenological propositions;propositions; that that is, is, she
she grants
grants herher
subjects
subjects the the potential
potential to to create
create their
their own
own places.
places. Yet
Yet sheshe is is also
also aware
aware of of the
the
limiting
limiting powers
powers of of thethe socio-cultural
socio—cultural space—represented
space—represented by by post-Marxist
post—Marxist
thinkers
thinkers in in theory—which
theory—which proves proves inhibiting
inhibiting for for Hurston’s
Hurston’s subjects subjects also.also. The
The
third
third part
part ofof this
this chapter
chapter delineates
delineates aa theoretical
theoretical vistavista that
that cancan be be seen
seen as as the
the
acknowledgment
acknowledgment of both schools—the
of both schools—the way way Hurston
Hurston ultimately
ultimately also also approaches
approaches
space:
space: the in—between takes into consideration the properties and mechanisms of
the in-between takes into consideration the properties and mechanisms of
the
the socio-cultural
socio—cultural space space as as well
well asas the
the empowering
empowering capacities
capacities of of the
the human
human
subject.
subject.

13
13
2.1. The Phenomenology of Subject, Space, and Place

The
The groundbreaking
groundbreaking philosophy
philosophy that that firmly
firmly established
established spatial
spatial thinking
thinking inin
modern
modern thought
thought was was Martin
Martin Heidegger’s.
Heidegger’s. Several Several thinkers
thinkers contributed
contributed
significantly
significantly to to exploring
exploring the the subject’s
subject’s relation
relation to to space
space suchsuch asas Immanuel
Immanuel Kant Kant
or
or Edmund
Edmund Husserl,Husserl, but but it it was
was Heidegger
Heidegger with with his Being and
his Being and Time Time to to
revolutionalize
revolutionalize Cartesian
Cartesian thought
thought by by defocalizing
defocalizing “the “the priority
priority of of knowledge
knowledge
over
over practice”
practice” (Dreyfus
(Dreyfus 19) 19) in in that,
that, instead
instead of of maintaining
maintaining the the intense
intense
differentiation between res
differentiation between cogitans and
res cogitans and res extensa characteristic
res extensa characteristic of of Western
Western
thought
thought afterafter Descartes
Descartes (Lefebvre
(Lefebvre 406), 406), he he laid
laid emphasis
emphasis on on human
human
embededness.
embededness.
Gjermund
Gjermund Wollan Wollan argues
argues thatthat Heidegger’s
Heidegger’s conception
conception of Dasein describes
of Dasein describes
the
the stance
stance of of “an
“an interested
interested humanhuman being,
being, situated
situated in in aa particular
particular place place and
and aa
particular
particular time”
time” (33).
(33). Heidegger
Heidegger thus thus contextualizes
contextualizes Dasein Dasein in in the
the temporality
temporality of of
the
the past-present-future
past—present—future of of experience,
experience, as as well
well as as in
in its
its situatedness
situatedness regarding
regarding
social
social space.
space. In In fact,
fact, Heidegger
Heidegger explicitly
explicitly claims
claims that Dasein is
that Dasein is spatial
spatial (Being
(Being
111),
111), “but
“but Da-sein
Da—sein is is ‘in’
‘in’ the
the world
world in in the
the sense
sense of of aa familiar
familiar and and heedful
heedful
association
association with with the beings encountered
the beings encountered in in thethe world.
world. Thus
Thus when
when spatiality
spatiality isis
attributed
attributed to to itit in
in some
some way,way, this
this isis possible
possible only only onon the basis of
the basis of this being-in.
this being—in.
But
But the
the spatiality
spatiality of being-in shows
of being—in shows the the character
character of of de-distancing
a’e-a’istancing and and
directionality” (105).
directionality” Dasein experiences
(105). Dasein experiences itselfitself thrown
thrown in in the world, which
the world, which isis an
an
always
always already being-in-the-world, and
already being—in—the—world, and thethe subject
subject knows
knows the the world
world as as the
the
subject
subject knows
knows him/herself,
him/herself, so so s/he
s/he encounters
encounters this this known
known worldworld as as totality.
totality. The
The
world
world of of the
the subject,
subject, however,
however, is is not
not stable:
stable: the the existentials,
existentials, de-distancing
de—distancing and and
directionality,
directionality, show show exactly
exactly that Dasein is
that Dasein is always
always in in motion
motion in in that,
that, on on the
the one
one
hand,
hand, it becomes conscious
it becomes conscious of of itself
itself in
in aa reflective
reflective manner
manner (as (as itit interprets
interprets and and
reinterprets
reinterprets itself)
itself) and,
and, onon the
the other,
other, itit gets
gets to to know
know the the surrounding
surrounding world world asas it
it
attaches
attaches the
the world
world to to itself.
itself. For
For Heidegger
Heidegger the the spatial
spatial metaphor
metaphor of of de-distancing
de—distancing
denotes Dasein’s absorbing
denotes Dasein’s absorbing character
character via via (self-)interpretation,
(self—)interpretation, while while
directionality
directionality presupposes
presupposes for for him Dasein’s “prereflective
him Dasein’s “prereflective basis” basis” (Wollan
(Wollan 33).33).
As
As Heidegger
Heidegger explains,
explains,

The
The handiness
handiness which belongs to
which belongs to each
each region beforehand has
region beforehand has asas the being
the being
of
of what
what is
is at
at hand
hand the
the character
character ofof inconspicuous familiarity in
inconspicuous familiarity in aa more
more
primordial
primordial sense.
sense. The
The familiarity
familiarity itself becomes visible
itself becomes visible in
in aa conspicuous
conspicuous
manner
manner only
only when
when what
what is
is at
at hand
hand isis discovered
discovered circumspectly
circumspectly in in the
the
deficient
deficient mode
mode of
of taking
taking care
care of
of things.
things. [.[. .. .]
.] Space,
Space, which
which is is discovered
discovered
in
in circumspect
circumspect being-in-the-world
being—in—the—world as as the
the spatiality
spatiality ofof aa totality
totality ofof useful
useful
things,
things, belongs
belongs to beings themselves
to beings themselves as as their
their place.
place. (Being
(Being 104)
104)

Prereflection
Prereflection orders
orders things
things into
into their
their place.
place. It,
It, in
in fact,
fact, refers
refers to Dasein’s
to Dasein’s
reflective
reflective filter
filter of
of the
the world
world that
that renders
renders things
things as
as handy;
handy; it
it is
is its
its filter
filter of
of

14
14
perception
perception that that dynamically
dynamically creates creates continuation
continuation for Dasein in
for Dasein in space
space and and time,
time,
ensuring Dasein’s dynamic
ensuring Dasein’s dynamic temporality
temporality of of past-present-future.
past—present—future. Prereflective Prereflective
approach
approach is is responsible
responsible for for the
the interpretation
interpretation of of the
the Heideggerian
Heideggerian present-at-present—at—
hand
hand (“vorhandene”)
(“vorhandene”) as as ready-to-hand
ready—to—hand (“zuhandene”),
(“zuhandene”), which which means,
means, on on the
the one
one
hand,
hand, aa horizon
horizon of of interpretation
interpretation induced induced by by past
past experiences,
experiences, and, and, on on the
the other
other
hand,
hand, practically
practically aa constant constant coming-to-know
coming—to—know of of things
things as as wellwell as as their
their
meaningful
meaningful emplacement
emplacement into Dasein’s world.
into Dasein’s world. The The dynamic
dynamic continuity
continuity resulting
resulting
from
from this
this kind
kind of of dwelling
dwelling is is responsible
responsible for for the
the subject’s
subject’s sense sense of of place,
place, which,
which,
then,
then, does
does not not only
only reflect
reflect aa geographical
geographical constraint,
constraint, but but also
also aa temporal
temporal one. one. InIn
fact,
fact, time
time and and place
place must
must be be interwoven
interwoven in in this
this sense,
sense, as as only
only in in the
the function
function of of
past-present-future
past—present—future can can thethe intentionality
intentionality of of different
different entities
entities be be understood.
understood.
For
For Heidegger
Heidegger the the objective,
objective, geometrical
geometrical world world cannot cannot be be detected
detected as as
“[objective]
“[objective] space space is is still
still veiled
veiled in in the
the spatiality
spatiality of of what
what is is at
at hand”
hand” (104).(104). The The
ready-to-hand
ready—to—hand expressesexpresses exactly
exactly the the domestication
domestication of of objective
objective space space by by Dasein;
Dasein;
that
that is,
is, entities
entities cancan only
only exist
exist for Dasein if
for Dasein if contextualized
contextualized in Dasein’s system.
in Dasein’s system. In In
an
an interconnected
interconnected mode, mode, DaseinDasein is is also
also embedded
embedded in in this
this space,
space, while
while it it shapes
shapes
space
space as as space’s
space’s centre. Dasein in
centre. Dasein in Heidegger’s
Heidegger’s interpretation
interpretation is is the
the point
point of of
departure
departure for for any
any exploration
exploration of of the
the surrounding
surrounding world. world. As As he he explains,
explains, “[t]his
“[t]his
world
world is is always
always already
already from from the the outset
outset mymy own”own” (118),(118), and and “the
“the world
world at at hand
hand
[is]
[is] where Dasein dwells
where Dasein dwells in in taking
taking care” care” (119);
(119); so so the the space
space disclosed
disclosed around around
Dasein belongs
Dasein belongs to Dasein’s spatiality,
to Dasein’s spatiality, and Dasein relates
and Dasein relates to to this
this known
known world world
with
with active
active engagement
engagement and and familiarity
familiarity (see (see Critchley
Critchley 160, 160, Wollan
Wollan 37). Dasein’s
37). Dasein’s
spatiality
spatiality denotes
denotes two two things:
things: for for one, Dasein is
one, Dasein is thrown
thrown into into the
the world
world (objective
(objective
space
space veiled
veiled over)over) in in the
the manner
manner of of always
always alreadyalready being-in-the-world
being—in—the—world along along
with
with other
other entities
entities (“being-there-too
(“being—there—too with with them” them” [Being [Being 118], 118], “Mitda-sein”
“Mitda—sein”
[119]),
[119]), establishing
establishing Dasein Dasein as as aa temporal-spatial
temporal—spatial entity, entity, whichwhich has has an an objective
objective
quantifying
quantifying character
character such such as as the body; and,
the body; and, secondly,
secondly, it it refers
refers to to the
the spatiality
spatiality
of
of the
the ready-to-hand
ready—to—hand evolving evolving around Dasein including
around Dasein including itself itself (118).
(118).
Heidegger
Heidegger breaks breaks spatiality
spatiality into into smaller
smaller units. units. Place
Place gainsgains meaning
meaning not not
only
only asas position
position of of an
an object
object somewhere
somewhere as as aa part
part of of totality:
totality: “The“The actual
actual place
place is is
defined
defined as as the
the place
place of of this
this useful
useful thing thing forfor [. [. .. .]
.] inin terms
terms of of aa totality
totality of of the
the
interconnected
interconnected places places of of the
the context
context of of useful
useful thingsthings at at hand
hand in in the
the surrounding
surrounding
world”
world” (103);(103); but but place
place has has the the essential
essential character
character of of belongingness.
belongingness. This This
suggests
suggests relatedness
relatedness to to other
other entities,
entities, as as well
well as, as, inin the
the function
function of of de-distancing
de—distancing
and
and directionality,
directionality, place place also also expresses
expresses “whereto”
“whereto” (103)—a (103)—a term term denoting
denoting for for
Heidegger
Heidegger the the contextualization
contextualization of of places
places in in aa broader
broader spatiality,
spatiality, which
which is is part
part ofof
Dasein’s spatiality:
Dasein’s spatiality:

We
We call
call this
this whereto
whereto ofof the
the possible belonging somewhere
possible belonging somewhere of of useful
useful
things,
things, circumspectly
circumspectly heldheld in
in view
view in
in advance,
advance, and
and heedful
heedful association,
association,
the region. [.
the region. [. .. .]
.] The
The kind
kind of
of place
place which
which is
is constituted by direction
constituted by direction and
and
remoteness—nearness
remoteness—nearness is is only
only aa mode
mode ofof the
the latter—is
latter—is already
already oriented
oriented

15
15
 toward
toward aa region
region and
and within
within that
that region.
region. Something
Something akin
akin to
to aa region
region must
must
already
already be
be discovered
discovered if if there
there is
is to be any
to be any possibility
possibility of
of referring
referring and
and
finding
finding the
the places
places of of aa totality
totality ofof useful
useful things
things available
available to
to
circumspection.
circumspection. This
This regional
regional orientation
orientation of
of the
the multiplicity
multiplicity of
of places
places of
of
what
what is
is at
at hand
hand constitutes
constitutes the
the aroundness,
aroundness, the being around
the being around us us of beings
of beings
encountered
encountered initially
initially in
in the
the surrounding
surrounding world.
world. (103-4)
(103—4)

Region
Region refersrefers thus
thus to to thethe texture
texture of of places
places and,
and, likewise,
likewise, place place reflects
reflects the the
directionality
directionality of Dasein’s spatiality
of Dasein’s spatiality that that comes
comes to to expression
expression in in region.
region. “Region
“Region
is
is linked
linked to to our
our use
use associated
associated with with things,
things, ready-to-hand.
ready—to—hand. In In this
this way,
way, region
region
forms
forms aa limited
limited action
action and and tools
tools context”
context” (Wollan (Wollan 36); 36); that
that is,is, region
region embraces
embraces
the
the different
different functions
functions and and objects
objects of of thethe different
different places.
places. Furthermore,
Furthermore, region region
also
also denotes,
denotes, besides,
besides, directionality,
directionality, interrelation
interrelation between between places. places. As As Eugene
Eugene
Francis
Francis Kaelin
Kaelin claims,
claims, “the“the tool’s
tool’s placement
placement is is fixed
fixed with with respect
respect to to aa definite
definite
direction:
direction: there,
there, relative
relative to to aa certain
certain here here (dort
(dart undand da) da) established
established by by aa human
human
being’s involvement
being’s involvement of of itself
itself in in its
its environment.
environment. The The hither
hither point
point andand thethe thither
thither
point
point of of the
the relationship
relationship createcreate aa region,region, which which is is the
the actual
actual ‘whither’
‘whither’ of of the
the
human
human involvement
involvement in in its
its world”
world” (82-83).
(82—83).
Heidegger’s
Heidegger’s approach
approach to being is
to being is aa very
very practical
practical one one in in fact.
fact. HeHe
represents
represents DaseinDasein as as the
the node
node of being, and
of being, Dasein’s spatiality
and Dasein’s spatiality refers
refers not
not only
only to
to
its body as
its body as spatial
spatial form,
form, but but also also as as aa prereflective
prereflective scope scope of of semantization
semantization of of
things;
things; subjects
subjects thus
thus dwell
dwell in in the
the place-world
place—world with with an an inert
inert understanding
understanding of of the
the
surrounding
surrounding world.world. Familiarity
Familiarity with with the the world
world is is the
the wayway the the world
world comes
comes into into
being for
being for the
the subject,
subject, thatthat is,
is, the
the way
way the the subject
subject encounters
encounters and and makes
makes sense sense of
of
the
the surrounding
surrounding world world through
through his/herhis/her place-world.
place—world.
Heidegger’s
Heidegger’s understanding
understanding is is also
also touched
touched upon upon and and enlarged
enlarged on on by by other
other
thinkers.
thinkers. Jean-Paul
Jean—Paul Sartre
Sartre emphasizes
emphasizes the the embodied
embodied experience,
experience, for for whom
whom the the
subject
subject cannot
cannot be be severed
severed from from the body. He
the body. He speaks
speaks of of the body as
the body both object
as both object
as
as well
well as as “contingent
“contingent form” form” and and “for-itself”
“for—itself” (Being (Being and Nothingness 408).
and Nothingness 408).
Sartre
Sartre understands
understands the the subject
subject as as embodied
embodied subject, subject, whichwhich “must“must be be wholly
wholly body body
and
and it it must
must be be wholly
wholly consciousness”
consciousness” (404). (404). This
This is is why
why it it is
is through
through that body
that body
the
the subject
subject maintains
maintains aa relation
relation with with the the world.
world. TheThe world,world, or or space,
space, for for Sartre,
Sartre,
as
as for
for Heidegger,
Heidegger, is is hidden
hidden as as an an “indefinite
“indefinite multiplicity
multiplicity of of reciprocal
reciprocal relations
relations [. [.
.. .]
.] and
and cancan not
not even
even be be represented”
represented” (405). (405). It It isis Being-for-itself
Being—for—itself (Sartre’s (Sartre’s
coinage
coinage of of what
what Heidegger
Heidegger calls Dasein, and
calls Dasein, and what
what is is the
the embodied
embodied subject subject forfor
Merleau-Ponty)
Merleau—Ponty) that that renders
renders order order in in the
the world
world by by being
being the the point
point of of reference
reference in in
the
the world:
world: “[the]
“[the] world
world can can not not exist
exist without
without aa univocal
univocal relationrelation to to me”
me” (406).
(406).
The
The relation between the
relation between the worldworld and and the the subject
subject is is established
established throughthrough the the
subject’s
subject’s “engaged
“engaged knowledge”
knowledge” (407), (407), which which is is the
the “only
“only engaged
engaged upsurge
upsurge in in aa
determined
determined point point ofof view
view which
which one one is” is” (407).
(407).
The
The embodied
embodied subjectsubject and and his/her
his/her livedlived experience
experience gain gain also
also relevance
relevance in in
Merleau-Ponty’s
Merleau—Ponty’s philosophy:
philosophy: for for him
him “[t]he body itself
“[t]he body itself is is the
the perceiving
perceiving subject:
subject:

16
16
the
the point
point of
of view
view ofof the
the world,
world, the
the time-space
time—space structure
structure ofof the
the perceiving
perceiving
experience”
eXperience” (Sadala
(Sadala 286).
286). Materializing Dasein as
Materializing Dasein as phenomenal
phenomenal body body (see
(see
Marcoulatos
Marcoulatos 2) 2) in
in this
this way,
way, he
he emplaces
emplaces the body in
the body in the
the world
world similarly
similarly to
to the
the
spatiality
spatiality of
of Heidegger’s Dasein. The
Heidegger’s Dasein. The embodied
embodied subject,
subject, through
through its its “motor
“motor
2
intentional
intentional activity”
activity” (Kelly
(Kelly 386)
386)2,, explores
eXplores the
the surrounding
surrounding in in aa “spatiality
“spatiality of
of
situation”
situation” (Phenomenology
(Phenomenology 100). 100). Thereby
Thereby understanding
understanding is is not
not rendered
rendered aa
function
function of
of form
form (Aravot
(Aravot 209), but one
209), but one of
of emplacement
emplacement in in time
time and
and place
place and
and of
of
the
the body’s
body’s intentionality.
intentionality. AsAs Merleau-Ponty
Merleau—Ponty elaborates
elaborates in Phenomenology of
in Phenomenology of
Perception:
Perception:

Now
Now the body is
the body is essentially
essentially an
an expressive
eXpressive space.
space. [.[. .. .]
.] The body is
The body is our
our
general
general medium
medium for for having
having aa world.
world. Sometimes
Sometimes it it isis restricted
restricted toto the
the
actions
actions necessary
necessary forfor the
the conservation
conservation ofof life,
life, and
and accordingly
accordingly it it posits
posits
around
around usus aa biological
biological world;
world; at
at other
other times,
times, elaborating
elaborating upon upon these
these
primary
primary actions
actions and
and moving
moving from
from their
their literal
literal toto aa figurative
figurative meaning,
meaning, it it
manifests
manifests through
through them
them aa core
core of
of new
new significance:
significance: this this is is true
true of
of motor
motor
habits
habits such
such as
as dancing.
dancing. Sometimes,
Sometimes, finally,
finally, the
the meaning
meaning aimed aimed atat cannot
cannot
be achieved
be by the
achieved by body’s natural
the body’s natural means;
means; it it must
must then build itself
then build itself an
an
instrument,
instrument, and
and it
it projects
projects thereby
thereby around
around itself
itself aa cultural
cultural world.
world. (146)
(146)

Spatializing
Spatializing the the subject
subject through
through embodiment,
embodiment, Merleau-Ponty
Merleau—Ponty imposes imposes
restrictions
restrictions by by the
the body
body on on the
the subject,
subject, notnot only
only physically,
physically, but but regarding
regarding thethe
interpretation
interpretation of of the
the world.
world. As As Kelly
Kelly points
points out, bodily activity
out, bodily activity seems
seems some
some time
time
independent
independent of of the
the subject’s
subject’s willwill (390),
(390), as as if
if the
the subject
subject acted
acted unconsciously.
unconsciously.
However,
However, Merleau-Ponty
Merleau—Ponty identifiesidentifies the body as
the body as the
the mediator between self
mediator between self and
and
the
the world,
world, wherewhere the the self
self gets
gets the
the upper
upper handhand in in giving
giving meaning
meaning to to its
its
environment
environment by by using
using andand transforming
transforming the the surroundings.
surroundings.
In
In aa similar
similar manner,
manner, Gaston
Gaston Bachelard
Bachelard conceives
conceives of of place
place through
through thethe
inhabiting
inhabiting practice
practice of of the
the subject.
subject. WhenWhen considering
considering the the subject’s
subject’s creative
creative
imagination,
imagination, he he claims,
claims, “the
“the soul
soul comes
comes and and inaugurates
inaugurates the the form,
form, dwells
dwells in
in it,
it,
takes
takes pleasure
pleasure in in it”
it” (xviii),
(xviii), creating
creating aa “felicitous space” (xxxi).
‘Telicitous space” (XXXi). Imagination
Imagination as as
conceptualized
conceptualized by by Bachelard
Bachelard appears
appears very very similar
similar to to Heidegger’s
Heidegger’s idea idea of of
Dasein’s spatiality.
Dasein’s spatiality. For For Bachelard
Bachelard “the “the original
original andand miraculous
miraculous leap leap ofof the
the
spirit”
spirit” (Thiboutot
(Thiboutot par. par. 25)
25) interprets
interprets anyany work
work of of art,
art, that
that is,
is, any
any phenomena
phenomena it it
encounters
encounters in in the
the world.
world. In In this
this way,
way, subjects
subjects establish
establish an an original
original space
space of of
dwelling:
dwelling: “Space
“Space that that has been seized
has been seized uponupon by by imagination
imagination cannot
cannot remain
remain
indifferent
indifferent space
space subject
subject to to the
the measures
measures and and estimates
estimates of of the
the surveyor.
surveyor. ItIt has
has
been
been lived
lived in,in, not
not inin its
its positivity,
positivity, but but with
with all
all the
the partiality
partiality of of the
the imagination”
imagination”
(Bachelard
(Bachelard xxxii).
XXXii). Negating
Negating the the integrity
integrity of of objective
objective space
space in in the
the encounter
encounter
2
2 Sean
Sean Dorrance
Dorrance Kelly
Kelly explains
explains that
that in
in the
the Merleau-Pontian
Merleau—Pontian understanding
understanding motor
motor
intentionality
intentionality has
has motor
motor and behavioral aspects
and behavioral aspects and
and the
the way
way it
it relates
relates to
to objects
objects reflects
reflects the
the
understanding
understanding ofof these
these aspects
aspects (386).
(386).

17
17
with
with thethe perceiving
perceiving subject subject comes comes more more to to the
the foreground
foreground in in his
his discussion
discussion of of
the
the house:
house: “the “the house
house image image would would appear
appear to to have become the
have become the topography
topography of of
our
our intimate
intimate being being [.[. .. .] .] [B]y
[B]y remembering
remembering ‘houses’ ‘houses’ and and ‘rooms,’
‘rooms,’ we we learn
learn toto
abide
abide within
within ourselves
ourselves [. [. .. .]
.] [T]he
[T]he house
house image
image moves moves in both directions:
in both directions: they they
are
are in
in us us as
as much
much as as we we areare inin them”
them” (xxxiii).
(XXXiii). Time Time and and space
space in in Bachelardian
Bachelardian
epistemology
epistemology build build an an organic
organic unity unity withwith the the subject.
subject. As As inin Heidegger
Heidegger and and
Merleau-Ponty,
Merleau—Ponty, this this does does not not onlyonly mean
mean thatthat thethe subject
subject determines
determines the the genius
genius
3
loci,3 but
loci, but also
also that that the the subject
subject is is emplaced
emplaced in in aa particular
particular temporal-spatial
temporal—spatial
paradigm:
paradigm: the the subject
subject responds
responds to to the
the challenges
challenges of of the
the surrounding
surrounding world world in in the
the
function
function of of his/her
his/her own own temporal-spatial
temporal—spatial history. history.
It
It is
is clear
clear on on the basis of
the basis of these
these thinkers
thinkers that that the
the subject’s
subject’s temporal-spatial
temporal—spatial
structuring
structuring of of spatiality
spatiality is is inherently
inherently an an active
active and and practical
practical one,
one, not not detached
detached
from
from the the environment,
environment, but but embedded
embedded in in it.it. Edward
Edward Casey,Casey, among among others,others,
establishes
establishes the the link between the
link between the subject
subject and and his/her
his/her environment
environment by, by, what
what he he
4
calls,
calls, “habitus.”
“habitus.”4 On On the the one
one hand,
hand, similarly
similarly to to Merleau-Ponty,
Merleau—Ponty, Casey Casey identifies
identifies
the body as
the body as the
the link between the
link between the self
self and
and “lived
“lived place”
place” (“Geography”
(“Geography” 683); 683); on on
the
the other,
other, he he insists
insists on on aa “core
“core of of habitudes”
habitudes” (686), (686), something
something that that connects
connects
place
place with
with thethe geographical
geographical self. self. Merleau-Ponty
Merleau—Ponty addresses addresses thisthis issue
issue through
through the the
differentiation
differentiation of of the
the visibility
visibility of of the body and
the body and the the invisibility
invisibility of of what
what is beyond
is beyond
(before)
(before) the body, the
the body, the “latent
“latent content
content of of the
the past”
past” and and the
the “elsewhere”
“elsewhere” (Visible (Visible
114).
114). In In fact,
fact, he he tootoo suggests
suggests that that there
there must
must be be something beyond the
something beyond the limitation
limitation
of
of the
the bodybody in in time
time and and space
space thatthat isis responsible
responsible for for the
the continuation
continuation of of the
the
embodied
embodied self self in in these
these two two strata
strata inin the
the visible
visible temporal-spatial
temporal—spatial structuring
structuring
materialized
materialized in, in, around,
around, and and by by the body. He
the body. He expands
eXpands his his concept
concept of of the
the lived
lived
body to
body to an
an idea
idea of of aa “spatial
“spatial and and temporal
temporal pulp” pulp” that that goes beyond aa presentism
goes beyond presentism
and
and materiality
materiality of of the body, to
the body, to allow
allow also
also anan intentionality
intentionality shaped shaped by by habitus.
habitus.
Habitus
Habitus is is the
the practical
practical understanding
understanding of of Heidegger’s
Heidegger’s prereflectivity
prereflectivity of of
Dasein as
Dasein as it
it grants
grants the the scheme
scheme of of understanding
understanding of of any
any place
place as as well
well as as the
the
continuity
continuity of of thethe subject
subject in in other
other places:
places: “A “A given
given habitus
habitus is is always
always enacted
enacted in in aa
particular
particular placeplace and and incorporates
incorporates the the features
features inherent
inherent in in previous
previous such such places,
places,
all
all of
of which
which are are linked
linked by by aa habitudinal
habitudinal bond” bond” (Casey,(Casey, “Geography”
“Geography” 686). 686).
Habitus
Habitus provides
provides the the subject
subject with with aa temporal-spatial
temporal—spatial reality; reality; that that is, is, past
past
experiences,
experiences, places, places, and and habitus
habitus dynamically
dynamically condition condition the the subject’s
subject’s presentpresent
habitus
habitus and and action,
action, while while through
through the the habitudinal
habitudinal bond bond the the continuity
continuity of of

3
3 Christian
Christian Norberg-Schulz’s
Norberg—Schulz’s Genius Loci describes
Genius Loci describes the
the phenomenon
phenomenon by by which
which the
the place
place is
is
endowed
endowed with
with meaning,
meaning, transcending
transcending geometrical
geometrical form
form (see
(see Thomson).
Thomson).
4
4 Wollan
Wollan reminds
reminds us
us that
that Heidegger
Heidegger uses
uses this
this term
term he borrows from
he borrows from Thomas
Thomas Aquinas
Aquinas to
to
“describe[]
“describe[] people’s
people’s association
association with
with everyday
everyday objects”
objects” (32).
(32). Pierre
Pierre Bourdieu
Bourdieu also
also has
has an
an
important
important contribution
contribution to
to the
the concept
concept of
of habitus.
habitus. II will
will address
address his
his definition
definition in
in the
the chapter
chapter
“Hurston’s
“Hurston’s Gendered
Gendered Space.”
Space.”

18
18
historicity
historicity is is ensured.
ensured. Habitus Habitus is, is, thus,
thus, alsoalso directly
directly connected
connected to to the
the subject’s
subject’s
intentionality
intentionality as as it it isis the
the underlying
underlying motor motor of of directionality
directionality as as well
well as as the the
realization
realization of of intentionality
intentionality in in aa particular
particular place.place.
Casey
Casey emphasizes
emphasizes the body’s role
the body’s role in in place-making.
place—making. Reminiscent Reminiscent of of
Merleau-Ponty,
Merleau—Ponty, Casey Casey claims claims that that “habitus
“habitus is is composed
composed precisely precisely of bodily
of bodily
schemata,”
schemata,” thus thus emphasizing
emphasizing “bodily “bodily engagement”
engagement” (“Habitus” (“Habitus” 716) 716) in in place-
place—
creation:
creation: “Only
“Only the the bodybody holds
holds together,
together, in in oneone coherent
coherent entity, entity, the
the sensesense of of
place,
place, the the past
past pertinent
pertinent to to that
that placeplace (that(that is, is, via
via bodybody memories),
memories), and and the the
orienting
orienting power
power which which place place requires”
requires” (718). (718). CaseyCasey thus thus places
places the the body
body in in thethe
centre
centre of of place
place as as the
the entity
entity that
that givesgives place
place temporal
temporal and and spatial
spatial stability.
stability.
This becomes more
This becomes more explicit eXplicit in in his his book book Remembering:
Remembering: A A
Phenomenological
Phenomenological Study, Study, in in which
which he he distinguishes
distinguishes two two concepts
concepts of of thethe body:
body:
body
body as as intra-place
intra—place and body as
and body as inter-place.
inter—place. In In fact,
fact, he he identifies
identifies two—thetwo—the
vertical
vertical and and horizontal—aspects
horizontal—aspects of of thethe lived
lived body.body. Body Body as as intra-place
intra—place
establishes
establishes thatthat thethe bodybody is is the
the organizing
organizing force force in in aa given
given place;
place; every
every objectobject
gains
gains its
its place
place through
through the the ordering
ordering of of the body: “the
the body: “the bodybody as as intra-place
intra—place is is thus
thus
aa place through which
place through which whatever
whatever is is occurring
occurring in in aa given
given setting
setting can can take
take place:
place: it it
is
is aa place
place of of passage
passage for for such
such occurrences”
occurrences” (196). (196). Placing
Placing does does notnot only
only signify
signify
aa mere
mere selection
selection here, here, but but also
also meaningful
meaningful placing placing in in relation
relation to to the
the body
body as as aa
“place
“place of of anchoring”
anchoring” (196). (196). BodyBody as as inter-place,
inter—place, on on thethe other
other hand,
hand, denotes
denotes for for
Casey
Casey the the connective
connective aspect aspect of of the body as
the body as “[t]he
“[t]he lived
lived body body creates
creates the the inter-
inter—
place
place in in which
which the the two two epicenters
epicenters of of the
the here
here and and the the there
there are are brought
brought into into
concrete
concrete connection”
connection” (196). (196). Different
Different places places are are brought
brought togethertogether in in thethe place-
place—
world
world by by the
the subject’s
subject’s movementmovement between between and and through
through them. them.
The
The subject
subject absorbs absorbs place place throughthrough habitus-directed
habitus—directed bodily bodily activity,
activity, in in
other
other words,
words, by by transforming
transforming place place to to the
the subject’s
subject’s own own likeness.
likeness. Places become
Places become
dwelling-places,
dwelling—places, places places of of habitation.
habitation. As As shown shown before, before, Bachelard
Bachelard
conceptualizes
conceptualizes the the homehome as as the the expression
eXpression of of thethe subject’s
subject’s being.being. In In fact,
fact,
studying
studying the the home
home can can be be seenseen as as the
the mapping
mapping of of thethe selfself ofof the
the subject.
subject.
Similarly,
Similarly, Emmanuel
Emmanuel Levinas Levinas sees sees habitation
habitation as as “the“the outpouring
outpouring of of
consciousness
consciousness in in things,
things, whichwhich does does not not consist
consist in in aa representation
representation of of things
things by by
consciousness,
consciousness, but but in in aa specific
specific intentionality
intentionality of of concretization”
concretization” (153). (153).
Concretization
Concretization corresponds
corresponds to to place-making
place—making in in practice.
practice. However,
However, habitation
habitation is is
not
not aa detached
detached or or isolated
isolated process
process because because subjects
subjects are are always-already
always—already (fallen (fallen
and
and thrown—to
thrown—to use use Heidegger’s
Heidegger’s coinage) coinage) in in the
the world,
world, which which is is whywhy “the “the
consciousness
consciousness of of aa world
world is is already
already consciousness
consciousness through through that that world.
world. [Thus][Thus]
the
the subject
subject contemplating
contemplating the the world world presupposes
presupposes the the event
event of of dwelling,
dwelling, the the
withdrawal
withdrawal from from elements
elements [. [. .. .],
.], recollection
recollection in in the
the intimacy
intimacy of of the
the home”
home” (153). (153).
Heidegger
Heidegger maintains
maintains aa resembling resembling notion notion of of habitation
habitation when when he he claims
claims
that
that “to build is
“to build is in
in itself
itself already
already to to dwell”
dwell” (“Building”
(“Building” 146). 146). ForFor him
him dwelling
dwelling is is
also
also an
an active
active phenomenon,
phenomenon, which which he he compares
compares to to cultivating
cultivating (147). (147). Indeed,
Indeed, this this
word
word expresses
eXpresses not not only only maintenance,
maintenance, but but also also activeactive engagement
engagement and and

19
19
transformation,
transformation, or, or, rather,
rather, realization.
realization. Or, Or, asas he
he points
points outout through
through the the metaphor
metaphor
of
of the bridge, dwelling
the bridge, dwelling is is like
like gathering
gathering or or assembling
assembling of of things
things in in aa unique
unique way way
(153).
(153). As being for
As being for Heidegger
Heidegger is is always being-in-the-world, the
always being—in—the—world, the act act ofof gathering
gathering
is
is always
always withwith relation
relation to to thethe centralizing Dasein—again as
centralizing Dasein—again as he he claims
claims about about the the
bridge:
bridge: “But
“But only only something
something that that is itself aa location
is itself location can can make
make space space for for aa site”
site”
(“Building”
(“Building” 154). 154).
The
The centralizing
centralizing activity,
activity, which which can can be be equated
equated with with habitation,
habitation, draws draws
things
things and
and relations
relations aroundaround itself itself inin anan ordered
ordered way. way. This
This may may be be seenseen as as the
the
procreation
procreation of of places,
places, however,
however, Casey Casey insists
insists thatthat there
there is is also
also an an active
active
interaction
interaction between
between self self and
and place
place responsible
responsible for for the
the maintenance
maintenance of of places,
places, an an
interaction
interaction that belongs to
that belongs to thethe chemistry
chemistry of of places:
places: “the
“the self
self relates
relates to to the
the place
place
of
of habitation
habitation by by means
means of of concerted
concerted bodilybodily movements
movements that that areare thethe activation
activation of of
habitudinal
habitudinal schemes,
schemes, their their explication
eXplication and and exfoliation
eXfoliation in in the
the inhabited
inhabited place- place—
world”
world” (“Geography”
(“Geography” 687). 687). The The bodybody as as location
location and and centralizing
centralizing agent agent inhabits
inhabits
the
the place
place through
through bodily bodily activity
activity motivated
motivated by by habitus.
habitus. In In thisthis way,way, placesplaces
become
become places
places of of stability
stability in in as as much
much the the self
self can
can be be seen
seen as as stable.
stable. As As Casey
Casey
claims
claims elsewhere:
elsewhere: “In “In thethe actions
actions of of the
the customary
customary body, body, then,
then, we we observe
observe the the
continuance
continuance of of time
time in in place–a
place—a continuance
continuance that that connotes
connotes not not merelymerely
maintenance
maintenance but but active
active incorporation”
incorporation” (Remembering
(Remembering 194). 194). That That is, is, habitation
habitation
denotes
denotes thatthat place
place is is organically
organically interdependent
interdependent with with the the subject
subject from from aa
phenomenological
phenomenological point point of of view,
view, and and it it directly
directly follows
follows the the dynamic
dynamic changes changes in in
the
the subject’s
subject’s habitus.
habitus.
In
In phenomenological
phenomenological understanding understanding the the heart
heart ofof the
the world
world is is the
the self.
self. ItIt is,
is,
however,
however, always
always placed
placed somewhere;
somewhere; thus thus thethe self
self has
has not
not only
only aa temporal,
temporal, but but
also
also aa spatial
spatial aspect.
aspect. The The self self goes
goes out out andand meets
meets the the world
world (even (even though though
always-already
always—already in in the
the world),
world), in in aa sense
sense creates
creates it it by
by giving
giving it it meaning.
meaning. The The self
self
appears
appears as as the the active
active agent agent that that grants
grants the the world
world as as totality
totality (the (the world
world
encountered
encountered by by the
the subject)
subject) and and stability.
stability. Stability
Stability or or continuance
continuance can can onlyonly be be
conceptualized
conceptualized in in the
the function
function of of the
the self’s
self’s matrix
matriX of of spatiality
spatiality and and temporality.
temporality.
The
The concept
concept of of habitus
habitus conveys
conveys well well thethe intentionality
intentionality of of the
the subject
subject in in practice.
practice.
It
It suggests
suggests the the structuring
structuring force force of bodily activity
of bodily based on
activity based on the the experiences
eXperiences of of
the
the past.
past. Habitus
Habitus corresponds,
corresponds, in in fact,
fact, to to the
the process
process of of selection,
selection, simplification,
simplification,
and
and idealization
idealization of of experiences,
eXperiences, setting setting up up aa horizon
horizon of of how
how to to act
act in in aa given
given
place.
place. InIn the
the place/self
place/self interaction
interaction the the active
active interface
interface is is thethe lived
lived body body thatthat
enforces
enforces habitus
habitus as as well
well as as responds
responds to to the
the place’s
place’s challenges
challenges for for thethe subject’s
subject’s
habitudinal
habitudinal schemes
schemes by by incorporating
incorporating them them by by way
way of of negation
negation or or adoption.
adoption. In In
this
this way,
way, the
the subject
subject through
through his/herhis/her habitus-directed
habitus—directed bodily bodily activity
activity inhabits
inhabits the the
place.
place.

20
20
2.2. Post-Marxist Geography: The Production of the Human
Subject in Space and by Place

Despite
Despite the the overwhelming
overwhelming focus focus on on the
the subject’s
subject’s ability
ability toto bebe the
the agent
agent ofof
place-making
place—making in in phenomenological
phenomenological thinking, thinking, the the presence
presence of of some
some external
external or or
internal
internal structuring
structuring force force cannot
cannot be be discounted.
discounted. Even Even thethe thinkers
thinkers discussed
discussed so so
far
far cannot
cannot exclude
exclude aa force force thatthat prevents
prevents the the subject’s
subject’s complete
complete control
control overover
him/herself
him/herself and and the the surrounding
surrounding world. world. Just Just as as Merleau-Ponty
Merleau—Ponty yields yields somesome
control
control to to the body over
the body over the
the subject
subject through
through his his concept
concept of of motor
motor intentionality,
intentionality,
Heidegger
Heidegger too too problematizes
problematizes Dasein’s Dasein’s conceptualization.
conceptualization. The The concept
concept of of
“anxiety”
“anxiety” in in Heidegger’s
Heidegger’s philosophyphilosophy can can bebe taken
taken as as aa disturbance
disturbance that that allows
allows
for
for the
the possibility
possibility of of the
the (spatial)
(spatial) production
production of of the
the subject.
subject. Anxiety
Anxiety is is aa state
state in
in
which Dasein realizes
which Dasein realizes its its fallenness
fallenness in in the
the world
world as as aa constant
constant challenge
challenge to to cope
cope
with.
with. This
This means
means that that “Anxiety
“Anxiety [. [. .. .]
.] takes
takes away
away from Dasein the
from Dasein the possibility
possibility of of
understanding
understanding itself” itself” (Wollan
(Wollan 34); 34); as as wellwell as as itit enhances Dasein’s ability
enhances Dasein’s ability toto
overcome
overcome dynamically
dynamically the the gap between fallenness
gap between fallenness and and authenticity.
authenticity. SteveSteve Kirby
Kirby
reminds
reminds us: us: “The
“The choicechoice with with which
which we we areare faced
faced is is stark;
stark; to to embrace
embrace our our
freedom
freedom and and potentiality
potentiality for for authentic
authentic existence
existence throughthrough the the overcoming
overcoming of of our
our
anxiety.
anxiety. Or Or to to refuse
refuse or or ignore
ignore anxiety’s
anxiety’s challengechallenge and and succumb
succumb to to the
the ‘they-
‘they—
5
self’” (75).
(75).5
For
For Heidegger,
Heidegger, authenticity
authenticity lies lies in Dasein’s ability
in Dasein’s ability toto establish Dasein’s
establish Dasein’s
spatiality,
spatiality, and and that that despite
despite all all temporal,
temporal, socio-cultural
socio—cultural or or other
other conditions.
conditions.
However,
However, as as Critchley
Critchley puts puts it,
it, “I
“1 project
project or or throw
throw off off aa thrownness
thrownness that that catches
catches
me
me inin itsits throw
throw and and inverts
inverts the the movement
movement of of possibility”
possibility” (168).(168). Critchley
Critchley
highlights Dasein’s situatedness
highlights Dasein’s situatedness in in time
time and and space,
space, moremore specifically, Dasein
specifically, Dasein
finds
finds its
its place
place in in their
their function.
function.
The
The notion
notion of binding situatedness
of binding situatedness appears appears also also in
in Sartre’s
Sartre’s philosophy
philosophy as as
“practico-inert
“practico—inert ensemble”
ensemble” (Critique(Critique 313). 313). In In his
his Critique
Critique of Dialectical Reason
of Dialectical Reason
he
he discusses
discusses at at one
one point
point people
people queuing queuing up up at at aa bus
bus stopstop creating
creating aa social
social
product
product and and thus
thus “a “a movement
movement towards towards the the interchangeability
interchangeability of of men
men and and ofof the
the
instrumental
instrumental ensemble”
ensemble” (313). (313). The The metaphor
metaphor of of the bus stop
the bus stop serves
serves himhim to to show
show
how
how totalization
totalization is is achieved
achieved on both individual
on both individual and and group
group level.
level. Through
Through “serial
“serial
behaviour, serial
behaviour, serial feelings
feelings and and serial
serial thoughts”
thoughts” (321) (321) aa certain
certain praxis
praxis is is called
called
into being that
into being that is is also
also serial.
serial. Such
Such “a “a series
series is is aa mode
mode of being for
of being for individuals
individuals
both in
both in relation
relation to to one
one another
another and and in in relation
relation to to their
their common
common being being and and this
this
mode
mode of being transforms
of being transforms all all their
their structures”
structures” (321). (321). Ultimately,
Ultimately, not not only
only the
the
minds
minds and behavior of
and behavior of people
people are are affected,
affected, but but their
their movement
movement becomes becomes
structured
structured in in the
the function
function of of “practico-inert
“practico—inert ensembles,”ensembles,” as as well
well asas their
their places
places

5
5 Kirby
Kirby seems
seems to to admit,
admit, however,
however, an
an overdetermination
overdetermination toward
toward the
the former
former possibility:
possibility:
“anxiety
“anxiety fulfils
fulfils aa positive
positive function by summoning
function by summoning usus to
to take
take up
up the
the challenge
challenge of
of authentic
authentic
existence”
existence” (75).
(75).

21
21
become
become practico-inert
practico—inert space
space and
and abstract
abstract space
space (see
(see Boyle).
Boyle). In
In this
this way,
way,
individuals,
individuals, groups,
groups, and
and their
their places
places get
get integrated
integrated into
into an
an overarching
overarching context.
context.
As
As Sartre
Sartre writes,
writes,

Conversely,
Conversely, in in every
every non-serial
non—serial praxis,
praxis, aa serial
serial praxis
praxis will be found,
will be found, asas the
the
practico-inert
practico—inert structure
structure ofof the
the praxis
praxis in
in so
so far
far as
as it
it is
is social.
social. And, just as
And, just as
there
there is
is aa logic
logic ofof the
the practico-inert
practico—inert layer,
layer, there
there are
are also
also structures
structures proper
proper
to
to the
the thought
thought which
which is is produced
produced at at this
this social
social level
level ofof activity;
activity; in
in other
other
words,
words, there
there is is aa rationality
rationality ofof the
the theoretical
theoretical and
and practical behaviour of
practical behaviour of
an
an agent
agent as as aa member
member of of aa series.
series. (Critique
(Critique 321)
321)

For
For Sartre
Sartre anyany group
group becomes
becomes aa practico-inert
practico—inert ensemble
ensemble that that eliminates
eliminates
opposition
opposition and and effects
effects homogeneity.
homogeneity. This This is is also
also true
true forfor groups
groups that that initially
initially
aim
aim atat detotalisation
detotalisation of of aa particular
particular practico-inert
practico—inert ensemble:
ensemble: “It “It must
must therefore
therefore
be
be understood
understood at at the outset that
the outset that the
the origin
origin of of any
any restructuration
restructuration of of aa collective
collective
into
into aa group
group is is aa complex
complex eventevent which
which takestakes place simultaneously at
place simultaneously at every
every levellevel
of
of materiality,
materiality, but but isis transcended
transcended into into organising
organising praxis praxis at at the
the level
level of of serial
serial
unity”
unity” (329).
(329). As As also
also shown
shown by by Boyle,
Boyle, Sartre’s
Sartre’s circular
circular dialectic
dialectic is is expressed
expressed
exactly
exactly through
through this this movement:
movement: aa group group thatthat reasserts
reasserts itself
itself inin opposition
opposition to to an
an
oppressive,
oppressive, practico-inert
practico—inert context
context is is going
going to to turn
turn into
into one
one too,
too, asas itit also
also works
works
toward
toward aa practico-inert
practico—inert unity.unity.
Neither
Neither does does Bachelard’s
Bachelard’s interpretation
interpretation of of the
the subject
subject and and space
space appear
appear
homogeneous.
homogeneous. He He admits
admits that
that inin all
all ofof us
us there
there exists
exists an an “oneiric
“oneiric house”
house” (15): (15):
“the
“the house
house we we were born in
were born in has
has engraved
engraved withinwithin us us the
the hierarchy
hierarchy of of the
the various
various
functions
functions of of inhabiting.
inhabiting. We We are are the
the diagram
diagram of of the
the functions
functions of of inhabiting
inhabiting that that
particular
particular house,
house, andand all
all the
the other
other houses
houses are are but
but variations
variations on on aa fundamental
fundamental
theme”
theme” (15).
(15). Following
Following Bachelard’s
Bachelard’s interpretation
interpretation this this can
can mean
mean two two things:
things:
either
either there
there isis aa house
house thethe subject
subject is is initially
initially positioned
positioned in, in, which
which leaves
leaves lasting,
lasting,
unwanted
unwanted imprints
imprints on on the
the subject;
subject; or or the
the inhabitation
inhabitation of of the
the first
first house
house provides
provides
the
the subject
subject with with aa directionality,
directionality, which which is is responsible
responsible for for thethe subject’s
subject’s
intentionality,
intentionality, or or as
as Casey
Casey calls
calls it:
it: habitus.
habitus. Either
Either way,way, thethe subject
subject experiences
experiences aa
conditioning,
conditioning, external
external or or internal,
internal, which which must must then then entail
entail aa fundamental
fundamental
restriction
restriction on on possibilities.
possibilities.
Casey’s
Casey’s concept
concept of of space
space as as “the
“the encompassing
encompassing volumetric
volumetric void void in in which
which
(including
(including human beings) are
human beings) are positioned”
positioned” (“Geography”
(“Geography” 683) 683) is is also
also revealing.
revealing.
This
This can
can bebe taken
taken as as the
the general
general argument
argument for for space
space to to be
be anan overall
overall container.
container.
However,
However, the the idea
idea ofof positioning
positioning conveys
conveys yet yet the
the lack
lack ofof atat least
least some
some degree
degree of of
agency.
agency. From
From another
another angle,
angle, such
such conceptualization
conceptualization of of space
space can can refer
refer to to the
the
existential
existential notion
notion of being-in-the-world, in
of being—in—the—world, in which
which case case Casey’s
Casey’s argument
argument
describes
describes the the subject’s
subject’s thrownness
thrownness in in the
the world.
world. Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, he he admits
admits more more
concretely
concretely the the subject’s
subject’s dependence
dependence on on place
place elsewhere:
elsewhere: “unless “unless [the body] feels
[the body] feels
oriented
oriented in in place,
place, we we asas its
its bearers
bearers are are not
not going
going to to feel
feel oriented
oriented therethere either
either

22
22
[and]
[and] certainly
certainly experience Heimatlosigkeit” (Remembering
experience Heimatlosigkeit” (Remembering 195). 195). Similarly
Similarly to to
Heidegger
Heidegger and and his his ideaidea of of anxiety,
anxiety, Casey Casey argues argues for for the
the subject’s
subject’s dynamic
dynamic
habitation
habitation of of place,
place, yet yet he he also
also anticipates
anticipates the the interdependence
interdependence of of subject
subject andand
place.
place.
Casey
Casey also also emphasizes—besides
emphasizes—besides the the “outgoing”
“outgoing” of of the the subject
subject
(“Geography”
(“Geography” 688), 688), that that is, is, thethe way way the the subject
subject actively
actively confronts
confronts the the
surrounding—the
surrounding—the process process of of “incoming”
“incoming” (688), (688), which which for for Casey
Casey denotesdenotes the the
effect
effect places
places have have on on the the subject.
subject. This This “somatography,”
“somatography,” or or “inscription”
“inscription” of of
places
places in in the
the bodybody (688)(688) is is reminiscent
reminiscent of of Bachelard’s
Bachelard’s idea idea of of the
the oneiric
oneiric house,
house,
when
when Casey
Casey links links it it up
up with
with the the tenacity
tenacity of of places.
places. What What is is more
more in in contrast
contrast with
with
the
the aforesaid
aforesaid is is his
his concept
concept of of subjection
subjection to to place
place (688);
(688); as as hehe claims:
claims: “we“we areare
not
not the
the masters
masters of of place
place but but prey
prey to to it
it [.
[. .. .]
.] to
to bebe (a)
(a) subject
subject to/of
to/of place
place is is to
to be
be
what
what we we are
are as as anan expression
expression of of the
the way
way a place is”
a place is” (688).
(688).
In
In aa moremore radically
radically opposing
opposing way way to to phenomenologists,
phenomenologists, many many thinkers
thinkers
emphasize
emphasize the the production
production of of subjects
subjects in in space.
space. This This termterm suggests
suggests that that subjects
subjects
cannot
cannot build,
build, or or construct
construct their their places
places apart apart from from discursive
discursive powers, powers, if if
construction,
construction, that that is,is, aa degree
degree of of individualism,
individualism, can can be be assumed
assumed as as aa possibility
possibility
at
at all.
all. InIn contrast
contrast with with the the phenomenological
phenomenological understanding, understanding, post-Marxist
post—Marxist
thinkers
thinkers lay lay emphasis
emphasis on on thethe determining
determining (socio-political,
(socio—political, etc.) etc.) environment,
environment, in in
which
which the the embedded
embedded “subject” “subject” is is intensely
intensely conditioned.
conditioned. As As Michel
Michel Foucault
Foucault
stresses
stresses it,it, “The
“The individual,
individual, with with hishis identity
identity and and characteristics,
characteristics, is is the
the product
product of of
aa relation
relation of of power
power exercised
exercised over bodies, multiplicities,
over bodies, multiplicities, movements,
movements, desires, desires,
forces”
forces” (“Questions
(“Questions on on Geography”
Geography” 74). 74). Similarly
Similarly to to subjects,
subjects, spatiality
spatiality appears
appears
also
also inin the
the focal
focal pointpoint of of power
power relations.
relations. As As Edward
Edward W. W. Soja
Soja reminds
reminds us, us, many
many
of
of these
these thinkers
thinkers maintain
maintain that that “spatial
“spatial fragmentation
fragmentation as as well
well as as the
the appearance
appearance
of
of spatial
spatial coherence
coherence and and homogeneity
homogeneity are are social
social products
products and and often
often an an integral
integral
part
part of of the
the instrumentality
instrumentality of of political
political power”
power” (Postmodern Geographies 126).
(Postmodern Geographies 126).
As
As inin thethe case
case of of the
the thinkers
thinkers in in the
the first
first part
part of of this
this chapter,
chapter, in in addition
addition to to
time,
time, space
space becomesbecomes seminal seminal here here too. too. It It must
must be be mentioned
mentioned that that Mikhail
Mikhail
Bakhtin
Bakhtin addressed
addressed the the relation between space
relation between space and and timetime even before, in
even before, in the
the first
first
place,
place, Foucauldian
Foucauldian thinkers thinkers to to bebe discussed
discussed in in this
this chapter.
chapter. In In The Dialogic
The Dialogic
Imagination he
Imagination he introduces
introduces the the concept
concept of of the chronotope in
the chronotope in thethe study
study of of the
the
novel:
novel: “a “a formally
formally constitutive
constitutive categorycategory of of literature.
literature. .. .[in.[in which]
which] spatialspatial and
and
temporal
temporal indicators
indicators are are fused
fused intointo one one carefully
carefully thoughtout,
thoughtout, concrete concrete whole.
whole.
Time,
Time, as as it
it were,
were, thickens,
thickens, takes takes on on flesh,
flesh, becomesbecomes artistically
artistically visible;
visible; likewise,
likewise,
space
space becomes
becomes charged charged and and responsive
responsive to to the
the movements
movements of of time,
time, plot plot and
and
6
history”
history” (84).(84).6 The The chronotopic
chronotopic concurrence
concurrence of of space
space and and time—the
time—the palpability
palpability
of
of time
time in in space
space and and the the amoebic
amoebic charactercharacter of of space
space in in time—stresses
time—stresses the the
relevance
relevance of of spatial
spatial analysis.
analysis.
6
6 Bakhtin
Bakhtin introduces
introduces other
other spatial
spatial terms
terms such
such as
as the
the “zone
“zone of
of contact”
contact” (7)
(7) to
to describe,
describe, for
for
example,
example, the
the function
function of
of laughter
laughter in
in literature
literature (23).
(23). Bakhtinian
Bakhtinian analysis
analysis has
has also been
also been
employed by anthropologists.
employed by anthropologists. Notably,
Notably, Keith
Keith Basso
Basso studies
studies Western
Western Apache
Apache landscape,
landscape,

23
23
 Foucault
Foucault also
also recognizes
recognizes the
the importance
importance of
of spatial
spatial analysis
analysis as
as it
it allows
allows for
for
“grasp[ing]
“grasp[ing] precisely
precisely the
the points
points at
at which
which discourses
discourses are
are transformed
transformed in,in, through
through
and
and on
on the basis of
the basis of relations
relations of
of power”
power” (“Questions
(“Questions onon Geography”
Geography” 70). 70). In
In
Foucault’s
Foucault’s footstep,
footstep, Soja
Soja adds:
adds:

Just
Just as
as space,
space, time,
time, and
and matter
matter delineate
delineate and
and encompass
encompass thethe essential
essential
qualities
qualities of
of the
the physical
physical world,
world, spatiality,
spatiality, temporality,
temporality, and
and social being
social being
can be seen
can be seen as
as the
the abstract
abstract dimensions
dimensions which
which together
together comprise
comprise all
all facets
facets
of
of human
human existence.
eXistence. [.
[. .. .]
.] [t]he
[t]he social
social order
order of being-in-the-world can
of being—in—the—world be
can be
seen
seen as
as revolving
revolving around
around the the constitution
constitution of
of society,
society, the
the production
production and
and
reproduction
reproduction ofof social
social relations,
relations, institutions,
institutions, and
and practices.
practices. (Postmodern
(Postmodern
Geographies 25)
Geographies 25)

In
In such
such analyses
analyses the
the social being can
social being be understood
can be understood inin specific
specific circumstances
circumstances inin
the
the intersection
intersection ofof time
time andand matter,
matter, which
which involves
involves abstract
abstract and
and direct
direct
spatiality—engendered
spatiality—engendered by by clandestine
clandestine relations
relations of
of power
power and
and immediate
immediate places
places
in
in which bodies are
which bodies are positioned.
positioned.
Despite
Despite thethe relatively
relatively meager
meager quantity
quantity ofof spatial/geographical
spatial/geographical
investigations
investigations Foucault
Foucault makes
makes in in contrast
contrast to
to his
his other
other enterprise,
enterprise, he
he isis
straightforward
straightforward about
about power
power relations
relations in
in space:
space:

This
This form
form ofof power
power applies
applies itself
itself to
to immediate
immediate everyday
everyday life
life which
which
categorizes
categorizes the
the individual,
individual, marks
marks him
him byby his
his own
own individuality,
individuality, attaches
attaches
him
him to
to his
his own
own identity,
identity, imposes
imposes aa law
law of
of truth
truth on
on him
him which
which he he must
must
recognize
recognize and
and which
which others
others have
have to
to recognize
recognize inin him.
him. It
It is
is aa form
form of
of
power
power which
which makes
makes individuals
individuals subjects.
subjects. (“The
(“The Subject
Subject and
and Power”
Power” 212)212)

The
The immediacy
immediacy Foucault
Foucault talks
talks about
about allows
allows one
one to
to consider
consider different
different places
places as
as
“forms
“forms of of domination”
domination” (“Questions
(“Questions on on Geography”
Geography” 69), 69), and,
and, as
as such,
such, they
they
become intersections
become intersections of of power
power relations
relations and
and thus
thus sites
sites of
of exercising
exercising power.
power. InIn
this
this way,
way, places
places for
for Foucault
Foucault areare sites
sites of
of reproduction,
reproduction, where where the
the “active
“active
subject”
subject” comes
comes into being by
into being by way
way ofof approval
approval oror disapproval
disapproval (“The(“The Subject
Subject and
and
Power”
Power” 220).
220).
The
The term
term “production”
“production” often
often used
used inin this
this academic
academic realmrealm enhances best
enhances best
the
the decentering
decentering of of the
the subject
subject and
and the
the approach
approach to
to space.
space. Certainly
Certainly itit is
is not by
not by
chance
chance that
that Henri
Henri Lefebvre
Lefebvre gave
gave hishis intriguing
intriguing work
work the
the title
title The Production of
The Production of
Space. He
Space. He claims
claims right
right at
at the beginning that
the beginning that “(social)
“(social) space
space isis aa (social)
(social)
product” (Lefebvre
product” (Lefebvre 26),
26), whereby
whereby he he claims—similarly
claims—similarly to to Heidegger—that
Heidegger—that space space

especially
especially place
place names,
names, as
as “a
“a repository
repository of
of distilled
distilled wisdom
wisdom (63)
(63) to
to show
show that
that as
as “inhabitants
“inhabitants
of their
of their landscape,
landscape, the
the Western
Western Apache
Apache are.
are. .. .inhabited by it
.inhabited by it as
as well,
well, and
and in
in the
the timeless
timeless
depth
depth of
of that
that abiding
abiding reciprocity,
reciprocity, the
the people
people and
and their
their landscape
landscape are
are virtually
virtually as
as one”
one” (102).
(102).

24
 7
does
does notnot appear
appear as as an an apriori
apriori entityentity7;; rather,
rather, he he speaks
speaks about
about “appropriated
“appropriated
space”
space” which
which is is produced:
produced: “every “every society-and
society—and hence hence every
every modemode of of production
production
with
with its
its subvariants
subvariants [. [. .. .].] produces
produces aa space, space, its its own
own space”
space” (Lefebvre
(Lefebvre 31). 31).
Appropriated
Appropriated space, space, as as if if concealed,
concealed, appears appears in in Lefebvre’s
Lefebvre’s interpretation
interpretation in in the
the
function
function of of aa twofold
twofold illusionillusion of of transparency
transparency and and reality—homogeneity
reality—homogeneity [as [as
Lefebvre
Lefebvre says,says, spacespace seems
seems “intelligible”
“intelligible” (27)] (27)] and
and materiality
materiality for for “its
“its appeal
appeal to to
naturalness
naturalness [and] [and] substantiality”
substantiality” (29). (29). Lefebvre
Lefebvre thus thus connects
connects space space to both
to both
conception
conception and and perception.
perception.
In
In fact,
fact, what what Lefebvre
Lefebvre proposes proposes is is aa conceptual
conceptual triad triad in in his
his analysis
analysis thatthat
directly
directly connects
connects to to the
the conception
conception and and perception
perception of of space.
space. Spatial practice
Spatial practice
does
does not
not only
only entail
entail action
action to to maintain
maintain production
production and and reproduction,
reproduction, but but also
also
sites,
sites, thereby
thereby securingsecuring “continuity
“continuity [and] [and] cohesion”
cohesion” (33). Representations of
(33). Representations of
space are
space are connected
connected to to knowledge,
knowledge, whereas whereas representational
representational spaces spaces embody
embody
“complex
“compleX symbolisms”
symbolisms” (33). (33). Lefebvre’s
Lefebvre’s triad triad allows
allows manymany interpretations,
interpretations, so, so,
for
for example,
example, Jay Jay D.Gatrell
D.Gatrell and and JeffJeff Worsham
Worsham representrepresent spatial
spatial practice
practice as as the
the
glue between the
glue between the two
two spaces,
spaces, thus thus conceptualizing
conceptualizing with with this
this triad
triad the
the easing
easing of of
the
the tension
tension of of the
the traditional
traditional binary binary pairpair of of place
place and and space:
space: “spatial
“spatial practices
practices
transform
transform imagined
imagined geographies
geographies defined defined as as ‘representations
‘representations of of space’
space’ (i.e.(i.e.
space)
space) into
into the the materiality
materiality of of everyday
everyday life life asas constituted
constituted in in ‘representational
“representational
spaces’
spaces’ (i.e.
(i.e. place)”
place)” (335).
(335). In In hishis analysis
analysis of of race
race andand space
space Eugene
Eugene J. J. McCann
McCann
8
represents
represents the the “triad
“triad of of conceived,
conceived, perceived,perceived, and and lived
lived spaces”
spaces” (167) (167)8 as as
“Lefebvre’s
“Lefebvre’s three three moments
moments [to] [to] capture
capture bodilybodily experiences
eXperiences toward toward space
space and and
therefore
therefore [to] [to] suggest
suggest that that thethe racially
racially ‘marked’
‘marked’ bodies bodies will
will have have aa particular
particular
relationship
relationship to, to, and
and constitutive
constitutive role role in,
in, the
the production
production of of abstract
abstract spaces
spaces which
which
always
always attempt
attempt to to elide
elide difference”
difference” (179). (179). DavidDavid Harvey’s
Harvey’s conceptualization
conceptualization of of
Lefebvre’s
Lefebvre’s triad triad enlarges
enlarges on on thisthis understanding
understanding more more systematically.
systematically. For For himhim
spaces
spaces of of representation
representation “imagine “imagine new new meanings
meanings or or possibilities
possibilities for for spatial
spatial
practices”
practices” (219); (219); thus thus HarveyHarvey understands
understands these these spaces
spaces as as challenging,
challenging,
destabilizing—if
destabilizing—if not not subverting—representations
subverting—representations of of space
space which which he he sees
sees as as
organized
organized space space including
including architecture
architecture and and (spatial)
(spatial) knowledge.
knowledge. Spatial Spatial practices
practices
are
are material
material and and physical
physical that that “assure
“assure production
production and and social
social reproduction”
reproduction” (218). (218).
In
In this
this way,
way, spatialspatial practices
practices occur occur as as supporting
supporting tools tools ofof representations
representations of of
space
space in in the
the first
first place.
place. He He identifies
identifies representations
representations of of space
space as as aa “material
“material
9
productive
productive force force with with respect
respect to to spatial
spatial practices”
practices” (219).(219).9

7
7 In
In fact,
fact, if
if space excellence can
per excellence
space per be equated
can be equated with
with nature
nature void
void of,
of, e.g.,
e.g., enculturation,
enculturation,
Lefebvre
Lefebvre argues
argues that
that natural
natural space
space isis disappearing
disappearing and
and has become aa mere
has become background (30).
mere background (30).
In
In this
this sense,
sense, Lefebvre
Lefebvre echoes
echoes Heidegger
Heidegger about
about the
the hiddenness
hiddenness of of space.
space.
8
8 In
In The Production of
The Production Space this
of Space this appears
appears asas “the
“the perceived-conceived-lived
perceived—conceived—lived triad triad (in
(in spatial
spatial
terms:
terms: spatial
spatial practice,
practice, representations
representations of of space,
space, representational
representational space)”
space)” (40).
(40).
9
9 Derek
Derek Gregory
Gregory underscores
underscores thisthis understanding
understanding with
with an
an overtly
overtly Foucauldian
Foucauldian tinge:tinge: spatial
spatial
pracitce
pracitce enhances
enhances for
for him
him “time-space
“time—space routines
routines and
and the
the spatial
spatial structures
structures [.
[. .. .]
.] through
through which
which
social
social life
life is
is produced
produced and and reproduced”;
reproduced”; he he identifies
identifies representations
representations of of space
space asas

25
25
 Indeed,
Indeed, as as Lefebvre
Lefebvre explains,
explains, thethe three
three moments
moments are are interwoven,
interwoven, but but
representations
representations of of space
space as as “conceptualized
“conceptualized space”space” (38)
(38) are
are “dominant
“dominant space”space”
(39),
(39), toto which
which subordination
subordination to to aa logic
logic (41)(41) isis inherent.
inherent. This This notion
notion ofof
representations
representations of of space
space connects
connects directly
directly to to Lefebvre’s
Lefebvre’s other other concept
concept of of
abstract space, which
abstract space, which is is “formal
“formal and and quantitative,
quantitative, and and [.
[. .. .]
.] erases
erases distinction”
distinction”
(49).
(49). Quite
Quite contrary
contrary to to Gatrell
Gatrell and and Worsham’s
Worsham’s proposition,
proposition, unless
unless interpreted
interpreted in in
terms
terms with
with abstract
abstract space,
space, the the (political)
(political) technology
technology of of abstract
abstract space
space influences
influences
the
the realizations
realizations of of thethe two two other
other moments
moments of of Lefebvre’s
Lefebvre’s triad. triad. Lefebvre
Lefebvre
explicitly
eXplicitly talks
talks about
about the the conditioning
conditioning of of the
the subject
subject in in space
space (57)(57) and,
and, as
as
regarding
regarding space,
space, hehe states
states that that “abstract
“abstract space
space generates
generates illusions,
illusions, and and hence
hence aa
tendency
tendency towards
towards falsefalse consciousness,
consciousness, i.e., i.e., consciousness
consciousness of of aa space
space at at once
once
imaginary
imaginary and and real”
real” (411).
(411). Abstract
Abstract space
space represents
represents aa political
political technology,
technology, both both
as
as its
its product
product and and instrument,
instrument, that that creates
creates aa transparent,
transparent, homogenous
homogenous space. space.
Uniformity
Uniformity of of space
space is is obtained
obtained through
through “consensuses”
“consensuses” validated
validated by by aa “political
“political
economy”
economy” (56) (56) and,
and, as as McCann
McCann pointspoints out, by “render[ing]
out, by “render[ing] [it] [it] ahistorical,
ahistorical,
devoid
devoid of of any
any indications
indications of of the
the social
social struggles
struggles around
around itsits production,
production, or or traces
traces
of
of the
the concrete
concrete space
space it it replaces”
replaces” (169).
(169). Ahistoricity
Ahistoricity of of abstract
abstract space
space andand the
the
lack
lack ofof social
social struggle
struggle must must mean,
mean, however,
however, the the denial
denial of of alternative
alternative and and
challenging
challenging histories
histories fromfrom the the point
point of
of view
view ofof the
the dominant
dominant discourse—the
discourse—the
handling
handling of of space
space by,by, first
first and
and foremost,
foremost, engendering
engendering falsefalse consciousness.
consciousness. As As
Lefebvre
Lefebvre states:
states:

In
In spatial practice, the
spatial practice, the reproduction
reproduction ofof social
social relations
relations is
is predominant.
predominant.
The
The representation
representation of space, in
of space, in thrall
thrall to both knowledge
to both knowledge and
and power,
power,
leaves
leaves only
only the
the narrowest
narrowest leeway
leeway toto representational spaces, which
representational spaces, which are
are
limited
limited to
to works
works images
images and
and memories,
memories, whether
whether sensory,
sensory, sensual
sensual or
or
sexual,
sexual, is
is so
so far
far displayed
displayed that
that it barely achieves
it barely achieves symbolic
symbolic form.
form. (50)
(50)

(Social)
(Social) action
action and
and any
any individual
individual construction
construction areare conditioned
conditioned byby social
social space;
space;
they
they can be seen
can be seen asas products, just as
products, just as social
social space
space isis aa product
product of
of power
power relations.
relations.
This
This connects
connects Lefebvre’s
Lefebvre’s theory
theory directly
directly toto Foucault’s
Foucault’s theory
theory of of space.
space.
Production
Production and and reproduction—management
reproduction—management and and maintenance
maintenance of of space—appears
space—appears
to be aa part
to be part of
of aa power
power mechanism.
mechanism.
These
These power
power frameworks
frameworks appear
appear in in Harvey’s
Harvey’s theory
theory asas “time-space
“time—space
compressions”—“processes
compressions”—“processes that that so
so revolutionize
revolutionize thethe objective
objective qualities
qualities of
of space
space
and
and time
time that
that we
we are
are forced
forced to
to alter,
alter, sometimes
sometimes in in quite
quite radical
radical ways,
ways, how
how we we
represent
represent the the world
world to to ourselves”
ourselves” (240).
(240). Harvey’s
Harvey’s definition
definition hashas twotwo
implications.
implications. First,
First, space
space is
is not
not stable but subject
stable but subject toto change
change enforced
enforced byby socio-
socio—
political-economic
political—economic power power mechanisms.
mechanisms. (In (In fact,
fact, Harvey
Harvey discusses
discusses periods
periods of of

“constellation
“constellation of
of power,
power, knowledge,
knowledge, and
and spatiality—in
spatiality—in which
which the
the dominant
dominant social
social order
order is
is
materially
materially inscribed”;
inscribed”; in
in contrast,
contrast, spaces
spaces of
of representation
representation is
is regarded by him
regarded by him asas
“counterspaces”
“counterspaces” (403).
(403).

26
26
time-space
time—space compression
compression such such as as Enlightenment,
Enlightenment, Modernism, Modernism, and and Post-
Post—
modernism.)
modernism.) Secondly,
Secondly, subjects subjects are are exposed
exposed to to these
these mechanisms
mechanisms and and their
their
responses
responses are are shaped
shaped by by them.
them. As As II will
will show
show later,
later, Harvey
Harvey is is critical
critical of of such
such
Foucauldian
Foucauldian totalizations;
totalizations; however, however, he he accepts
accepts the the Lefebvrian
Lefebvrian dimensions
dimensions of of
social
social space.
space. He He does
does not not detach
detach space
space from
from social
social relations
relations either.
either. He He claims
claims
that
that “the
“the ability
ability to to influence
influence the the production
production of of space
space is is anan important
important means means to to
augment
augment social
social power,”
power,” which which involves
involves thethe enforcement
enforcement of of “influence
“influence over over thethe
ways
ways ofof representing
representing space, space, as as well
well asas over
over space
space of of representation”
representation” (233). (233).
Space
Space is is thus
thus aa socialsocial product,
product, as as well
well as as aa “political
“political and and economic
economic
phenomenon”
phenomenon” (255) (255) in in the the service
service of of an
an abstract
abstract politics
politics that,that, in in Harvey’s
Harvey’s
understanding,
understanding, is is often
often concretized
concretized in in space
space through
through economic
economic changes. changes.
(Spatial)
(Spatial) change,
change, for for example,
example, due due to to economic
economic investments,
investments, indicates indicates
simultaneously
simultaneously “a “a reorganization
reorganization of of the
the framework
framework through through whichwhich social
social power
power
is
is expressed”
expressed” (255).(255). In In this
this sense,
sense, spatial
spatial change
change servesserves thethe maintenance
maintenance of of some
some
status
status quo.
quo. Harvey
Harvey is is straightforward
straightforward about about this:
this: “the
“the accumulation
accumulation of of capital
capital is is
perpetually
perpetually deconstructing
deconstructing that that social
social power
power by by reshaping
reshaping its its geographical
geographical bases. bases.
Put
Put the
the other
other way way round,
round, any any struggle
struggle to to reconstitute
reconstitute power power relations
relations is is aa
struggle
struggle to to reorganize
reorganize their their spatial
spatial bases”
bases” (238).
(238). Power,
Power, space,
space, andand placeplace areare
interrelated
interrelated categories
categories that that areare responsible
responsible for for channeling
channeling social social relations.
relations.
Harvey
Harvey conceptualizes
conceptualizes thereby thereby macro-level
macro—level politics
politics as as well
well as as the
the micro
micro politics
politics
of
of place
place or,or, as as Soja
Soja also also claims,
claims, the the “microspaces
“microspaces of of power”
power” (Postmodern
(Postmodern
Geographies 24).
Geographies 24). The The framework
framework seems seems aa dialectical
dialectical constant
constant of of spatial
spatial
dynamics
dynamics for for Harvey:
Harvey: “those“those who who command
command space space always
always control
control the the politics
politics ofof
place
place even
even though
though [. [. .. .]
.] it
it takes
takes control
control ofof some
some place
place to to command
command space space inin the
the
first
first instance”
instance” (234).
(234). Such Such dynamics
dynamics basedbased on on space-place
space—place oppositionality
oppositionality has has aa
unifying
unifying quality.
quality. Spatial
Spatial change change does does not
not aim
aim at at diversification
diversification of of thethe spatial
spatial
paradigm,
paradigm, but but at at the
the “homogenization
“homogenization of of space
space [. [. .. .].] that
that renders
renders place place
subservient
subservient to to transformations
transformations of of space”
space” (257).
(257). Place
Place appears
appears frozenfrozen in in thethe
10
politico-spatial
politico—spatial matrix,
matrix,10 just just as as the
the system
system of of production
production createscreates spatial
spatial fixes
fixes
(see
(see The New Imperialism).
The New Imperialism).
Time-space
Time—space compressions
compressions appear appear as as socio-spatial
socio—spatial dialectic
dialectic in in Soja’s
Soja’s
theorizing.
theorizing. Drawing
Drawing heavily heavily on on Foucault
Foucault and and Lefebvre,
Lefebvre, he he also
also insists
insists that
that
spatiality
spatiality isis aa social
social product
product (Postmodern Geographies 129);
(Postmodern Geographies 129); moremore concretely,
concretely,
“the
“the organization,
organization, and and meaning
meaning of of space
space is is aa product
product of of social
social translation,
translation,
transformation,
transformation, and and experience”
experience” (79-80). (79—80). Space,
Space, in in his
his interpretation,
interpretation, does does notnot

10
10 Such
Such fixation
fixation intensifies
intensifies the
the oppression
oppression of of the
the subject,
subject, however
however places
places inin Harvey’s
Harvey’s
judgment appear
judgment appear to be minimal
to be minimal units
units that
that grant
grant protection
protection for
for people
people as
as well
well as
as they
they can be
can be
taken
taken as
as the birthplace of
the birthplace of opposition
opposition in in the
the grand
grand scheme
scheme ofof this
this “absolute
“absolute antagonism”
antagonism”
(257):
(257): spaces
spaces “form“form aa fixed
fixed frame
frame within
within which
which the
the dynamics
dynamics of of aa social
social process
process must
must
unfold.
unfold. [.[. .. .]
.] The
The effect
effect is
is to
to unleash
unleash capitalism’s
capitalism’s powers
powers ofof ‘creative
‘creative destruction’
destruction’ upon
upon the
the
geographical
geographical landscape,
landscape, sparking
sparking violent
violent movements
movements of of opposition
opposition from
from allall kinds
kinds of
of
quarters”
quarters” (258).
(258).

27
27
embody
embody an an individual
individual creation
creation either,
either, even
even though
though he he speaks
speaks of of three
three spaces,
spaces, the the
physical,
physical, mental,
mental, and and social
social thatthat “interrelate
“interrelate and and overlap”
overlap” (120).(120). In In thisthis sense,
sense,
the
the individual
individual is is positioned
positioned in in space,
space, and and does
does not not invent
invent it; it; or
or rather,
rather, as as Soja
Soja
claims,
claims, “spatiality
“spatiality is is simultaneously
simultaneously the the medium
medium and and outcome
outcome [. [. .. .]
.] of
of social
social
action
action and
and relationship”
relationship” (129). (129). Quite
Quite straightforwardly,
straightforwardly, Soja Soja places
places the the human
human
subject
subject in in aa network
network of of social
social relations
relations called
called space,
space, whereby
whereby he he comes
comes close close toto
“an
“an instrumental
instrumental cartography
cartography of of power
power and and social
social control”
control” (63),(63), as as he he puts
puts itit
regarding
regarding Frederick
Frederick Jameson;
Jameson; and and alsoalso toto Foucault,
Foucault, who who claims
claims that that “power
“power
relations
relations are are rooted
rooted in in the
the system
system of of social
social networks”
networks” (“The (“The Subject
Subject and and Power”
Power”
224).
224).
Accordingly,
Accordingly, Soja Soja conceptualizes
conceptualizes with with his his socio-spatial
socio—spatial dialectic
dialectic the the
production
production and and reproduction
reproduction of of social
social relations.
relations. He He thusthus proposes
proposes that that social
social
relations
relations are are spatially
spatially organized
organized as as “social
“social life
life [is] both space-forming
[is] both space—forming and and space
space
contingent”
contingent” (Postmodern
(Postmodern Geographies Geographies 129), 129), thereby
thereby arguing arguing for for an an
interdependence
interdependence between between space space and and social
social relations;
relations; as as well
well asas for
for spatiality
spatiality that that
does
does notnot correspond
correspond to to stability.
stability. By By claiming
claiming that that social
social relations
relations are are space
space
contingent,
contingent, Soja Soja alsoalso proposes
proposes that that space
space and and timetime are are interrelated
interrelated as as social
social
change,
change, transformation,
transformation, or or “contradiction
“contradiction and and struggle”
struggle” (129) (129) take
take place
place also also in
in
space.
space. As As he he claims
claims explicitly,
explicitly, “the “the spatiality
spatiality of of social
social lifelife isis rooted
rooted in in
temporal/historical
temporal/historical contingency”
contingency” (130). (130). So So when
when Soja Soja speaks
speaks aboutabout “dominant
“dominant
centres,”
centres,” “subordinate
“subordinate peripheries,”
peripheries,” and and “socially
“socially created
created and and polarized
polarized spatialspatial
relations”
relations” (78)—about
(78)—about spatialized spatialized hierarchical
hierarchical power power structures
structures (the (the wayway
organized
organized space space appears
appears to to be
be constituted
constituted through)—he
through)—he conceptualizes
conceptualizes such such aa
structure
structure not not as as aa “once-for-all
“once—for—all event” event” (129). (129). Instead,
Instead, it it seems
seems that that
temporal/historical
temporal/historical contingencycontingency means means for for him him both both “dependence”
“dependence” and and
“occurrence”
“occurrence” and and thusthus spatiality
spatiality is is constantly
constantly reproduced
reproduced out out of of aa socio-spatial-
socio—spatial—
11
temporal
temporal pulp.pulp. 11
Post-Marxist
Post—Marxist propositions
propositions clearly clearly present
present the the defocalization
defocalization of of thethe subject
subject
and
and the
the focus
focus on on politicized
politicized space.space. SpaceSpace fallsfalls prey
prey to to power
power discourses
discourses and and
becomes
becomes transformed
transformed in in their
their likeness.
likeness. The The technology
technology of of space
space produces
produces space space
so
so that
that it
it serves
serves as as aa tool
tool or or as
as the
the arch
arch dispositif
dispositif to to channel
channel power power mechanisms.
mechanisms.
Hence
Hence space
space appears
appears as as thethe interstitial
interstitial entity
entity that
that serves
serves as as an
an important
important part part in
in
the
the realization
realization of of thethe power power establishment
establishment and, and, consequently,
consequently, in in thethe
indoctrination
indoctrination of of the
the subject.
subject. However,
However, space space as as product
product cannotcannot be be seen
seen as as stable
stable
in
in the
the sense
sense thatthat itit would
would be be unchanging;
unchanging; exactly because of
exactly because of its
its product
product quality
quality
in
in the
the function
function of of the
the socio-political
socio—political framework,
framework, it it follows
follows the the transformations
transformations of of
the
the power
power matrix.
matrix. AloneAlone on on this basis, planned
this basis, planned fixityfixity of both space
of both space and and subject
subject
appears
appears not not only
only grave
grave but but also
also limited;
limited; yet,yet, as as II will
will show
show subsequently,
subsequently, these these
11
11 However,
However, the the struggle
struggle over
over production
production and
and reproduction
reproduction Soja’s
Soja’s “spatial
“spatial matrix”
matrix” (129)
(129)
indicates
indicates is
is not
not aa democratic
democratic coercion, but, in
coercion, but, in the
the first
first place,
place, it
it marks
marks the
the struggle
struggle of
of the
the
power
power structure
structure to to maintain
maintain the
the existing
existing order.
order. Much
Much in in Louis
Louis Althusser’s
Althusser’s sense,
sense, then,
then,
struggle
struggle can
can bebe seen
seen as
as overdetermined.
overdetermined.

28
28
propositions,
propositions, as
as in
in the
the case
case of
of phenomenologists
phenomenologists and and humanist
humanist geographers,
geographers, gain
gain
integrity
integrity along
along with
with the
the softening
softening features
features of
of their
their theory.
theory. It
It is
is as
as much
much asas to
to say
say
that
that post-Marxist
post—Marxist thinkers
thinkers too
too grant
grant the
the subject
subject aa pool
pool of
of action
action in
in this
this rigid
rigid grid.
grid.

2.3. Hybridizing Space and Place: The In-between

Despite
Despite the the circumstance
circumstance thatthat the the foregoing
foregoing propositions
propositions are are pessimistic
pessimistic
many
many times
times over,
over, they
they do
do not
not disallow
disallow the the possibility
possibility of of at
at least
least aa degree
degree ofof
human
human freedom,
freedom, most
most often
often inin the
the formform of of struggle.
struggle. Just
Just as
as phenomenologists
phenomenologists
cannot
cannot and
and dodo not
not want
want to
to exclude
exclude factors
factors that
that effect
effect the
the conceptualization
conceptualization of of the
the
subject
subject inin aa broader
broader matrix
matrix than
than merely
merely the the subject,
subject, post-Marxists
post—Marxists also also call
call for
for aa
more
more integrated
integrated spatial
spatial framework.
framework. Let Let usus turn
turn now
now to to this
this coercive
coercive spatial
spatial
framework
framework of of production
production andand construction.
construction.
Foucault,
Foucault, for for example,
example, insisting
insisting on on aa method
method examining
examining forms forms of
of power,
power,
proposes
proposes to to investigate
investigate realms
realms of of resistance
resistance directly,
directly, as as thethe oppositional
oppositional
character
character of of these
these spaces
spaces sheds
sheds light
light on on the
the nature
nature ofof power
power structure.
structure. At
At the
the
same
same time,
time, however,
however, spaces
spaces of of resistance
resistance enhance
enhance fissures
fissures inin absolute
absolute space,
space,
establishing
establishing antidiscourses
antidiscourses within
within it:
it:

if
if it
it is
is true
true that that atat the
the heart
heart of
of power
power relations
relations and
and as
as aa permanent
permanent
condition
condition of of their
their existence
existence there
there is
is an
an insubordination
insubordination andand aa certain
certain
essential
essential obstinacy
obstinacy on on the
the part
part of
of the
the principles
principles ofof freedom,
freedom, then
then there
there is
is
no
no relationship
relationship of of power
power without
without the
the means
means of of escape
escape or
or possible
possible flight.
flight.
Every
Every power
power relationship
relationship implies,
implies, at at least
least in potentia, aa strategy
in potentia, strategy of
of
struggle
struggle [.[. .. .].
.]. (“The
(“The Subject
Subject and
and Power”
Power” 225)225)

This
This notion
notion cancan be be detected
detected all
all across
across thethe critical
critical discourse,
discourse, starting
starting with
with
Heidegger,
Heidegger, whowho claims
claims that
that “Raum
“Raum means
means aa place
place cleared
cleared or or freed
freed for
for settlement
settlement
and
and lodging.
lodging. A A space
space is is something
something that
that has been made
has been made roomroom for,
for, something
something thatthat
is
is cleared
cleared and
and free,
free, namely
namely within
within aa boundary.
boundary. [.[. .. .] Accordingly, spaces
.] Accordingly, spaces receive
receive
their
their being from locations
being from locations and
and not ‘space’” (“Building”
from ‘space’”
not from (“Building” 154).
154). Heidegger’s
Heidegger’s
distinction between space
distinction between space and
and place
place in
in this
this section
section doesdoes not
not pertain
pertain to to the
the
politics
politics of
of space;
space; however,
however, thethe enabling
enabling character
character of of place
place inin contrast
contrast to
to space
space is is
revealing.
revealing. In
In fact,
fact, this
this aspect
aspect has been polarized
has been polarized into
into the
the fissure
fissure in
in abstract
abstract space
space
through
through which
which pluralism,
pluralism, despite
despite superimposed
superimposed homogeneity,
homogeneity, can can bebe obtained.
obtained.
Thus,
Thus, Lefebvre
Lefebvre conceptualizes
conceptualizes difference
difference toto the
the spite
spite ofof homogeneity
homogeneity (372):
(372):

Differences
Differences endure
endure or
or arise
arise on
on the
the margins
margins of of the
the homogeneous
homogeneous realm,
realm,
either
either in
in the
the form
form of
of resistances
resistances oror in
in the
the form
form of of externalities
externalities (lateral,
(lateral,
heterotopical,
heterotopical, heterological).
heterological). What
What is is different
different is,
is, to begin with,
to begin with, what
what isis
excluded: the
excluded: the edges
edges of
of the
the city,
city, shanty
shanty towns,
towns, thethe spaces
spaces of
of forbidden
forbidden
games,
games, ofof guerrilla
guerrilla war,
war, of
of war.
war. Sooner
Sooner or or later,
later, however,
however, the
the existing
existing

29
29
 center
center and
and the
the forces
forces of
of homogenization
homogenization must
must seek
seek to
to absorb
absorb all
all such
such
differences,
differences, and
and they
they will
will succeed
succeed if
if these
these retain
retain aa defensive
defensive posture
posture and
and
no
no counterattack
counterattack is
is mounted
mounted on
on their
their side.
side. (373)
(373)

Heterotopical
Heterotopical space space deconstructs
deconstructs the the homogeneous
homogeneous notion notion of of abstract
abstract space.space.
Through
Through the juxtaposition of
the juxtaposition of different
different spacesspaces FoucaultFoucault argues argues for for aa
heterogeneous
heterogeneous space space in in which
which the the different
different spatialities
spatialities do do not
not exist
exist in in hierarchy:
hierarchy:
“we
“we live
live inside
inside aa set set of
of relations
relations thatthat delineates
delineates sites sites which
which are are irreducible
irreducible to to one
one
another
another andand absolutely
absolutely not not superimposable
superimposable on on one
one another”
another” (“Of (“Of Other
Other Spaces”
Spaces”
23).
23). Spatialities
Spatialities can can thus
thus coexist,
coexist, but but they
they are
are interrelated
interrelated as as well
well as as they
they oppose
oppose
each
each other
other (24).
(24). This
This suggests
suggests aa pluralist,
pluralist, eveneven democratic,
democratic, spatialspatial understanding
understanding
as
as abstract
abstract space space becomes
becomes not not onlyonly fragmented,
fragmented, but but also
also defocalized
defocalized and and
decentralized,
decentralized, even even though
though the the different
different spaces
spaces tighten
tighten against
against each each other.
other. ItIt
must
must also
also be be mentioned
mentioned that that these
these “singular
“singular spacesspaces [are][are] to be found
to be found in in some
some
given
given social
social spaces”
spaces” (“Space,
(“Space, Power
Power and and Knowledge”
Knowledge” 168). 168). Social—abstract
Social—abstract or or
transparent—space,
transparent—space, then, then, is is yet
yet apparent,
apparent, not not necessarily
necessarily as as aa physical
physical grid grid of
of aa
built
built environment,
environment, but but one
one that
that isis present
present through,
through, for for example,
example, its its dispositifs.
dispositifs.
Foucault
Foucault mentions
mentions two two kinds
kinds of of heterogeneous
heterogeneous spaces. spaces. One One is is unreal
unreal space
space
or
or utopia
utopia “with“with no no real
real place”
place” (“Of(“Of Other
Other Spaces”
Spaces” 24), 24), andand thethe other
other typetype isis
represented
represented by by heterotopias.
heterotopias. Heterotopias
Heterotopias do do not
not only
only depict
depict aa pluralist
pluralist notionnotion ofof
space
space through
through their their otherness,
otherness, but but they
they can
can also
also be be parts
parts of of abstract
abstract space.space. For
For
example,
example, “crisis “crisis heterotopias”
heterotopias” or or “heterotopias
“heterotopias of of deviation,”
deviation,” which which are are
mentioned
mentioned by by Foucault
Foucault directly,
directly, can can indeed
indeed be be seen
seen as as dispositifs
dispositifs to to enforce
enforce thethe
existing
existing power
power structure.
structure. As As Foucault
Foucault claims,
claims, it it is
is society
society thatthat makes
makes each each
heterotopia
heterotopia function
function with with “a “a precise
precise and and determined
determined function” function” (25). (25). However,
However,
what
what is is striking
striking from from the the point
point of of view
view of of the
the present
present inquiry
inquiry is is that,
that, byby
Foucault’s
Foucault’s definition,
definition, heterotopias
heterotopias refer refer to to places
places that that areare “simultaneously
“simultaneously
represented,
represented, contested,
contested, and and inverted”
inverted” (24), (24), and and thatthat they
they are are “capable
“capable of of
juxtaposing in
juxtaposing in aa single
single realreal place
place several
several spaces,
spaces, several
several sites
sites that that are
are in
in
themselves
themselves incompatible”
incompatible” (25). (25). Heterotopias
Heterotopias represent
represent inherent building blocks
inherent building blocks
in
in society;
society; but, but, furthermore,
furthermore, the the notions
notions of of contestation,
contestation, inversion,
inversion, as as well
well asas
their
their otherness
otherness despitedespite the the spatial
spatial context
context can can render
render them them places
places of of resistance.
resistance.
Thus
Thus when
when Foucault
Foucault explains
explains that that “[heterotopias]
“[heterotopias] have have aa function
function in in relation
relation toto
all
all the
the space
space that that remains”
remains” (27), (27), thethe “relation”
“relation” may may wellwell be be that
that of of opposition,
opposition,
and
and not
not only
only “illusion”
“illusion” or or “compensation”
“compensation” (both (both functions
functions support
support society’s
society’s
image
image of of itself)
itself) (27).
(27).
In
In addition,
addition, the the inner
inner structure
structure of of heterotopias
heterotopias reveals reveals aa great
great deal deal about
about
the
the nature
nature of of places
places of of otherness.
otherness. The juxtaposition of
The juxtaposition of different
different spaces spaces in in aa
single
single place
place has has several
several implications.
implications. If, If, for
for example,
example, several several spaces spaces havehave
relation
relation to to thethe particular
particular place,
place, thisthis place becomes apparently
place becomes apparently aa part part of of these
these
spaces
spaces at at the
the same
same time,time, which
which questions
questions the the authenticity
authenticity of of thethe respective
respective
relation.
relation. Furthermore,
Furthermore, if if in
in such
such aa place
place of of resistance
resistance properties
properties of of abstract
abstract space
space

30
30
can
can also
also be be found,
found, this this place
place cannot
cannot be be elsewhere
elsewhere in in thethe sense
sense that that it
it refuses
refuses
every
every tie tie toto and
and everyevery entity
entity of of abstract
abstract space;space; but,but, rather,
rather, it it inverts
inverts them
them by by
redefining
redefining both both tiesties andand properties
properties to to suit
suit itsits purposes.
purposes. The The presence
presence of of entities
entities
of
of abstract
abstract space space may may wellwell mean
mean the the presence
presence of of abstract
abstract space space itself,
itself, which
which
holds
holds the the possibility
possibility of of reorientation.
reorientation. In In other
other words,
words, as as much
much as as heterotopias
heterotopias
can
can represent
represent fissuresfissures in in abstract
abstract space,space, in in similar
similar mannermanner the the presence
presence of of
abstract
abstract space
space in in heterotopias
heterotopias can can disclose
disclose fissures
fissures in in these
these heterotopias.
heterotopias.
Yet
Yet the the defocalization
defocalization of of abstract
abstract space space remains
remains aa fact fact for for Michel
Michel De De
Certau
Certau too. too. InIn his book The
his book Practice of
The Practice of Everyday
Everyday Life Life he he conceptualizes
conceptualizes the the city
city
as
as simulacrum,
simulacrum, totalization,
totalization, as as well
well as as aa geometrical
geometrical and and theoretical
theoretical construction
construction
(93)
(93) in in contrast
contrast to to daily
daily practices
practices that that create
create aa “migrational,
“migrational, or or metaphorical
metaphorical
city”
city” (93).
(93). Using
Using the the metaphor
metaphor of of the
the “rhetoric
“rhetoric of of walking”
walking” (99) (99) of of the
the everyday
everyday
pedestrian,
pedestrian, he he claims
claims that that “the
“the long long poem poem of of walking
walking manipulates
manipulates spatial spatial
organizations,
organizations, no no matter
matter how how panoptic
panoptic they they may may be”be” (101).
(101). Individual
Individual practice
practice
thus
thus transcribes
transcribes space space much much as as Bourdieu
Bourdieu or or Casey
Casey sees sees it. it. De
De Certeau
Certeau enframes
enframes
this
this individual
individual act act in in the
the “Concept-city”
“Concept—city” (95), (95), which
which lures lures in in the background of
the background of
all
all activity
activity of of the
the subject,
subject, but but itit also
also provides
provides the the material
material to to work
work with.with.
De
De Certeau’s
Certeau’s concept-city
concept—city is is described
described as as technological,
technological, organized organized space space
in
in Foucault’s,
Foucault’s, Harvey’s,Harvey’s, or or Baudrillard’s
Baudrillard’s fashion, fashion, in in which
which space space and and time,
time, asas
well
well as as the
the subject
subject are are reproduced
reproduced according according to to “socioeconomic
“socioeconomic and and political
political
strategies”
strategies” (95). (95). Thus, Thus, as as DeDe Certeau
Certeau explains,
explains, the the citycity is is “univocal”
“univocal” and and
“universal,”
“universal,” “organized
“organized by by ‘speculative’
‘speculative’ and and classificatory
classificatory operations”
operations” (94), (94), in
in
which
which the the subject
subject is is positioned
positioned in in likewise
likewise manner.
manner. However,
However, De De Certeau
Certeau inverts
inverts
this
this scheme
scheme by by adding
adding that that thethe concept-city
concept—city is is notnot transparent,
transparent, for for spatial
spatial
practices
practices destabilize
destabilize the the operational
operational transparency
transparency of of abstract
abstract space. space. Spatial
Spatial
practices,
practices, in in fact,
fact, reinscribe
reinscribe space,space, that that is,is, “secretly
“secretly structure
structure the the determining
determining
conditions
conditions of of social
social life”
life” (96).
(96). What
What De De Certeau
Certeau does does is is to
to acknowledge
acknowledge abstract abstract
space
space as as context,
context, but but what
what he he denies
denies is is its
its totalizing
totalizing and and panoptic
panoptic character
character by by
granting
granting individual
individual praxis praxis the the upper-hand
upper—hand in in place-construction.
place—construction. This This proposition
proposition
renders
renders his his theory
theory akin akin to to Foucault’s
Foucault’s heterotopia
heterotopia in in that
that individual
individual spatialspatial
practice
practice is juxtaposed with
is juxtaposed with the the praxis
praxis of of other
other individuals—a
individuals—a particular particular
dynamics
dynamics that that establishes
establishes aa network network of of spatialities
spatialities overlapping
overlapping with with abstract
abstract
space.
space.
Walking
Walking becomes becomes similar similar to to aa speech
speech act act that
that creatively
creatively enhances
enhances the the
subject’s
subject’s intention
intention in in the
the geographical
geographical context. context. Through
Through walking walking the the subject
subject
appropriates
appropriates the the topography
topography by by establishing
establishing relationsrelations betweenbetween places places (97-98),
(97—98),
much
much in in the
the wayway Heidegger
Heidegger does does with with hishis de-distancing.
de—distancing. As As De De Certeau
Certeau has has it,
it,
walking
walking actualizes
actualizes the the spatial
spatial orderorder as as “the“the crossing,
crossing, drifting drifting away,away, or or
improvisation
improvisation of of walking
walking privilege,
privilege, transform
transform or or abandon
abandon spatial spatial elements”
elements” (98). (98).
It
It alters
alters time
time deposited
deposited in in the
the spatial
spatial setting
setting as as well
well as as individualizes
individualizes it by way
it by way
of
of selection.
selection. De De Certeau
Certeau understands
understands these these in in the
the function
function of of “the
“the present,
present, thethe
discrete,
discrete, the the ‘phatic’”
‘phatic’” (98). (98). TheThe latter
latter calls
calls attention
attention to to thethe social
social aspect
aspect of of

31
31
spatial
spatial reinscription
reinscription whereby
whereby “phatic topoi” (99)
“phatic topoi” (99) express
express different
different modalities.
modalities.
The
The modalities
modalities ofof walking
walking can
can bebe as
as diverse
diverse asas the
the modalities
modalities ofof language;
language;
however,
however, here
here II want
want toto refer
refer to
to the
the individuality
individuality of of statements
statements aa particular
particular
walking
walking route
route can
can express,
express, and
and to
to the
the alterations
alterations it
it can
can effect
effect regarding
regarding abstract
abstract
space:
space: “Walking
“Walking affirms,
affirms, suspects,
suspects, tries
tries out,
out, transgresses,
transgresses, respects,
respects, etc.,
etc., the
the
trajectories
trajectories it
it ‘speaks’”
‘speaks’” (99).
(99).
Walking
Walking thus
thus has
has the
the potential
potential to
to contest
contest and
and negate
negate the
the space
space it
it moves
moves in,in,
creating
creating actual
actual heterotopias.
heterotopias. Contestation
Contestation and and negation
negation areare achieved
achieved through
through
storytelling,
storytelling, which
which creates
creates an
an alternative
alternative space:
space:

For
For the
the technological
technological system
system of
of aa coherent
coherent and and totalizing
totalizing space
space that
that is
is
‘linked’
‘linked’ and
and simultaneous,
simultaneous, thethe figure
figure of
of pedestrian
pedestrian rhetoric
rhetoric substitute
substitute
trajectories
trajectories that
that have
have aa mythical
mythical structure
structure [.
[. .. .]
.] aa story jerry-built out
story jerry—built out of
of
elements
elements taken
taken from
from common
common sayings,
sayings, an
an allusive
allusive and and fragmentary
fragmentary story
story
whose
whose gaps
gaps mesh
mesh with
with the
the social
social practices
practices it
it symbolizes.
symbolizes. (102)
(102)

Walking
Walking is is asserted
asserted on on the
the grounds
grounds of of abstract
abstract space:
space: it it uses
uses and
and manipulates
manipulates the the
properties
properties of of abstract
abstract space.
space. De De Certeau
Certeau uses uses herehere again
again figures
figures of of speech,
speech,
especially
especially synecdoche
synecdoche and and asyndeton,
asyndeton, that that stylize
stylize thethe environment
environment into into
“enlarged
“enlarged singularities
singularities and and separate
separate islands”
islands” (101). (101). TheThe story
story character
character of of
walking becomes extremely
walking becomes extremely important
important in in this
this discourse,
discourse, since
since walking
walking is is not
not aa
purposeless
purposeless moving moving about,
about, butbut praxis
praxis that
that effects
effects meaningful
meaningful cohesion
cohesion through
through
history
history and and causality.
causality. For
For De De Certeau
Certeau walking
walking parallels
parallels individual
individual language
language that that
communicates
communicates aa message, message, and and thisthis message
message can can be be regarded
regarded as as aa proof
proof ofof the
the
subject’s
subject’s integrity.
integrity. Furthermore,
Furthermore, the the story
story thethe subject’s
subject’s praxis
praxis establishes
establishes creates
creates
aa space
space by by the the alteration
alteration of of abstract
abstract space
space whichwhich coexists
coexists with
with bothboth abstract
abstract
space
space andand the the spaces
spaces established
established by by similar
similar praxis
praxis of of other
other subjects.
subjects.
In
In fact,
fact, thethe storytelling
storytelling charactercharacter of of walking
walking is is the
the true
true source
source of of
heterotopias
heterotopias in in DeDe Certeau’s
Certeau’s theory.theory. As As people
people walk walk about
about in in the
the city,
city, they
they
establish
establish different
different stories
stories that
that can
can givegive aa different
different angle
angle toto things
things in in the
the city,
city, oror
complement
complement each each other.
other. These
These stories,
stories, that
that is,
is, spatialities,
spatialities, co-exist,
co—exist, overlap,
overlap, or or
collide.
collide. No No matter
matter what,
what, walking
walking providesprovides for for “relationships
“relationships and and intersections
intersections [. [.
.. .]
.] that
that intertwine
intertwine and and create
create an an urban
urban fabric”
fabric” (103).
(103). InIn this
this sense,
sense, thethe city
city is
is not
not
what
what we we see: see: the
the grid,
grid, thethe technology,
technology, or or the
the channeled
channeled history,
history, for for example;
example;
but, much
but, much rather,rather, it becomes the
it becomes the text
text of of subtexts
subtexts inscribed
inscribed by by the
the praxis
praxis of of
subjects.
subjects.
It
It must
must be be mentioned,
mentioned, however, however, that that DeDe Certeau
Certeau is is also
also aware
aware of of the
the
immense
immense influence
influence of of the built environment
the built environment on on subjects.
subjects. ForFor example,
example, names names of of
streets
streets asas well
well as as symbols
symbols (103) (103) influence
influence the the perception
perception of of the
the walking
walking route;
route;
they
they do do notnot only
only establish
establish aa “magnetic
“magnetic field field of of trajectories”
trajectories” or or “traffic
“traffic patterns”
patterns”
(104),
(104), butbut alsoalso they
they have,
have, in in this
this way,way, aa controlling
controlling function
function overover the
the subject.
subject. In In
this
this sense,
sense, De De Certeau
Certeau yet yet maintains
maintains the the policing
policing character
character of of the
the city
city and
and itsits

32
32
panoptic
panoptic gaze;
gaze; conversely,
conversely, thisthis strand
strand is
is also
also embedded
embedded in in the
the appropriation
appropriation
context
context ofof what
what is believable, memorable,
is believable, memorable, or or primitive
primitive (he(he explains
explains these
these as
as
“legend,”
“legend,” “memory,”
“memory,” and and “dream”)
“dream”) (105).
(105). These
These aspects
aspects symbolize both the
symbolize both the
trigger
trigger and
and the
the result
result of of the
the walking
walking practice,
practice, echoing
echoing Bourdieu’s
Bourdieu’s andand Casey’s
Casey’s
idea
idea of
of the
the habitus.
habitus. For
For De
De Certeau
Certeau the
the city
city is
is inhabited
inhabited with
with the
the help
help of
of this
this
three
three stranded
stranded mechanism,
mechanism, since since they
they enact
enact “a“a crack
crack in in the
the system
system that
that saturates
saturates
places
places with
with signification”
signification” (106).
(106).
The
The fissure
fissure inin the
the dominant
dominant discourse
discourse has become third
has become space in
third space in Homi
Homi
Bhabha’s
Bhabha’s theory:
theory: the the heterotopia
heterotopia effected
effected by by thethe mobility
mobility engendered
engendered by by
walking
walking can
can bebe regarded
regarded as as third
third space.
space. It
It is
is hybrid
hybrid space
space that
that connects
connects toto the
the
subject’s
subject’s habitus-driven
habitus—driven activity.
activity. Furthermore,
Furthermore, it it reflects
reflects the
the subject’s
subject’s creative
creative
use
use of
of the
the spaces,
spaces, in in which
which s/he
s/he is
is embedded,
embedded, and and the
the transformation,
transformation, or or rather
rather
transcendence,
transcendence, of of the
the grid
grid of
of domineering
domineering discourses.
discourses. As As Bhabha
Bhabha establishes,
establishes,

The
The intervention
intervention of of the
the Third
Third Space
Space of
of enunciation,
enunciation, which
which makes
makes thethe
structure
structure of
of meaning
meaning and and reference
reference anan ambivalent
ambivalent process,
process, destroys
destroys this
this
mirror
mirror ofof representation
representation in in which
which cultural
cultural knowledge
knowledge is is customarily
customarily
revealed
revealed asas integrated,
integrated, open,
open, expanding
eXpanding code.
code. Such
Such an
an intervention
intervention quite
quite
properly
properly challenges
challenges ourour sense
sense of
of the
the historical
historical identity
identity of
of culture
culture as
as
homogenizing,
homogenizing, unifying
unifying force,
force, authenticated by originary
authenticated by originary Past,
Past, kept
kept alive
alive
in
in the
the national
national tradition
tradition of
of the
the People.
People. (37)
(37)

Hybridization
Hybridization echoes
echoes the the phenomenological
phenomenological use use ofof space
space in
in that
that dwelling
dwelling is is to
to
be
be understood
understood as as the
the focal
focal point
point to to which
which everything
everything is is rendered:
rendered: “Spaces
“Spaces openopen
up by the
up by the fact
fact that
that they
they are
are let
let into
into the
the dwelling
dwelling of of man.
man. ToTo say
say that
that mortals
mortals are
are
is
is to
to say
say that
that in dwelling they
in dwelling they persist
persist through
through spaces
spaces byby virtue
virtue ofof their
their stay
stay
among
among things
things and
and locations.
locations. And And only because mortals
only because mortals pervade,
pervade, persist
persist through,
through,
spaces
spaces byby their
their very
very nature
nature are
are they
they able
able to
to go
go through
through spaces”
spaces” (“Building”
(“Building” 157).157).
Heidegger
Heidegger acknowledges
acknowledges the the existence
eXistence of of spatialities
spatialities other
other than
than the
the subject’s,
subject’s,
even
even though
though they
they remain
remain secondary,
secondary, or or veiled,
veiled, and
and lost
lost in
in the
the enculturating
enculturating
activity
activity ofof the
the subject.
subject. Concomitantly,
Concomitantly, third third space
space describes
describes the the hybrid
hybrid
movement
movement of of the
the subject
subject that
that isis not
not aa simple
simple negation
negation ofof social
social space—a
space—a mere mere
recentering
recentering ofof the
the subject.
subject. Much
Much rather,
rather, it
it is
is “thirding-as-othering”
“thirding—as—othering” (Thirdspace
(Thirdspace
12
60)
60)“,, which
which is
is aa tactics both negating
tactics both negating and building upon
and building upon the
the given
given socio-spatial
socio—spatial
paradigm.
paradigm.
There
There are
are twotwo implications
implications of of such
such aa spatial
spatial framework.
framework. First,
First, in
in such
such aa
space
space coercion
coercion is is an
an inbuilt
inbuilt check-in-balance
check—in—balance for for abstract
abstract space,
space, which
which accounts
accounts

12
12 Soja
Soja uses
uses “thirding”
“thirding” much
much as as Bhabha
Bhabha does.
does. For
For him
him it
it represents
represents “a
“a critical
critical ‘other-than’
‘other—than’
choice
choice that
that speaks
speaks and
and critiques
critiques through
through its
its otherness.
otherness. That
That is
is to
to say,
say, it
it does
does not
not derive
derive
simply
simply from
from anan additive
additive combination
combination ofof its binary antecedents
its binary but rather
antecedents but rather from
from aa
disordering,
disordering, deconstruction,
deconstruction, and
and tentative
tentative reconstitution
reconstitution of
of their
their presumed
presumed totalization
totalization
producing
producing an
an open
open alternative
alternative that
that is both similar
is both similar and
and strikingly
strikingly different”
different” (61).
(61).

33
33
for
for the
the dynamics
dynamics of of space
space construction
construction and
and production.
production. Second,
Second, this
this spatial
spatial
understanding
understanding does does notnot produce
produce aa distilled
distilled and
and transparent
transparent framework.
framework.
Conversely, boundaries of
Conversely, boundaries both abstract
of both abstract space
space and
and counterspaces
counterspaces cannot
cannot be be held
held
apart because of
apart because boundary crossing/transgression
of boundary crossing/transgression from both sides.
from both sides. Such
Such mutual
mutual
encroaching
encroaching is,is, indeed,
indeed, not
not only
only effected by way
effected by way ofof heterotopous juxtaposition.
heterotopous juxtaposition.
One
One important
important method
method withwith which
which counterspaces
counterspaces are are established
established is is via
Via
hybridization
hybridization ofof already
already existing
existing spatial
spatial paradigms.
paradigms. Hybridization,
Hybridization, inin the
the light
light of
of
the
the previous
preVious discussion, becomes realized
discussion, becomes by the
realized by the deliberate
deliberate praxis
praXis ofof subjects:
subjects:
through
through praxis,
praXis, subjects
subjects establish
establish third
third spaces
spaces reinscribing
reinscribing and
and restructuring
restructuring
13
space.
space.13 This
This results
results in
in aa playfulness
playfulness or or mobility
mobility as as such
such aa tactics
tactics resists
resists
categorization
categorization or or fixity,
fiXity, since
since it
it is beyond categorization
is beyond categorization from
from the
the point
point ofof view
View
of
of social
social space.
space.

13
13 These
These spaces
spaces can
can mark
mark reengendering
reengendering race,
race, gender,
gender, or
or ethnicity
ethnicity through
through the
the recreation
recreation of
of aa
usable
usable past
past that
that also
also renders
renders the
the present
present manageable
manageable (see,
(see, e.g.,
e.g., Gerald
Gerald Vizenor,
Vizenor, Gloria
Gloria
Anzaldúa,
Anzaldua, as
as well
well as
as Hurston).
Hurston).

34
34
3. Zora Neale Hurston: Cultural Space, and African American
Spatiality
We
We Negroes
Negroes herehere are
are out
out in
in front
front of
of others because there
others because there is
is something
something inherent
inherent on
on this
this
continent
continent that
that springs.
springs. Hence
Hence aa new
new ingredient
ingredient was
was given
given to
to our
our African
African material
material that
that
gave
gave it
it life
life and
and the
the element
element toto reach
reach people
people and
and endure.
endure. II am
am perfectly
perfectly reconciled
reconciled to
to
slavery
slavery on
on that
that score.
score. It
It had
had to be, or
to be, or other
other things
things could
could not
not have
have happened.
happened. (“To
(“To Jean
Jean
Parker
Parker Waterbury”
Waterbury” 645)645)

But
But in
in the
the main,
main, II feel
feel like
like aa brown
brown bagbag of
of miscellany
miscellany propped
propped against
against aa wall.
wall. Against
Against
aa wall
wall in
in company
company withwith other bags, white,
other bags, white, red
red and
and yellow.
yellow. Pour
Pour out
out the
the contents,
contents, andand
there
there isis discovered
discovered aa jumble
jumble of of small
small things
things priceless
priceless and and worthless.
worthless. A A first-water
first—water
diamond,
diamond, an an empty
empty spool, bits of
spool, bits broken glass,
of broken glass, lengths
lengths of of string,
string, aa key
key toto aa door
door long
long
since
since crumbled
crumbled away,
away, aa rusty
rusty knife-blade,
knife—blade, oldold shoes
shoes saved
saved forfor aa road
road that
that never
never waswas
and
and never
never will be, aa nail
will be, bent under
nail bent under the
the weight
weight of of things
things tootoo heavy
heavy forfor any
any nail,
nail, aa dried
dried
flower
flower or or two
two still
still aa little
little fragrant.
fragrant. InIn your
your hand
hand is is the
the brown
brown bag.
bag. OnOn thethe ground
ground
before
before youyou is
is the jumble it
the jumble it held—so
held—so muchmuch likelike the jumble in
the jumble in the bags, could
the bags, could they
they bebe
emptied,
emptied, that
that all
all might
might be be dumped
dumped in in aa single
single heapheap andand the bags refilled
the bags refilled without
without
altering
altering the
the content
content of of any
any greatly.
greatly. A bit of
A bit of colored
colored glassglass more
more or or less
less would
would not not
matter.
matter. Perhaps
Perhaps that
that isis how
how thethe Great
Great Stuffer
Stuffer of of Bags
Bags filled
filled them
them in in the
the first
first place—
place—
who
who knows?
knows? (“How
(“How It It Feels
Feels toto Be
Be Colored
Colored Me”
Me” 1655)
1655)

3.1. Hurston’s Fiction as Cultural Space

Hurston
Hurston resists
resists categorization
categorization and and places
places herself
herself in in the
the in-between;
in—between; that that is,
is,
she
she constructs
constructs herher cultural
cultural space
space along
along very
very similar
similar lines
lines II have
have described
described as as the
the
“in-between”
“in—between” category
category above.
above. Her Her approach
approach doesdoes notnot represent
represent aa meremere negation
negation
of
of social
social space,
space, be be it
it the
the social
social space
space ofof the
the white
white status
status quoquo oror that
that of of the
the
Harlem
Harlem intelligentsia.
intelligentsia. Much Much rather,
rather, sheshe insists
insists onon revitalizing
revitalizing the the given
given black
black
cultural
cultural landscape
landscape by by reemploying
reemploying black black tactics
tactics of of cultural
cultural appropriation
appropriation and and
contextualizing
contextualizing the the African
African American
American subject
subject inin aa remotivated
remotivated culturalcultural space.
space.
Hurston
Hurston scholarship
scholarship places
places predominant
predominant emphasis
emphasis on on her
her use
use of
of language.
language.
Undoubtedly,
Undoubtedly, the the African
African American
American vernacular
vernacular represents
represents one one significant
significant
element
element of of her
her cultural
cultural space;
space; moreover,
moreover, language
language is is aa primary
primary medium
medium in in
negotiating
negotiating andand maintaining
maintaining cultural
cultural links.
links. As
As Stuart
Stuart Hall
Hall maintains,
maintains, “To belong
“To belong
to
to aa culture
culture is
is to belong to
to belong to roughly
roughly the the same
same conceptual
conceptual and and linguistic
linguistic universe,
universe,
to
to know
know howhow concepts
concepts and and ideas
ideas translate
translate into
into different
different languages,
languages, and and how
how
language
language can be interpreted
can be interpreted to to refer
refer to
to or reference the
or reference the world”
world” (“Representation”
(“Representation”
22).
22). Furthermore,
Furthermore, language
language is is interwoven
interwoven with with all
all other
other notions
notions of of culture
culture and,
and,
in
in this
this way,
way, Hurston’s
Hurston’s (creative
(creative use use of)
of) language
language depictsdepicts African
African American
American
cultural
cultural artifacts,
artifacts, texts,
texts, and,
and, in
in general,
general, ofof African
African American
American culturalcultural space.
space.
Hurston
Hurston thethe anthropologist
anthropologist constructs
constructs herher cultural
cultural framework
framework basedbased on on the
the
inclusion
inclusion ofof African
African American
American rituals,
rituals, mythology,
mythology, and and places—a
places—a practice
practice thatthat
carries
carries over
over into
into her
her fiction.
fiction. What
What makes
makes it it all
all the
the more
more intriguing
intriguing is is that
that she
she

35
35
also
also incorporates
incorporates autobiographical
autobiographical material material (see(see Hemenway).
Hemenway). For For instance,
instance,
Eatonville
Eatonville (her (her hometown)
hometown) takes takes aa central
central position
position in in the
the two
two novels—a
novels—a town town
that
that plays
plays an an important
important role role inin her
her autobiography,
autobiography, Dust Dust Tracks
Tracks on on a Road, as
a Road, as
well
well as
as itit is
is aa subject
subject of of her
her ethnographic
ethnographic book, book, TheThe Florida Negro. In
Florida Negro. In fact,
fact, there
there
are
are striking
striking parallels
parallels betweenbetween these books and
these books and the
the two
two novels.
novels. Consequently,
Consequently, her her
novels
novels cancan bebe seen
seen as as the
the fictional
fictional realization
realization of of an
an anthropologically
anthropologically unique unique andand
deeply
deeply personal
personal cultural
cultural space.
space.
Hurston
Hurston becomesbecomes the the participant
participant observer
observer of of herher ownown cultural
cultural space,
space,
which
which influences
influences her her writing
writing strategy.
strategy. The The use use of of thethe “spy-glass
“spy—glass of of
14
Anthropology”
Anthropology” (3) (3) in in her
her ethnographic
ethnographic14 Males Mules and and Men, Men, crystallizes
crystallizes as as aa
literary
literary approach
approach in in her
her fictional
fictional works.
works. The The anthropological
anthropological spy-glass spy—glass enables
enables
her
her toto gaingain insight
insight into into aa community
community by by becoming
becoming aa member, member, while, while,
simultaneously,
simultaneously, maintainingmaintaining the the critical
critical distance
distance necessary
necessary for for research.
research. The The
insider/outsider
insider/outsider dichotomydichotomy suggests, suggests, what what HallHall calls
calls in in another
another context,
context, an an
15
“oppositional
“oppositional code” code” (“Encoding,
(“Encoding, Decoding” Decoding” 102), 102),15 which,
which, in in fact,
fact, is is
characteristic
characteristic of of African
African American
American communication:
communication: “The “The theory behind our
theory behind our
tactics:
tactics: ‘The
‘The white
white man man is is always
always trying
trying to to know
know intointo somebody
somebody else’s business.
else’s business.
All
All right,
right, I’ll
I’ll set
set something
something outside outside the the door
door of of my
my mindmind for for him
him to to play
play with
with
and
and handle.
handle. He He can can read
read my my writing
writing but but he
he sho’
sho’ can’t
can’t read
read my my mind.
mind. I’ll
I’ll put
put this
this
play
play toy
toy in in his
his hand,
hand, and and he he will
will seize
seize itit and
and gogo away.
away. Then Then I’llI’ll say
say mymy saysay and
and
sing
sing my
my song’”
song’” (Mules
(Males and and MenMen 4-5). 4—5). Hurston
Hurston claims
claims to to possess
possess the the insider’s
insider’s
view
view in in the
the African
African American
American community:
community: thus thus sheshe professes
professes authenticity
authenticity for for
her
her research,
research, and and the the reader
reader can can anticipate
anticipate inside
inside information
information s/he s/he cannot
cannot get get
otherwise.
otherwise.
Hurston
Hurston employs
employs the the anthropologist’s
anthropologist’s strategy strategy in in her
her novels
novels too,too, rendering
rendering
them—to
them—to borrow borrow Gábor Gabor Tamás Tamas Molnár’s
Molnar’s observation
observation regardingregarding anecdotes—
anecdotes—
16
“more
“more real,
real, yetyet not
not less fictional, than
less fictional, than analytic
analytic experiments
experiments of thought” (45).
of thought” (45).16
“Reconciling
“Reconciling the the subjective
subjective and and the the objective
objective nature
nature of of her
her folkloric
folkloric collection”
collection”
(Hoffman-Jeep
(Hoffman—Jeep par. par. 13)
13) is is thus
thus transposed
transposed as as aa writing
writing strategy
strategy into
into her
her novels.
novels.
Her
Her narrators
narrators are are the
the anthropologist-medium
anthropologist—medium itself itself rendering
rendering the the cultural
cultural texttext
accessible
accessible for for thethe reader.
reader. This This can become observable
can become observable in in aa manner
manner not not at
at all
all
objective
objective as as thethe narrator
narrator may may renegotiate
renegotiate its its positioning
positioning to to the
the text—in
text—in
Geertzian
Geertzian thick description: the
thick description: the narrator’s
narrator’s viewview becomes
becomes “unscientific”
“unscientific” for for

14
14 II use
use the
the terms
terms “anthropology”
“anthropology” and and “ethnography”
“ethnography” interchangeably
interchangeably here,
here, while
while ethnography
ethnography
is
is often
often considered
considered thethe “general
“general methodological
methodological framework”
framework” (Kedia
(Kedia and
and Van
Van Willigen
Willigen 13)
13)
of
of anthropology,
anthropology, thatthat is,
is, aa method
method of
of aa discipline.
discipline. In In Hurston’s
Hurston’s time
time the
the term
term anthropology
anthropology
was
was widely
widely used,
used, also
also pertaining
pertaining to,
to, what
what isis referred
referred to
to nowadays
nowadays as, as, ethnography
ethnography or or
cultural
cultural anthropology.
anthropology.
15
15 Stuart
Stuart Hall
Hall suggests
suggests aa political
political strategy
strategy ofof interpretation,
interpretation, whereby
whereby the
the subject
subject “detotalizes
“detotalizes
the
the message
message in in the
the preferred
preferred code
code inin order
order to
to retotalize
retotalize the
the message
message inin some
some alternative
alternative
framework
framework of of reference”
reference” (“Encoding,
(“Encoding, Decoding”
Decoding” 102).102).
16
16 All
All translations
translations from
from Hungarian
Hungarian andand German
German areare mine.
mine.

36
36
articulating
articulating subjective
subjective opinions.
opinions. One One of of the
the many
many examples
examples in in Their Eyes is
Their Eyes is the
the
often
often ironic
ironic voice
voice of of the
the narrator
narrator passing
passing value judgments on
value judgments on its
its subjects:
subjects:
evaluating
evaluating Janie’s
Janie’s talking back (to
talking back (to refer
refer to bell hooks’s
to bell hooks’s way way of of feminine
feminine
reassertion
reassertion of of the
the self),
self), the
the narrator
narrator pityingly
pityingly describes
describes the the masculine
masculine crowd crowd
surrounding
surrounding Starks—her
Starks—her second second husband—envying
husband—envying and and despising
despising him him
simultaneously,
simultaneously, as as “good-for-nothing’s”
“good—for—nothing’s” (75) (75) andand “raggedy-behind
“raggedy—behind squirts squirts of of
sixteen
sixteen andand seventeen”
seventeen” (76). (76). Similarly,
Similarly, the the narrator
narrator in Jonah’s
in Jonah ’s relies
relies on on
children’s
children’s descriptions
descriptions of of Minnie
Minnie Turl Turl during
during the the hide-and-seek
hide—and—seek game game when when
identifying
identifying thethe young
young girl
girl as
as “bow-legged”
“bow—legged” and and “pigeon-toed”
“pigeon—toed” (21). (21). Their
Their EyesEyes
17
can
can bebe regarded
regarded as as aa storytelling
storytelling event,
event,17 in in which
which the the reader becomes aa
reader becomes
participant
participant through
through the the spyglass
spyglass of of the
the narrator;
narrator; and Jonah’s,
and Jonah ’s, from
from another
another point point
of
of view,
view, is but aa journey
is but journey across
across thethe South,
South, arcing
arcing overover places
places “[.“[. .. .]
.] aa more
more
porous
porous array
array ofof intersections
intersections where
where distinct
distinct processes
processes crisscross
crisscross from
from within
within and and
18
beyond [that
beyond [that is,
is, culture’s] borders” (Rosaldo
culture’s] borders” (Rosaldo 495).
495).18 Through
Through the the assemblage
assemblage of of
cultural
cultural events
events thethe two
two novels become, as
novels become, as does
does literary
literary anthropology
anthropology for for Molnár,
Molnar,
“simultaneously
“simultaneously aa modelmodel of of reality
reality for
for reality”
reality” (47).
(47).
Blending
Blending culture
culture with
with fiction
fiction does
does not
not characterize
characterize Hurston’s
Hurston’s fiction
fiction only.
only.
In
In fact,
fact, merging
merging culture
culture andand fiction
fiction has become aa relevant
has become relevant focus
focus of of literary
literary
research:
research:

the
the relation
relation ofof literature
literature and
and anthropology
anthropology prepares
prepares aa humanities
humanities model
model in
in
which
which thethe text
text produced
produced by by humans
humans enables
enables the the understanding
understanding ofof culture,
culture,
that
that is,
is, cultural
cultural “facts”
“facts” will
will all
all the
the more
more be be accessible
accessible during
during the
the work
work
with
with the
the text
text in
in the
the form
form ofof allegories.
allegories. [.
[. .. .]
.] The
The means
means and,
and, at
at the
the same
same
time,
time, medium
medium of of this
this is
is the
the text.
text. In
In our
our case
case anthropology
anthropology isis aa paradigm
paradigm
constituted
constituted in in and
and by by the
the text.
text. (Biczó
(Biczo and
and Kiss
Kiss 9) 9)

17
17 Storytelling
Storytelling is
is an
an element
element in in the
the African
African American
American cultural
cultural pantheon
pantheon andand has
has features
features that
that
render
render it
it of
of interest
interest for
for the
the cultural
cultural investigator.
investigator. Walter
Walter J.J. Ong
Ong reveals
reveals inin his
his seminal
seminal
Orality
Oraliiy and Literacy that
and Literacy that inin oral
oral cultures
cultures people
people are
are more
more “communal
“communal and and externalized”
externalized”
(68)
(68) as
as well
well as as they
they rely
rely onon “fixed,
“fixed, formulaic
formulaic thought
thought patterns”
patterns” (23)
(23) and
and “verbatim
“verbatim
repetition”
repetition” (57)
(57) inin telling
telling and
and remembering
remembering stories.
stories. Members
Members of of oral
oral cultures
cultures are
are thus
thus more
more
attached
attached toto their
their groups,
groups, and and their
their cultural
cultural performance,
performance, e.g.,
e. g., storytelling,
storytelling, isis also
also of
of
communal
communal nature.
nature. Furthermore,
Furthermore, storytelling
storytelling characterizes
characterizes the
the cultural
cultural setting
setting in
in which
which it
it
appears
appears for
for the
the recurrence
recurrence of of cultural
cultural elements
elements (topics,
(topics, phrases,
phrases, places,
places, etc.)
etc.) including
including
“paralinguistic
“paralinguistic features
features along
along with body movements”
with body movements” (Champion
(Champion 3) 3) during
during the
the storytelling
storytelling
event,
event, soso it
it isis culturally
culturally descriptive
descriptive and and can
can well
well serve
serve thethe purposes
purposes of of cultural
cultural
revitalization
revitalization (see
(see Champion,
Champion, Levine,
Levine, and
and Smitherman).
Smitherman).
18
18 The
The postmodern
postmodern anthropologist,
anthropologist, Renato
Renato Rosaldo
Rosaldo defines
defines culture,
culture, rituals,
rituals, and
and the
the positioning
positioning
of
of the
the ethnographer
ethnographer in in relation
relation to
to his/her
his/her research
research subject—in
subject in thisthis case
case the
the Ilongot
Ilongot
headhunters.
headhunters. As As in
in the
the quote,
quote, he
he questions
questions the
the homogenous
homogenous concept
concept of of culture by
culture by
diversifying
diversifying it, but he
it, but he also
also recognizes
recognizes his
his own
own situatedness,
situatedness, which
which renders
renders his
his inquiry
inquiry
partial
partial and
and subjective.
subjective.

37
37
The
The function
function of of literature
literature as as medium
medium in in the
the literature/anthropology
literature/anthropology equation equation is is
also
also emphasized
emphasized by by Mario
Mario Cesareo,Cesareo, who who claims
claims that that “anthropology
“anthropology does does not not
encounter literature
encounter literature [. [. .. .]:
.]: itit isis engendered
engendered by by it”it” (162).
(162). Even Even though
though Cesareo
Cesareo
criticizes
criticizes the,the, forfor him,
him, sometimes
sometimes forced forced relationship
relationship between between anthropology
anthropology and and
literature,
literature, he he doesdoes acknowledge
acknowledge the the relevance
relevance of of ethnographic
ethnographic texts: texts: “The
“The
determining
determining element element that that makes
makes aa text text ethnographic
ethnographic is is the
the particular
particular articulation
articulation
of
of those
those rituals
rituals and and practices
practices with with meaning
meaning and and social
social structure”
structure” (161).(161).
Cesareo’s
Cesareo’s argument
argument also also reveals
reveals that just as
that just as culture
culture is is (an
(an assemblage
assemblage of) of) text
text
(see
(see Clifford
Clifford Geertz’s
Geertz’s The Interpretation of
The Interpretation Cultures), text
of Cultures), text isis also
also culture.
culture. As As
such,
such, “[literary
“[literary texts] texts] exhibit
exhibit how how symbols
symbols are are linked
linked up up with
with action
action and and
situations
situations richly
richly ladenladen with
with conflict,
conflict, how, beyond the
how, beyond the weapon
weapon of of the
the word
word and and
the
the power
power of of images,
images, they they can can simultaneously
simultaneously be be functionalized
functionalized for for societal
societal andand
political
political interests,
interests, as as well
well as as forfor ethnic
ethnic self-presentation”
self—presentation” (Bachmann-Medick
(Bachmann—Medick
17).
17). Doris
Doris Bachmann-Medick’s
Bachmann—Medick’s account account of of the
the anthropological
anthropological turn turn inin literature
literature
(“anthropologische
(“anthropologische Wende”), Wende”), diverting diverting attention
attention away away from from language-oriented
language—oriented
inquiry
inquiry toward
toward culturalcultural investigations,
investigations, urges urges the the conceptualization
conceptualization of of literary
literary
texts
texts as as media
media “that “that already
already contain contain in in themselves
themselves condensed condensed forms forms of of
ethnographic
ethnographic description
description and and interpretation
interpretation of of culture”
culture” (25). (25). TheThe anthropological
anthropological
hide-and-seek
hide—and—seek African African American American children children play play in Jonah’s
in Jonah ’s exemplifies
exemplifies
Bachmann-Medick’s
Bachmann—Medick’s statement. statement. The The children’s
children’s game game shows shows how how theythey adopt
adopt it it
on
on aa formal
formal plantation
plantation in in aa Georgia
Georgia setting setting withwith the the narrator
narrator reporting
reporting aboutabout itsits
formal
formal aspects
aspects including
including the the ditties
ditties chanted;
chanted; but but it it stages
stages the the socialization
socialization of of
children
children into into (gender)
(gender) roles roles as as wellwell as, as, from
from aa literary literary pointpoint of of view,
view,
foreshadows
foreshadows the the nature
nature and,and, to to some
some extent,
extent, structure
structure of of the
the conflicts
conflicts evolving.
evolving.
The
The cultural
cultural approach
approach to to literature
literature emphasizes
emphasizes the the multiplicity
multiplicity of of reading,
reading,
denying
denying an an objective
objective interpretation:
interpretation: “Literature “Literature becomes becomes both both aa creation
creation and and
creator
creator of of culture,
culture, with with anthropology
anthropology as as observer/reader/interpreter.
observer/reader/interpreter. The The dualdual
role
role for
for literature
literature and and the
the repositioning
repositioning of of anthropology
anthropology allows allows forfor aa multiplicity
multiplicity
of
of possibilities
possibilities in in reading,
reading, writing writing about, about, and and interpreting
interpreting people, people, places,
places, and and
perspectives,
perspectives, real real oror imagined”
imagined” (De (De Angelis
Angelis 2). 2). Hurston
Hurston represents
represents aa case case in in
point:
point: asas aa writer/anthropologist
writer/anthropologist she she practices
practices both both literature
literature and and anthropology
anthropology at at
the
the same
same time;
time; and and sheshe does
does this this as as aa subjective
subjective insider.
insider.
From
From aa cultural
cultural point
point of of view,
view, Hurston’s
Hurston’s culturalcultural politics
politics of of insiderness
insiderness in in
her
her fiction
fiction serves
serves purposes
purposes of of authentication.
authentication. Janet Janet Tallman’s
Tallman’s interpretation
interpretation of of
the
the ethnographic
ethnographic novel novel reinforces
reinforces Hurstonian
Hurstonian approachapproach to to fiction:
fiction:

The
The ethnographic
ethnographic novel
novel written by someone
written by someone from
from within
within the
the culture
culture has
has aa
point
point of
of view
view unsullied by the
unsullied by the culture-boundness
culture—boundness and
and the blind-spots that
the blind—spots that
accompany
accompany any any outsider,
outsider, no
no matter
matter how
how well-trained.
well—trained. Of
Of course,
course, the
the
insider
insider still
still has
has aa biased
biased point
point of
of view,
view, influenced
influenced by
by class,
class, gender,
gender, age,
age,

38
38
 and
and whatever
whatever other
other social
social categories
categories are
are operative.
operative. Yet
Yet the
the insider
insider novelist
novelist
can
can have
have an
an authenticity,
authenticity, aa knowledge
knowledge of of the
the culture,
culture, impossible
impossible for
for the
the
anthropologist.
anthropologist. (11)
(l l)

Hurston’s
Hurston’s fiction
fiction models
models cultural
cultural rituals
rituals and
and processes
processes in in African
African American
American
communities,
communities, and,and, thus,
thus, it
it can
can bebe seen
seen as as aa series
series of
of anthropological
anthropological treatises.
treatises.
Her
Her ethnographic
ethnographic novels
novels enact enact African
African American
American dramasdramas depicting
depicting
“personalised
“personalised worlds
worlds of becoming, rather
of becoming, rather than
than static
static worlds
worlds of being” (James
of being” (James 4)4)
as,
as, thereby,
thereby, she
she often
often recounts
recounts her her field
field experiences.
experiences.
Writing
Writing from
from within
within isis aa key
key position
position Hurston
Hurston takes,
takes, both
both as
as aa student
student ofof
African
African American
American culture
culture and
and asas an
an African
African American
American subject;
subject; and
and she,
she, then,
then,
goes
goes further
further than
than writing
writing simply
simply fiction:
fiction: byby insisting
insisting onon the
the spyglass
spyglass of of
anthropology
anthropology Hurston,
Hurston, the
the artist,
artist, offers
offers ethnographic
ethnographic texts.
texts.

3.2. Hurston’s African American Spatiality

As
As itit has
has already
already been been mentioned,
mentioned, Hurston
Hurston research
research generally
generally emphasizes
emphasizes
her
her linguistic
linguistic preoccupation.
preoccupation. However, However, Hurston’s
Hurston’s employment
employment of of vernacular
vernacular
language
language is is anchored
anchored in in anan awareness
awareness of of African
African American
American culture
culture and
and cultural
cultural
dynamics,
dynamics, including
including African
African American
American spatial
spatial thinking.
thinking. Examining
Examining the the works
works of of
some
some of of the
the most
most relevant
relevant contributors
contributors to to the
the Hurston
Hurston scholarship,
scholarship, one one cancan see
see
that
that the
the conceptualization
conceptualization of of the
the vernacular
vernacular or or of of African
African American
American literature
literature
purports
purports aa perhaps
perhaps even even moremore prevalent
prevalent traittrait ofof her
her work:
work: embeddedness
embeddedness in in
African
African American
American cultural
cultural space.
space.
In
In TheThe Signifying
Signifying Monkey: Monkey: A A Theory
Theory of African-American Literary
of African-American Literary
Criticism, Henry
Criticism, Henry LouisLouis Gates,Gates, Jr.,Jr., uses
uses thethe “Signifying
“Signifying Monkey”Monkey” to to refer
refer toto
creative
creative African
African American
American language language use use that
that he
he traces
traces back
back to to African
African traditions.
traditions.
Deliberately,
Deliberately, Gates Gates connects
connects it it to
to tricksterism
tricksterism that, that, asas demonstrated
demonstrated in in the
the
subsequent
subsequent analyses,
analyses, is is one
one of of Hurston’s
Hurston’s important
important observations
observations regarding
regarding
African
African American
American culture.culture. For For Gates
Gates thethe “Signifying
“Signifying Monkey”
Monkey” represents
represents “the“the
figure-of-figures,
figure—of—figures, [. [. .. .]
.] the
the trope
trope inin which
which are are encoded
encoded several
several other
other peculiarly
peculiarly
black
black rhetorical
rhetorical tropes”;
tropes”; and, and, from
from thethe point
point of of view
view of of African
African American
American
literary
literary tradition,
tradition, “a “a metaphor
metaphor for for formal
formal revision,
revision, or or intertextuality,
intertextuality, within
within thethe
Afro-American
Afro—American literary literary tradition”
tradition” (xxi).
(xxi). Gates
Gates identifies
identifies several
several modes
modes of of
signifying
signifying (e.g.,(e.g., tropological
tropological revision,
revision, the the speakerly
speakerly text,text, talking
talking texts,
texts, andand
rewriting
rewriting the the speakerly),
speakerly), all all of
of them
them connected
connected to to other
other texts,
texts, creating
creating anan African
African
American
American literary
literary tradition.
tradition.
Gates
Gates places
places Hurston
Hurston in in aa tradition
tradition of of quest
quest forfor aa literary
literary voice,
voice, which
which he he
exemplifies
exemplifies with with Hurston’s
Hurston’s recuperating
recuperating to to Frederick
Frederick Douglass’s
Douglass’s use use of
of the
the ship
ship
metaphor
metaphor (the (the opening
opening metaphor metaphor of of Their Eyes). Gates
Their Eyes). Gates demonstrates
demonstrates that that
Hurston’s
Hurston’s reworking
reworking of of the
the metaphor
metaphor is is in
in fact
fact an
an African
African American
American strategy
strategy of of
revision,
revision, which
which pointedly
pointedly places places herher in
in aa tradition
tradition of of “relational
“relational signification”
signification”

39
39
(Siemerling
(Siemerling 39). 39). In
In the
the line
line of
of this
this investigation,
investigation, it it is
is indeed
indeed one one ofof the
the points
points
that
that reveals
reveals Hurston’s
Hurston’s cultural
cultural preoccupation:
preoccupation: in in aa quest
quest for for voice,
voice, Hurston
Hurston uses uses
aa rhetorical
rhetorical strategy,
strategy, which
which in in cultural
cultural termsterms is is aa trickster
trickster strategy,
strategy, to be
to be
understood
understood in in the
the function
function of of chiasmus
chiasmus (Gates (Gates 172)—standing
172)—standing in in the
the crossroads,
crossroads,
Hurston
Hurston employs
employs aa style, both aa continuum
style, both continuum of of African
African American
American traditiontradition and and aa
linkage
linkage toto established
established literary
literary traditions,
traditions, representing
representing aa merger
merger of of and
and aa constant
constant
shift
shift between
between the the two
two paradigms.
paradigms. As As Gates
Gates puts
puts it,
it, “Hurston’s
“Hurston’s very very rhetorical
rhetorical
strategy
strategy [.[. .. .]
.] seems
seems designed
designed to to mediate
mediate between
between [. [. .. .]
.] aa profoundly
profoundly lyrical,
lyrical,
densely
densely metaphorical,
metaphorical, quasi-musical,
quasi—musical, privileged black oral
privileged black oral tradition
tradition on on the
the oneone
hand,
hand, andand aa received
received butbut not
not yet
yet fully
fully appropriated
appropriated standard
standard English English literary
literary
tradition
tradition onon thethe other
other hand”
hand” (174).
(174). Hurston’s
Hurston’s “speakerly
“speakerly text” text” (174) based on
(174) based on
“free
“free indirect
indirect discourse”
discourse” (xxv)
(XXV) is is “to
“to represent
represent an an oral
oral literary
literary tradition”
tradition” (181).
(181).
In-betweenness
In—betweenness and and dynamic
dynamic rhetorical
rhetorical movement
movement refer refer not not only
only to to the
the
becoming
becoming African
African American
American subject
subject in in Their Eyes—they “reflect
Their Eyes—they “reflect aa certain
certain
development
development of of self-consciousness
self—consciousness in in aa hybrid
hybrid character,
character, aa character
character who who is is
neither
neither the
the novel’s
novel’s protagonist
protagonist nor nor the
the text’s
text’s disembodied
disembodied narrator,narrator, but but aa blend
blend
of both, an
of both, an emergent
emergent and and merging
merging momentmoment of of consciousness”
consciousness” (xxv-xxvi)—but,
(xxv—xxvi)—but,
in
in my
my view,
view, alsoalso to
to African
African American
American culturalcultural understanding
understanding of of aa hybrid
hybrid subject
subject
embedded
embedded in in aa cultural
cultural context.
context. As As II will
will show
show subsequently,
subsequently, Janie’s Janie’s act act of
of
storytelling
storytelling in in her backyard proves
her backyard proves ingraining
ingraining in both community
in both community and and literary
literary
tradition,
tradition, asas well
well asas the
the tangible
tangible advent
advent of of the
the female
female subject
subject in in aa hybrid
hybrid way—way—
of
of which
which thethe location
location of of the backyard is
the backyard is aa clear
clear indication.
indication.
Hurston’s
Hurston’s cultural
cultural space
space goes beyond reification
goes beyond reification of of African
African American
American
language
language useuse to to enhance
enhance an an (emerging)
(emerging) AfricanAfrican American
American (literary)
(literary) tradition:
tradition:

The
The narrative
narrative voice
voice Hurston
Hurston created,
created, and
and herher legacy
legacy toto Afro-American
Afro—American
fiction,
fiction, isis aa lyrical
lyrical andand disembodied
disembodied yet yet individual
individual voice,
voice, from
from which
which
emerges
emerges aa singular
singular longing
longing and
and utterance,
utterance, aa transcendent,
transcendent, ultimately
ultimately racial
racial
self,
self, extending
extending far beyond the
far beyond the merely
merely individual.
individual. Hurston
Hurston realized
realized aa
resonant
resonant andand authentic
authentic narrative
narrative voice
voice that
that echoes
echoes and
and aspires
aspires to
to the
the status
status
of
of the
the impersonality,
impersonality, anonymity,
anonymity, and and authority
authority of of the black vernacular
the black vernacular
tradition,
tradition, aa nameless,
nameless, selfless
selfless tradition,
tradition, atat once
once collective
collective and
and compelling,
compelling,
true
true somehow
somehow to to the
the unwritten
unwritten text
text of
of aa common blackness. For
common blackness. For Hurston,
Hurston,
the
the search
search forfor aa telling
telling form
form of
of language,
language, indeed
indeed the
the search
search for
for aa black
black
literary
literary language
language itself,
itself, defines
defines the
the search
search for
for the
the self.
self. (183)
(183)

More
More important
important than
than pinpointing
pinpointing the
the relevance
relevance ofof the black vernacular,
the black vernacular, Gates,
Gates,
not
not at
at all
all unwillingly,
unwillingly, calls
calls attention
attention to
to characteristics
characteristics ofof African
African Americanness
Americanness
and
and to
to Hurston’s
Hurston’s cultural
cultural insiderness.
insiderness. Clear
Clear as
as it
it is,
is, Hurston’s
Hurston’s “intra-communal
“intra—communal
intertextuality”
intertextuality” (Siemerling
(Siemerling 44)
44) manifests
manifests the
the creative,
creative, yet
yet harmonious
harmonious tension
tension
between communality
between communality andand individualism
individualism along
along with
with aa quest
quest for
for voice,
voice, literary
literary or
or
otherwise.
otherwise.

40
40
 The
The intracommunal
intracommunal aspect aspect in in Hurston’s
Hurston’s works
works cancan bebe approached
approached on on the
the
basis
basis of
of aa blues
blues pattern
pattern as blues proves
as blues proves an an African
African American
American cultural
cultural archetype
archetype
for
for her: both Janie
her: both Janie andand TeaTea Cake
Cake in in Their Eyes are
Their Eyes are blues
blues performers
performers and and blues
blues
itself
itself is
is aa connector between people
connector between people in in the
the muck.
muck. Houston
Houston A. A. Baker’s
Baker’s vernacular
vernacular
theory
theory explicated
explicated in Blues, Ideology,
in Blues, Ideology, and Afro-American Literature:
and Afro-American Literature: A A
Vernacular
Vernacular TheoryTheory depicts
depicts the the relevance
relevance of of blues
blues as as aa cultural
cultural performance.
performance.
Baker
Baker argues
argues forfor an
an “ancestral
“ancestral matrix”
matrix” deriving
deriving from
from the
the “material
“material conditions
conditions of of
slavery”
slavery” and blues (2).
and blues (2). Blues
Blues represents
represents for for himhim “a “a phylogenetic
phylogenetic
recapitulation—a
recapitulation—a nonlinear,
nonlinear, freelyfreely associative,
associative, nonsequential
nonsequential meditation—of
meditation—of
species
species experience
experience [and][and] an an anonymous
anonymous (nameless)
(nameless) voice
voice issuing
issuing from
from the black
the black
(w)hole”
(w)hole” (5).(5). His
His insistence
insistence on on aa cultural
cultural tradition
tradition and
and identity
identity is is rather
rather similar
similar
to
to that
that ofof Gates’s—his
Gates’s—his dynamic dynamic notionnotion of of Signifyin(g)
Signifyin(g) regarding
regarding the binary of
the binary of
the
the communal
communal and and thethe individual.
individual. For For Baker blues is
Baker blues is “always becoming,
“always becoming,
shaping,
shaping, transforming,
transforming, displacing
displacing the the peculiar
peculiar experiences”
experiences” (5) (5) and
and it it is
is an
an
individual
individual act. act. Yet,
Yet, blues
blues appears
appears in in hishis theorizing
theorizing as as “a“a code
code radically
radically
conditioning
conditioning Afro-American
Afro—American signifying”signifying” (5). (5). The blues as
The blues as code
code alsoalso sets
sets the
the
frame
frame forfor interpretation
interpretation of of the
the particular
particular piecepiece and
and that
that inin relation
relation to to other
other
pieces:
pieces: “the blues [.[. .. .]
“the blues .] comprise
comprise aa meditational
meditational sitesite where
where familiar
familiar antinomies
antinomies
are
are resolved
resolved (or (or dissolved)
dissolved) in in the
the office
office of of adequate
adequate cultural
cultural understanding”
understanding” (6). (6).
The
The underlying
underlying notionnotion of blues is,
of blues is, then,
then, an an understanding
understanding based based on on
cultural
cultural performativity.
performativity. It It envisions
envisions aa communicational
communicational framework
framework in in relation
relation to to
which
which subjects
subjects seekseek toto express
express themselves.
themselves. BluesBlues is is thus
thus thethe anthropological
anthropological
rather
rather than
than aa linguistic
linguistic meansmeans of of encrypting
encrypting and and decrypting.
decrypting. As As Winfried
Winfried
Siemerling
Siemerling reminds
reminds us, us,

Baker’s
Baker’s blues
blues matrix,
matrix, however,
however, suggests
suggests also
also aa discursive
discursive orchestration
orchestration
that
that draws
draws particular
particular attention
attention toto the
the performative
performative aspect
aspect of
of representation
representation
itself.
itself. [.
[. .. .]
.] [D]espite
[D]espite his
his insistence
insistence onon the
the vernacular,
vernacular, Baker
Baker draws
draws our
our
attention
attention to to the
the specific
specific performative
performative aspect
aspect ofof the
the representation
representation of
of
culture,
culture, which
which constantly
constantly helps
helps to create new
to create new cultural
cultural references
references and
and
social
social constellations
constellations as as it
it responds
responds to to previous
previous ones.
ones. (56-57)
(56—57)

It
It is
is in
in the
the function
function of
of aa blues
blues matrix
matrix that
that Janie’s
Janie’s “expressiveness”
“expressiveness” (59) (59) renders
renders
her
her aa “storyteller
“storyteller and blues singer
and blues singer par
par excellence”
excellence” (59)
(59) inin Their Eyes, for
Their Eyes, for she
she
“recapitulates
“recapitulates the blues experience
the blues experience ofof all black women
all black women treated
treated asas ‘mules
‘mules ofof the
the
world’”
world’” (58).
(58). The
The attentive
attentive reader
reader can
can see
see that
that the
the nature
nature of blues is
of blues is aa permanent
permanent
shift between individual
shift between individual and
and community
community in in aa cultural
cultural dialogue,
dialogue, where
where the
the
individual
individual relates
relates to
to the blues framework
the blues framework and and the
the latter
latter isis also
also constantly
constantly
reshaped
reshaped byby individual
individual performance.
performance.

41
41
 At
At the
the same
same time,
time, the
the trickster
trickster quality
quality of blues performance
of blues performance suggests
suggests that
that
the
the trickster
trickster is
is not
not only
only anan inherent
inherent cultural
cultural recuperation,
recuperation, as
as Gates
Gates has
has it
it in
in his
his
chapter
chapter dealing
dealing with
with the
the Yoruba
Yoruba trickster,
trickster, Esu
Esu Legba;
Legba; but
but also
also aa political
political act
act in
in
the
the production
production matrix
matrix of
of aa power
power framework:
framework:

Fixity
Fixity isis aa function
function of of power.
power. Those
Those who who maintain
maintain place,
place, who
who decide
decide
what
what takes
takes place
place andand dictate
dictate what
what has
has taken
taken place,
place, are
are power brokers of
power brokers of
the
the traditional.
traditional. The The “placeless,”
“placeless,” by by contrast,
contrast, are
are translators
translators ofof the
the
nontraditional.
nontraditional. Rather
Rather thanthan fixed
fixed inin the
the order
order of
of cunning
cunning Grecian
Grecian urns,
urns,
their
their lineage
lineage is is fluid,
fluid, nomadic,
nomadic, transitional.
transitional. Their
Their appropriate
appropriate mark
mark isis aa
crossing
crossing sign
sign atat the junction.
the junction.
The
The crossing
crossing signsign is
is the
the antithesis
antithesis of
of aa place
place marker.
marker. ItIt signifies,
signifies, always,
always,
change,
change, motion,
motion, transience,
transience, process.
process. (Baker
(Baker 202)
202)

Blues
Blues performers,
performers, as as cultural
cultural nomads,
nomads, do do not
not merely
merely claim
claim voice
voice in in aa cultural
cultural
space, but also
space, but also perform
perform political
political acts
acts inin opposition
opposition to to power
power structures.
structures. BothBoth
Hurston’s
Hurston’s protagonists,
protagonists, Janie Janie inin Their Eyes and
Their Eyes and John
John in Jonah’s,
in Jonah ’s, move between
move between
places
places and
and appear
appear placeless
placeless for
for the
the time
time being.
being. Yet,
Yet, their
their acquired/reclaimed
acquired/reclaimed
mobility
mobility expresses
expresses in-betweeness
in—betweeness in in the
the political
political matrix
matrix ofof social
social space.
space. AsAs II
will
will argue
argue later,
later, elsewhereness, besides denoting
elsewhereness, besides denoting strengthening
strengthening of of the
the African
African
American
American cultural
cultural core,core, manifests
manifests an an oppositional
oppositional political
political statement.
statement. Emphasis
Emphasis
is
is placed
placed on on oppositionality
oppositionality in in contrast
contrast to to which
which action
action isis undertaken
undertaken as as aa
centripetal
centripetal act
act ofof selfassertion.
selfassertion.
It
It is
is important
important to to point
point outout that
that Hurston
Hurston is is conscious
conscious about
about thethe relevance
relevance
of
of vernacular.
vernacular. When When exploring
exploring African
African American
American contribution
contribution to to American
American
culture—features
culture—features of of African
African American
American (folk) (folk) artart in
in her
her “Characteristics,”
“Characteristics,” she she
acknowledges
acknowledges the the linguistic
linguistic contribution
contribution under under thethe headings
headings “Dialect”
“Dialect” and and “Will
“Will
to
to Adorn,”
Adorn,” by by which
which she she means
means African
African American
American tendency
tendency of of ornamenting
ornamenting
speech
speech andand reinterpreting
reinterpreting already
already given
given words
words and and phrases
phrases through
through metaphors
metaphors
and
and similes,
similes, double
double descriptives,
descriptives, as as well
well as as verbal
verbal nouns
nouns (50-52).
(50—52).
As
As aa matter
matter of of fact,
fact, Hurston
Hurston discusses
discusses outspokenly
outspokenly the the performative
performative and and
intracommunal
intracommunal nature nature of of African
African American
American languagelanguage and and culture,
culture, asas well
well as
as the
the
essentially
essentially spatial
spatial understanding
understanding of of the
the African
African American
American subject.
subject. SheShe identifies
identifies
African
African American
American performatism
performatism as as drama.
drama. It It is
is the
the underlying
underlying principle
principle of both
of both
language
language and and action.
action. As As she
she claims,
claims, “Every
“Every phase phase ofof Negro
Negro lifelife isis highly
highly
dramatized.
dramatized. [. [. .. .]
.] Everything
Everything is is acted
acted out”out” (49).
(49). Acting
Acting outout has
has aa twofold
twofold
dimension.
dimension. It It has
has aa clearly
clearly linguistic
linguistic aspect
aspect as as “[African
“[African American]
American] words words are
are
action
action words.”
words.” However,
However, she she also
also suggests
suggests that that action
action accompanies
accompanies or or precedes
precedes
speech:
speech:

The
The primitive
primitive man
man exchanges
exchanges descriptive
descriptive words.
words. His
His terms
terms are
are all
all close
close
fitting.
fitting. Frequently
Frequently the
the Negro,
Negro, even
even with
with detached
detached words
words inin his
his

42
 vocabulary—not
vocabulary—not evolved
evolved in in him but transplanted
him but transplanted on on his
his tongue
tongue byby
contact—must
contact—must add add action
action to
to it
it to
to make
make itit do.
do. [.
[. .. .]
.] [T]he
[T]he speaker
speaker has
has in
in his
his
mind
mind the
the picture
picture of
of the
the object
object in
in use.
use. Action.
Action. Everything
Everything is is illustrated.
illustrated. So
So
we
we can
can say
say that
that the
the white
white man
man thinks
thinks in
in aa written
written language
language and
and the
the Negro
Negro
thinks
thinks in
in hieroglyphics.
hieroglyphics. (49-50)
(49—50)

Language
Language is is not
not merely
merely aa direct borrowing, or
direct borrowing, or the
the vehicle
vehicle of
of African
African American
American
thought, but it
thought, but it is
is intertwined
intertwined with
with dramatization/spatialization
dramatization/spatialization through
through action.
action.
On
On the basis of
the basis of Hurston’s
Hurston’s explication
explication of of African
African American
American culture,
culture, one
one
can
can easily
easily expect
expect aa heavy
heavy emphasis
emphasis on on the
the visual basis of
visual basis of expression
expression in
in her
her
cultural
cultural space.
space. An An aspect
aspect of
of it
it is body talk—yet
is body talk—yet another
another manifestation
manifestation ofof African
African
American
American drama.
drama. BodyBody movements,
movements, as as hieroglyphics
hieroglyphics themselves,
themselves, have
have for
for
Hurston
Hurston aa communicative
communicative value: value: they
they form
form aa part
part of
of African
African American
American
signifying.
signifying. The
The young
young girl,
girl, Daisy,
Daisy, for
for instance,
instance, “is
“is walking
walking aa drum
drum tune”
tune” in
in
Their Eyes:
Their Eyes:

You
You cancan almost
almost hear
hear it by looking
it by looking atat the
the way
way she
she walks.
walks. She
She is black and
is black and
she
she knows
knows that
that white
white clothes
clothes look
look good
good on on her.
her. SoSo she
she wears
wears them
them forfor
dress
dress up.
up. She’s
She’s got
got those big black
those big black eyes
eyes with
with plenty
plenty shiny
shiny white
white inin them
them
that
that makes
makes them
them shine
shine like brand new
like brand new money
money and and she
she knows
knows what
what God
God
gave
gave women
women eyelashes
eyelashes for,for, too.
too. Her
Her hair
hair is
is not
not what
what you
you might
might call
call
straight.
straight. It
It is
is negro
negro hair, but it’s
hair, but it’s got
got aa kind
kind ofof white
white flavor.
flavor. Like
Like the
the piece
piece
of
of string
string out
out of
of aa ham.
ham. It’s
It’s not
not ham
ham atat all, but it’s
all, but been around
it’s been around ham
ham andand
got
got the
the flavor.
flavor. ItIt was
was spread
spread down
down thick
thick and
and heavy
heavy over
over her
her shoulders
shoulders and
and
looked just right
looked just right under
under aa big
big white
white hat.
hat. (63-64)
(63—64)

Her
Her movements
movements denote denote specific
specific meanings
meanings in in an
an individual
individual way; way; furthermore,
furthermore,
they
they have
have aa communal
communal aspect:aspect: they
they appear
appear always
always in in aa context
context in in relation
relation to
to
other
other actors.
actors. In
In this
this case
case she
she is being watched
is being watched byby the
the men
men onon the
the porch
porch and
and they
they
start
start an
an “acting-out
“acting—out courtship”
courtship” (63),
(63), during
during which
which “the boys ha[ve]
“the boys ha[ve] toto act
act out
out
their
their rivalry
rivalry too”
too” (64).
(64). Beyond
Beyond concerting
concerting masculine
masculine action
action for
for and
and against
against
Daisy,
Daisy, what
what renders
renders thisthis scene
scene ultimately
ultimately communal
communal is is the
the response
response of of the
the
audience:
audience: “the
“the porch
porch enjoyed
enjoyed thethe play
play and
and helped
helped outout whenever
whenever extras
extras were
were
needed”
needed” (64).
(64). InIn this
this way,
way, the
the individual
individual action
action of
of Daisy,
Daisy, the
the men,
men, andand members
members
of
of the
the audience blends into
audience blends into communal
communal space. space. In
In reality
reality such
such dramas
dramas enacted
enacted in
in
body
body movements
movements emerge emerge in in aa sequence between several
sequence between several actors
actors as as aa call-and-
call—and—
response
response pattern
pattern traditional
traditional in in African
African American
American culture.
culture. In In “Characteristics”
“Characteristics”
Hurston
Hurston ascribes
ascribes importance
importance to to dancing
dancing exactly
exactly on
on this
this ground.
ground. ForFor her
her “Negro
“Negro
dancing
dancing is is dynamic
dynamic suggestion”
suggestion” and and “compelling
“compelling insinuation”
insinuation” (55)—dancing
(55)—dancing
(body
(body movement)
movement) is is discursive
discursive in in the
the complex
complex relation
relation ofof communality
communality and and
individuality.
individuality.

43
43
 From
From the the point
point of of view
view of of spatial
spatial analysis,
analysis, what
what Hurston
Hurston highlights
highlights in in her
her
essay
essay isis the the inherently
inherently spatialspatial thinking
thinking of of African
African Americans,
Americans, and and whatwhat she she
describes
describes is is African
African AmericanAmerican appropriation
appropriation of of space.
space. Regarding
Regarding her her
understanding
understanding of of African
African American
American cultural cultural space,
space, she she mentions
mentions specific
specific
organizing
organizing principles
principles that that help
help unfold
unfold African
African American
American spatial spatial settings.
settings.
She
She identifies
identifies AfricanAfrican Americans’
Americans’ preoccupation
preoccupation “to “to avoidavoid the the simple
simple
straight
straight line”
line” (54)(54) when
when they they furnish
furnish their
their homes.
homes. “Angularity”
“Angularity” suggests suggests that that
African
African Americans
Americans always always find find aa way way to to adopt
adopt space
space to to express
eXpress the the African
African
American
American self, self, whether
whether influenced
influenced by by worldview
worldview or or aa desire
desire to to break
break awayaway fromfrom
the
the politico-spatial
politico—spatial setting setting in in thethe particular
particular time-space
time—space compression. compression.
“Asymmetry”
“Asymmetry” is is aa similar
similar organizing
organizing principle,
principle, even
even if if it it pertains,
pertains, in in the
the first
first
place,
place, toto thethe paradoxical juxtaposition of
paradoXical juxtaposition of rhythm
rhythm and and thethe absence
absence of of symmetry
symmetry
(55)
(55) inin African
African American
American art. art. ForFor Hurston,
Hurston, thesethese principles
principles have have special
special
significance
significance as as they
they refer
refer to to African
African American
American tactics
tactics of of cultural
cultural appropriation,
appropriation,
as
as well
well as
as adaptation
adaptation to to diverse
diverse circumstances.
circumstances.
The
The acknowledgment
acknowledgment of, of, andand the
the preoccupation
preoccupation with with different
different cultural
cultural
elements
elements have have beenbeen constant
constant in in African
African American
American thought.
thought. Elaborating
Elaborating on on thethe
nature
nature of of African
African American
American religion,
religion, W.E.B.
W.E.B. DuBois
DuBois identified
identified “three “three things
things
[that]
[that] characterized
characterized this this religion
religion of of the
the slave,—the
slave,—the Preacher,
Preacher, the the Music,
Music, and and thethe
Frenzy”
Frenzy” (116).(116). DuBois’s
DuBois’s essentialessential African
African Americanisms
Americanisms are are in in exact
exact line
line with
with
Hurston’s
Hurston’s observations
observations regarding regarding AfricanAfrican American
American culture. culture. Similarly
Similarly to to
Hurston,
Hurston, DuBoisDuBois accentuates
accentuates the the visual/spatial
visual/spatial orientation
orientation in in African
African American
American
culture,
culture, whereby
whereby dramas dramas enacted enacted by by the body, music
the body, music expressing
eXpressing inherent inherent and and
original
original Africanness,
Africanness, as as well
well as as culture
culture heroes,
heroes, which
which are are not not onlyonly cultural,
cultural, but but
also
also structural
structural categories,
categories, become become primary
primary carriers
carriers of of culture.
culture. DuBois’sDuBois’s preacher
preacher
can be taken
can be taken as as aa culture
culture hero hero in in Hurstonian
Hurstonian conceptualization.
conceptualization. DuBois DuBois defines
defines
him
him asas “a“a leader,
leader, aa politician,
politician, an an orator,
orator, aa ‘boss,’
‘boss,’ an an intriguer,
intriguer, an an idealist,—all
idealist,—all
these
these hehe is, is, and
and ever,ever, too, too, the the centre
centre of of aa group
group of of men”men” (116). (116). ThisThis
characterization
characterization renders renders the the preacher
preacher aa structural
structural force
force in in thethe community
community with with
trickster
trickster qualities.
qualities. More More recent recent studies
studies problematize
problematize the the essence
essence of of African
African
American
American culture culture in in aa similar
similar manner
manner (see (see Michael
Michael L. L. Hecht
Hecht et et al.).
al.). Defocalizing
Defocalizing
the
the primacy
primacy of of the
the vernacular,
vernacular, Jack Jack L.L. Daniel
Daniel and and Geneva
Geneva SmithermanSmitherman argue argue
that
that “callresponse
“callresponse spans spans the the sacred-secular
sacred—secular continuum
continuum in in Black
Black Culture”
Culture” (27). (27).
They
They posit
posit that that call-and-response
call—and—response does does notnot only
only describe
describe aa communicational
communicational
strategy
strategy in in thethe African
African AmericanAmerican community,
community, but but it it also
also recuperates
recuperates aa
worldview
worldview inherent inherent in in African
African Americans.
Americans. The The essentially
essentially AfricanistAfricanist notion
notion
situates
situates thethe African
African American
American subject subject in in aa collectivist
collectivist as as well
well as as contextualizing
contextualizing
framework:
framework: call-and-response
call—and—response depicts depicts the the symbiotic
symbiotic joint joint movement
movement of of
individuals
individuals with with eacheach other
other and and withwith nature.
nature. InIn this
this way,
way, it it follows
follows “natural
“natural
rhythms”
rhythms” (32) (32) or or “interdependent
“interdependent rhythms” rhythms” (34),(34), andand requires
requires “community
“community
participation”
participation” (33). (33). On On aa more more abstract
abstract level,
level, call-and-response
call—and—response denotes denotes

44
embedded
embedded interaction,
interaction, which
which does
does not
not follow
follow aa simple
simple pattern:
pattern: “Harmony
“Harmony in in
nature
nature and
and thethe universe
universe is is provided
provided by by the
the complementary,
complementary, interdependent,
interdependent,
synergic
synergic interaction between the
interaction between the spiritual
spiritual and
and the
the material”
material” (34).
(34).
From
From aa closer
closer look,
look, Hurston’s
Hurston’s concepts
concepts of of angularity,
angularity, asymmetry,
asymmetry, and and
drama
drama precipitate
precipitate thethe very
very same
same ideas.
ideas. HerHer view
view ofof African
African American
American culture
culture
places
places the
the African
African American
American subject
subject in in anan intact
intact cultural/cosmological
cultural/cosmological
framework
framework thatthat can be called
can be called harmonious
harmonious for for its
its stability
stability and
and unity.
unity. However,
However,
inherent
inherent are
are pluralism
pluralism and
and heteronomy
heteronomy in in this
this cultural
cultural framework
framework also,also, as
as these
these
notions
notions provide
provide itsits dynamics.
dynamics. ThusThus tension
tension is is natural,
natural, while belongingness
while belongingness
remains
remains anan axiom.
aXiom. As As the
the seeming
seeming controversy between individual
controversy between individual andand group
group in
in
African
African American
American community
community proves
proves conspicuous,
conspicuous, aa binary
binary becomes
becomes obvious
obvious inin
Hurston’s
Hurston’s ethnographic
ethnographic writing
writing and
and inin her
her imagined
imagined communities
communities as as well.
well. As
As
Daniel
Daniel and
and Smitherman
Smitherman argue vis-c‘z-vis African
argue vis-à-vis African American
American communication
communication
dynamics:
dynamics:

The
The individual
individual is is challenged
challenged to to do
do what
what he he can
can within
within thethe traditional
traditional
mold,
mold, and and he he is is reaffirmed
reaffirmed by by thethe infinite
infinite possibilities
possibilities for for unique
unique
responses.
responses. Centuries-old
Centuries—old group group norms
norms are balanced by
are balanced by individualized,
individualized,
improvisational
improvisational emphases.emphases. By By taking
taking advantage
advantage of of process,
process, movement,
movement,
creativity
creativity of of the
the moment,
moment, and and emotional,
emotional, intuitive,
intuitive, and
and spiritual
spiritual guidance,
guidance,
the
the individual
individual can can exercise
exercise hishis sense
sense of of Self
Self byby virtue
virtue ofof his
his unique
unique
contribution
contribution to to the
the Group.
Group. (35)
(35)
In
In aa constant
constant back-and-forth
back—and—forth vibration,
vibration, thethe individual
individual (or (or writer)
writer) emerges
emerges as as aa
member
member of of the
the community,
community, constantly
constantly reifying
reifying identity
identity inin dialogic
dialogic sequences
sequences
regarding
regarding others
others all all “in
“in aa unified
unified movement”
movement” (34). (34). John’s
John’s lastlast preaching
preaching in in
Jonah’s
Jonah ’s offers
offers aa casecase in in point.
point. ItIt follows
follows the the structure
structure of of African
African American
American
sermons,
sermons, that
that is,
is, it
it evolves
evolves around
around rhetorical
rhetorical peaks
peaks in in the
the process
process of bearing up.
of bearing up.
John
John thereby
thereby calls
calls on on traditional
traditional African
African American
American rhetorical
rhetorical elements—
elements—
addressing
addressing thethe congregation,
congregation, repetitions
repetitions with
with increasing
increasing impetus,
impetus, and and familiar
familiar
images—which
images—which resonate resonate familiarly
familiarly in in his
his audience;
audience; whilewhile he he finishes
finishes thethe
cultural/rhetorical
cultural/rhetorical patterns
patterns in in anan individual
individual way:way: “It“It [that
[that is,
is, the
the psalm
psalm sung]
sung]
wakes
wakes upup aa whole
whole family
family uh uh thoughts,
thoughts, andand Ahm
Ahm gointer
gointer speak
speak tuhtuh yuh
yuh outa
outa de
de
fullness
fullness uh
uh mah
mah heart”
heart” (174).
(174).
The
The interdependence
interdependence of of individual
individual and and group
group is is aa basic
basic feature
feature which
which
undergirds
undergirds Hurston’s
Hurston’s multidimensional
multidimensional approach approach to to African
African American
American culture
culture
and
and determines
determines her her writing
writing style.
style. Furthermore,
Furthermore, her her emphasis
emphasis on on the
the performative
performative
nature
nature of
of African
African American
American culture,
culture, whereby
whereby individual
individual contribution
contribution may may appear
appear
as
as aa dissent
dissent fromfrom the the group,
group, refers
refers to to centripetality
centripetality in in the
the function
function of of
interdependence.
interdependence. Ultimately,
Ultimately, the the apparent
apparent outsiderness
outsiderness of of Hurston’s
Hurston’s
protagonists—just
protagonists—just like like Hurston’s
Hurston’s own own inin the
the Harlem
Harlem Renaissance—reveals
Renaissance—reveals only only

45
the
the surface
surface structure
structure of of their
their (thus
(thus her)
her) universe.
universe. In In reality,
reality, dissent
dissent is just another
is just another
form
form of of performative
performative action, action, showing
showing individual
individual striving
striving to to strengthen
strengthen the the core
core
of
of the
the African
African American
American community.
community.
Unforeseen
Unforeseen and and unprescribed
unprescribed individual
individual response
response enhances
enhances improvisation
improvisation
while
while remaining
remaining in in thethe cultural
cultural framework
framework (as (as itit is,
is, in
in an an initiation
initiation ritual
ritual thethe
whole
whole sequence
sequence of of thethe ritual
ritual counts,
counts, thatthat is,
is, the
the candidate’s
candidate’s exclusion
exclusion from from the the
community
community as as well
well as as his/her
his/her placement
placement in in the
the in-between
in—between is is transitionary,
transitionary, and and
s/he
s/he finally
finally emerges
emerges as as aa member
member of of the
the community).
community). Improvisational
Improvisational response response
is
is facilitated
facilitated for for Hurston
Hurston by by tricksterism,
tricksterism, aa core core element
element in in African
African American
American
culture.
culture. Tricksters
Tricksters and and trickster
trickster qualities
qualities areare not
not unknown
unknown phenomena
phenomena in in African
African
Americans
Americans folk folk thought
thought (see (see Roberts)
Roberts) and and for for Hurston,
Hurston, aa researcher
researcher of of folk
folk
culture,
culture, they
they are are within
within her her ken.
ken. She
She directly
directly addresses
addresses this this issue
issue inin Sanctified—
Sanctified—
e.g.,
e.g., regarding
regarding culture
culture heroes heroes suchsuch asas Big
Big John
John de de Conqueror—and
Conqueror—and her her other
other
ethnographic
ethnographic books, books, but but alsoalso her
her folktale
folktale collection,
collection, Every Every Tongue
Tongue Got Got to to
Confess:
Confess: NegroNegro Folk-tales
Folk-tales from from thethe Gulf States offers
Gulf States offers ample
ample examples.
examples. As As it it
comes
comes to to expression
expression through through cultural
cultural tricksters,
tricksters, African
African American
American culture
culture is is an
an
integrated
integrated whole,whole, independent
independent despite despite multi-layer
multi—layer embeddedness
embeddedness in in overlapping
overlapping
cultural
cultural contexts:
contexts: “Tricksters
“Tricksters and and trickster
trickster energyenergy articulate
articulate aa whole whole other,other,
independent,
independent, cultural cultural reality
reality and
and positive
positive way way of of negotiating
negotiating multiple
multiple cultural
cultural
systems”
systems” (Ammons
(Ammons xi). xi). Such
Such an an approach
approach to to culture
culture reifies
reifies selfaffirmation,
selfaffirmation, aa
notion
notion thatthat carries
carries special
special significance
significance for for aa writer
writer like
like Hurston
Hurston in in the
the racial
racial
climate
climate of of the
the Harlem
Harlem Renaissance.
Renaissance.
Hurston’s
Hurston’s cultural/textual
cultural/textual space space is is endowed
endowed with with aa similar,
similar, trickster
trickster
dynamics
dynamics that that she
she consciously
consciously plays plays down.
down. The The dynamic
dynamic character
character of of her
her space
space
bears
bears similarity
similarity to to trickster
trickster strategies;
strategies; as as Deborah
Deborah G. G. Plant
Plant asserts,
asserts, these these
strategies
strategies formform “patterns
“patterns of of behavior
behavior recognizable
recognizable in in Hurston’s
Hurston’s life life and
and work—
work—
silence,
silence, shamming,
shamming, tomming, tomming, signifying,
signifying, masking,
masking, and and posturing—[that]
posturing—[that] are are all
all
patterns
patterns of behavior exhibited
of behavior exhibited in in archetypal
archetypal African
African American
American trickster
trickster figures”
figures”
(45).
(45). AsAs the the subsequent
subsequent chapters chapters will
will demonstrate,
demonstrate, both both Janie’s
Janie’s and and John’s
John’s
journeys depict
journeys depict trickster
trickster energies,
energies, since
since their
their constant jumping in
constant jumping in and
and out out ofof
roles
roles reveals
reveals multifacial
multifacial identities
identities which
which are are shaped
shaped by by the
the demands
demands of of the
the
situation.
situation. Multiplicity
Multiplicity can can bebe pinpointed
pinpointed in in Janie’s
Janie’s behavior
behavior in in particular:
particular: from from
the
the point
point of of view
view of of thethe (patriarchal)
(patriarchal) community,
community, her her transgressive
transgressive conduct conduct that that
leads
leads her her to to violate
violate the the norms
norms of of marriage
marriage as as aa patriarchal
patriarchal institution,
institution, her her
rebellious
rebellious insistence
insistence on joining games
on joining games not not meant
meant for for her—e.g.,
her—e.g., shooting
shooting and and
playing
playing the the checkers—as
checkers—as well well asas her
her cross-dressing
cross—dressing at at the
the end
end ofof her
her story,
story, but,but,
perhaps,
perhaps, most most strikingly
strikingly her her engagement
engagement in in aa storytelling
storytelling activity
activity show show
oscillation
oscillation between
between worldsworlds and and aa refusal
refusal of of fixity.
fixity. The The trickster
trickster approach
approach lends lends
Hurston’s
Hurston’s fictional
fictional worksworks aa hybridhybrid character
character and, and, as as aa result,
result, Janie
Janie is is able
able toto
transform
transform her her environment
environment and and herher home.
home. Her Her constant
constant hybridizing—or
hybridizing—or
thirding—builds
thirding—builds on on given
given cultural
cultural schemes
schemes such such as as African
African American
American places places and and
tactics
tactics of of identity
identity negotiation.
negotiation.

46
46
 African
African American
American places
places andand identity
identity negotiation
negotiation closely
closely relate
relate to to each
each
other.
other. Geographically
Geographically speaking,
speaking, one one cancan say
say that
that spatial
spatial thinking
thinking denotes
denotes aa
matrix
matrix of of here
here andand there;
there; however,
however, from from another
another point
point of
of view,
view, it it signifies
signifies
boundary-making,
boundary—making, that that is,
is, space
space isis aa vehicle
vehicle ofof definition.
definition. In
In this
this respect,
respect, space
space
is
is aa category
category representing
representing bothboth difference
difference and and inclusion.
inclusion.
More
More specifically,
specifically, African
African American
American geographical
geographical displacement
displacement enforced,
enforced,
what
what can be called,
can be called, aa horizontal
horizontal spatial
spatial differentiation.
differentiation. In
In his book From
his book Behind
From Behind
the
the Veil: A Study
Veil: A Study of Narrative, Robert
Afro-American Narrative,
ofAfro-American Robert B.B. Stepto
Stepto conceptualizes
conceptualizes
an
an African
African American
American spatial
spatial framework
framework based based onon aa North-South
North—South symbolic
symbolic
19
paradigm.
paradigm.19 Discussing
Discussing an an “Afro-American
“Afro—American pregeneric
pregeneric myth
myth ofof the
the quest
quest for
for
freedom
freedom and and literacy”
literacy” (167),
(167), Stepto
Stepto identifies
identifies two
two types
types of
of narratives:
narratives: “ascent”
“ascent”
and
and “immersion”
“immersion” narratives.
narratives. These
These typestypes represent
represent twotwo spatial
spatial orientations
orientations
toward
toward aa “symbolic
“symbolic North”
North” andand aa “symbolic
“symbolic South”
South” respectively.
respectively. InIn his
his coinage:
coinage:

The
The classic
classic ascent
ascent narrative
narrative launches
launches an an “enslaved”
“enslaved” andand semiliterate
semiliterate
figure
figure on
on aa ritualized journey to
ritualized journey to aa symbolic
symbolic North;
North; that journey is
that journey is charted
charted
through
through spatial
spatial expressions
expressions of of social
social structure,
structure, invariably
invariably systems
systems of of signs
signs
that
that the
the questing
questing figure
figure must
must read
read inin order
order to be both
to be both increasingly
increasingly literate
literate
and
and increasingly
increasingly free.free. The
The ascent
ascent narrative
narrative conventionally
conventionally ends
ends with
with the
the
questing
questing figure
figure situated
situated in
in the
the least
least oppressive
oppressive social
social structure
structure afforded
afforded by by
the
the world
world of of the
the narrative,
narrative, and
and free
free in
in the
the sense
sense that
that he
he or
or she
she has
has gained
gained
sufficient
sufficient literacy
literacy toto assume
assume the
the mantle
mantle ofof an
an articulate
articulate survivor.
survivor. (167)
(167)

Freedom
Freedom isis constituted
constituted here
here as
as physical
physical escape
escape from
from racist
racist environments, but, at
environments, but, at
the
the same
same time,
time, the
the North-bound journey means
North—bound journey means also
also disruption
disruption of
of traditional
traditional
communal
communal tiesties (167).
(167). Conversely,
Conversely, ascent
ascent represents
represents growing
growing individualism
individualism
including
including aa growing
growing sense
sense of
of alienation
alienation in
in urban
urban environments.
environments.
By
By contrast,
contrast, immersion
immersion narratives
narratives have
have their
their focus
focus on
on aa “symbolic
“symbolic
South”—denoting
South”—denoting an an oppositional
oppositional movement,
movement, which
which represents
represents recuperation
recuperation to
to
the
the African
African American
American community:
community:

the
the immersion
immersion narrative
narrative is
is fundamentally
fundamentally an an expression
expression of of aa ritualized
ritualized
journey into
journey into aa symbolic
symbolic South,
South, in
in which
which the
the protagonist
protagonist seeks
seeks those
those
aspects
aspects of
of tribal
tribal literacy
literacy that
that ameliorate,
ameliorate, if
if not
not obliterate,
obliterate, the
the conditions
conditions
imposed
imposed byby solitude.
solitude. The
The conventional
conventional immersion
immersion narrative
narrative ends
ends almost
almost
paradoxically,
paradoxically, with
with thethe questing
questing figure
figure located
located inin or
or near
near the
the narrative’s
narrative’s

19
19 AA reworking
reworking of of symbolic
symbolic regions
regions appears
appears inin Judylyn
Judylyn Ryan’s
Ryan’s dissertation,
dissertation, “Water
“Water from
from an
an
Ancient
Ancient Well:
Well: The
The Recuperation
Recuperation ofof Double-Consciousness.”
Double—Consciousness.” In In an
an expansion
expansion of of Stepto’s
Stepto’s
theory
theory of
of aa symbolic
symbolic North
North and
and South,
South, Ryan
Ryan establishes
establishes another binary, aa “symbolic
another binary, “symbolic East”
East”
and
and aa “symbolic
“symbolic West.”
West.” The
The former
former isis associated
associated with
with an
an “imagined
“imagined or or literal”
literal” (Pavlíc
(Pavlic
xviii)
xviii) African
African cultural
cultural core,
core, while
while the
the latter
latter accounts
accounts for
for “a
“a foreign
foreign location
location of of terror
terror and
and
bondage” (xviii).
bondage” (xviii).

47
47
 most
most oppressive
oppressive social
social structure but free
structure but free in
in the
the sense
sense that
that he
he has
has gained
gained or
or
regained
regained sufficient
sufficient tribal
tribal literacy
literacy to
to assume
assume the
the mantle
mantle ofof an
an articulate
articulate
kinsman.
kinsman. (167)
(167)

The
The relinking
relinking to to aa common
common African African American
American past brings about
past brings about aa sensesense of of
freedom
freedom despite
despite thethe retained
retained oppressive
oppressive racialracial climate.
climate. Community,
Community, as as “balms
“balms of of
group
group identity”
identity” (6),(6), plays
plays an an important
important role role associated
associated with with thethe South.
South.
The
The duality
duality of of North
North and and South
South and and thethe ambivalence
ambivalence associated
associated with with thethe
antithetical,
antithetical, northward/southward
northward/southward movements movements embody embody the the doubleness
doubleness
represented
represented by by DuBois,
DuBois, Gates, Gates, and and Baker,
Baker, as as well
well as as dramatized
dramatized by by Hurston—
Hurston—
notably,
notably, both both herher protagonists
protagonists in in the
the two two novels
novels migrate
migrate South South and and find
find
fulfillment
fulfillment there.
there. The The spatial
spatial dichotomy
dichotomy shows shows differing
differing value value systems
systems
associated
associated with with geographical
geographical regions regions embedded
embedded in in the the African
African AmericanAmerican
experience.
experience.
African
African American
American spatial spatial thinking
thinking appears
appears on on aa vertical
vertical level
level too.too. Edward
Edward
M.
M. Pavlíc
Pavlic identifies
identifies an an “above-underground
“above—underground emergence” emergence” (“Syndetic (“Syndetic
Redemption”
Redemption” 165), 165), whereby
whereby underground
underground realms realms are are conceptualized
conceptualized by by him
him as as
“underground
“underground communalcommunal space,” space,” in in which
which “people
“people perform
perform [. [. .. .]
.] aspects
aspects of of their
their
subjectivity
subjectivity which
which remain remain off off limits,
limits, or or abstracted,
abstracted, in in secluded
secluded contemplation
contemplation
[and
[and where]
where] the the diasporic
diasporic modernist
modernist self becomes an
self becomes an accumulating
accumulating repertoirerepertoire of of
presences
presences summoned
summoned from from personal
personal depthdepth and and communal
communal interactions
interactions both both past
past
and
and present”
present” (Crossroads
(Crossroads 24). 24). Underground
Underground spaces spaces are are formulated
formulated in in opposition
opposition
to
to above-ground
above—ground spaces, spaces, but but they
they signify
signify terrains
terrains of of authenticating
authenticating cultural cultural
performances
performances on on individual
individual as as well
well as as group
group level.
level.
A
A similar
similar concept
concept of of the
the underground
underground is is formulated
formulated in in Baker’s
Baker’s theorizing,
theorizing,
proving
proving inherent
inherent spatio-cultural
spatio—cultural thinking thinking in in African
African American
American expression.
eXpression. In In his
his
discussion
discussion of of Richard
Richard Wright’s
Wright’s Black Black Boy,Boy, Baker
Baker suggests
suggests the the introduction
introduction of of
the
the term
term “black
“black hole”
hole” to to refer
refer toto “the
“the subsurface
subsurface force force of of the black underground”
the black underground”
(151)—“the
(151) “the subterranean
subterranean hole hole where
where the the trickster
trickster has has hishis ludic,
ludic, deconstructive
deconstructive
being” (151).
being” (151). The The opposition between underground
opposition between underground and and aboveground
aboveground spaces spaces
reifies
reifies African
African American
American situatedness
situatedness in in aa socio-political
socio—political structure,
structure, in in which
which
African
African Americans
Americans are are forced
forced to to take
take aa subservient
subservient position.
position. The The trope
trope ofof the
the
hole,
hole, which
which would
would indicate
indicate confinement
confinement and and limitation,
limitation, is, is, however,
however, understood
understood
by Baker
by Baker on on the basis of
the basis of the
the conceptualization
conceptualization of of the black hole
the black hole in in physics
physics as as
“an
“an invisible,
invisible, attractive
attractive force—a
force—a massive massive concentration
concentration of of energy”
energy” (145). (145). In In this
this
way,
way, Baker
Baker turns
turns it it into
into aa culturally-laden,
culturally—laden, positivepositive category
category that that goes beyond
goes beyond
the
the underground/aboveground
underground/aboveground binary. binary.
The
The hole,
hole, then, becomes aa positive
then, becomes positive tropetrope to to depict
depict African
African American
American
“Wholeness,
“Wholeness, an an achieved
achieved relationality
relationality of black community
of black community in in which
which desiredesire
recollects
recollects experience
eXperience and and sends
sends it it forth
forth as blues” (151).
as blues” (151). As As II have
have demonstrated
demonstrated
previously,
previously, the blues matrix
the blues matriX is is an an essential
essential performative
performative tool tool of of African
African
American
American expression;
expression; however,however, Baker Baker insists
insists herehere on on thethe physical
physical and and mental
mental

48
48
integrity
integrity of
of African
African Americans
Americans expressed
expressed in
in spatial
spatial terms.
terms. Blues
Blues performance
performance in
in
underground
underground spaces
spaces is
is thus
thus aa means
means of
of escape, but it
escape, but it is
is the
the reaffirmation
reaffirmation of
of the
the
African
African American
American self
self too:
too:

To
To bebe Black
Black and (W)h0le is
and (W)hole is to
to escape
escape incarcerating
incarcerating restraints
restraints of
of aa white
white
world
world (i.e.,
(i.e., aa black hole) and
black hole) and toto engage
engage the
the concentrated,
concentrated, underground
underground
singularity
singularity of of experience
eXperience thatthat results
results in
in aa blues
blues desire’s
desire’s expressive
expressive
fullness.
fullness. [The black hole
[The black hole can be] conceived
can be] conceived asas aa subcultural
subcultural (underground,
(underground,
marginal,
marginal, or or liminal)
liminal) region
region in in which
which dominant,
dominant, white
white culture’s
culture’s
representations
representations are are squeezed
squeezed to to zero
zero volume,
volume, producing
producing aa new
new expressive
eXpressive
order.
order. (151-2)
(151—2)

The
The reversal
reversal of of spatial
spatial settings
settings is is thus
thus African
African American
American culture’s
culture’s definite
definite
feature
feature ofof tricksterism
tricksterism with with aa specific
specific meaning:
meaning: inversion
inversion marksmarks appropriation
appropriation of of
the
the environment
environment to to the
the self,
self, and,
and, as as aa result,
result, it
it also
also proves
proves thethe autonomy
autonomy of of the
the
African
African American
American self. self. InIn Hurston’s
Hurston’s two two novels
novels underground
underground performances
performances in in
any
any ofof her
her inverted
inverted places—be
places—be it it nonplace,
nonplace, sacred
sacred place,
place, oror feminine
feminine place—
place—
confirm
confirm subjectivity
subjectivity in in place-making.
place—making. The The significance
significance of of underground
underground spaces spaces isis
that
that they
they dodo not
not refer
refer toto naturalization
naturalization into into the
the (white)
(white) socio-cultural
socio—cultural setting,
setting,
but
but to
to the
the emergence
emergence as as anan African
African American
American subjectsubject in in an
an African
African American
American
cultural
cultural space,
space, which,
which, in in Baker’s
Baker’s line line ofof thought,
thought, is is the
the blues
blues performance
performance par par
excellence.
excellence.
Both
Both geographical
geographical strata,strata, horizontal
horizontal and and vertical,
vertical, prove
prove undismissible
undismissible in in aa
study
study of of Hurston’s
Hurston’s places.
places. Regarding
Regarding her her own
own research
research of of African
African American
American
places
places described
described in in her
her collection
collection for for the
the Federal
Federal Writers’
Writers’ Project,
Project, sheshe gives
gives
account
account of of mythical
mythical places
places of of inversion
inversion that that appear
appear in in African
African American
American folk folk
thought.
thought. SheShe waswas editor
editor forfor the
the project
project in in Florida
Florida in in 1938-1939
1938—1939 (Hemenway
(Hemenway
251),
251), and
and her job also
her job also included
included collecting
collecting as as well
well as as writing
writing (McDonogh
(McDonogh xix). XiX).
Her
Her findings
findings reflect
reflect features
features of of the black underground.
the black underground. On On the
the oneone hand,
hand, these
these
places
places express,
eXpress, as as Benjamin
Benjamin Albert
Albert Botkin
Botkin asserts
asserts about
about places
places of of the
the Old
Old South,
South,
“the
“the desire
desire toto return
return to to aa golden
golden age” age” and
and areare “closely
“closely related
related to to the
the dream
dream ofof aa
promised
promised land”land” (469).
(469). On On thethe other
other hand,
hand, this
this very
very feature
feature reveals
reveals African
African
American
American displacement
displacement and and aa response
response to to it,
it, rendering
rendering the the experience
eXperience of of
oppression
oppression meaningful
meaningful after after all.
all. AllAll four
four of of Hurston’s
Hurston’s mythical
mythical places
places
emphasize
emphasize elsewhereness: Diddy-Wah-Diddy is
elsewhereness: Diddy-Wah-Diddy is aa “way
“way offoff somewhere”
somewhere” (“Negro (“Negro
Mythical
Mythical Places”
Places” 107);107); ZarZar represents
represents “the “the farthest
farthest pointpoint of of the
the imagination”
imagination”
(108); Beluthahatchee is
(108); Beluthahatchee is presented
presented as as “a
“a land
land ofof forgiveness”
forgiveness” (108); (108); andand heaven
heaven
is
is conceptualized
conceptualized as as aa place
place irrecoverably
irrecoverably out out of
of reach
reach (109).
(109). AllAll ofof these
these places
places
are
are seemingly
seemingly detached
detached from from African
African American
American historical
historical reality;
reality; however,
however, they
they
constitute
constitute important
important ways ways of of selfevaluation
selfevaluation as as well
well as as selfassertion.
selfassertion. Similarly,
Similarly,
the
the idea
idea of of West
West Hell Hell stages
stages another
another plastic
plastic expression
eXpression of of underground
underground
performance.
performance. It It refers
refers to to the
the place
place of of African
African American
American ritual ritual of of immersion.
immersion.

49
49
During
During thisthis wilderness
wilderness experience,
experience, the the culture
culture hero
hero with
with trickster
trickster qualities,
qualities, Big Big
John
John de de Conqueror
Conqueror using using his his “wit,
“wit, speed,
speed, and and luck,
luck, asas well
well asas superb
superb skillskill at at
fighting”
fighting” (110)
(llO) overcomes
overcomes the the devil.
devil. Trickster
Trickster characteristics
characteristics render
render thisthis place
place
also
also closely
closely connected
connected to to underground
underground performances.
performances.
In
In “Characteristics”
“Characteristics” Hurston Hurston emphasizes
emphasizes the the role
role of
of real
real places
places also.
also. In In the
the
first
first place,
place, it it is
is the jook, or
the jook, or pleasure
pleasure house,
house, that
that signifies
signifies an an unique
unique placeplace in in
African
African American
American folk folk culture.
culture. ItIt represents
represents African
African American
American community
community in in aa
microcosm
microcosm (the (the muck
muck in in Their Eyes can,
Their Eyes can, inin fact, be taken
fact, be taken as as its
its idealized
idealized image).
image).
It
It is
is the
the place,
place, where
where African
African American
American expression
expression manifests
manifests itself
itself with
with full full
force.
force. Hurston
Hurston acknowledges
acknowledges it it as
as the birthplace of
the birthplace of blues,
blues, and,
and, inin this
this way,
way, it it can
can
be
be seen
seen asas thethe cradle
cradle of of underground
underground blues blues performance
performance Baker Baker accounts
accounts for, for,
especially
especially if if the
the communal
communal aspect aspect of of “incremental
“incremental repetition”
repetition” (63) (63) inin singing
singing
songs
songs in in the
the jookjook is is taken
taken intointo consideration.
consideration. The The jookjook provides
provides thus thus the the
communal
communal framework
framework for for individual
individual conduct.
conduct.
While
While Hurston’s
Hurston’s account
account of of African
African American
American places
places in in her
her ethnographic
ethnographic
writings
writings shows
shows her her spatial
spatial awareness,
awareness, the the meaning
meaning rendered
rendered to to mythical
mythical placesplaces
and
and other
other places
places (that
(that II will
will deal
deal with
with subsequently)
subsequently) indicate
indicate her her keen
keen interest
interest in in
African
African American
American cultural
cultural performances.
performances. Her Her concern
concern doesdoes notnot only
only pertain
pertain to to
ways
ways of of performance—tactics
performance—tactics of of insiderness,
insiderness, call-and-response,
call—and—response, or or
tricksterism—but
tricksterism—but also also to to their
their location
location and and context.
context. In In African
African American
American
expression,
expression, spatial
spatial thinking
thinking oftenoften refers
refers bothboth to
to elsewhere
elsewhere in in geographical
geographical terms, terms,
as
as geographical
geographical territories become imbued
territories become imbued with with certain
certain culturally-informed
culturally—informed
meanings
meanings especially
especially in in opposition
opposition to to other
other territories
territories refashioned
refashioned in in the
the samesame
way;
way; andand to to anan underground.
underground. The The latter
latter does
does not
not necessarily
necessarily signify
signify physical
physical
detachment,
detachment, but but much
much ratherrather thethe reworking,
reworking, that that is,
is, reterritorialization
reterritorialization and and
20
reinscription
reinscription of of space.
space.20 The The thirding
thirding of of space
space andand place
place appears
appears seminal
seminal for for
Hurston
Hurston as as she
she encounters
encounters and and integrates
integrates further
further African
African American
American placesplaces in in her
her
fiction.
fiction. ByBy making
making use use of of them,
them, she she consciously
consciously reworks
reworks and and inverts
inverts themthem to to
establish
establish hybrid
hybrid places
places (for (for underground/trickster
underground/trickster performances),
performances), thereby thereby to to
construct
construct herher ownown cultural
cultural universe.
universe.

20
20 There
There are
are many
many other
other relevant
relevant places
places that
that are
are inherent
inherent in
in the
the African
African American
American community:
community:
the
the plantation,
plantation, as
as archetypal
archetypal place
place of
of oppression;
oppression; the
the city,
city, the
the problematic
problematic image
image of
of African
African
American
American modernity;
modernity; oror the
the train
train as
as the
the trope
trope of
of fluidity
fluidity asas described
described in
in James
James Alan
Alan
McPherson’s Railroad: Trains
McPherson’s Railroad: Trains and
and Train
Train People
People in Culture, among
American Culture,
in American among many
many
others.
others.

50
50
4. Black Cultural Space as Modernist Nonplace

4.1. Nonplace as a Means of Cultural Reassertion

Hurston’s
Hurston’s cultural cultural space space (both (both personal
personal and and fictional)
fictional) displays
displays
characteristics
characteristics of of African
African American
American culturalcultural performance.
performance. In In fact,
fact, her
her rugged
rugged
individualism
individualism and and apparent
apparent antiestablishment
antiestablishment attitude attitude must must be be placed
placed in in this
this
context:
context: herher cultural
cultural performance
performance fits fits inin an
an African
African American
American culturalcultural matrix
matrix as as
described
described previously;
previously; that that is,
is, an
an apparently
apparently dissenting
dissenting individual
individual conduct
conduct in in fact
fact
reasserts
reasserts thethe African
African American
American culturalcultural core.core. InIn examining
examining Hurston’sHurston’s use use ofof
space and place as a source of her cultural politics, I
space and place as a source of her cultural politics, I will rely on the concepts ofwill rely on the concepts of
nonplace and
nonplace and negative space, useful
negative space, useful concepts
concepts to to shed
shed lightlight onon Hurston’s
Hurston’s trickster
trickster
politics
politics inin Their
Their EyesEyes WereWere Watching
Watching God God and Jonah’s
and Jonah ’S Gourd
Gourd Vine. Vine.
Nonplaces
Nonplaces come come into into view view in in postmodern
postmodern geographies,geographies, representing
representing
fractured
fractured ties
ties to to architecture
architecture as buildings show
as buildings show aa lossloss of of anchorage
anchorage in in historical
historical
continuity.
continuity. According
According to to Marc
Marc Augé,Augé, nonplaces
nonplaces represent
represent characteristic
characteristic placesplaces
of
of (super)modernity that are detached from historicity due to their nature as
(super)modernity that are detached from historicity due to their nature as
places
places of of transition:
transition: they they “cannot
“cannot be be defined
defined as as relational,
relational, or or historical,
historical, or or
concerned
concerned with with identity”
identity” (77-78).
(77—78). Although
Although such such placesplaces provide
provide locales
locales for for
social
social interaction, the type of interaction remains transitory and temporary. In aa
interaction, the type of interaction remains transitory and temporary. In
sense,
sense, these
these places
places cannot
cannot be be claimed
claimed by by any
any spatial
spatial paradigm,
paradigm, and and they
they cannot
cannot
be
be integrated
integrated into into spatial
spatial stories
stories of of individuals.
individuals. Concomitantly,
Concomitantly, they they constitute
constitute aa
“world
“world [. [. .. .]
.] surrendered
surrendered to to solitary
solitary individuality,
individuality, to to the
the fleeting,
fleeting, the the temporary
temporary
and
and ephemeral”
ephemeral” (78) (78) due
due to to aa kind
kind of of rootlessness
rootlessness in in time
time andand space.
space. OnOn the
the one
one
hand,
hand, nonplace-like
nonplace—like character character derivesderives exactly
exactly fromfrom the the difference
difference from from the the
environment;
environment; on on the
the other,
other, difference
difference is is not
not atat all
all surficial
surficial as as nonplaces
nonplaces represent
represent
disruptions
disruptions in in the
the given
given spatial
spatial framework
framework in both form
in both form and and content.
content.
From
From aa different
different angle,
angle, though,
though, certaincertain actual
actual placesplaces are are similar
similar to to
nonplaces
nonplaces in in that
that they
they also
also appear
appear as as timeless,
timeless, but but are are inin fact
fact prehistoric
prehistoric or or
ahistoric
ahistoric precipitations.
precipitations. Nancy Nancy D. D. Munn
Munn talks talks aboutabout negative
negative space space that
that is is
established
established through
through “spatial
“spatial prohibition
prohibition as as aa mode
mode of of boundary
boundary making”
making” (93). (93).
She refers thereby to racist tactics of place-production.
She refers thereby to racist tactics of place—production. Australian Aborigines Australian Aborigines
excluded
excluded fromfrom certain
certain places
places are are her
her examples;
examples; as as well
well as as negative
negative spaces
spaces thatthat
are
are established
established by by ritual.
ritual. ThusThus whereas
whereas Augé’s Augé’s nonplaces
nonplaces are are open
open to to social
social
activity,
activity, the latter kind of nonplaces are closed and not at all transient. These are
the latter kind of nonplaces are closed and not at all transient. These are
ideological
ideological or or sacred
sacred precipitations
precipitations that that are
are not
not to to be be trespassed.
trespassed. Yet Yet their
their
timelessness
timelessness and and asocial
asocial character
character connects
connects them them to to Augé’s
Augé’s nonplaces,
nonplaces, an an aspect
aspect
that
that disallows them to become real places and that also excludes them from
disallows them to become real places and that also excludes them from
21
social
social interaction.
interaction.21

21
21 . . . .
Munn’s
Munn’s negative
negatlve spaces
spaces can be described
can be descr1bed as
as “nowhereness”
“nowhereness” (Polk
(Polk 7)
7) and
and as
as “interstice”
“mterstlce”
(xi).
(xi). Nonplaces,
Nonplaces, however,
however, can
can signify
signify antipictures
antipictures of
of places;
places; that
that is,
is, they
they can
can function
function as
as

51
51
 What
What is is striking
striking is is that
that nonplaces
nonplaces are are notnot meaningless.
meaningless. Just Just as as
supermodern
supermodern nonplaces
nonplaces can can havehave an an ideological
ideological function
function or or cancan even
even be be
dispositifs
dispositifs in in the
the mainstream
mainstream spatial spatial framework,
framework, Munn’s Munn’s negative negative spaces spaces
represent
represent intact
intact places.
places. Aborigines’
Aborigines’ ritualritual of of detour
detour shows
shows their their awareness
awareness of of
these
these places,
places, which
which they they avoid
avoid constantly
constantly because because they they regard
regard them them as as
dangerous
dangerous (94).(94). As
As opposed
opposed to to Augé’s
Auge’s hyperreal
hyperreal nonplaces,
nonplaces, Munn’s Munn’s negative
negative
spaces
spaces are
are integral
integral inin transparent
transparent social
social space,
space, yetyet outside
outside it. it.
Hurston’s
Hurston’s cultural
cultural space
space hybridizes
hybridizes both, both, seemingly
seemingly mutually mutually exclusive,
exclusive,
aspects
aspects ofof nonplaces:
nonplaces: theirtheir transience
transience and and their
their precipitation-like
precipitation—like character.character. As As aa
Modernist
Modernist nonplace,
nonplace, herher cultural
cultural universe
universe can can then
then be be seen
seen as as hybridized
hybridized space space
within
within thethe framework
framework of of Black
Black Modernism.
Modernism. The The reasons
reasons are are twofold:
twofold: first, first,
criticized
criticized by by the
the mainstream
mainstream (and (and assimilationist)
assimilationist) black black intelligentsia—e.g.,
intelligentsia—e.g.,
Langston
Langston Hughes
Hughes and and Richard
Richard Wright—Hurston’s
Wright—Hurston’s cultural cultural space space was was regarded
regarded
as
as unrealistic
unrealistic andand inauthentic.
inauthentic. In In this
this sense,
sense, Hurston’s
Hurston’s space space represents
represents aa
marginal
marginal spatial
spatial discourse—a
discourse—a geopolitical
geopolitical aspect aspect of of nonplaces,
nonplaces, that that is,is, “With
“With
power
power generally
generally understood
understood to to reside
reside at at the
the centre,
centre, [. [. .. .]
.] margins
margins have have usually
usually
been
been understood
understood as as simply
simply objects
objects of of others’
others’ actions
actions [and][and] comprehended
comprehended as as
lacking
lacking subjectivity”
subjectivity” (Browning
(Browning and and Joenniemi
Joenniemi 700). 700). Second,
Second, HurstonHurston subverts
subverts
her
her rendition
rendition andand positioning
positioning as as marginal
marginal by by willfully
willfully realizing
realizing her her space
space in in
opposition
opposition to to white
white and black cultural
and black cultural space,
space, while
while heavily
heavily embedding
embedding it it in
in the
the
latter.
latter. She
She inverts
inverts the
the Great
Great Migration
Migration in in her
her novels,
novels, redirecting
redirecting it it toward
toward the the
South.
South. In In contrast
contrast to to the
the North,
North, thethe South
South holds
holds for for Hurston
Hurston the the mythic,
mythic,
hybridized
hybridized cradle
cradle ofof African
African Americanness
Americanness and and asas aa means
means of of criticism
criticism of of Black
Black
Modernism.
Modernism.
For
For Hurston
Hurston the the South
South constitutes
constitutes aa black black nonplace
nonplace in in contrast
contrast to to thethe
Modernist
Modernist cultural
cultural space
space of of the
the Harlem
Harlem Renaissance.
Renaissance. The The sharp
sharp distinction
distinction is is
emphasized
emphasized when when thethe Great
Great Migration
Migration is is mentioned
mentioned with with ironyirony in Jonah’s
in Jonah ’s as
as
“dis
“dis Nawth bound fever
Nawth bound fever laklak eve’ywhere
eve’ywhere else” else” (149).
(149). Explicit
Explicit ironyirony reappears
reappears
pronounced
pronounced by by the
the narrator,
narrator, thereby
thereby rendering
rendering the the statement
statement all all the
the more
more
political:
political: “On
“On to to the
the North!
North! TheThe land
land of
of promise”
promise” (151).(151). ThereThere is is an
an identifiable
identifiable
fissure
fissure within
within black
black cultural
cultural space, breaking it
space, breaking it down
down into into mainstream
mainstream social social
space
space andand distanced
distanced nonplace.
nonplace. JonahJonah’s ’s itself
itself asas “the
“the antonym
antonym of of discipline,
discipline,
order,
order, rationality—the
rationality—the antithesis
antithesis of of ‘civilized’”
‘civilized’” (Lemke(Lemke 4) 4) not
not onlyonly reifies
reifies

counterplaces
counterplaces toto oppose
oppose mainstream
mainstream power
power settings.
settings. In
In this
this way,
way, they
they can
can have
have political
political
content
content as
as far
far as
as they
they represent
represent opposites,
opposites, oror even
even alternatives.
alternatives. As
As Nigel
Nigel Rapport
Rapport and
and
Joanna
Joanna Overing
Overing claim,
claim, “non-places
“non—places serve
serve the
the purpose
purpose of of exploding
exploding thethe normative
normative
singularity
singularity of
of place;
place; so
so that
that place
place and
and non-place
non—place represent
represent contrastive
contrastive modalities,
modalities, the
the first
first
never
never wholly”
wholly” (293).
(293). Their
Their definition
definition further
further flavors
flavors Munn’s
Munn’s understanding,
understanding, butbut also
also
Augé’s,
Auge’s, in
in that
that Rapport
Rapport and
and Overing
Overing emphasize
emphasize thethe contradictory
contradictory relation between place
relation between place
and
and nonplace,
nonplace, while
while apparently
apparently suggesting
suggesting that,
that, asas modalities, both are
modalities, both are part
part of
of aa larger
larger
social
social space.
space.

52
52
superficially
superficially white
white conceptions
conceptions about
about African
African Americans,
Americans, but but also
also embodies
embodies
schism
schism by by standing
standing in in sharp
sharp contrast
contrast to to thethe Harlem
Harlem Renaissance’s
Renaissance’s
selfconception.
selfconception.
Apart
Apart from
from thethe geographical
geographical way
way of of signifying,
signifying, Hurston
Hurston employs
employs an
an
antipicture
antipicture ofof the
the Black
Black Modernist
Modernist ideology.
ideology. The The latter
latter was
was influenced
influenced
significantly by the
significantly by the drive
drive of
of selfdefense
selfdefense against
against white
white depictions
depictions of
of African
African
Americans,
Americans, and
and asas aa result
result of
of which
which it
it converged
converged toward
toward white
white Modernism
Modernism and
and
centered
centered around
around racial
racial issues.
issues. W.E.B.
W.E.B. DuBois
DuBois articulates
articulates itit precisely
precisely addressing
addressing
the
the issue
issue of
of African
African American
American double-consciousness
double—consciousness in in his
his Souls
Souls of Black Folk:
of Black Folk:

[.[. .. .]
.] this
this sense
sense ofof always
always looking
looking at at one’s
one’s self
self through
through the
the eyes
eyes of of the
the
others,
others, of of measuring
measuring one’s
one’s soul
soul by by the
the tape
tape of
of aa world
world that
that look
look onon in
in
amused
amused contempt
contempt and
and pity.
pity. [.
[. .. .]
.] The
The double
double aimed
aimed struggle
struggle of
of the black
the black
artisan–on
artisan—on the the one
one hand
hand to
to escape
escape white
white contempt
contempt forfor aa nation
nation of of mere
mere
hewers
hewers of of wood
wood and
and drawers
drawers of of water,
water, and
and on
on the
the other
other hand
hand to to plough
plough
and
and nail nail and
and dig
dig for
for poverty-stricken
poverty—stricken horde–could
horde—could onlyonly result
result inin making
making
him
him aa poorpoor craftsman,
craftsman, for
for he
he had
had butbut half
half aa heart
heart in
in either
either cause.
cause. (2-3)
(2—3)

As
As Sieglinde
Sieglinde Lemke
Lemke points
points out,
out, dualism
dualism present
present within
within Modernism
Modernism was was duedue to
to
“the
“the racist
racist imagination
imagination [which]
[which] conflated
conflated these
these two
two versions
versions ofof alterity
alterity [African
[African
American
American and and white]
white] and and defined
defined people
people of of African
African descent
descent asas irrational,
irrational,
uncivilized,
uncivilized, andand not-yet-modern”
not—yet—modern” (4-5).(4—5). Black
Black mainstream
mainstream Modernist
Modernist ideology
ideology
insisted
insisted onon debunking
debunking racial
racial conceptualizations
conceptualizations of of African
African Americans,
Americans, which which
certainly
certainly reproduced
reproduced notions
notions of of white
white Modernism
Modernism as as aa proof
proof ofof imagined
imagined
authenticity.
authenticity. Far be it
Far be it to
to claim
claim that
that Black
Black Modernism
Modernism is is simply
simply the
the reproduction
reproduction
of
of white
white Modernism,
Modernism, but, but, as
as James
James DeDe Jongh
Jongh insists,
insists, parallels
parallels can
can certainly
certainly be be
detected
detected such
such as
as the
the “chaotic
“chaotic cultural,
cultural, political,
political, even
even metaphysical
metaphysical ambiguities”
ambiguities”
(qtd.
(qtd. in Crossroads xv).
in Crossroads xv).
Hurston,
Hurston, onon the
the other
other hand,
hand, represents
represents aa split
split within
within Black
Black Modernism
Modernism as as
she
she distances
distances herself
herself from both white
from both white and
and Black
Black mainstream
mainstream Modernism.
Modernism.
Distancing
Distancing is is not
not negation
negation per per se, but the
se, but the creative,
creative, that
that is,
is, reinterpreting,
reinterpreting, useuse of
of
Modernist
Modernist notions
notions of both. Hybridity
of both. Hybridity renders
renders Hurston’s
Hurston’s worksworks Modernist
Modernist (see (see
Lemke
Lemke 15) 15) and
and establishes
establishes aa nonplace
nonplace inin Augé’s
Auge’s and
and Munn’s
Munn’s sense.
sense. Technically,
Technically,
Hurston’s
Hurston’s expertise
eXpertise in
in anthropology
anthropology provides
provides her
her with
with aa unique
unique view
view that
that shapes
shapes
her
her modernism
modernism and and undergirds
undergirds her her cultural
cultural politics:
politics:

While borrowings from

While borrowings from ethnography
ethnography and
and from
from the
the aesthetics
aesthetics of
of non-
non—
Western
Western cultures
cultures areare hallmarks
hallmarks ofof high
high modernist
modernist style,
style, these
these
appropriations
appropriations typically
typically serve
serve to
to dramatize
dramatize or or add
add weight
weight toto the
the
deracinated
deracinated artist’s
artist’s view
view of of modernity
modernity at at the
the center.
center. Hurston’s
Hurston’s
appropriations,
appropriations, on
on the
the other
other hand, bolster her
hand, bolster her call
call for
for recognition
recognition of
of the
the

53
53
 ties
ties that
that bind
bind the
the center’s
center’s experience
experience ofof modernity
modernity to
to disavowed
disavowed
experiences
experiences ofof modernity
modernity on
on the
the periphery
periphery that
that would
would otherwise be passed
otherwise be passed
off
off as
as pre-modern
pre—modern survivals.
survivals. (Sorensen)
(Sorensen)

In
In this
this way,
way, her her nonplace-like
nonplace—like places places such such as as the
the muck
muck in in Their Eyes or
Their Eyes or the
the site
site
of
of the barbecue in
the barbecue Jonah’s—both
in Jonah ’s—both lower-class,
lower—class, rural, rural, but, but, more
more importantly,
importantly,
African
African (American),
(American), thus thus supposedly
supposedly uncivilized ancivilizea’ and primitive—serve aa
and primitive—serve
centripetal
centripetal function
function in in that
that they
they display
display inclusion
inclusion of of marginal
marginal places
places in in the
the
cultural
cultural framework.
framework.
The
The criticism
criticism that that her her works
works incitedincited (see (see West
West 108-21)
108—21) shedssheds light
light onon the
the
nature
nature of of Hurston’s
Hurston’s cultural cultural politics.
politics. As As aa matter
matter of of fact,
fact, Richard
Richard Wright’s
Wright’s
criticism
criticism of of Their
Their Eyes Eyes Were Were Watching
Watching God God can can be be takentaken as as reference
reference to to
Hurston’s
Hurston’s world world as as aa cultural
cultural otherother in in this
this respect:
respect: “Miss “Miss Hurston
Hurston voluntarily
voluntarily
continues
continues in in her her novel
novel the the tradition
tradition that that was forced upon
was forced upon thethe Negro
Negro in in the
the
theatre,
theatre, thatthat is,is, thethe minstrel
minstrel technique
technique that that makes
makes the the ‘white
‘white folks’
folks’ laugh.
laugh. HerHer
characters
characters [. [. .. .]
.] swing
swing like like aa pendulum
pendulum eternally eternally in in that
that safesafe and
and narrow
narrow orbitorbit in in
which
which America
America likes likes to to see
see the
the Negro
Negro live: between laughter
live: between laughter and and tears”
tears” (251).
(251).
Hurston,
Hurston, the the anthropologist,
anthropologist, knew knew that that thethe segment
segment of of the black population
the black population she she
apparently
apparently idealized
idealized was was declining
declining and and in in minority
minority (Carby(Carby 121), but her
121), but her mode
mode of of
representation
representation emanated emanated from from the the dominant
dominant mode mode of of anthropological
anthropological
representation
representation of of thethe time.
time. As As HazelHazel V. V. Carby
Carby reminds
reminds us, us, Hurston
Hurston used used her her
expertise
eXpertise in in anthropology
anthropology to to “provid[e]
“provid[e] aa professional
professional point point of of view”
view” (124).
(124).
Concomitantly,
Concomitantly, imitation imitation and masking, two
and masking, two terms
terms that that Lynda
Lynda Marion
Marion Hill Hill
uses
uses toto describe
describe Hurston’s
Hurston’s culturalcultural politics,
politics, raiseraise the
the question
question of of authenticity,
authenticity, but but
in
in my
my lineline of of analysis,
analysis, they they lendlend Hurston’s
Hurston’s cultural cultural universe
universe aa nonplace-like
nonplace—like
character
character for for itsits trickster
trickster quality.
quality. Indeed
Indeed the the cultural
cultural performances
performances in in places
places like
like
the
the muck,
muck, roads,roads, or or the
the tie-camp
tie—camp in in the
the two two novels
novels render
render imitation
imitation aa trickster
trickster
strategy.
strategy. The The very very criticism
criticism that that Hurston
Hurston continues
continues the the tradition
tradition of of minstrel
minstrel
shows
shows with with their
their supposed
supposed stock stock characters
characters and and stereotypical
stereotypical atmospheres
atmospheres falls falls
in
in with
with “the“the Negro’s
Negro’s universal
universal mimicry”
mimicry” (“Characteristics”
(“Characteristics” 49), 49), which
which Hurston
Hurston
identifies
identifies in in her her ethnographic
ethnographic research. research. II much much ratherrather agree agree with
with Hill Hill that
that
Hurston
Hurston employs
employs the the strategy
strategy of of masking
masking as as “a“a vehicle
vehicle throughthrough which
which African-
African—
Americans
Americans transmutetransmute the the minstrel
minstrel mask mask into into cultural
cultural performances
performances which which are are at
at
once,
once, linguistic,
linguistic, artistic,artistic, and and politically
politically informed”
informed” (xxiii). (XXiii). Masking
Masking her her cultural
cultural
space
space as as aa static
static world
world that that seems
seems to to reinforce
reinforce racialracial stereotypes
stereotypes carries
carries on on the
the
tradition
tradition of of disguised
disguised resistance
resistance to to racialist
racialist conceptualizations
conceptualizations of of thethe African
African
American
American self, self, or, or, asas Hurston,
Hurston, calls calls it it aa “feather-bed
“feather—bed resistance”
resistance” (Mules(Males 4). 4). Her
Her
imitation
imitation of of the
the lower
lower classclass andand rural
rural people
people establishes
establishes for for Hill
Hill the
the originality
originality
of
of Hurston’s
Hurston’s works; works; furthermore,
furthermore, it it provides
provides Hurston Hurston with with aa toolbox
toolboX of of social
social
criticism.
criticism. In In this this way,
way, she she is is able
able to to neatly
neatly criticize
criticize “social
“social scientific
scientific
explanations
eXplanations of of cultural
cultural diffusion
diffusion and and assimilation”
assimilation” by, by, for for instance,
instance,
reconceptualizing
reconceptualizing stereotypes stereotypes (Hill (Hill 37).
37).

54
54
 Mimicry
Mimicry was was an an existing
existing formform of of cultural
cultural expression
expression also also supported
supported by by
white
white patrons,
patrons, who who demanded
demanded the the supply
supply of of African
African American
American cultural cultural
production
production reinforcing
reinforcing cultural
cultural stereotypes.
stereotypes. Hurston
Hurston and and other
other African
African American
American
writers,
writers, as as Brian
Brian Carr Carr and and Tova Tova CooperCooper suggest,suggest, “because
“because of of the the
commodification
commodification of of African-American
African—American bodies bodies andand cultural
cultural forms
forms persisting
persisting as as
slavery’s
slavery’s legacy,
legacy, werewere acutely
acutely awareaware of of the
the inevitable
inevitable cooptation
cooptation of of their
their
selfrepresentations
selfrepresentations within within aa systemsystem of of capitalist
capitalist exchange
exchange and and racialized
racialized
patronage”
patronage” (288).
(288). TheThe survival
survival of of African
African Americans
Americans as as writers
writers in in the
the literature
literature
market
market depended
depended on on their
their ability
ability to to adapt
adapt to to white
white expectations.
eXpectations. Hurston’s
Hurston’s
mimicry can
mimicry can then
then bebe explained
eXplained as as programmatic
programmatic inauthenticity
inauthenticity that that veils
veils over
over
authentic
authentic cultural
cultural performances.
performances.
Despite
Despite the the apparent
apparent inauthentic
inauthentic façadefacade Hurston
Hurston employs
employs as as aa cultural
cultural
performance
performance itself,
itself, the
the other
other aspect
aspect of of her
her nonplace-like
nonplace—like cultural
cultural space
space is,is, what
what
Carby
Carby depreciatively
depreciatively calls, calls, Hurston’s
Hurston’s “discursive
“discursive displacement
displacement of of contemporary
contemporary
social
social crises
crises [by]
[by] the
the creation
creation of of aa discourse
discourse of of the
the ‘folk’
‘folk’ asas aa rural
rural people”
people”
(Carby
(Carby 12).12). Quite
Quite the the contrary
contrary to to what
what Carby
Carby means means by by her
her statement,
statement, for for
Hurston, beyond the
Hurston, beyond the fact
fact that
that African
African Americans
Americans are are rooted
rooted in in southern
southern blackblack
culture,
culture, the
the replacement
replacement of of African
African Americans
Americans in in this
this cultural
cultural realm
realm serves
serves as as
the
the solution
solution of of the
the urban
urban crisis.
crisis. What
What seemsseems Hurston’s
Hurston’s antiurban
antiurban sentiment
sentiment is is aa
response
response to to the
the Modernist
Modernist crisis crisis that
that for
for African
African Americans
Americans is is clearly
clearly tainted
tainted
with
with selfconceptualization,
selfconceptualization, the the struggle
struggle against
against racism,
racism, and and social
social problems
problems of of
urbanization.
urbanization. Placing
Placing the the problematization
problematization of of African
African Americans
Americans in in aa southern
southern
rural
rural environment,
environment, that that is,
is, Florida—truly
Florida—truly enough, enough, idealized
idealized and and pastoral
pastoral as as itit
appears—Hurston
appears—Hurston establishesestablishes aa space space thatthat geographically
geographically relocates
relocates them them in in aa
space
space that
that effects
effects politically
politically an an antidiscourse
antidiscourse regarding
regarding the the expectations
eXpectations of of the
the
politics
politics of
of the
the urban
urban Black
Black intelligentsia.
intelligentsia.
Nevertheless
Nevertheless Hurston’s
Hurston’s cultural
cultural politics
politics places
places her her clearly
clearly in in the
the centre
centre of of
the
the Harlem
Harlem Renaissance
Renaissance and and in in the
the Modernist
Modernist discourse:
discourse: her her concept
concept of of culture
culture
shows
shows that
that Hurston’s
Hurston’s view view integrates
integrates both both thethe modern,
modern, relativist
relativist approach
approach to to
culture
culture and
and thethe Lockean
Lockean concept
concept of of the Negro with
New Negro
the New with aa “new
“new psychology”
psychology”
and
and “new
“new spirit”
spirit” (Locke
(Locke 3). 3). Hurston’s
Hurston’s Janie Janie and
and John
John crystallize
crystallize subjects
subjects withwith an an
integrated
integrated cultural background with
cultural background with autonomous
autonomous cultural cultural identities
identities in in mostly
mostly
chemically
chemically pure black environments.
pure black environments. Janie’s Janie’s newnew subjectivity
subjectivity is is stunningly
stunningly
explicated
eXplicated at at the
the end
end ofof her journey: “The
her journey: “The light
light inin her
her hand
hand was
was likelike aa spark
spark of of
sun-stuff
sun—stuff washing
washing her her face
face inin fire”
fire” (Their Eyes 183).
(Their Eyes 183). TheThe religious
religious connotation
connotation
22
of
of the
the scene
scene22 elevates
elevates Janie
Janie with
with allall her
her insight
insight to to aa position
position which
which grants
grants her her
authentic
authentic identity.
identity.

22
22 Moses’s
Moses’s face
face was
was shining
shining after
after an
an encounter
encounter with
with God,
God, when
when he
he received
received the
the Ten
Ten
Commandments:
Commandments: “And
“And till
till Moses
Moses had
had done
done speaking
speaking with
with them,
them, he
he put
put aa vail
vail on
on his
his face.
face.
But
But when
when Moses
Moses went
went in before the
in before the LORD
LORD to to speak
speak with
with him,
him, he
he took
took the
the vail
vail off,
off, until
until he
he
came
came out.
out. And
And he
he came
came out,
out, and
and spake
spake unto
unto the
the children
children of
of Israel
Israel that
that which
which he he was
was
commanded.
commanded. And
And the
the children
children of
of Israel
Israel saw
saw the
the face
face of
of Moses,
Moses, that
that the
the skin
skin of
of Moses’
Moses’ face
face

55
55
 In
In fact,
fact, her
her concept
concept of of culture
culture becomes
becomes the the source
source ofof her
her modernism:
modernism: as as
Leif
Leif Sorensen
Sorensen claims,
claims, aa “mode
“mode of of modernism
modernism that, that, instead
instead of of dramatizing
dramatizing the the
perils
perils or
or pleasures
pleasures of of aa particular
particular totalized
totalized modernity,
modernity, creates
creates aa discursive
discursive spacespace
in
in which
which multiple
multiple claims
claims to to modernity
modernity compete
compete with
with one
one another”
another” (par. (par. 4).
4).
According
According to to Sorensen,
Sorensen, her her diversity
diversity concept
concept relies
relies on
on aa twofold
twofold basis,basis, that
that ofof
racial
racial and
and gender
gender marginalization
marginalization manifestedmanifested already
already in in herher ethnographic
ethnographic
writing;
writing; andand so so her
her experience
eXperience of of marginalization
marginalization alongalong these
these lines
lines during
during her
her
research
research trips
trips must
must have
have mademade her her understand
understand struggle
struggle within
within culture.
culture.
The
The primary
primary evidence
evidence against
against thethe claim
claim that
that Hurston
Hurston would
would return
return toto the
the
minstrel
minstrel tradition
tradition is is that
that her her cultural
cultural spacespace maintains
maintains the the heterogeneous
heterogeneous
character
character she she gives
gives account
account of of in Mules and
in Mules Men and
and Men and Tell
Tell My Horse. As
My Horse. As Hill
Hill
points
points out,
out, “she
“she left
left every
every inch inch of of contradiction
contradiction and and ambiguity
ambiguity in in place.
place. The
The
result
result is
is that
that her
her work
work constantly
constantly reminds
reminds us us of
of unresolved
unresolved tensions
tensions surrounding
surrounding
any
any mention
mention of of racial,
racial, cultural,
cultural, social,
social, and
and sexual
sexual differences
differences and and of of the
the power
power
struggles”
struggles” (xxxi).
(XXXi). Concomitantly,
Concomitantly, her her writing
writing mirrors
mirrors her
her research
research findings
findings as as
she
she allows
allows her her ethnographic
ethnographic gaze gaze to to penetrate
penetrate thethe places
places of of her
her characters;
characters; as as
well
well asas it
it reflects
reflects her
her selfevaluation vis-c‘z-vis white
selfevaluation vis-à-vis white and black social
and black social spaces,
spaces, andand
her
her positioning
positioning in in the
the midst
midst of of her
her research.
research. As As her
her nonplaces
nonplaces suggest,
suggest, including
including
the
the masculine
masculine games games in in the
the tie-camp
tie—camp and and the
the work
work songs
songs inin the
the construction
construction site site
for
for railroads
railroads in Jonah’s,
in Jonah ’s, she
she works
works with
with thethe cultural
cultural information borrowed and
information borrowed and
distilled
distilled from
from her her ethnographic
ethnographic knowledge.
knowledge. Hurston’s
Hurston’s cultural
cultural space
space appears,
appears, in in
fact,
fact, as
as ambivalent
ambivalent as as that
that ofof her
her time.
time.

4.2. Nonplace in the Two Novels

The
The heterogeneity
heterogeneity of of her
her cultural
cultural space
space is is revealed
revealed by by thethe spatial
spatial
orientations
orientations despite
despite Hurston’s
Hurston’s masking
masking and and undermines
undermines her her presumed
presumed
inauthenticity.
inauthenticity. John’s
John’s close
close identification
identification withwith nature
nature proposes
proposes this
this view:
view: “Ah’ll
“Ah’ll
tip
tip on
on ‘cross
‘cross de
de good
good Lawd’s
Lawd’s green.
green. Ah’ll
Ah’ll give
give mah
mah case
case tuh
tuh Miss
Miss Bush
Bush and
and let
let
Mother
Mother Green
Green stand
stand mah
mah bond”
bond” (95).(95). John’s
John’s confession
confession notnot only
only suggests
suggests aa
well-anchored
well—anchored cultural
cultural identity, but also
identity, but also an
an orientation
orientation yet
yet distanced
distanced eveneven from
from
mainstream
mainstream Southern black cultural
Southern black cultural space.
space.
Nonplaces
Nonplaces thus
thus have
have aa clear
clear function
function inin Hurston’s
Hurston’s work
work andand come
come toto the
the
foreground
foreground powerfully
powerfully in Jonah’s.
in Jonah ’s. As
As John
John keeps
keeps running
running away,
away, hehe always
always flees
flees
from
from something
something somewhere
somewhere to to elsewhere,
elsewhere, which
which isis constituted
constituted asas aa safe
safe haven
haven inin
the
the unknown
unknown from
from the
the point
point of
of view
view ofof status
status quo
quo society.
society. Alf
Alf Pearson,
Pearson, the
the

shone
shone [. [. .. .]”
.]” (KJV,
(KJV, Ex.EX. 34:
34: 32-35).
32—35). Janie’s
Janie’s shining
shining face
face detaches
detaches her
her from
from the black
the black
community
community also also inin aa moral
moral way: just like
way: just like Moses,
Moses, she becomes the
she becomes the carrier
carrier of
of knowledge,
knowledge, aa
prophet
prophet to to announce
announce aa new new phase
phase in
in the
the community’s
community’s life.
life. At
At the
the same
same time,
time, Janie’s
Janie’s
shining
shining face
face is is Hurston’s
Hurston’s ultimate
ultimate criticism
criticism of
of her
her community:
community: Moses’s
Moses’s veilveil was
was not
not
understood
understood by by the
the Jews
Jews (see
(see 2
2 Cor.
Cor. 3:14-16)
3:14—16) and
and the
the shining
shining face
face denoting
denoting liberty
liberty (2
(2 Cor.
Cor.
3:16)
3: 16) is
is not
not accepted
accepted by by the
the Harlem
Harlem community
community either.
either.

56
56
formal
formal slaveowner,
slaveowner, verbalizes verbalizes the the normative
normative expectations
expectations of of transparent
transparent space: space:
“Stop
“Stop running
running away. away. Face Face things
things out” out” (67),
(67), which
which aims aims at at keeping
keeping John John in in his
his
place,
place, that
that is, is, inin the
the visible
visible (even (even if if he
he confesses
confesses later later that
that “John,
“John, distance
distance is is the
the
only
only cure
cure for for certain
certain diseases”
diseases” [99]). [99]). At At thethe samesame time, time, the the strangeness
strangeness of of
nonplaces
nonplaces proves proves to to be be affirming
affirming for for refugees
refugees from from the the transparent.
transparent. As As it it isis
narrated,
narrated, “Distance
“Distance was was escape”
escape” (47). (47). The The positive
positive approach
approach to to nonplaces
nonplaces is is
supported
supported by by the the title
title of of the book itself.
the book itself. Jonah
Jonah in in the
the BibleBible left left thethe city
city of of
Nineveh
Nineveh and and foundfound shelter
shelter underunder aa gourd gourd vine vine provided
provided by by God God “to “to give
give shadeshade
for
for his
his head
head to to ease
ease hishis discomfort”
discomfort” (NIV, (NIV, Jonah Jonah 4:6).
4:6). Nonplaces
Nonplaces elsewhere, elsewhere, that that
is,
is, not
not inin the
the normative
normative framework framework of of social
social space,
space, but but in in opposition
opposition to to it,it, are
are
regarded
regarded in Jonah’s
in Jonah ’s as
as something
something positivepositive and and individual(izing).
individual(izing).
In
In this
this framework,
framework, Hurston Hurston inverts
inverts the the meaning
meaning of of roads
roads by by transforming
transforming
them
them from
from gendered
gendered space space denoting
denoting masculine
masculine mobility mobility (as (as opposed
opposed to to female
female
situatedness
situatedness in in domestic
domestic space) space) intointo aa cultural
cultural performance
performance of of detour,
detour, that that is, is, aa
nonplace,
nonplace, wherewhere the the paradigm
paradigm of of social
social spacespace is is not binding. When
not binding. When it it is
is stated
stated in in
Their Eyes that,
Their Eyes that, on on leaving
leaving Killicks’s
Killicks’s place, place, “[Janie]
“[Janie] turnedturned wrongside
wrongside out out justjust
standing
standing there
there and and feeling
feeling [and] [and] hurried
hurried out out ofof the
the front
front gate gate and and turning
turning south” south”
(30-31),
(30—31), it it is is shown
shown how how her body is
her body is identified
identified with with what what the the roadroad denotes.
denotes.
Through
Through turning
turning inside inside out, out, attempting
attempting to to find
find realization
realization of of herher inner
inner life life in in
space
space forfor the the first
first time;
time; she she temporarily
temporarily resolves resolves the the “imbalance
“imbalance between between
internal
internal andand external
external space” space” (351)(351) Stuart
Stuart Aitken
Aitken and and Christopher
Christopher Lukinbeal Lukinbeal talk talk
about
about regarding
regarding road road films.
films. Janie breaks away
Janie breaks away from from masculine
masculine social social space,space, and and
enters
enters the
the “antithesis
“antithesis to to aa familiar
familiar place”place” (Steinke
(Steinke 3), 3), which
which is is not
not incorporated
incorporated
into
into the
the order
order of of society.
society. She She feels
feels liberated
liberated for for twotwo important
important reasons: reasons: a) a) here
here
she
she can
can reminisce
reminisce about about the the vision
vision encountered
encountered under under the the pear
pear tree tree at at Nanny’s
Nanny’s
place
place and
and accentuating
accentuating her her subjectivity;
subjectivity; b) b) from
from the the point
point of of view
view of of Hurston’s
Hurston’s
cultural
cultural politics,
politics, Janie’sJanie’s turningturning southsouth renders
renders her her quest
quest for for identity
identity visiblevisible in in
cultural
cultural terms.
terms. As As she she starts
starts her journey heading
her journey heading south, south, she she not not onlyonly begins
begins to to
reconnect
reconnect symbolically
symbolically to to aa region,
region, but but also
also commences
commences to to quest
quest for for her
her self.
self.
A
A similar
similar conceptualization
conceptualization of of the
the road
road is is also
also present
present in Jonah’s.
in Jonah ’s. John
John
leaves
leaves Ned’s
Ned’s place place “singing
“singing aa new new songsong and and stomping
stomping the beats” (12).
the beats” (12). The The Big Big
Creek
Creek visualizes
visualizes an an “intermediate
“intermediate point” point” (141) (141) and and “a “a hubhub of of irresponsibility”
irresponsibility”
(Archer
(Archer 142) 142) whichwhich standsstands in in aa sharp
sharp contrast
contrast to to the barrenness of
the barrenness of the
the previous
previous
place.
place. ItIt is
is notnot only
only filled
filled withwith lifelife andand vitality,
vitality, but but it it appears
appears familiar
familiar with with its its
naturalness
naturalness and and eveneven coziness:
coziness: the the vivid
vivid description
description and and the the emotionally
emotionally
suggestive
suggestive words words are are accompanied
accompanied by by thethe emergence
emergence of of African
African memories memories
embodied
embodied by by “the“the drums
drums of of the
the Creek”
Creek” (12). (12). TheThe freedom
freedom John John experiences
experiences is is
grounded
grounded in in bothboth the the relief
relief fromfrom “place-based
“place—based sedentarism”
sedentarism” (Aitken (Aitken and and
23
Lukinbeal
Lukinbeal 351) 351)23 accentuated
accentuated by by Ned’sNed’s oppressive
oppressive nature nature and and “disengaged
“disengaged
23
23 In
In their
their essay
essay Stuart
Stuart C.
C. Aitken
Aitken and
and Christopher
Christopher Lee
Lee Lukinbeal
Lukinbeal examine
examine “home-based
“home—based
masculinity”
masculinity” and
and “resistance
“resistance to
to mere
mere adequacy
adequacy through
through travel
travel and
and the
the road”
road” (351)
(351) in
in road
road
movies.
movies. They
They identify
identify tension between “place-based
tension between “place—based masculinity”
masculinity” and
and “disassociated
“disassociated

57
57
mobility”
mobility” (351) (351) flavored
flavored by by thethe hope
hope for for selffulfillment.
selffulfillment. Realized Realized outside
outside the the
boundaries
boundaries of of social
social space,
space, the the in-betweenness
in—betweenness of of the the Creek
Creek cannot cannot be be
conceptualized
conceptualized by by either
either thethe world
world that that we we get get toto know
know throughthrough Ned’s Ned’s place place or or
Pearson’s
Pearson’s place.place. Exactly
Exactly thisthis character
character of of the
the roads
roads and and locales
locales in in nature
nature renders
renders
them
them transient
transient (and (and rigid
rigid forfor social
social space’s
space’s incapability
incapability to to conceptualize
conceptualize them), them),
that
that is,
is, subjective
subjective and and openopen for for temporary
temporary inhabiting.inhabiting. John John enlivens
enlivens and and
inscribes
inscribes the the place
place as as hehe passes
passes through
through it: it: for
for example,
example, he he incorporates
incorporates the the
place
place into
into hishis world
world whenwhen his his selfexulting
selfexulting masculinity
masculinity is is shown
shown in in the
the fact
fact that
that
“he breathe[s] lustily”
“he breathe[s] lustily” (12)
(12) andand swims
swims acrossacross the the river
river naked.
naked.
The
The muck muck in in Their
Their EyesEyes symbolizes
symbolizes Hurston’sHurston’s antipicture
antipicture of of society
society and and
her
her primary
primary means means of of “solidify[ing]
“solidify[ing] aa notion notion of of racial
racial authenticity
authenticity in in southern
southern
rural
rural geographies”
geographies” (Favor (Favor 16). 16). The The transience
transience Augé Auge ascribesascribes to to nonplaces
nonplaces
becomes
becomes here here visible:
visible: the the muck
muck is is filled
filled withwith people
people of of many
many different
different origins origins
from
from time
time to to time,
time, as as the jobs of
the jobs of the
the season
season allow.allow. As As it it is
is narrated,
narrated, “They“They came came
in
in wagons
wagons from from wayway up up inin Georgia
Georgia and and they
they came came in in truck
truck loadsloads fromfrom east,
east, west,
west,
north
north and and south.
south. Permanent
Permanent transients
transients with with no no attachments
attachments and and tired
tired looking
looking
men
men with
with their
their families
families and and dogsdogs in in flivvers”
flivvers” (125). (125). The The land land isis not
not claimed
claimed by by
any,
any, homogeneous
homogeneous social social space
space as as in
in the
the case
case of of Eatonville,
Eatonville, or or the
the white
white cities;
cities;
much
much rather,
rather, through
through the the mobility
mobility of of the the people
people it it becomes
becomes dynamically
dynamically
changing
changing itself,
itself, depending
depending on on those
those who who inhabit
inhabit it it for
for the the time being. In
time being. In the
the
democratic
democratic atmosphere
atmosphere of of social juxtaposition, Hurston
social juxtaposition, Hurston accounts accounts for for aa web web of of
places
places and and temporary
temporary socialsocial tiesties that
that inin aa nonhierarchical
nonhierarchical way way interconnect
interconnect the the
workers.
workers. The The political
political content becomes even
content becomes even more more relevant
relevant if if the
the proletarian
proletarian
fiction
fiction of of Richard
Richard RightRight and and Langston
Langston Hughes Hughes is is seen
seen as as the
the other
other polepole of of the
the
spectrum.
spectrum. While While Hurston
Hurston also also addresses
addresses implicitly
implicitly the the urban
urban crisis
crisis African
African
Americans
Americans have have to to face,
face, she
she emphasizes
emphasizes aa radicallyradically different
different African
African American
American
self
self embedded
embedded in in African
African American
American culture culture precipitated
precipitated by by the
the cultural
cultural spacespace of of
the
the Everglades.
Everglades. As As Mary
Mary HelenHelen Washington
Washington claims, claims, Hurston
Hurston writes writes about about “the“the
survival
survival of of love,
love, loyalty, joy, humor,
loyalty, joy, humor, and and affirmation,
affirmation, as as well
well asas tragedy
tragedy in black
in black
life
life [because]
[because] she believed in
she believed in the beauty of
the beauty black expression
of black expression and and traditions
traditions and and
in
in the
the psychological
psychological wholeness
wholeness of black life”
of black life” (138).
(138).
In
In fact,
fact, African
African American
American cultural cultural space space is is what
what connects
connects the the people
people of of
African
African descent
descent in in the
the Everglades.
Everglades. The The cultural
cultural artifacts
artifacts that that reflect
reflect Hurston’s
Hurston’s
anthropological
anthropological research,research, as as well
well as as around
around which which the the social
social space
space of of the
the muck
muck
evolves;
evolves; suggest
suggest aa deeper
deeper structure
structure of of connectedness.
connectedness. Jooks, Jooks, games,
games, the blues,
the blues,
and
and storytelling
storytelling establish
establish aa contextcontext freed freed from from “restrictive
“restrictive organizational
organizational
structure”
structure” (McGowan
(McGowan 1) 1) in
in which
which everyevery member
member of of the
the Everglades
Everglades society society can can
let
let his/her
his/her voice
voice be be heard.
heard. As As itit is
is put
put inin regarding
regarding Janie, Janie, “Only“Only here,here, sheshe could
could

masculinity” both part

masculinity” both part of
of the
the patriarchal
patriarchal myth.
myth. However,
However, the the latter
latter also
also carries
carries the
the
possibility
possibility of
of male
male hysteria.
hysteria. For
For Hurston’s
Hurston’s John
John the
the road brings on
road brings on aa liberating
liberating experience
experience
as
as it
it “supplants
“supplants place-identity
place—identity with
with aa personal
personal geography
geography that
that is based upon
is based upon movement
movement andand
mobility”
mobility” (351)
(351) as
as do
do roads
roads for
for men
men inin films
films examined
examined in
in the
the essay.
essay.

58
58
listen
listen and
and laugh
laugh an an even
even talk
talk some
some herself
herself if if she
she wanted
wanted to”to” (Their
(Their EyesEyes 128).128).
Hurston
Hurston identifies
identifies aa deeper deeper African
African American
American stratum stratum thatthat also
also appears
appears in in other
other
works
works of of hers:
hers: the the throbbing
throbbing and and pulsing
pulsing of of Africanisms
Africanisms crystallized
crystallized on on thethe
muck,
muck, for for instance,
instance, in in “the
“the subtle
subtle but but compelling
compelling rhythms rhythms of of the
the Bahaman
Bahaman
drummers”
drummers” (133) (133) or or fire
fire dances
dances (146).
(146).
Despite
Despite the the seeming
seeming overdetermination
overdetermination of of her
her political
political philosophy,
philosophy,
Hurston
Hurston maintains
maintains the the tension
tension in in her
her imagined
imagined society.society. Class
Class struggle
struggle triggered
triggered
by
by color
color politics
politics appears
appears with with Mrs.
Mrs. Turner’s
Turner’s “internalized
“internalized racism”
racism” (Haddox
(HaddoX par. par.
27),
27), who
who represents
represents that that “Us
“Us ought
ought to to class
class off”
off” (135),
(135), whereby
whereby she she also
also admits
admits
aa sublime
sublime and and other-oriented
other—oriented racial racial discourse.
discourse. Gender Gender struggle
struggle entersenters with with
Nunkie;
Nunkie; however,
however, here here it it is
is more balanced, as
more balanced, as itit is
is Janie,
Janie, who
who once
once claims
claims Tea Tea
Cake
Cake and and beats
beats him,him, and and another
another timetime Tea Tea Cake behaves possessively
Cake behaves possessively in in front
front of of
other
other men.
men.
Despite
Despite the the tension
tension manifesting
manifesting the the race-gender-class
race—gender—class trichotomy,
trichotomy, the the
Everglades
Everglades society society remainsremains pluralistic
pluralistic and and democratic.
democratic. Janie Janie once becomes
once becomes
conscious
conscious of of “a band of
“a band of Seminoles
Seminoles passing
passing by” by” who
who she she “[h]as
“[h]as seen
seen [. [. .. .]
.] several
several
times”
times” (146).
(146). It It happens
happens before before the the hurricane
hurricane strikes,
strikes, during
during whichwhich the the
Everglades
Everglades with with all all possible
possible differences
differences is is literally
literally washed
washed together.
together. The The
frequent
frequent presence
presence of of Native
Native Americans,
Americans, as as well
well as as the
the way
way their
their procession
procession is is
described,
described, that that is, is, they
they passpass by by naturally
naturally withoutwithout fear fear asas parts
parts ofof thethe scene,
scene,
suggest
suggest that
that they
they form form aa part part ofof the
the cultural
cultural landscape
landscape in in Hurston’s
Hurston’s conception
conception
despite
despite their
their apparent
apparent otherness otherness and and subverted
subverted position.
position. Furthermore,
Furthermore, the the
Bahaman
Bahaman workersworkers embody embody not not only
only another
another segment
segment of of the
the Everglades
Everglades social social
space
space further
further coloring
coloring the the demographic
demographic spectrum,spectrum, but but also
also they
they are
are integrated
integrated in in
it
it as
as they
they areare “gradually
“gradually drawn drawn intointo the the American
American [that [that is,
is, mainland]
mainland] crowd” crowd”
(146).
(146). Clearly
Clearly and and especially
especially when when the the analogous
analogous scenes scenes in Jonah’s
in Jonah ’s are
are
considered,
considered, when when the the “Saws”
“Saws” “quit“quit hiding
hiding out out toto hold
hold their
their dances”
dances” (146),
(146), their
their
integration
integration into into the the African
African American
American culturalcultural plethora becomes palpable.
plethora becomes palpable. The The
folk
folk religious
religious notions
notions maintained
maintained from from African
African religions
religions further
further crystallize
crystallize an an
Africanist
Africanist connection.
connection. On On the
the advent
advent of of the
the hurricane
hurricane Lias Lias says,
says, for
for instance,
instance, “If “If
Ah
Ah never
never seesee you
you no no mo’mo’ onon earth,
earth, Ah’ll
Ah’ll meet meet you you in in Africa”
Africa” (148).
(148). It It was
was thethe
belief
belief of of slaves
slaves that that whenwhen theythey die,
die, they
they return
return to to Africa.
Africa. TheThe recollection
recollection of of
African
African beliefs
beliefs and and tradition,
tradition, and and foremost
foremost their their praxis
praXis byby mainland
mainland African African
Americans
Americans engender
engender aa deep deep structure
structure of of aa shared
shared cultural
cultural space.
space.
In Jonah’s
In Jonah ’s the
the muck’s
muck’s democratic
democratic vision vision detectable
detectable in in Their
Their EyesEyes Were Were
Watching
Watching God God doesdoes not not materialize
materialize as as an an overt
overt political
political agenda.
agenda. However,
However, it it is
is
present
present in in anan even
even more more culturally
culturally implosive
implosive way, way, “clearing
“clearing awayaway competing
competing
historical
historical explanations
explanations from from different
different times,times, places,
places, and and identities”
identities” (Hughes-
(Hughes—
24
Warrington
Warrington 75). 75).24 On On Pearson’s
Pearson’s place place therethere takes
takes place
place aa black
black festival
festival after after
24
24 Marnie
Marnie Hughes-Warrington
Hughes—Warrington addresses
addresses the
the issue
issue of
of revision
revision in
in history,
history, which
which she
she identifies
identifies
as
as aa nonplace
nonplace for
for its
its non-sequential
non—sequential nature.
nature. She
She acknowledges
acknowledges thethe heterotopic
heterotopic character
character of
of
history
history and
and the juxtaposition of
the juxtaposition of rival
rival histories.
histories. As
As she
she claims,
claims, “Spatial
“Spatial imagery
imagery and
and

59
59
cotton
cotton picking.
picking. Hurston
Hurston uses uses this this event
event as as almost
almost an an ethnographic
ethnographic account account of of an
an
anthropologist,
anthropologist, yet yet inin this
this line
line of of analysis
analysis the the place
place described
described gains gains relevance
relevance as as
alternative
alternative to to social
social space.
space. For For one,one, people
people comecome here here from
from their
their homes,
homes, that that is,
is,
from
from their
their point
point of of view
view they they go go to to aa place
place undermining
undermining their their time-space
time—space
disposition.
disposition. It It isis narrated
narrated that that people
people stream
stream from from three
three different
different plantations
plantations
(28).
(28). The
The designation
designation of of their
their home home as as “plantation”
“plantation” is is also
also relevant,
relevant, since since the
the
novel
novel stages
stages events
events afterafter the
the abolition
abolition of of slavery,
slavery, but but the
the word
word yet yet connotes
connotes the the
subservient
subservient position
position of blacks. It
of blacks. It isis also
also heightened
heightened by by the
the remark
remark that that “Alf
“Alf
Pearson
Pearson gave
gave the the hands
hands two two hogs hogs to barbecue” (28).
to barbecue” (28). While
While the the whole
whole event event isis
presented
presented as as an an integrated
integrated and and ahistorical
ahistorical happening,
happening, the the festive
festive eventevent also
also
happens
happens as as hide-aways
hide—aways used used to to inin the
the time
time of of slavery
slavery when blacks stole
when blacks stole awayaway to to
secret
secret places
places of of sacred
sacred grounds.
grounds.
For
For the
the Africanisms
Africanisms present, present, the the event
event possesses
possesses aa transpatial
transpatial character,
character,
which
which is is why
why the the negative-space-like
negative—space—like nature nature in in Munn’s
Munn’s sense sense is is furthermore
furthermore
complemented
complemented by by aa heterotopous
heterotopous character. character. The The positioning
positioning of of the
the event
event is is
relevant:
relevant: thethe barbecuing
barbecuing takes takes place place on on Pearson’s
Pearson’s plantation,
plantation, which which has has aa
transparent
transparent character,
character, similarsimilar to to the
the “panopticon”
“panopticon” describeddescribed by by Foucault
Foucault in in his
his
Discipline and
Discipline Punish. As
and Punish. As it it is,
is, thethe plantation
plantation provides
provides the the framework
framework and and
conditions
conditions thusthus what
what can can take
take placeplace there,
there, asas well
well as as in
in what
what manner.
manner. Pearson’s
Pearson’s
person becomes, in
person becomes, in this
this way,
way, the the node
node of of possible
possible actions
actions overseen
overseen by by himhim asas the
the
plantation
plantation can can be be regarded
regarded as as thethe embodiment
embodiment of of his
his self,
self, and,
and, in in aa likewise
likewise
manner,
manner, his body as
his body as the
the signifier
signifier of of the
the semantics
semantics of of the
the social
social space
space of of the
the
plantation.
plantation. Pearson
Pearson is is presented
presented as as the
the frame,
frame, remaining
remaining an an outsider,
outsider, yet yet
omniscient
omniscient simultaneously,
simultaneously, and and staged
staged as as the benevolent benefactor,
the benevolent benefactor, signifying
signifying
hierarchy
hierarchy butbut also
also distance.
distance.
The juxtaposition of
The juxtaposition of the
the two,two, seemingly
seemingly mutually
mutually exclusive
exclusive spaces,spaces, thatthat is,
is,
African
African American
American culturalcultural spacespace and and Pearson’s
Pearson’s transparent
transparent social social space,
space, which
which
is
is constructed
constructed on on racial bias and
racial bias and embodies
embodies white white aristocratic
aristocratic values;
values; suggests
suggests
relative
relative independence
independence and and integrity
integrity of both spaces.
of both spaces. This This derives
derives from from thethe
presentation
presentation of of African
African American
American cultural cultural space
space as as an
an authentic
authentic space space intruding
intruding
into
into the
the Euro-American
Euro—American spatial spatial framework,
framework, yet yet with
with considerable
considerable “freedom“freedom from from
the
the constraints
constraints of of proximity”
proximity” (Arefi (Arefi 180).180). TheThe insistence
insistence on on African
African religious
religious
elements
elements heighten
heighten the the sense
sense of of distinctiveness
distinctiveness and and on on standing
standing apart apart fromfrom the
the
white
white cultural
cultural framework.
framework. The The difference
difference establishes
establishes palpable boundaries
palpable boundaries
between
between the the two
two spaces.
spaces. The The scene scene appears
appears aa condensation
condensation of of thethe society
society of of the
the
muck
muck in in Their Eyes, which
Their Eyes, which there,
there, however,
however, becomesbecomes aa geographical
geographical constant constant for for
its
its geographical
geographical separation
separation from from both both black
black and and white
white social
social spaces.
spaces. The The series
series
of
of events
events underline
underline that, that, apart
apart from from the the religio-cultural
religio—cultural character
character lendinglending an an
unmistakably
unmistakably AfricanAfrican atmosphere
atmosphere to to this
this event,
event, the the types
types of of social
social interaction
interaction

language
language are
are used
used to to construct
construct temporary
temporary discursive
discursive spaces
spaces in
in which
which rival
rival historiographies
historiographies
are
are excluded
excluded [.
[. .. .]”
.]” (75).
(75). Temporality
Temporality and
and detachment
detachment from
from other
other homogenizing
homogenizing contexts
contexts
render
render her
her these
these discursive
discursive spaces
spaces akin
akin with
with nonplaces.
nonplaces.

60
60
firmly
firmly anchor
anchor it it in
in African
African American
American culture—a culture—a clear clear indication
indication of of Hurston’s
Hurston’s
negation
negation of of minstrelsy
minstrelsy and and her
her “defiance
“defiance of of popular
popular representations
representations of of the black
the black
folk”
folk” (Trombold
(Trombold 91). 91).
Inwardly
Inwardly African
African American
American cultural cultural spacespace is is implosive,
implosive, on on the
the oneone hand,
hand,
through
through an an act
act ofof transposition
transposition of of Africa
Africa intointo Alabama
Alabama and and “tactical
“tactical redefinition
redefinition
of
of the
the meaning”
meaning” (86), (86), rendering
rendering the the scene
scene of of the
the event
event heterotopous.
heterotopous. There There is is not
not
any
any oscillation between the
oscillation between the twotwo worlds:
worlds: due due to to missing
missing anchorage
anchorage in in social
social
space,
space, justjust as as nonplaces
nonplaces for for Mahyar
Mahyar Arefi, Arefi, the barbecue “lacks
the barbecue “lacks any any
chronological
chronological connection
connection to to aa broader
broader physical,
physical, cultural
cultural or or emotional
emotional context”
context”
(183).
(183). On On the
the other
other hand,
hand, thethe framework
framework is is established
established as as homogeneous
homogeneous within, within,
through
through African
African American
American cultural
cultural praxis praXis and and artifacts.
artifacts. Dancing,
Dancing, in in the
the first
first
place,
place, butbut also
also the
the musical
musical instruments
instruments (e.g., (e.g., hands,
hands, feet,feet, andand drums)
drums) serve
serve as as the
the
performative
performative tools tools to to create
create the the cultural
cultural framework,
framework, that that is,
is, “hollow-hand
“hollow—hand
clapping”
clapping” and and “heel
“heel and and toe
toe stomping”
stomping” (30) (30) as as reminders
reminders of both tribal
of both tribal vitality
vitality
and
and slavery-time
slavery—time congeniality.
congeniality.
Even
Even though
though sacredsacred places
places of of Hurston’s
Hurston’s religio-cultural
religio—cultural space space form form my my
main
main focus
focus ofof the
the next
next chapter,
chapter, it it must
must be be mentioned
mentioned that that sacred
sacred places
places havehave alsoalso
aa nonplace-like
nonplace—like character
character not not for
for transience,
transience, but but for for their
their essential
essential otherness
otherness that that
denotes
denotes themthem as as timeless
timeless and and detached
detached from from social
social space.space. In In Hurston’s
Hurston’s fictionfiction
religion
religion has has aa definite
definite role role in in the the construction
construction of of social
social space;
space; however,
however, by by
incorporating
incorporating also also non-Christian
non—Christian elements elements in in it,it, the binary of
the binary of place
place versusversus
nonplace
nonplace regarding
regarding religion
religion receives
receives aa definite
definite function.
function. Often Often Hurston
Hurston connects
connects
this
this issue
issue to to questions
questions of of morality,
morality, but but the the treatment
treatment of of non-Christian
non—Christian places places
remains
remains ambiguous.
ambiguous. In In Their Eyes specifically
Their Eyes specifically Starks’sStarks’s acceptance
acceptance of of the
the help
help ofof
the
the root
root doctor
doctor indicates
indicates an an irresolvable
irresolvable estrangement
estrangement from from hishis own own living
living
environment,
environment, since since he he seeks
seeks solution
solution elsewhere,
elsewhere, not not within
within the the given
given and and
accepted
accepted cultural
cultural framework.
framework. As As about
about the the identity
identity of of thethe root
root doctor,
doctor, it it is
is stated
stated
that
that “[Starks]
“[Starks] had had beenbeen scornful
scornful of of root-doctors
root—doctors and and all all their
their kind,
kind, butbut nownow she she
[that
[that is,
is, Janie]
Janie] sawsaw aa faker
faker from
from over over around
around Altamonte
Altamonte Springs, Springs, hanging
hanging around around
the
the place
place almost
almost daily”
daily” (78).
(78). The The treatment
treatment acceptedaccepted from from the the Voodoo
Voodoo man man
places
places him him outside
outside socialsocial space.
space. Janie Janie endowed
endowed with with the the power
power of of moral
moral
judgment, which
judgment, which is is shown
shown by by thethe inversion
inversion of of herher position
position in in the
the house
house by by this
this
time,
time, looks
looks down
down on on the
the doctor
doctor as as aa faker
faker and and scoundrel,
scoundrel, whose whose legitimacy
legitimacy as as
well
well asas role
role inin the
the spatial
spatial framework
framework is is questioned.
questioned. The The negative
negative evaluation
evaluation of of
the
the root
root doctor
doctor is is also
also described
described by by his his physical
physical distancing
distancing from from the the clear
clear
boundaries of
boundaries of the
the imagined
imagined cultural
cultural space space of of Eatonville,
Eatonville, and and his
his positioning
positioning in in
25
the
the indefinite.
indefinite.25

25
25 Hill
Hill argues
argues that
that Starsk’s
Starsk’s reliance
reliance on
on the
the root
root doctor
doctor and
and Janie’s
Janie’s on
on modern
modern medicine
medicine refers
refers
to
to an
an unrecoverable
unrecoverable gap between the
gap between the two, just as
two, just as Janie’s
Janie’s anticonventional behavior and
anticonventional behavior and
traditionalism
traditionalism are
are irreconcilable
irreconcilable (xxv).
(XXV). Even
Even though
though Janie’s
Janie’s use
use of
of modern
modern medicine
medicine can be
can be
connected
connected toto progress
progress asas her
her performance
performance cancan signify
signify aa movement
movement awayaway from
from traditional
traditional
race-gender-class
race—gender—class conceptions,
conceptions, itit cannot be justified
cannot be justified that
that this
this instance
instance proves
proves Janie’s
Janie’s choice
choice

61
61
 Hideouts,
Hideouts, on on the
the other
other hand,
hand, are brought into
are brought into the
the cultural
cultural space
space of of African
African
Americans
Americans and and becomebecome integrated
integrated into into the the central
central values
values and and cultural
cultural
performances
performances of of thethe cultural
cultural space space of of thethe muck.
muck. When When the the invitation
invitation is is
formulated
formulated that that “You“You betterbetter staystay heah,
heah, man. man. Big jumpin’ dance
Big jumpin’ dance tuhnight
tuhnight right right
heah,
heah, when
when it it fair
fair off”
off” (148),
(148), it it can
can be be inferred
inferred thatthat the
the ancient
ancient dance
dance marksmarks aa
festive
festive event
event for for allall “hands”
“hands” of of the
the muck.
muck. Hurston
Hurston connects
connects action
action to to anan African
African
American
American primordial
primordial self self thatthat is is butbut aa denotation
denotation of of African
African AmericanAmerican
subjectivity
subjectivity for for her.
her. Subjectivity
Subjectivity is is able
able to to activate
activate African
African Americanness
Americanness in in aa
trickster-like
trickster—like manner,
manner, which which is is able
able to to transform
transform space space intointo its
its own
own likeness.
likeness. As As
it
it is
is narrated
narrated in Jonah’s
in Jonah ’s after
after the barbecue at
the barbecue at Pearson’s:
Pearson’s: “The “The fire fire died.
died. TheThe
moon
moon died.
died. The The shores shores of of Africa
Africa receded”
receded” (31). (31). The
The end end of of the barbecue
the barbecue
indicates
indicates thethe inwardly
inwardly implosive
implosive nature nature of of this
this cultural
cultural space
space as as evolving
evolving and and
relapsing
relapsing withwith the the fire,
fire, as as well
well as as its
its elsewhereness
elsewhereness or or displacement
displacement as as itsits
framework
framework is is curtailed
curtailed by by time
time and and space
space in in aa lack
lack ofof “historical
“historical connectedness”
connectedness”
(Arefi
(Arefi 183).
183).
The
The authenticity
authenticity of of the
the scene
scene can can be be questioned
questioned due due to to its
its apparently
apparently
idealized
idealized character,
character, which which appears
appears to to extinguish
extinguish social social andand interpersonal
interpersonal tension.tension.
The
The barbecue
barbecue is is undoubtedly
undoubtedly sutured sutured into into thethe narrative,
narrative, where
where it, it, asas anan “extra-
“extra—
historical
historical creation”
creation” (Trombold(Trombold 86), 86), almost
almost unexpectedly
unexpectedly explodesexplodes obliterating
obliterating
anything
anything unlike
unlike its its character;
character; however,however, the the importance
importance of of the
the scene
scene lieslies in in
establishing
establishing aa space space thatthat melts
melts down down the the properties
properties of of white
white and black social
and black social
space.
space. The
The awareness
awareness of of the
the white
white frame frame embodied
embodied by by Pearson
Pearson ceases
ceases and and the the
differences
differences basedbased on on gender
gender and and class
class in in the
the African
African American
American community
community are are
not
not retained.
retained. In In fact,
fact, it it is
is not
not possible
possible to to recover
recover wherewhere the the whole
whole event event takes
takes
place
place onon the
the basis
basis of of the
the subsequent
subsequent actions actions for for the
the contours
contours of of the
the plantation
plantation
dissolve
dissolve completely.
completely.
Similarly
Similarly to to thethe muck
muck or or hideouts,
hideouts, the the tie-camp
tie—camp in Jonah’s
in Jonah ’s further
further
implores
implores Hurston’s
Hurston’s concept concept of of anan inwardly
inwardly implosive
implosive nonplace.
nonplace. It It is
is deliberately
deliberately
positioned
positioned elsewhere
elsewhere even even within
within black black cultural
cultural space
space andand has
has important
important religio-
religio—
cultural
cultural ramifications.
ramifications. Presenting Presenting an an antipicture
antipicture of of urbanism
urbanism and black middle-
and black middle—
class
class America;
America; and and thus,
thus, generally,
generally, of of aa homogeneous,
homogeneous, static, static, andand transparent
transparent
society,
society, Hurston
Hurston constitutes
constitutes the the tie-camp,
tie—camp, aa nonplace
nonplace that that “exceed[s]
“exceed[s] the the logic
logic of of
place”
place” (Osborne
(Osborne 189), 189), as as aa site site of of wilderness
wilderness experience,
experience, staging staging it it as as
heterogeneous
heterogeneous and and pluralistic.
pluralistic.
The
The cross-section
cross—section delineated delineated by by time
time and and space
space is is an
an exact
exact realization
realization of of
the
the barbecue
barbecue on on aa daily
daily and and weekly
weekly (that (that is,is, Saturday
Saturday nights) basis. As
nights) basis. As the the
barbecue
barbecue is is organized
organized around around the the firefire atat night,
night, thethe organic
organic gatherings
gatherings in in the
the tie-
tie—
camp
camp areare also
also conducted
conducted after after work
work at at night,
night, however,
however, growingly
growingly around around John’s
John’s
personality.
personality. By By excelling
excelling in in all
all types
types of of African
African American
American cultural
cultural interaction
interaction in in

of
of the
the modern
modern inin opposition
opposition to
to African
African American
American traditions.
traditions. A
A proof
proof against
against it
it is
is the
the fact
fact
that
that Janie
Janie is
is informed
informed about
about hoodoo
hoodoo practice
practice to
to the
the extent
extent that
that she
she makes
makes use
use of of it
it in
in
establishing
establishing her
her personal
personal spatiality,
spatiality, especially
especially as
as the
the tree
tree can be taken
can be taken as
as aa voodoo
voodoo symbol.
symbol.

62
62
the
the camp,
camp, JohnJohn manages
manages to to do
do the the very
very samesame as as during
during the the crossing
crossing of of the
the Creek:
Creek:
he
he transforms
transforms space space intointo hishis likeness
likeness as as “he
“he was
was thethe center
center of of campcamp life”
life” (61)—
(61)—
proving
proving openness
openness of of this
this nonplace
nonplace in in the
the sense
sense thatthat itit isis in
in fact
fact transitory
transitory and and
welcoming
welcoming regarding
regarding inscription.
inscription. He He does
does individually
individually what what in in the barbecue is
the barbecue is
constructed
constructed on on group
group level:
level: he he inscribes
inscribes his his own
own spatiality,
spatiality, whereby
whereby the the tie-camp
tie—camp
becomes
becomes aa denotation
denotation of of his
his extended
extended self. self. Praxis,
Praxis, thatthat is,is, not
not onlyonly work,
work, which which
establishes
establishes the the space
space of of the
the camp
camp initially
initially through
through the the rhythmic
rhythmic swing swing of of axes
axes
and
and the
the accompanying
accompanying chant chant of of the
the workers
workers (60), (60), butbut also
also cultural
cultural formsforms such such as as
wrestling,
wrestling, chinning
chinning the bar, balancing
the bar, balancing axes, axes, or or storytelling;
storytelling; enables enables him him to to draw
draw
in
in the
the space
space around.
around. He He does
does what what the the fire
fire establishes
establishes during during the barbecue
the barbecue
previously.
previously. In In thisthis sense,
sense, his body delimits
his body delimits spacespace as as aa symbol
symbol and and as as aa means
means of of
action.
action. Even
Even thoughthough John John ultimately
ultimately inscribesinscribes space space through
through action, action, that that is,is,
fighting,
fighting, when
when he he remains
remains unchallenged,
unchallenged, and and his
his space
space uncontested
uncontested for for the
the time
time
being;
being; the
the symbolism
symbolism used used byby Hurston
Hurston is is more
more revealing.
revealing. It It is
is recounted
recounted that that “he
“he
could
could stand
stand like
like aa cross,
cross, immobile
immobile for for several
several seconds
seconds with with an an axe
axe muscled
muscled out out
in
in each
each hand”
hand” (61). (61). TheThe moment
moment establishes
establishes John John as as the
the primary
primary agent agent of of the
the
space
space of of the
the tie-camp.
tie—camp. The The symbolism
symbolism of of the
the scene
scene reifies beyond his
reifies beyond his capability
capability
of
of holding
holding the the axes,
axes, proving
proving his his physical
physical strength;
strength; the the scene’s
scene’s religious
religious
connotations
connotations with with hishis statue
statue similar
similar to to the
the crucified
crucified Christ. Christ. The The two two axesaxes
establish
establish himhim as as the battle axe
the battle axe of of God, both emphasizing
God, both emphasizing his his univocal
univocal position
position of of
26
the
the community,
community, as as well
well as as foreshadowing
foreshadowing his his future
future as as aa servant
servant of of God.
God.26 LaterLater
he
he confesses
confesses his his calling
calling intointo the
the ministry,
ministry, claiming
claiming that that “God
“God done done called
called me me tuh
tuh
preach”
preach” after
after thethe psalm
psalm “He’s
“He’s aa Battle-Axe
Battle—Axe in in de
de Time
Time Uh Uh Trouble”
Trouble” (111). (l l 1).
Even
Even if if Hurston’s
Hurston’s space space may may appear
appear rigidrigid and and inauthentic
inauthentic from from the the
outside,
outside, inwardly
inwardly it it is based on
is based on transience.
transience. In Jonah’s
In Jonah ’s this becomes visible
this becomes visible in in
both the
both the main
main character’s journey, as
character’s journey, as aa black
black wayway of of cultural
cultural detour,
detour, and and thethe safe
safe
haven
haven of of the
the tie-camp-like
tie—camp—like places. places. The The latter
latter precipitate
precipitate aa before—unaccounted—
before-unaccounted-
for
for cultural
cultural pluralism,
pluralism, which which allowsallows spatial
spatial paradigms
paradigms and and stories
stories to to co-exist
co—exist and and
not
not only
only to to collide.
collide. The The nonplace
nonplace aspect aspect enters
enters as as aa shared
shared attribute
attribute of of non-
non—
belongingness as
belongingness as aa result
result of of loss
loss of of aa “sense
“sense of of consequence”
consequence” (Kunstler (Kunstler 246), 246),
which,
which, at at the
the same
same time,
time, establishes
establishes aa collective
collective thirdthird space
space on on aa meta-level.
meta—level. The The
tie-camp
tie—camp or or the
the muckmuck cannot
cannot be be claimed
claimed by by one
one single
single spatial
spatial paradigm.
paradigm. They They
form
form thus
thus nonplaces
nonplaces from from the the point-of-view
point—of—view of of thethe mainstream
mainstream spatiality spatiality for for
their
their unintelligibility,
unintelligibility, on on the
the other
other hand,
hand, theythey are are hybrid
hybrid space space through
through their their
antisocial
antisocial character
character in in Augé’s
Auge’s sense. sense. TheThe antisocial
antisocial character
character is is to
to be
be understood
understood
as
as the
the lack
lack of of homogeneity
homogeneity that that would
would enable
enable the the ordering
ordering of of this
this space
space into into aa
well-defined
well—defined spatial spatial paradigm.
paradigm. The The strikingstriking aspect aspect of of Hurston’s
Hurston’s
conceptualization
conceptualization of of these
these places
places is is the
the heterotopical
heterotopical network network of of free
free social
social
interaction.
interaction.

26
26 Jeremiah
Jeremiah 51:20:
51:20: “Thou
“Thou art
art my battle axe
my battle axe and
and weapons
weapons of
of war:
war: for
for with
with thee
thee will
will II break
break in
in
pieces
pieces the
the nations,
nations, and
and with
with thee
thee will
will II destroy
destroy kingdoms”
kingdoms” (KJV).
(KJV).

63
63
 Nonplaces
Nonplaces for for Hurston
Hurston thus
thus represent
represent hybrid
hybrid places
places open
open for
for inscription.
inscription.
This
This rather
rather Modernist
Modernist notion
notion is
is the
the means
means to to overcome
overcome the the constraints
constraints of of white
white
and black social
and black social and
and mainstream
mainstream cultural
cultural spaces,
spaces, on both individual
on both individual andand group
group
levels.
levels. Indeed,
Indeed, apparent
apparent mimicry
mimicry is is deconstructed
deconstructed throughthrough the
the tension
tension generated
generated
by
by nonplaces.
nonplaces. With With the
the help
help ofof nonplaces
nonplaces (and (and the books are
the books but such
are but such places),
places),
Hurston
Hurston manages
manages to to establish
establish aa “discursive
“discursive space”
space” (Sorensen
(Sorensen par.par. 4)4) within
within
Black
Black (and
(and white)
white) Modernism
Modernism and and apart
apart from
from it.
it. Thus
Thus byby offering
offering an an alternative
alternative
space
space inin the
the South,
South, she
she contests
contests thethe framework
framework of of Black
Black Modernism.
Modernism. Hurston
Hurston
does
does soso consciously
consciously and and offers
offers aa nonplace
nonplace thatthat appears
appears to to conform
conform to to white
white
expectations—but
eXpectations—but in in aa trickster-like
trickster—like fashion;
fashion; however,
however, especially
especially through
through the the
schisms built in
schisms built in her
her space,
space, she
she also
also distances
distances her her space
space from
from the
the ideals
ideals of black
of black
urbanity.
urbanity. More
More specifically,
specifically, Hurston’s
Hurston’s strategy
strategy in in establishing
establishing herher cultural
cultural space
space
as
as aa nonplace
nonplace and and employing
employing nonplaces
nonplaces within
within it it as
as primary
primary constructive
constructive
building blocks hybridizes
building blocks hybridizes thethe concept
concept of of cultural
cultural space
space parpar excellence.
excellence.
Nonplaces
Nonplaces represent
represent dynamizing
dynamizing and and multiple
multiple inversions
inversions of of cultural
cultural
precipitations
precipitations andand conceptions,
conceptions, be be it
it place,
place, like
like thethe South,
South, African
African American
American
community,
community, or or the
the African
African American
American self. self. At
At thethe same
same time,
time, and
and this
this marks
marks
perhaps
perhaps foremost
foremost Hurston’s
Hurston’s authenticity,
authenticity, her her masking
masking of of space,
space, place,
place, and
and self
self as
as
timeless
timeless andand seemingly
seemingly reinforcing
reinforcing cultural
cultural stereotypes
stereotypes proves
proves subversive
subversive of of
racialized
racialized conceptions
conceptions and and displaces
displaces assimilationist
assimilationist creeds.
creeds.

64
64
5. Black Sacred Cosmos: Liminal Places and Hurston’s Religio-
Cultural Framework

Liminality
Liminality plays
plays an an important
important role role in in Zora
Zora Neale
Neale Hurston’s
Hurston’s religio-
religio—
cultural
cultural space
space as as it
it parallels
parallels an
an understanding
understanding of of African
African American
American life life in
in terms
terms
of
of rituals.
rituals. Marginal
Marginal places
places postulate
postulate aa peripherized,
peripherized, individual
individual consciousness—
consciousness—
but
but always-already
always—already contextualized
contextualized in in aa broader
broader socio-cultural
socio—cultural space.space. From
From aa
religio-cultural
religio—cultural pointpoint of of view, Jonah’s
view, Jonah ’s Gourd
Gourd Vine Vine shows
shows the the connection
connection
between
between liminal
liminal places
places andand the
the submergence/emergence
submergence/emergence motif motif in in African
African
American
American visions
visions from
from aa religio-cultural
religio—cultural point
point of of view;
view; while
while Their Eyes Were
Their Eyes Were
Watching
Watching God God elaborates
elaborates explicitly
explicitly on on thethe meaning
meaning of of initiation
initiation narratives
narratives
displaying
displaying African
African American
American cosmology,
cosmology, imbuing imbuing the the whole
whole of of African
African
American
American culture.
culture. Liminal
Liminal places
places and
and visions
visions playplay aa seminal
seminal rolerole in
in traditional
traditional
African
African American
American community
community in in that
that at
at the
the first
first glance
glance they
they represent
represent marginal
marginal
discourses;
discourses; yet yet prove
prove essential
essential inin the
the selfverification
selfverification of of the
the community
community itself.
itself.
Antithetical
Antithetical to to the
the main
main discourse
discourse of of the
the community,
community, they they construct
construct aa setset of
of
essential
essential structural
structural elements.
elements.
Hurston’s
Hurston’s theology
theology appears
appears difficult
difficult to to discuss because of
discuss because of her
her apparent
apparent
syncretic
syncretic colorfulness
colorfulness and and seeming
seeming refusal
refusal of of Christianity.
Christianity. Daughter
Daughter of of anan
Eatonville
Eatonville preacher,
preacher, on on the
the one
one hand;
hand; and,
and, as as she
she refers
refers toto herself,
herself, “Conjure
“Conjure
Queen”
Queen” (“To(“To Langston
Langston Hughes”
Hughes” 124),
124), on
on the
the other,
other, she
she moves between religious
moves between religious
paradigms
paradigms to to incorporate
incorporate allall into
into her
her religio-cultural
religio—cultural space.space. Her
Her religiosity
religiosity does
does
not
not show
show theologically
theologically informed
informed conceptions,
conceptions, but but much
much rather
rather aa cosmological
cosmological
framework
framework deriving
deriving from
from anan understanding
understanding of of aa distinct
distinct African
African American
American folk folk
culture.
culture. Her
Her view
view ofof religions
religions apparently
apparently abhors
abhors any any reverence
reverence of of the
the divine:
divine:

The
The unreachable
unreachable andand therefore
therefore the
the unknowable
unknowable always
always seems
seems divine–
divine—
hence,
hence, religion.
religion. People
People needneed religion because the
religion because the great
great masses
masses fear
fear life
life
and
and its
its consequences.
consequences. Its Its responsibilities
responsibilities weigh
weigh heavy.
heavy. Feeling
Feeling aa weakness
weakness
in
in the
the face
face of
of great
great forces,
forces, men
men seek
seek alliance
alliance with
with omnipotence
omnipotence to bolster
to bolster
up
up their
their feeling
feeling of
of weakness,
weakness, eveneven though
though the
the omnipotence
omnipotence they
they rely
rely upon
upon
is
is aa creature
creature of
of their
their own
own minds.
minds. (Dust Tracks 277-78)
(Dust Tracks 277—78)

Her
Her explanation
explanation of of religious
religious sentiments
sentiments detaches
detaches her
her from
from established
established religious
religious
forms
forms and,
and, at
at the
the most,
most, allows
allows for
for individual,
individual, active
active (not
(not passive)
passive) alterations.
alterations. But
But
even
even though,
though, in in anan antiauthoritarian
antiauthoritarian way,
way, she
she turns
turns away
away from
from submissive
submissive
religiosity,
religiosity, she
she nevertheless
nevertheless yields
yields toto infinity:
infinity: “As
“As for
for me,
me, II do
do not
not pretend
pretend toto
read
read God’s
God’s mind.
mind. If If He
He has
has aa plan
plan ofof the
the universe
universe worked
worked outout to
to the
the smallest
smallest
detail,
detail, it
it would
would be be folly
folly for
for me
me to
to presume
presume to to get
get down
down on on my
my knees
knees and
and attempt
attempt
to
to revise
revise it.
it. [.
[. .. .]
.] Prayer
Prayer seems
seems toto me
me aa sign
sign of
of weakness,
weakness, and and anan attempt
attempt toto
avoid,
avoid, byby trickery,
trickery, the the rules
rules of
of the
the game
game asas laid
laid down”
down” (278).
(278). InIn her
her flowing
flowing
rhetoric,
rhetoric, Hurston
Hurston refuses
refuses supplication,
supplication, yet
yet testifies
testifies about
about aa cosmological
cosmological view view

65
65
that
that places
places herher inin aa divine
divine world
world order.
order. In In this
this view,
view, every
every person
person has has aa clearly
clearly
defined,
defined, immutable
immutable place place in in the
the universe.
universe. Hurston’s
Hurston’s theology
theology does does not not
necessarily
necessarily impart
impart aa deterministic
deterministic creed creed (or (or one
one of of predestination),
predestination), but, but, instead,
instead,
it
it affirms
affirms aa cosmological
cosmological order; order; and and thethe human
human quest quest blends
blends into into it:
it: “When
“When the the
consciousness
consciousness we we know
know as as life
life ceases,
ceases, II know
know that that II shall
shall still
still bebe part
part and
and parcel
parcel
of
of the
the world”
world” (Dust Tracks 279).
(Dust Tracks 279).
Hurston’s
Hurston’s notionnotion of of religiosity justifies dealing
religiosity justifies dealing with with her
her sacred
sacred space
space as as aa
distinct
distinct religio-cultural
religio—cultural paradigm.
paradigm. In In fact,
fact, herher cultural
cultural space bears characteristics
space bears characteristics
similar
similar toto Eric
Eric C.C. Lincoln
Lincoln and and Lawrence
Lawrence H. H. Mamiya’s
Mamiya’s concept concept of of “black
“black sacred
sacred
cosmos,”
cosmos,” which which does does not not simply
simply denotedenote an an African
African American
American religious
religious
worldview
worldview (2), but also
(2), but also treats
treats it it as
as aa totality bearing distinctively
totality bearing distinctively AfricanAfrican
American
American characteristics.
characteristics. Similarly
Similarly to to Lincoln
Lincoln and and Mamiya’s
Mamiya’s identification
identification of of
the
the relevance
relevance of of thethe particular
particular black black experience
eXperience in in America,
America, wherebywhereby they they
emphasize
emphasize the the particularity,
particularity, authenticity,
authenticity, and and cultural
cultural politics
politics of of black
black
religiosity;
religiosity; Hurston
Hurston employs
employs the the African
African American
American culturalcultural context
context to to construct
construct
an
an authentic
authentic religio-cultural
religio—cultural space space in both Jonah
in both Jonah’s ’s and
and Their Eyes.
Their Eyes.
Authentication
Authentication of of her
her cosmos
cosmos equalsequals the the anthropologist’s
anthropologist’s depictiondepiction of of
everyday
everyday life life interwoven
interwoven with with religiosity
religiosity and and religion
religion itself itself as as
“multidimensional
“multidimensional space space to be broken
to be broken downdown regarding
regarding public
public or or interior
interior aspects”
aspects”
(Brown
(Brown 102)—ultimately
102)—ultimately establishedestablished in in relation
relation to to two
two poles:
poles: the the official
official andand
liminal.
liminal. TheThe former
former refers
refers toto “absolute
“absolute sacredsacred space,”
space,” thatthat is,
is, “permanent
“permanent sacral sacral
places”
places” (Keményfi
(Kemenyfi 39). 39). The
The latter
latter constitutes
constitutes “relative
“relative space,”
space,” unfixed,
unfixed, and and
describes
describes aa process,
process, sanctification,
sanctification, and and an an experience
experience of of space
space (38).
(38). Thus
Thus liminal
liminal
places
places signify
signify ambiguous
ambiguous entities,entities, sincesince they they oftenoften denote
denote non-Christian
non—Christian
(hoodoo/voodoo)
(hoodoo/voodoo) places places as as well
well as as places
places of of conversion.
conversion. Thirdly,Thirdly, praying
praying
grounds
grounds appear
appear as as liminal
liminal places,
places, as as places
places of of encounter
encounter with, with, whatwhat Rudolph
Rudolph
Otto
Otto calls,
calls, the
the “numinous”
“numinous” (7). (7). They
They appear
appear incorporated
incorporated into into official
official sacred
sacred
space,
space, yet
yet maintain
maintain aa high high degree
degree of of individuality:
individuality: they they are
are inscribed
inscribed outside
outside the the
church
church walls
walls butbut within
within thethe official
official Christian
Christian paradigm.
paradigm. Thus, beyond official
Thus, beyond official or or
institutionalized
institutionalized religion,
religion, Hurston’s
Hurston’s black black sacredsacred cosmos
cosmos also also incorporates
incorporates folk folk
religious
religious phenomena.
phenomena. The The twotwo realms
realms together
together shapeshape an an integrated
integrated whole. whole. FolkFolk
religious
religious aspects
aspects denote
denote liminal
liminal places
places as as structural
structural unitsunits within
within the black sacred
the black sacred
cosmos.
cosmos.
Arnold
Arnold Van Van Gennep’s
Gennep’s theorytheory of of the
the triple
triple sequence
sequence of of separation,
separation, margin,
margin,
and
and aggregation
aggregation in in initiation
initiation rites
rites has
has much
much in in common
common with with Victor
Victor Turner’s
Turner’s
theory
theory of of liminality.
liminality. In In fact,
fact, Turner’s
Turner’s liminal liminal phasephase corresponds
corresponds to to Van
Van
Gennep’s
Gennep’s margin,
margin, both both of of which
which can can be be translated
translated into into the
the African
African American
American
wilderness
wilderness experience
eXperience (or (or “vision
“vision quest”
quest” [see [see Heintzman]).
Heintzman]). In In this
this threefold
threefold
system
system thethe liminal
liminal signifies
signifies aa transitory
transitory phase phase prior
prior to to the
the subject
subject becoming
becoming aa
full
full member
member of of the
the community:
community:

66
66
 The
The attribute
attribute of
of liminality
liminality or
or of
of liminal personae (“threshold
liminal personae (“threshold people”)
people”) are
are
necessarily
necessarily ambiguous,
ambiguous, since
since this
this condition
condition and
and these
these persons
persons elude
elude oror
slip
slip through
through the
the network
network of
of classifications
classifications that
that normally
normally locate
locate states
states and
and
positions
positions in
in cultural
cultural space.
space. Liminal
Liminal entities
entities are
are neither
neither here
here nor
nor there;
there; they
they
are
are betwixt
betwixt and between the
and between the positions
positions assigned
assigned and
and arrayed by law,
arrayed by law,
custom,
custom, convention,
convention, and
and ceremonial.
ceremonial. (Turner
(Turner 95)
95)

Since
Since thethe attributes
attributes of of the
the given
given socio-cultural
socio—cultural space space do do not
not hold
hold in in liminal
liminal
places,
places, liminal
liminal subjects
subjects become
become temporarily
temporarily outsiders
outsiders to to the
the group.
group. Despite
Despite the the
inaccessibility
inaccessibility of of such
such places,
places, they
they work
work as as nonplaces
nonplaces on on the
the margins
margins of of society,
society,
yet
yet within
within it. it. As
As structural
structural units
units these
these places
places have
have aa connecting
connecting function
function in in the
the
in-between
in—between in in spite
spite of of their
their non-alignment
non—alignment to to social
social space:
space: “During
“During the the
intervening
intervening ‘liminal’‘liminal’ period,
period, the the characteristics
characteristics of of thethe ritual
ritual subject
subject (the (the
‘passenger’)
‘passenger’) are are ambiguous;
ambiguous; he he passes
passes through
through aa cultural
cultural realm
realm that
that has
has few
few or or
none
none of of the
the attributes
attributes of of the
the past
past oror coming
coming state”
state” (Turner
(Turner 94).94).
Hurston
Hurston describes
describes thenthen African
African American
American wilderness
wilderness experience
eXperience in in detail
detail
in
in Sanctified
Sanctified Church,Church, in in which
which she she explicitly
eXplicitly elaborats
elaborats on on “coming
“coming through
through
religion”
religion” (87).(87). Channeled
Channeled by by the
the respective
respective community,
community, the the ritual
ritual lasts
lasts usually
usually
for
for three
three days,
days, by by thethe end
end of of which
which the the candidate
candidate has has gonegone through
through several
several
dramatic
dramatic revelations.
revelations. Going Going through
through such such aa conversion
conversion experience
eXperience servesserves forfor thethe
novice
novice as as the
the threshold
threshold to to emerge
emerge as as aa member
member of of the
the community.
community. Candidates
Candidates
retreat
retreat toto secluded
secluded places places to
to obtain
obtain thethe vision:
vision: “People,
“People, solemn
solemn of of face,
face, crept
crept off off
to
to the
the woods
woods to to ‘praying
‘praying ground’
ground’ to to seek
seek religion.
religion. Every
Every church
church member
member worked worked
on
on them
them hard,
hard, and and there
there was
was great
great clamor
clamor and and rejoicing
rejoicing whenwhen any any of of them
them ‘come
‘come
through’
through’ religion”
religion” (Dust (Dust 270).
270). Such
Such places
places areare outside
outside social
social space,
space, onlyonly ritually
ritually
connected
connected to to it—the
it—the powerpower mechanisms
mechanisms of of social
social space
space do do notnot bindbind there.
there.
Wilderness
Wilderness experience
eXperience represents
represents an an individual
individual quest quest forfor anan identity
identity in in thethe
community
community and and aa threshold
threshold or or nonplace
nonplace of of established
established communitas.
communitas.
To
To prove
prove worthiness
worthiness of of “induction
“induction into into the
the regular
regular community”
community” (Dust (Dust
272)
272) thethe candidates
candidates must must undergo
undergo aa test before the
test before the community.
community. This This test test
comprises
comprises an an oral
oral testimony,
testimony, during
during which
which they
they present
present their
their vision;
vision; thatthat is,
is, tell
tell aa
story
story ofof their
their conversion:
conversion:

These
These visions
visions are
are traditional.
traditional. II knew
knew them
them by by heart
heart as
as did
did the
the rest
rest of
of the
the
congregation, but still
congregation, but still it
it was
was exciting
exciting to to see
see how
how the
the converts
converts would
would
handle
handle them.
them. Some
Some ofof them
them made
made upup newnew details.
details. Some
Some of of them
them would
would
forget
forget aa part
part and
and improvise
improvise clumsily
clumsily oror fill
fill up
up the
the gap
gap with
with shouting.
shouting. The
The
audience
audience knew, but everybody
knew, but everybody acted
acted as
as if
if every
every word
word of
of it
it was
was new.
new. (272)
(272)

Not
Not the
the ripeness
ripeness of
of faith, but the
faith, but the readiness
readiness and
and ability
ability of
of the
the candidates
candidates to
to
integrate
integrate into
into the
the black
black sacred
sacred cosmos
cosmos are
are tested,
tested, which
which is
is aa cultural
cultural act.
act. These
These

67
67
visions
visions are are appropriated
appropriated to/within to/within the the social
social space space as as they
they are are used
used as as
conventional
conventional patternspatterns of of expression
expression and and constitute
constitute aa segmentsegment of of the
the story-telling
story—telling
tradition.
tradition.
Whereas
Whereas Janie’s Janie’s journey journey in in Their
Their Eyes Eyes evolves
evolves through
through different
different
alienating
alienating places,
places, in Jonah’s
in Jonah ’s the
the process
process of of submersion
submersion and and emersion
emersion is is less
less
clearly
clearly present.
present. John’s journey, similarly
John’s journey, similarly to to Janie’s,
Janie’s, is is structured
structured aroundaround places
places
of
of margin,
margin, or or liminal
liminal places,places, but but emersion
emersion from from these
these places
places bears
bears manifold
manifold
signification,
signification, as as ifif condensing
condensing Eliade’s Eliade’s threefold
threefold differentiation
differentiation of of initiation
initiation
27
rites.
rites.27 John’s
John’s experience
experience of of liminal
liminal places
places is is strongly
strongly connected
connected to to sexuality.
sexuality.
This
This is is manifested
manifested as as early
early as as children’s
children’s games.games. On On Alf Alf Pearson’s
Pearson’s place black
place black
children
children playplay hide-and-seek
hide—and—seek games, games, during
during which
which John John hides
hides atat secluded
secluded places.
places.
Two
Two times
times he he hides
hides with with twotwo different
different girls
girls and and thethe third
third time,
time, whenwhen the the third
third
girl
girl approaches
approaches him, him, the the game
game stops stops abruptly.
abruptly. This This foreshadows
foreshadows his his promiscuous
promiscuous
lifestyle,
lifestyle, which
which is is always
always accompanied
accompanied by by hide-aways
hide—aways with with different
different women,
women, as as
well
well asas itit delineates
delineates the the would-be
would—be structure
structure of of his
his life.
life. HeHe has
has three
three wives
wives laterlater
on,
on, the
the last
last of
of which
which loses loses himhim abruptly.
abruptly.
The
The number
number three three has has aa mythic
mythic quality
quality for for Hurston.
Hurston. In In her
her discussion
discussion of of
visions,
visions, she she emphasizes
emphasizes the the relevance
relevance of of the
the number
number three: three: “Three
“Three days days is is the
the
traditional
traditional period
period for for seeking
seeking the the vision”
vision” (Sanctified
(Sanctified 85), 85), and
and again
again “Three
“Three is is the
the
holy
holy number
number and and thethe callcall toto preach
preach always
always comescomes three three times”
times” (86).
(86). The The number
number
three
three reappears
reappears in in Their
Their Eyes Eyes also: also: Janie
Janie has has three
three husbands,
husbands, thus thus thethe three
three
stations
stations of of Janie’s journey lines
Janie’s journey lines up up with
with thethe African
African American
American way way of of coming
coming
through
through religion;
religion; in Jonah’s
in Jonah ’s the
the number
number of of waiting
waiting time time is is also
also three
three (27),
(27), John
John
encounters
encounters the the train
train three
three times
times (the (the last
last time
time the the train
train kills
kills him).
him).
Furthermore,
Furthermore, the the role
role of of liminal
liminal places
places is is emphasized
emphasized by by the
the fact
fact that
that such
such
places
places frame
frame the the narrative.
narrative. After After the the hide-and-seek
hide—and—seek game game JohnJohn finds
finds “a “a tiny
tiny
clearing
clearing hidden
hidden by by trees”
trees” (25),(25), which becomes aa praying
which becomes praying ground,
ground, wherewhere he he prays
prays
for
for the
the first
first time.
time. In In fact,
fact, thethe way way JohnJohn approaches
approaches the the sacred
sacred echoes
echoes Róbert
Robert
Keményfi’s
Kemenyfi’s concept concept of of the
the sacred:
sacred: John’s
John’s mental
mental functioning
functioning changes
changes when when he he
recognizes
recognizes the the sacred
sacred place place as as such
such forfor itsits qualitative
qualitative differences
differences from from the the
profane
profane (36). (36). His His words
words characterize
characterize his his whole
whole life life torn between guilt
torn between guilt and and
reconciliation:
reconciliation: “if “if you
you findfind anyany lurkin’
lurkin’ sinsin inin and
and about
about mah mah heart
heart please
please pluck
pluck it it
out
out and
and cast
cast itit intuh
intuh de de sea
sea uh uh fuhgitfulness
fuhgitfulness whar whar it’llit’ll never
never rise
rise tuh
tuh condemn
condemn me me
in
in de judgment” (25).
de judgment” (25). His His words
words are are almost
almost exactly
exactly the the same
same as as his
his last
last prayer
prayer
accounted
accounted for for in in her
her third
third wife’s,
wife’s, Sally’s bedroom at
Sally’s bedroom at the
the end
end ofof the book, where
the book, where
he
he asks
asks forfor forgiveness.
forgiveness.
Liminal
Liminal places places are are integrated
integrated into into aa moral moral geography
geography (see (see Dixon
Dixon 1); 1);
however,
however, this this feature
feature turns turns out out dubious.
dubious. HurstonHurston refuses refuses to justify John’s
to justify John’s
debauchery,
debauchery, and and connects
connects hoodoo hoodoo to to immorality,
immorality, situating situating it it on
on thethe margins
margins of of

27
27 The
The three
three types
types of
of initiation
initiation comprise
comprise puberty
puberty rites,
rites, tribal
tribal initiation,
initiation, and
and initiation
initiation into
into an
an
age
age group
group (Rites
(Rites and Symbols 2).
and Symbols 2).

68
68
the
the African
African American
American community. community. Hattie, Hattie, John’s
John’s second
second wife, wife, forfor example,
example,
conjures
conjures him him withwith the the help
help of of root
root doctors.
doctors. Clearly,
Clearly, Hattie’s
Hattie’s evil evil character
character leads leads
her
her to
to employ
employ practices
practices outsideoutside the the norms
norms of of African
African American
American social social space.
space.
The
The positioning
positioning of of the
the root
root doctors
doctors reveals,
reveals, however,
however, also also their
their status:
status: bothboth
hoodoo
hoodoo men men are are decentralized
decentralized from from the the point
point of of view
view of of social
social space;
space; thatthat is,is,
positioned
positioned elsewhere,
elsewhere, not not inin Eatonville.
Eatonville.
The
The description
description of of hoodoo
hoodoo places
places alsoalso stands
stands in in stark
stark contrast
contrast to to the
the places
places
of
of official
official religion.
religion. While While the the Baptist
Baptist church
church in in Plant
Plant CityCity is is described
described as as “the
“the
big
big white building that
white building that Baptist
Baptist pride
pride hadhad erected”
erected” (Jonah’s
(Jonah ’s 186), 186), An’
An’ Dangie
Dangie
Dewoe
Dewoe lives lives in in aa huthut that
that “squatted
“squatted low low and and peered
peered at at the
the road
road from behind aa
from behind
mass
mass of of Palma
Palma Christi
Christi and and elderberry”
elderberry” (125). (125). TheThe difference
difference between
between the the place
place
of
of official
official religion
religion and, and, from
from the the perspective
perspective of of Christianity,
Christianity, aa nonplace becomes
nonplace becomes
palpable.
palpable. Big Big white
white churchchurch buildings
buildings in in aa central
central position
position denote
denote powerpower and and
become
become an an emblem
emblem of of social
social space
space (see(see Wedam
Wedam 49) 49) and
and aa tokentoken against
against the the
“privatization
“privatization of of place”
place” (Sheldrake
(Sheldrake 126). 126). In In contrast
contrast to to that,
that, thethe conjure
conjure man’s man’s
hut
hut seems
seems an an inversion
inversion of of the
the church
church in in aa rural
rural setting.
setting. TheThe nature
nature of of the
the hoodoo
hoodoo
ritual
ritual renders
renders it it private
private and and individual
individual (“unrepresentable”
(“unrepresentable” in in Bhabha’s
Bhabha’s sense sense
[37]),
[37]), while
while the the Church
Church sermonssermons depictdepict aa public
public and and collective
collective eventevent based
based on on
mass
mass interaction
interaction and and aa process
process of bearing up—the
of bearing up—the development
development of of the
the African
African
American
American sermon sermon to to its
its final
final ecstatic
ecstatic resolution.
resolution. The The structuring
structuring of of the
the narrative
narrative
posits
posits this
this place
place to be immoral
to be immoral and and marginal,
marginal, in in the
the first
first place,
place, by by revealing
revealing also also
that
that the
the fact
fact that
that Hattie
Hattie usesuses hoodoo
hoodoo to to conjure
conjure bothboth John
John and and Lucy
Lucy (the (the next
next
chapter
chapter starts
starts withwith thethe sentence:
sentence: “Lucy “Lucy was was lying
lying sick”
sick” [Jonah’s
[Jonah ’s 127];127]; andand soon
soon
after
after that
that sheshe dies).
dies).
The
The hoodoo
hoodoo hut hut is is not
not presented
presented as as ultimately
ultimately negative,
negative, however.
however. Firstly,
Firstly,
the
the hoodoo
hoodoo hut hut is is connected
connected to to prehistoric
prehistoric times;
times; secondly,
secondly, deeplydeeply embedded
embedded in in
nature—both
nature—both conceptualizations
conceptualizations lying lying in in the
the heart
heart of of African
African American
American culture,
culture,
which
which is is emphasized
emphasized throughoutthroughout the book. For
the book. For example,
example, when when JohnJohn has has toto flee
flee
from
from aa lynching
lynching mob, mob, he he exclaims,
exclaims, “Ah’ll“Ah’ll tip tip on
on ‘cross
‘cross de de good
good Lawd’s
Lawd’s green. green.
Ah’ll
Ah’ll give
give mah mah case case tuhtuh Miss
Miss BushBush andand letlet Mother
Mother Green Green standstand mah bond” (95).
mah bond” (95).
He
He emphasizes
emphasizes the the traditionally
traditionally protective
protective and and liberating
liberating conceptualization
conceptualization of of
nature.
nature. Furthermore,
Furthermore, the the constant
constant reference
reference to to (prehistoric)
(prehistoric) Africanisms
Africanisms sheds sheds
light
light onon Hurston’s
Hurston’s Africanist
Africanist understanding
understanding of of African
African American
American culture culture as as aa
direct
direct derivation
derivation of of African
African culture
culture in in aa constant
constant mold.
mold.
Places
Places of of conversion
conversion are are treated
treated positively
positively and and clearly
clearly integrated
integrated into into
Christian
Christian sacredsacred space space as as liminal
liminal places.
places. SuchSuch aa placeplace is is the
the revival
revival meeting
meeting
John
John conducts
conducts several several times.times. EvenEven though
though not not much
much is is narrated
narrated aboutabout such such
meetings,
meetings, the the incorporation
incorporation of of such
such places
places into black Christianity
into black Christianity is is signified
signified by by
the
the evaluative
evaluative contrastcontrast between
between the the revival
revival meeting
meeting and and the
the hoodoo
hoodoo hut hut (140),
(140), as as
well
well asas by by the
the fact fact that
that thethe revival
revival meeting
meeting is is conducted
conducted by by aa preacher,
preacher, the the
capstone
capstone of of the
the community.
community. These These liminal
liminal places
places appear
appear as as “reconciled
“reconciled space” space”
(Sheldrake
(Sheldrake 28) 28) for for they
they depict
depict egalitarian
egalitarian regarding
regarding human human relations,
relations, as as they
they

69
69
provide
provide the the framework
framework needed needed to to experience
experience the the numinous.
numinous. Both Both European
European
religious
religious roots
roots and and the
the African
African American
American tradition
tradition of of shouting
shouting can can be be detected
detected in in
this
this phenomenon,
phenomenon, but but thethe fact
fact that
that they bridge the
they bridge the gap
gap between
between the the transparency
transparency
of
of absolute
absolute sacred sacred space space andand the the relativity
relativity and and individualistic
individualistic character character of of
liminal
liminal places
places renders
renders them them important
important in in Hurston’s
Hurston’s cosmology.
cosmology.
A
A third-space-like
third—space—like aspect aspect of of Christian
Christian sacredsacred space space can can bebe detected
detected in in the
the
revival
revival meetings—rendering
meetings—rendering them them parallel
parallel withwith praying
praying grounds,
grounds, which which retain
retain
their
their individualistic
individualistic nature. nature. Praying
Praying groundsgrounds appear
appear not not justjust liminal
liminal in in the
the sense
sense
that
that they
they embody
embody marginalmarginal places,
places, wherewhere the the numinous
numinous can can be be experienced;
experienced; but but
also
also hybrid
hybrid constructions.
constructions. This This is is the
the case
case despite
despite the the fact
fact that
that candidates
candidates are are
conditioned
conditioned culturally
culturally to to choose
choose certain
certain places
places as as “imago
“imago mundi” mundi” to to use
use Eliade’s
Eliade’s
coinage,
coinage, that that is, is, aa tree
tree oror aa clearing;
clearing; but but suchsuch placesplaces can can be be established
established
anywhere.
anywhere. In In Turner’s
Turner’s footstep,
footstep, suchsuch places
places can can be be regarded
regarded as as “liminoid,”
“liminoid,” since since
they
they can
can appear
appear even even within
within transparent
transparent social social space,
space, and and can,
can, forfor aa moment,
moment,
reinscribe
reinscribe spacespace in in De
De Certeau’s
Certeau’s sense.sense. OneOne timetime John John is is praying
praying on on his
his knees
knees
and
and “the
“the empty
empty house house threw back his
threw back his resonant
resonant tones tones like like aa guitar
guitar box”box” (52).(52). TheThe
house’s
house’s character
character changes changes when when transposed
transposed into into the the sacred
sacred as as totality,
totality, its its
emptiness
emptiness referring
referring to to spiritual
spiritual vacuity
vacuity to be filled
to be filled by by the
the numinous,
numinous, and and thethe
“guitar box” denoting
“guitar box” denoting not not only
only the the musicality
musicality of of John’s
John’s voice,
voice, but but alsoalso thethe
univocal
univocal nature
nature of of the
the place
place forfor the
the time being. John’s
time being. John’s experience
experience echoes echoes the the
phenomenology
phenomenology of of contemplative
contemplative practice, practice, during during which, which, as as Sheldrake
Sheldrake
formulates
formulates it, it, “experiences
“experiences of of inward
inward and and outward,
outward, near near at at hand
hand and and far far away,
away,
are
are synthesized
synthesized so so that
that distinctions between them
distinctions between them cease cease to to have
have any any meaning”
meaning”
(128).
(128).
At
At the the same
same time,time, Hurston
Hurston hybridizes
hybridizes the the morality
morality of of her
her sacred
sacred space.
space.
This
This cancan be be detected
detected by by thethe conscious
conscious intermixing
intermixing of of different
different culturalcultural
paradigms.
paradigms. When When John,John, for for example,
example, kills kills aa cotton-mouth
cotton—mouth moccasin, moccasin, he he fights
fights
the
the male
male snake
snake god, god, Damballah,
Damballah, therebythereby exhibiting
exhibiting masculine
masculine power power in in the
the “axis
“axis
mundi.”
mundi.” A A similar
similar sacredsacred place
place evolves
evolves aroundaround trees. trees. JohnJohn and and Lucy’s
Lucy’s love love
becomes
becomes sanctioned
sanctioned under under aa tree,
tree, and birth rituals
and birth rituals are are performed
performed under under treestrees
when
when the the naval
naval cord cord gets buried there.
gets buried there. SuchSuch transspatial
transspatial elements elements render render the the
apparent
apparent heteronomy
heteronomy of of Hurston’s
Hurston’s sacred sacred cosmos
cosmos morallymorally syncretic,
syncretic, but but all
all the
the
more
more culturally
culturally motivated.
motivated.
The
The fusion
fusion can can be be detected
detected in in official
official sacred
sacred space space also.also. Hurston
Hurston calls calls
John’s
John’s funeral
funeral sermon sermon aa “barbaric
“barbaric requiem requiem poem” poem” (201). (201). In In the book the
the book the
preaching
preaching as as aa genre
genre comprises
comprises aa cohesive
cohesive device
device for for thethe community,
community, but but this
this
last
last sermon
sermon containscontains Africanist
Africanist elements
elements clearlyclearly transposed
transposed into into it, it, which
which
decentralizes
decentralizes the the Christian
Christian discourse
discourse (with (with allall its
its attributes
attributes of of social
social space,
space, be be it it
race,
race, gender,
gender, class, class, or or even
even geography)
geography) by by turning
turning it it into
into aa syncretic
syncretic
“hierophany.”
“hierophany.” “Self-revealing
“Self—revealing of of the
the sacred”
sacred” (Wasserstrom
(Wasserstrom 36) 36) precipitated
precipitated in in
cultural
cultural terms
terms opensopens up up aa new
new and and truly
truly African
African American
American hybrid hybrid sacredsacred space.
space.
In
In response
response to to the
the preacher’s
preacher’s call: call:

70
70
 [.[. .. .]
.] the
the hearers
hearers wailed
wailed with
with aa feeling
feeling of
of terrible
terrible loss.
loss. They beat upon
They beat upon the
the
O-go-doe,
O—go—doe, the the ancient
ancient drum.
drum. O-go-doe,
O—go—doe, O-go-doe,
O—go—doe, O-go-doe!
O—go—doe! Their
Their hearts
hearts
turned
turned to to fire
fire and
and their
their shinbones
shinbones leaped
leaped unknowing
unknowing to to the
the drum.
drum. Not
Not
Kata-Kumba,
Kata—Kumba, the the drum
drum of of triumph,
triumph, that
that speaks
speaks ofof great
great ancestors
ancestors and
and
glorious
glorious wars. wars. Not
Not the
the little
little drum
drum ofof kidskin,
kidskin, for
for that
that is
is to
to dance
dance with joy
with joy
and
and to to call
call to
to mind birth and
mind birth and creation, but O-go-doe,
creation, but O—go—doe, the
the voice
voice of
of Death—
Death—
that
that promises
promises nothing,
nothing, that
that speaks
speaks with
with tears
tears only,
only, and
and of
of the
the past.
past. (202)
(202)

Hurston’s
Hurston’s technique
technique may may derive
derive from
from her belief that
her belief that “the
“the Negro
Negro is is not
not aa Christian
Christian
really”
really” (“Characteristics”
(“Characteristics” 56); 56); but but her her embedding
embedding AfricanAfrican Americans
Americans into into
Christianity
Christianity renders
renders this this question
question more more complex.
complex. Despite
Despite the the fact
fact that
that official
official
sacred
sacred space
space refers
refers to to aa different
different genealogy,
genealogy, which which originally
originally was was superimposed,
superimposed,
only
only later
later naturalized,
naturalized, adopted,
adopted, and and acculturated;
acculturated; Hurston
Hurston seeksseeks to juxtapose and
to juxtapose and
syncretize both African
syncretize both African religiosity
religiosity and and Christianity
Christianity in in her
her fiction,
fiction, similarly
similarly toto the
the
praxis
praxis ofof African
African Americans,
Americans, aboutabout whom whom she she claims,
claims, “everything
“everything [the [the African
African
American
American subject]
subject] touches
touches is is re-interpreted
re—interpreted for for his
his ownown use” use” (58).
(58). This
This
understanding
understanding of black Christianity
of black Christianity is is clearly
clearly stated
stated in Jonah’s:
in Jonah ’s: once
once when
when John
John
prays
prays inin church,
church, “he “he roll[s]
roll[s] his
his African
African drum drum up up to
to the
the altar,
altar, andand call[s]
call[s] his
his
Congo
Congo Gods
Gods by by Christian
Christian names”
names” (89).(89).
Sacred
Sacred space
space for for Hurston
Hurston constitutes
constitutes nevernever merely
merely the the sacred
sacred ground
ground of of
encounter
encounter withwith the
the divine, but it
divine, but bears other
it bears other significations
significations as as well.
well. Sacred
Sacred space
space
is
is always
always cultural
cultural and
and social,
social, or
or asas Keményfi
Kemenyfi claims,claims, “a“a category
category of of societal
societal life”
life”
(37),
(37), and
and hence
hence revealing
revealing of of the
the socio-cultural
socio—cultural spacesspaces at at the
the same
same time.time. Thus,
Thus,
Hurston
Hurston uses
uses black
black Christianity
Christianity and and voodoo
voodoo to to represent
represent herher cultural
cultural politics
politics also
also
in
in sacred
sacred space.
space. ForFor example,
example, Rachel
Rachel Stein Stein interprets
interprets thethe sacred
sacred treetree ofof Their
Their
Eyes as
Eyes as aa voodoo
voodoo “image
“image of of spiritual
spiritual and and sexual
sexual ecstasy”
ecstasy” (472),
(472), which becomes
which becomes
liminoid
liminoid place
place toto signify breaking norms
signify breaking norms of of social
social space.
space. Sheldrake’s
Sheldrake’s insistence
insistence
on
on the
the particularity
particularity of of places
places projects
projects personal
personal encounter
encounter with with the the sacred
sacred asas itit
enables
enables place
place toto break
break awayaway from
from the the prescribed
prescribed setting
setting of of social
social space.
space. The
The
marginality
marginality of of non-Christian
non—Christian placesplaces aspires
aspires to to totality,
totality, asas opposed
opposed to to partiality
partiality
(Turner
(Turner 106)
106) of
of social
social space,
space, quite
quite strikingly,
strikingly, since
since experience
experience is is supposedly
supposedly not not
channeled
channeled in in non-Christian
non—Christian places;places; therefore
therefore subjectivity
subjectivity can can be be enlivened
enlivened
freely.
freely. The
The nature
nature of of place
place and
and its
its positioning
positioning coincide.
coincide.
Furthermore,
Furthermore, marginal
marginal places
places may may also
also have
have aa social
social character.
character. Turner
Turner
28
argues
argues that
that in
in liminal
liminal places
places subjects
subjects form form “communitas”
“communitas”28 that that can
can bebe described
described
in
in terms
terms of of “spontaneity”
“spontaneity” and and “immediacy”
“immediacy” as as well
well as as homogeneity
homogeneity and and

28
28 Turner
Turner distinguishes between three
distinguishes between three types
types of
of communitas:
communitas: existential
existential or
or spontaneous
spontaneous
communitas;
communitas; normative
normative communitas,
communitas, which
which denotes
denotes already
already aa “peduring
“peduring social
social system”;
system”; and
and
ideological
ideological communitas
communitas referring
referring to
to utopias
utopias (132).
(132). The
The latter
latter two
two types
types develop
develop from
from
existential
existential communitas,
communitas, which
which proves
proves that
that “communitas
“communitas itself
itself develops
develops aa structure”
structure” (132).
(132).

71
71
unstructuredness
unstructuredness (132), (132), and and in in which
which there there is is “direct,
“direct, immediate,
immediate, and and total
total
confrontation
confrontation of of human
human identities”
identities” (132) (132) without
without respect respect to to social
social normsnorms or or
hierarchy.
hierarchy.
In Jonah’s,
In Jonah ’s, apart
apart fromfrom places
places like like revival
revival meetings,
meetings, the the social
social character
character of of
liminal
liminal sacred
sacred places places is is not
not emphasized.
emphasized. John John undergoes
undergoes conversion,
conversion, which which
shows
shows that,
that, even even though
though religious
religious spacesspaces and and places
places are are cohesively
cohesively present present in in
Hurston’s
Hurston’s sacredsacred cosmos,
cosmos, his his initiation
initiation represents
represents ultimately
ultimately aa cultural cultural category.
category.
Eliade
Eliade also
also stresses
stresses the the sacred
sacred nature
nature of of such
such anan initiation:
initiation: “the puberty initiation
“the puberty initiation
represents
represents above above all all the
the revelation
revelation of of the
the sacred–and,
sacred—and, for for the primitive world,
the primitive world,
the
the sacred
sacred means means not not only
only everything
everything that that we we nownow understand
understand by by religion,
religion, butbut
also
also the
the whole
whole body body of of the
the tribe’s
tribe’s mythological
mythological and and cultural traditions” (3).
cultural traditions” (3). The
The
tie-camp
tie—camp for for John John constitutes
constitutes the the place
place of of cultural
cultural immersion,
immersion, from from whichwhich he he
emerges
emerges with with aa mature mature cultural
cultural and and masculine
masculine identity.
identity. The The situatedness
situatedness of of the
the
tie-camp
tie—camp in in nature
nature heightens
heightens its its resemblance
resemblance to to the the traditional
traditional wilderness
wilderness
experience;
eXperience; furthermore,
furthermore, the the place
place is is imbued
imbued with with African
African American
American culture culture
(games,
(games, sport,
sport, and and telling
telling stories).
stories). Third,Third, the the tie-camp
tie—camp is is connected
connected to to the
the
railroad
railroad andand the the locomotive,
locomotive, and and aa connection
connection is is thus
thus established
established between between placeplace
and
and John’s
John’s masculine
masculine maturation:
maturation: “Wall, “Wall, you you gwine
gwine learn learn [chew
[chew tobacco]
tobacco] ‘cause
‘cause
you
you can’t
can’t keep
keep dis dis camp
camp grub grub on on yo’
yo’ stomach
stomach lessen lessen yuh yuh do.do. Got Got tuhtuh learn
learn how
how
tuh
tuh cuss
cuss too.
too. Ah Ah kinkin seesee youyou ain’t
ain’t nothin’
nothin’ but but uh uh ladlad of of uh boy. Mens
uh boy. Mens on on dese
dese
camps
camps is is full
full uh bulldocia ‘til
uh bulldocia ‘til dey
dey smell
smell uh uh good
good size size fist.
fist. DenDen dey dey dwindles
dwindles
down
down tuh tuh nellynelly nothing”
nothing” (60). (60). The The “structural
“structural outsiderhood”
outsiderhood” (Turner (Turner 134)134)
denoted
denoted in in this
this set set of
of rules
rules stands
stands in in sharp
sharp contrast
contrast to to AlfAlf Pearson’s
Pearson’s centralized
centralized
place
place and
and the the whiteness
whiteness of of the
the church,
church, which which also also refers
refers to to the
the race
race discourse.
discourse.
The
The absence
absence of of characteristics
characteristics of of social
social spacespace establishes
establishes aa vacuum, vacuum, which which is is
hybridized
hybridized into into an an egalitarian
egalitarian communitas.
communitas. John John has has to to negotiate
negotiate identity
identity by by
unlearning behavioral attitudes
unlearning behavioral attitudes and and thinking
thinking patterns
patterns to to enter
enter thisthis communitas,
communitas,
where
where finally
finally “his “his first
first realreal fight”
fight” (63) (63) occurs
occurs as as aa clearclear assertion
assertion of of his
his
subjectivity.
subjectivity.
The
The ritualritual nature
nature of of this
this immersion
immersion scene scene is is also
also structured
structured from from aa
temporal
temporal pointpoint of of view.
view. The The mythic
mythic numbernumber three three of of wholeness
wholeness reappearsreappears herehere
too.
too. Even
Even though
though the the correlation
correlation betweenbetween time time and and place
place is is not
not clearly
clearly stated,
stated,
John
John leaves
leaves for for thethe tie-camp
tie—camp on on thethe Alabama
Alabama River River after after cotton
cotton picking
picking in in
autumn
autumn (usually
(usually between between August August and and October)
October) and and stays
stays therethere until
until December.
December.
John
John spends
spends three three months
months away away from from the the community
community at at aa secluded
secluded place, place, which
which
parallels
parallels the the temporal
temporal structure
structure of of thethe ritual
ritual acquisition
acquisition of of visions
visions already
already
mentioned.
mentioned.
For
For herher confinement
confinement in in domestic
domestic space space and and in in the
the central
central places
places of of African
African
American
American community,
community, Janie Janie in in Their
Their Eyes Eyes doesdoes not not appear
appear to to move
move back back and
and
forth
forth on
on aa large
large scale scale as as John
John in Jonah’s.
in Jonah ’s. Yet
Yet liminal
liminal placesplaces presented
presented by by the
the
omnipresent
omnipresent tree tree andand thethe muckmuck in in the
the Everglades
Everglades occupy occupy an an important
important role role inin
this
this novel,
novel, too. too.

72
72
 The
The pearpear tree
tree proves
proves to to bebe an
an overarching
overarching symbol symbol in in many
many ways ways in in Their
Their
Eyes. From
Eyes. From aa religio-cultural
religio—cultural point point of of view,
view, the the tree
tree represents
represents crossroads crossroads
between
between the the secular
secular and and sacred
sacred worlds
worlds in in many
many senses. senses. Glenda Glenda B. B. Weathers
Weathers
finds
finds aa replacement
replacement for for thethe Biblical
Biblical tree tree of of knowledge
knowledge in in thethe trope
trope of of thethe pear
pear
tree:
tree: “In
“In an
an innovative
innovative shift, shift, Hurston
Hurston replaces
replaces the the legendary
legendary tree tree of of knowledge,
knowledge,
the
the apple
apple tree,
tree, with
with an an arguably
arguably more more fitting
fitting symbol
symbol of of the
the acquisition
acquisition of of carnal
carnal
knowledge
knowledge and and sexual
sexual experience,
experience, the the pear
pear tree”tree” (par.(par. 5).5). The The biblical
biblical tree tree of
of
knowledge
knowledge has has aa liminoid
liminoid function
function withinwithin the the sacred
sacred space space of of the
the Bible,
Bible, since since it
it
represents
represents aa liminal
liminal place place set set apart
apart within
within ParadiseParadise and and Adam Adam and and Eve Eve cancan
obtain
obtain aa new
new identity
identity during
during the the encounter
encounter with with it. it. The
The pearpear tree tree differs
differs from from thethe
biblical
biblical tree
tree in in that
that any any encounter
encounter with with the the appleapple tree tree is is considered
considered aa
transgression,
transgression, and and it it results
results not not inin reemergence
reemergence in in the
the sacred
sacred but but in in aa ban
ban outout of
of
it.
it. The
The new
new subjectivity
subjectivity Adam Adam and and EveEve gaingain through
through the the deceptive
deceptive activity activity of of the
the
snake
snake presents
presents aa loss loss of of contextualization
contextualization in in thethe sacred.
sacred. In In contrast,
contrast, Hurston Hurston
blurs
blurs aa univocal
univocal understanding
understanding of of the
the tree
tree as as aa Christian
Christian symbol symbol by by substituting
substituting
apples
apples with
with pears
pears and and inverting
inverting the the outcome
outcome of of the
the encounter
encounter with with the the tree.
tree. The
The
sensual
sensual symbol
symbol of of the
the pear
pear showsshows appropriation
appropriation of of andand divergence
divergence from from the the
Christian
Christian myth;
myth; and, and, even
even moremore strikingly,
strikingly, the the tree
tree leads
leads Janie
Janie back back to to the
the sacred
sacred
forgotten
forgotten and and remembered
remembered again again (10) (10) as as she she reemerges
reemerges with with aa new new
consciousness
consciousness within black sacred
within black sacred space
space and and not not outside
outside it. it.
One
One cannot,
cannot, therefore,
therefore, argue argue forfor aa single
single interpretation
interpretation of of the
the pear
pear treetree as
as aa
Christian
Christian symbol.
symbol. Gerdès Gerdes Fleurant
Fleurant describes
describes trees trees as as voodoo
voodoo spiritual spiritual placesplaces
dedicated
dedicated to to the
the voodoo
voodoo deity deity Legba
Legba (12). (12). In In Tell
Tell My My HorseHorse Hurston Hurston herself herself
accounts
accounts for for the
the power
power of of sacred
sacred trees:
trees: “People
“People came came to to thethe palm
palm tree tree andand were
were
miraculously
miraculously cured cured and and others
others were were helped
helped in in various
various ways. ways. The The people
people began began to to
worship
worship thethe tree”
tree” (231).
(231). In In general,
general, trees
trees are are often
often employed
employed in in voodoo
voodoo worship worship
“as
“as aa vertical
vertical link between the
link between the sky,
sky, earth,
earth, and and underworld”
underworld” (Murphy (Murphy 28). 28). As As axis
axis
mundi
mundi thethe tree becomes not
tree becomes not only
only aa possible
possible access access to to the
the sacred,
sacred, but but also
also the
the
interface,
interface, where
where devotees
devotees can can maintain
maintain interstitial
interstitial status.status.
The
The value
value of of trees
trees as as liminal
liminal places
places is is emphasized
emphasized in in Voodoo
Voodoo as as Rachel
Rachel
Stein
Stein argues:
argues: “A “A syncretic
syncretic religion,
religion, constantly
constantly evolving evolving in in response
response to to changing
changing
cultural
cultural and and social
social conditions,
conditions, Voodoo Voodoo encourages encourages aa view view of of human
human
transformative
transformative possibilities,
possibilities, rather rather than than externally
externally fixed, fixed, eternally
eternally static static
identities.
identities. Crucially,
Crucially, Voodoo Voodoo spirituality
spirituality contests binaristic [sic]
contests binaristic [sic] hierarchies
hierarchies
with
with colonial
colonial structures
structures that that prove
prove so so damaging
damaging to black women”
to black women” (469). (469). Toni Toni
Morrison
Morrison associates
associates such such transformative
transformative capacities
capacities with with Africanism,
Africanism, insisting insisting on on
the
the self-reflexive,
self—reflexive, meditative,
meditative, as as well
well as as exploring
exploring nature nature of of thethe “Africanist
“Africanist
persona”
persona” (17).
(17). For For Morrison
Morrison “American“American Africanism
Africanism makes makes it it possible
possible to to say
say and
and
not
not say,
say, to
to inscribe
inscribe and and erase,
erase, to to escape
escape and and engage,
engage, to to act act outout and and act act on,
on, to
to
historicise
historicise and and render
render timeless”
timeless” (7). (7). Stein,
Stein, too, too, identifies
identifies similar similar features
features of of
Voodoo
Voodoo that that are are also
also connected
connected to to the
the treetree in in Their
Their Eyes,Eyes, as as they
they present
present an an
opposition
opposition to to subversive
subversive discourses
discourses such such as as the
the racial
racial or or gender
gender dialectic.
dialectic. Also, Also,

73
73
the
the inherent
inherent characteristic
characteristic of of Voodoo
Voodoo to to allow
allow for for transformation
transformation renders renders the the
pear
pear tree
tree thethe perpetuator
perpetuator of of change.
change. The The tree becomes aa place
tree becomes place thus,thus, where
where aa
“crossroad
“crossroad of of consciousness”
consciousness” (De (De WeeverWeever 168) 168) is is experienced,
experienced, presenting
presenting the the
possibility
possibility of of change
change and and choice.
choice.
Janie
Janie feels
feels relieved
relieved and and liberated
liberated when when she she ritually
ritually goes goes through
through the the
ecstatic
ecstatic experience
experience after after three
three days days and and “gaze[s]
“gaze[s] on on aa mystery”
mystery” (Their (Their EyesEyes 10).
10).
She
She hears
hears “a “a flute
flute songsong forgotten
forgotten in in another
another existence
existence and and remembered
remembered again” again”
(10),
(10), remembering
remembering prehistoric/pre-Christian
prehistoric/pre—Christian times. times. JustJust asas “[John]
“[John] has has access
access to to
aa pre-Christian
pre—Christian culturalcultural memory”
memory” (Hemenway (Hemenway 200) 200) in Jonah’s,
in Jonah ’s, Janie
Janie manages
manages to to
enter
enter anan Africanist
Africanist spirituality
spirituality that that proves
proves to be life-transforming
to be life—transforming and and presents
presents
her
her with
with aa vision
vision to to bebe realized
realized in in the
the muck
muck as as imago
imago mundi.
mundi. This This initiating
initiating
experience
experience (or (or foreshadowing
foreshadowing initiation) initiation) enhancedenhanced by by “border-crossing
“border—crossing
intermingling
intermingling polarities”
polarities” (Stein (Stein 469) 469) so so apt apt for
for Voodoo
Voodoo worshipworship becomesbecomes aa
mapping
mapping of of aa spirituality
spirituality or, or, much
much rather,rather, aa cosmological
cosmological view view to to obtain.
obtain.
Sexuality
Sexuality in in the
the scene,
scene, then,then, can can bebe understood
understood as being aa part
as being part ofof Voodoo
Voodoo
transformation.
transformation. Stein Stein argues
argues for for suchsuch an an understanding:
understanding: Janie’s Janie’s finalfinal sexual
sexual
immersion
immersion symbolizes
symbolizes aa “sexual “sexual and and spiritual
spiritual union”union” (471),
(471), which
which symbolically
symbolically
refers
refers to to of
of “Damballah
“Damballah and and his his wifewife in in sacred
sacred intercourse”
intercourse” (475). (475). Sexuality
Sexuality
serves
serves aa ritual
ritual function
function to to lead
lead to to “a “a spiritual
spiritual healing
healing of of the
the damaging
damaging divisions
divisions
of body and
of body and soul,
soul, sex
sex andand spirit,
spirit, malemale and and female,
female, animal
animal and and divine”
divine” (472).
(472). In In
this
this sense,
sense, temporary
temporary unification
unification resolves resolves Janie’s Janie’s “inner“inner dislocation”
dislocation” (De (De
Weever
Weever 168) 168) and bestows upon
and bestows upon her her aa hybrid
hybrid identity
identity of of inbetweenness.
inbetweenness.
Besides
Besides the the separation
separation of of the the official/social
official/social and and personal
personal on on aa
horizontal/geographical
horizontal/geographical level level in in Their Eyes, separation
Their Eyes, separation is is also
also established
established as as aa
binary of
binary of inside
inside and and outside
outside in in aa heterotopous
heterotopous manner. manner. In In Janie’s
Janie’s case,case, the
the inside
inside
becomes both
becomes both the the demarcation
demarcation of of aa marginal
marginal place place fromfrom the the point
point of of view
view of of
social
social space
space as as well
well as as anan opposition
opposition to to it.
it. Joe
Joe Starks’s
Starks’s funeral
funeral is is narrated
narrated as as aa
pompous
pompous event event encompassing
encompassing relevant relevant rituals
rituals of of the black community;
the black community; however, however,
Janie
Janie is is only
only physically juxtaposed, hiding
physically juxtaposed, behind her
hiding behind her veil,
veil, which
which seemsseems “like
“like aa
wall
wall ofof stone
stone and and steel
steel [. [. .. .].] [while]
[while] the the funeral
funeral was was going
going on on outside”
outside” (84).
(84).
Overlapping
Overlapping spatialities
spatialities are are emphasized
emphasized by by thethe fact
fact that
that Janie
Janie is is experiencing
experiencing
inner
inner revitalization:
revitalization: “Weeping“Weeping and and wailing
wailing outside.
outside. Inside
Inside the the expensive
expensive black black
folds
folds werewere resurrection
resurrection and and life” life” (84).(84). VividVivid innerinner lifelife enabled
enabled by by forced
forced
outsiderness
outsiderness imposed imposed on on her her by by both both her her deceased
deceased husbandhusband and and the black
the black
community
community can can nevertheless
nevertheless have have only only limited
limited external
external realization
realization up up toto the
the
Eatonville
Eatonville period.period. The The ritual
ritual interface
interface between between communitycommunity and and individual
individual
vanishes
vanishes radically
radically when when Janie’s
Janie’s third third husband,
husband, Tea Tea Cake,
Cake, dies. dies. Dramatically
Dramatically
Janie
Janie disregards
disregards custom custom and and violates
violates the boundaries of
the boundaries of the
the official
official sacred.
sacred. TheThe
inside
inside gains
gains ground
ground over over the the external
external as as Janie
Janie transforms
transforms the the site
site ofof the
the funeral
funeral
for
for the
the time being. In
time being. In sharp
sharp contrast
contrast to to the
the previous
previous funeral
funeral she she is is wearing
wearing “no “no
expensive
expensive veils veils andand robes
robes [. [. .. .] .] this
this time”
time” (180),(180), but but her her simple
simple overalls.
overalls.
Whereas
Whereas Starks’s
Starks’s funeral
funeral is is presented
presented as as pompous
pompous with with Janie,
Janie, aa grieving
grieving propprop to to

74
fulfill
fulfill formalities
formalities as as required
required by by his his status
status inin the
the community;
community; Tea Tea Cake’s
Cake’s is is
narrated
narrated in in aa personal
personal tone tone with
with Janie,
Janie, who breaks through
who breaks through social
social customs
customs withwith
her
her honest
honest mourning:
mourning: “She “She waswas too busy feeling
too busy feeling grief
grief toto dress
dress likelike grief”
grief” (180).
(180).
Thus
Thus the
the funeral
funeral in in the
the muck
muck verifies
verifies Hurston’s
Hurston’s general
general concept
concept of of the
the muck:
muck: it it
represents
represents the the inversion
inversion of of middle
middle class black social
class black social space
space andand claims
claims toto bebe the
the
space
space in in aa religious
religious sense, sense, in in which
which the the individual
individual can can attain
attain fullness
fullness of of
selfrealization
selfrealization and and selfrevelation.
selfrevelation.
In
In anan anthropological
anthropological context, context, Their Eyes can
Their Eyes can bebe seen
seen as as anan initiation
initiation
narrative
narrative (or (or anan immersion
immersion narrative
narrative to to use
use Stepto’s
Stepto’s term),
term), in in which
which the the final
final
scene
scene of of thethe muck
muck represents
represents the the ultimate
ultimate liminal
liminal place
place of of simultaneous
simultaneous
purification
purification and becoming. Not
and becoming. Not only
only does
does Janie
Janie recount
recount Phoeby
Phoeby her journey as
her journey as aa
novice—as
novice—as HurstonHurston also also witnessed
witnessed novices’
novices’ accounts
accounts before
before their becoming full
their becoming full
members
members of of the
the religio-cultural
religio—cultural community;
community; but but the
the narrative
narrative also also shows
shows the the
structure
structure of of visions.
visions. It It narrates
narrates Janie’s
Janie’s trials
trials and
and tribulations
tribulations throughthrough three
three
marriages
marriages representing
representing the the threefold
threefold evolving
evolving of of visions.
visions. Dolan Dolan Hubbard
Hubbard
identifies
identifies these
these three
three stages
stages as as “spiritual
“spiritual orientation,”
orientation,” “richness
“richness and and diversity
diversity of of
the
the styles
styles of of life
life in in the
the black
black community,”
community,” and and “the blues impulse”
“the blues impulse” (par. (par. 5).5).
Though,
Though, fromfrom the the point
point of of view
view of of gender,
gender, thethe three
three husbands
husbands represent
represent Janie’s
Janie’s
development
development of of aa female
female subjectivity,
subjectivity, the the three
three stages
stages also
also lead
lead her her toward
toward bothboth
aa broader
broader contextualization
contextualization of of the
the selfself in
in the black community
the black community as as her
her immersion
immersion
in
in the
the open,
open, indefinite
indefinite space space of of the black Everglades
the black Everglades indicates,
indicates, and and aa
cosmological
cosmological understanding
understanding of of herself.
herself.
The
The trope
trope of of the
the hurricane
hurricane heightens
heightens the the symbolic
symbolic relevance
relevance of of Janie’s
Janie’s
visionary journey. Hurston
visionary journey. Hurston fictionally
fictionally reworked
reworked probablyprobably the the events
events of of thethe
Okeechobee
Okeechobee Hurricane
Hurricane that that hit
hit the
the region
region in in 1928,
1928, causing
causing thethe flooding
flooding of of Lake
Lake
Okeechobee
Okeechobee and and the the subsequent
subsequent death death of of more
more than
than aa thousand
thousand predominantly
predominantly
migrant black workers
migrant black workers then buried in
then buried in mass
mass graves
graves (see
(see Steinberg
Steinberg 61). 61).
Several
Several critics
critics approach
approach the the image
image of of the
the hurricane
hurricane through
through the the race
race
discourse.
discourse. For For Erik
Erik D. D. Curren
Curren the the hurricane
hurricane represents
represents “a “a switch
switch from from optimistic
optimistic
quest
quest toto gothic
gothic horror”
horror” withinwithin aa master-slave
master—slave dialectic
dialectic (par.
(par. 5). 5). OnOn aa more
more
permissive
permissive note, note, though,
though, but but still
still within
within thethe race
race discourse,
discourse, Hubbard
Hubbard positions
positions
this
this religious
religious experience
eXperience in in the
the racial
racial climate
climate of of contemporary
contemporary America: America:

The
The storm
storm in
in this,
this, Janie’s
Janie’s last
last movement
movement toward
toward the the horizon,
horizon, symbolizes
symbolizes
the
the struggle
struggle the
the corporate black community
corporate black community has has to
to come
come toto terms
terms with
with in
in
the
the oppressor's
oppressor's negation
negation ofof its
its image.
image. Out
Out ofof this
this negation,
negation, thethe mythic
mythic
consciousness
consciousness seeksseeks aa new beginning in
new beginning in the
the future
future byby imagining
imagining an an
original
original beginning.
beginning. The The social
social implications
implications of of this
this religious
religious experience
eXperience
enable
enable thethe oppressed
oppressed community
community to to dehistoricize
dehistoricize the the oppressor's
oppressor's
hegemonic
hegemonic dominance.
dominance. Metaphorically,
Metaphorically, the the phrase
phrase their
their eyes
eyes were
were
watching
watching GodGod means
means the
the creation
creation ofof aa new
new form
form ofof humanity—one
humanity—one that that is
is
no
no longer based on
longer based on the
the master-slave
master—slave dialectic.
dialectic. (par.
(par. 58)
58)

75
75
While
While Hubbard
Hubbard touches touches upon upon aa necessary
necessary implication
implication of of Janie’s
Janie’s religious
religious
experience,
experience, he he fails
fails to break out
to break out of
of the
the vicious
vicious circle
circle of of racial
racial projection.
projection. On On aa
similar
similar note
note Richard
Richard M. M. Merelman
Merelman understands
understands cultural cultural projection
projection as as “the
“the
conscious
conscious or or unconscious
unconscious effort effort by
by aa social
social group
group and and itsits allies
allies to to place
place newnew
images
images of of itself before other
itself before other social
social groups,
groups, and before the
and before the general
general public”public” (3). (3).
But
But this
this kind
kind of of projection
projection maintains
maintains the the focus
focus of of the
the other,
other, thereby
thereby unable unable to to
perform
perform as as aa tooltool of of authentication
authentication that that Hubbard
Hubbard insists insists on. on. In In fact,
fact, this
this
interpretation
interpretation of of thethe hurricane
hurricane reiterates
reiterates racial racial stereotypes,
stereotypes, that that is, is, Uncle
Uncle
Tomism,
Tomism, which which positsposits the the African
African American
American subject subject as as irreparably
irreparably religious,religious,
otherworldly,
otherworldly, and and docile—a
docile—a conceptualization
conceptualization in in stark
stark contrast
contrast to to Hurston’s
Hurston’s
evaluation
evaluation of of religion
religion as as mentioned
mentioned at at the beginning of
the beginning of thisthis essay.
essay. Hubbard
Hubbard
misses
misses thethe point
point by by focusing
focusing on on African
African American
American racial racial identity
identity in in aa social
social
space,
space, the
the muck,
muck, which which provesproves pluralistic
pluralistic and and polyphonic
polyphonic before before the the hurricane,
hurricane,
exhibiting
exhibiting “non-polarized
“non—polarized social-natural
social—natural relations”
relations” (Stein(Stein 478).
478). The The new/original
new/original
beginning
beginning for for Janie
Janie is is not
not aa matter
matter of of the
the racial
racial self,
self, but
but one
one of of contextualization
contextualization
(the
(the prime
prime vehicle
vehicle of of which
which constitutes
constitutes storytelling).
storytelling).
Racial
Racial criticism
criticism misses misses thethe richness
richness of of Hurston’s
Hurston’s dynamic dynamic trickster trickster
philosophy.
philosophy. So So while
while the the racial
racial dialectic
dialectic also also appears
appears in in the
the hurricane
hurricane scene, scene, it it
may
may simply
simply mark mark polyphonic
polyphonic thinkingthinking on on Hurston’s
Hurston’s part. part. Therefore
Therefore the the
separation
separation of of Christianity
Christianity and and African
African AmericanAmerican folk folk religious
religious phenomena,
phenomena,
Curren
Curren urges,
urges, cannot
cannot hold hold eveneven from
from an an anthropological
anthropological point point of of view
view (see(see
Mintz
Mintz andand Price),
Price), but but in in addition
addition isis debunked
debunked in in Hurston’s
Hurston’s work because of
work because of the
the
anthropologically
anthropologically justified justified syncretism
syncretism of of different
different religious
religious spaces spaces HurstonHurston
implements
implements in in her
her fiction
fiction on on the basis of
the basis of her
her own
own research.
research. ExamplesExamples in Jonah’s
in Jonah ’s
include
include thethe myriads
myriads of of Africanisms
Africanisms in in the black church
the black church and and deacon
deacon Harris’s
Harris’s
voodoo
voodoo worshipping
worshipping (147). (147).
Beyond
Beyond dramatically
dramatically narratingnarrating an an actual
actual disaster,
disaster, the the hurricane
hurricane depicts depicts
symbolically
symbolically Janie’s
Janie’s reemergence
reemergence in in the
the tripartite
tripartite initiation
initiation narrative.
narrative. Similarly
Similarly
to
to Job,
Job, who
who undergoes
undergoes immense immense suffering
suffering as as he he loses
loses family,
family, fortune,
fortune, and and
wealth,
wealth, and
and whowho is is tempted
tempted by by unfeeling
unfeeling friendsfriends to to abandon
abandon his his faith,
faith, Janie,
Janie, too,
too,
loses
loses the
the ideal
ideal lifelife in in the
the Everglades
Everglades in in aa tormenting
tormenting series series of of events.
events. In In his
his
agony
agony looking
looking for for answers,
answers, Job Job confronts
confronts God, God, who who speaks
speaks to to him
him “out “out ofof aa
storm”
storm” (NIV)/
(NIV)/ “out “out of of thethe whirlwind”
whirlwind” (KJV) (KJV) in in JobJob 38. 38. Catherine
Catherine Keller Keller
identifies
identifies inin the
the story
story of of Job
Job the
the “Genesis
“Genesis creationcreation narrative
narrative [. [. .. .]
.] as
as its
its primary
primary
intertext”
intertext” (124)—a
(124)—a claim claim supported
supported by by God’s
God’s monologue:
monologue: “Who “Who shut shut up up the
the sea
sea
behind
behind doors
doors when when it burst forth
it burst forth from
from the the womb,
womb, when when II made made the the clouds
clouds its its
garment
garment and and wrapped
wrapped it it in
in thick
thick darkness”
darkness” (Job (Job 38:8-9).
38:8—9). KellerKeller argues argues that that the
the
depiction
depiction of of the
the universe
universe goes beyond simply
goes beyond simply stating
stating God’s
God’s omnipotence
omnipotence (129) (129)
to
to portray
portray “the
“the wild
wild spirit
spirit of of creation”
creation” in in which
which “the “the sea’s
sea’s ferocity
ferocity is is portrayed
portrayed
as
as the
the agitation
agitation of of anan infant
infant that
that requires boundaries for
requires boundaries for its
its ownown protection-not
protection—not
just for
just for the
the safety
safety of of thethe earth”
earth” (130).
(130). Overriding
Overriding traditional
traditional conceptualizations
conceptualizations
of
of light
light versus
versus dark dark as as good
good versus
versus evil,
evil, Keller
Keller in in her
her subsequent
subsequent Bakhtinian Bakhtinian

76
76
analysis
analysis proposes
proposes that that “[i]t
“[i]t isis as
as if
if the
the shift
shift from
from legallegal to to cosmogonic
cosmogonic discourse discourse
delegalized
delegalized and and deprivatized
deprivatized Job’s Job’s questions.
questions. They They entered
entered thethe intense
intense proximity
proximity
of
of the comic plane—just
the comic plane—just as as they
they opened
opened into into the bottomless expanse
the bottomless expanse of of cosmic
cosmic
space”
space” (Keller
(Keller 139). 139). Janie
Janie encounters
encounters the the same
same Jobian
Jobian cosmological
cosmological experienceexperience
when
when Janie
Janie makes
makes the the confession
confession that that “Ah
“Ah wuz wuz fumblin’
fumblin’ round round and and GodGod opened
opened
de
de door”
door” (151),
(151), the the storm
storm hitshits with
with aa symbolic
symbolic “triple “triple fury,”
fury,” and
and sheshe finds
finds herself
herself
in
in the
the midst
midst of of aa vortex
vortex widening
widening the the horizon
horizon to to the
the open
open space space of of the
the
Everglades.
Everglades. Being Being caught caught up up inin thethe vortex
vortex metaphorically
metaphorically representsrepresents Janie’s Janie’s
encounter
encounter with with the the divine;
divine; moremore specifically,
specifically, like like JobJob hashas aa final
final encounter
encounter with with
God
God andand is is cleansed,
cleansed, wherebywhereby he he acknowledges
acknowledges God’s God’s supremacy
supremacy and and his his own
own
human
human condition
condition (“My (“My ears ears hadhad heard
heard of of you
you butbut now now my my eyes
eyes havehave seen seen you.
you.
Therefore
Therefore II despise
despise myself myself and and repent
repent in in dust
dust andand ashes”
ashes” [Job
[Job 42:42: 5-6]),
5—6]), Janie,
Janie,
too, becomes aware
too, becomes aware of of her
her condition
condition in in relation
relation to to the
the universe
universe on on thethe level
level of of
religious
religious experience
experience enshrined enshrined in in her
her vision
vision as as well
well as as on
on aa ritual
ritual levellevel in in
relation
relation to to the black sacred
the black sacred cosmos,
cosmos, and and is is thus
thus symbolically
symbolically purified.
purified.
What
What happens
happens in in the
the hurricane
hurricane presents
presents aa necessarynecessary step step in in thethe ritual
ritual
process,
process, “[initiation]
“[initiation] is is aa fundamental
fundamental existential
existential experience
experience becausebecause throughthrough it it aa
man becomes able
man becomes able to to assume
assume his his mode
mode of being in
of being in its
its entirety”
entirety” (Eliade
(Eliade Rites Rites and
and
Symbols 3).
Symbols 3). In In Janie’s
Janie’s storytelling
storytelling of of her her conversion
conversion vision, vision, the the hurricane
hurricane
symbolizes
symbolizes coming coming through through religion
religion in in two
two ways:
ways: a) a) Janie’s
Janie’s maturation
maturation becomes becomes
complete
complete in in finishing
finishing her her ritual journey; b)
ritual journey; b) this
this passing
passing the the threshold
threshold is is ritually
ritually
expressed
expressed through
through the the actact of
of storytelling,
storytelling, wherebywhereby Janie becomes contextualized
Janie becomes contextualized
in
in social
social space
space in in her
her ownown right—that
right—that is, is, her
her ability
ability to to voice
voice anan authentic
authentic story story
confirms
confirms her her subjectivity
subjectivity in in the
the community.
community.
As
As Keller
Keller identifies
identifies an an element
element of of the
the comic
comic in in Job,
Job, the
the comic
comic is is also
also
present
present in in thethe hurricane
hurricane scene. scene. MotorMotor Boat, Boat, aa friend
friend of of Janie
Janie and and TeaTea Cake’s,
Cake’s,
chooses
chooses not not to to flee
flee from from the the flood
flood but but to to gogo upstairs
upstairs and and sleep.
sleep. AfterAfter the the
hurricane
hurricane Tea Tea CakeCake reports
reports thatthat “Heah
“Heah we we nelly
nelly killkill our
our fool
fool selves
selves runnin’
runnin’ way way
from
from danger
danger and and him
him lay lay upup dere
dere andand sleep
sleep and and float
float on on off”
off” (165).
(165). MotorMotor Boat, Boat,
whose
whose namename indicates
indicates the the irony,
irony, survives
survives while while in in aa surrealistic
surrealistic scene
scene JanieJanie and and
Tea
Tea Cake
Cake are are fighting
fighting for for their
their lives
lives on on the back of
the back of aa mule
mule against
against aa rabid rabid dog.
dog.
The
The flood
flood lullslulls Motor
Motor Boat Boat intointo sweet
sweet sleep
sleep in in the
the midst
midst of of mass
mass deaths.
deaths.
Understanding
Understanding the the scope
scope of of her journey and
her journey and return
return to to Eatonville
Eatonville equals equals
mapping
mapping both both geographically
geographically and and spiritually
spiritually the the horizon
horizon of of black
black (sacred)
(sacred) space, space,
and
and herher ability
ability to to voice
voice her her experience
experience marks marks her her embededness
embededness in in it,it, that
that is,
is,
similarly
similarly to to her
her overalls,
overalls, presents
presents aa “proof“proof of of her
her new baptism” (Dixon
new baptism” (Dixon 94). 94).
Maturation
Maturation and and embededness
embededness ring ring through
through her her voice
voice as as she begins revealing
she begins revealing her her
ritual journey with
ritual journey with the the wisdom
wisdom of of elders:
elders: “So “So t’ain’t
t’ain’t no no use
use inin meme telling
telling youyou
somethin’
somethin’ unless unless Ah Ah givegive youyou de de understandin’
understandin’ to to gogo ‘long
‘long wid
wid it. it. Unless
Unless you you
see
see dede fur,
fur, aa mink
mink skin skin ain’t
ain’t no no different
different from from cooncoon hide” hide” (7).
(7). InIn aa sense
sense Janie
Janie
takes
takes on on aa position
position much much like like Nanny’s
Nanny’s (structurally,
(structurally, but but unlike
unlike Nanny’sNanny’s

77
77
materialistic
materialistic philosophy).
philosophy). Nanny Nanny gives gives Janie
Janie “de “de text”
text” (16),(16), “a “a sermonic
sermonic
monologue”
monologue” (Hubbard (Hubbard par. par. 13),
13), not
not only
only as as aa grandmother,
grandmother, but but as
as anan elder
elder in in the
the
community
community who who shares
shares “motherwit”
“motherwit” with with Janie.
Janie.
Motherwit
Motherwit derivesderives from from African
African American
American cosmologycosmology and and denotes
denotes folk folk
wisdom.
wisdom. FormerFormer slave slave Francis
Francis Lewis Lewis formulates
formulates aa definition
definition of of motherwit
motherwit as–– as—
“Well,
“Well, … [motherwit]
[motherwit] is is like
like this:
this: II got
got aa wit
wit toto teach
teach me me what’s
what’s wrong.
wrong. II got got aa
wit
wit to to not
not make
make me me aa mischief-maker.
mischief—maker. II got got aa wit wit toto keep
keep people’s
people’s trusts” trusts”
(Clayton
(Clayton 159)––that
159)—that appearsappears to be general
to be general common
common sense sense (see(see Logan),
Logan), reflecting
reflecting
also
also the the ex-slave
ex—slave Nanny’s
Nanny’s spirituality.
spirituality. However,
However, a) a) motherwit
motherwit comprisescomprises the the
group-specific
group—specific expression
expression of of experiences
experiences regarding
regarding race, race, gender,
gender, and and class,
class,
inducing
inducing group-specific
group—specific normative
normative action; action; and and b) b) motherwit
motherwit also also reflects
reflects African
African
American
American cosmological
cosmological thinking, thinking, representing
representing aa signifier signifier of of the the African
African
American
American community,
community, but but often
often understood
understood as as “the
“the collective
collective body body of of female
female
wisdom”
wisdom” (Carr-Hamilton
(Carr—Hamilton 72). 72).
Delores
Delores S. S. Williams
Williams reassertsreasserts this this approach
approach when when writingwriting about about the the
relation
relation between
between African
African American
American women women and and Hagar,
Hagar, parallels
parallels the the twotwo fates
fates asas
to
to oppression
oppression and and exploitation
exploitation by by both
both males
males and and other
other females.
females. She She describes
describes
Hagar’s
Hagar’s story story in in the
the Bible
Bible as as womanist
womanist God-talkGod—talk (“theology”)
(“theology”) to to show
show that that
minority
minority women women are are not
not forlorn
forlorn by by GodGod despite
despite the the defocusing
defocusing strategies
strategies of of
mainstream
mainstream discourses.
discourses. In In connecting
connecting this this religious
religious experience
experience to to wilderness
wilderness
experience,
experience, Williams Williams renders renders it, it, in in fact,
fact, parallel
parallel and and complementary
complementary
individuation.
individuation. As As early
early as as in
in her
her marriage
marriage with with Starks,
Starks, Janie
Janie makes
makes aa confession
confession
similar
similar to to Hagar’
Hagar’ story.
story. When
When Starks Starks mocks
mocks women,
women, Janie Janie openly
openly comescomes to to the
the
defense
defense of of women:
women: “sometimes
“sometimes God God gitsgits familiar
familiar wid wid us us womenfolks
womenfolks too too andand
talks
talks His His inside business” (70).
inside business” (70). She She thereby
thereby claims
claims an an up-to-that-point
up—to—that—point invisible invisible
discourse
discourse and and foregrounds
foregrounds it. it. Her
Her testimony
testimony stands stands in in sharp
sharp contrast
contrast to to the
the
mule’s
mule’s funeral,
funeral, which
which can can be be seen
seen as as aa trampling
trampling on on Janie’s
Janie’s visionvision in in aa
surrealistic
surrealistic scene because it
scene because it identifies
identifies black black women
women as as “nature
“nature incarnate–as
incarnate—as
‘donkeys’
‘donkeys’ created
created for for nothing
nothing more more than brute labor
than brute labor andand sexual
sexual service”
service” (Stein (Stein
467),
467), but but also
also asas anan inverted
inverted “steal “steal away”
away” act act that justifies Janie
that justifies Janie morally.
morally. In In the
the
hurricane
hurricane scene,scene, “their
“their eyeseyes werewere watching
watching God” God” does does not not refer
refer toto aa turn
turn away
away
from
from aa bipolar
bipolar social
social world,
world, but but symbolizes
symbolizes hope hope in in God;
God; that that is,
is, aa turn
turn toward
toward
black
black sacred
sacred space.
space. It It also
also demonstrates
demonstrates the the presence
presence of of the
the divine,
divine, which
which shows shows
God’s
God’s self-revelation
self—revelation beforebefore JanieJanie and and simultaneous
simultaneous assuranceassurance of of divine
divine comfort
comfort
in
in aa time
time of of trial
trial and
and tribulation.
tribulation.
The
The initiating
initiating hurricane
hurricane thus thus marksmarks the the completion
completion of of Janie’s
Janie’s
individuation,
individuation, as as testified
testified to to her
her final
final allegoric
allegoric act: act: “Here
“Here was was peace.
peace. She She pulled
pulled
in
in her
her horizon
horizon like
like aa great
great fish-net.
fish—net. PulledPulled it it from
from around
around the the waist
waist of of the
the world
world
and
and draped
draped it it over
over herher shoulder.
shoulder. So So much
much of of life
life inin its
its meshes!
meshes! She She called
called in in her
her
soul
soul to to come
come and and see”
see” (184).
(184). The The post-initiation
post—initiation phase phase in in the
the narrative
narrative condenses
condenses
the
the richness
richness of of Janie’s
Janie’s inner
inner life life that
that sheshe boils
boils downdown from from her her experiences;
experiences; it it
provides
provides her her with
with integrity
integrity as as well
well as as endows
endows her her withwith the the knowledge,
knowledge, or or

78
78
motherwit
motherwit of of the
the elders.
elders. The
The muck muck experience
experience completed
completed by by the
the hurricane
hurricane scene scene
marks
marks thethe final
final move
move “from“from the the sweltering
sweltering depthsdepths of of aa culture’s
culture’s swampland
swampland to to aa
reconquered,
reconquered, redefined redefined place place in in thethe home”
home” (Dixon(Dixon 87), 87), whereby
whereby the the depths
depths
adheres
adheres to to religious
religious depth depth and and thethe redefined
redefined homehome to to religious
religious emergence.
emergence. The The
life-
life— and
and self-affirming
self—affirming act act presents
presents aa parallelparallel withwith Hurston’s
Hurston’s ars ars poetica
poetica
discussed
discussed at at the beginning of
the beginning of this
this essay.
essay. Similarly
Similarly to to Janie,
Janie, Hurston,
Hurston, too,too, seems
seems
to
to look back at
look back at her
her life
life in
in thethe last
last chapters
chapters of Tracks and
Dust Tracks
of Dust and confirms
confirms that that
“Life,
“Life, asas it it is,
is, does
does not not frighten
frighten me, me, since
since II have
have mademade my my peace
peace with with thethe
29
universe
universe as as II find
find it,it, and bow to
and bow to its
its laws”
laws” (278).
(278).29
In
In Hurston’s
Hurston’s cultural cultural cosmos
cosmos the the liminal
liminal places
places as both antipictures
as both antipictures and and
building blocks of
building blocks black Christianity
of black Christianity provideprovide the the cultural binary within
cultural binary within the black
the black
sacred
sacred cosmos
cosmos in in aa rather
rather structuralist
structuralist way—a way—a circumstance
circumstance that that has
has itsits own
own
importance.
importance. In In Hurston’s
Hurston’s cultural cultural teleology
teleology black black cultural
cultural space
space provesproves
heteronomy
heteronomy and and totality,
totality, from
from where
where the the African
African American
American subject
subject cancan emerge,
emerge,
yet
yet Hurston
Hurston authenticates
authenticates her her cultural
cultural spacespace as as anan autonomous
autonomous entityentity withwith thethe
help
help ofof liminal
liminal places.places. In/ofIrflof Hurston’s
Hurston’s religio-cultural
religio—cultural space space liminality
liminality or or
transition
transition can can be be considered
considered the the general
general and and “permanent
“permanent condition”
condition” (Turner
(Turner 107) 107)
of
of African
African Americans,
Americans, ascertaining
ascertaining culturalcultural dynamics
dynamics throughthrough hybridization.
hybridization.
Furthermore,
Furthermore, such such aa treatment
treatment of of space
space reveals
reveals Hurston’s
Hurston’s cultural
cultural politics:
politics: by by
suturing
suturing the the sacred
sacred into into thethe cultural
cultural to to such
such an an extent,
extent, sheshe does
does establish
establish aa
mythic
mythic universe
universe based based on on repeatability,
repeatability, much much as as Eliade
Eliade approaches
approaches sacred
sacred time:
time:
“Sacred
“Sacred time time [. [. .. .]
.] appears
appears under under the the paradoxical
paradoxical aspect aspect of of aa circular
circular time,time,
reversible
reversible and and recoverable,
recoverable, aa sort sort of of mythical
mythical present
present that
that isis periodically
periodically
reintegrated
reintegrated by by means
means of of rites”
rites” (70).
(70). This
This method
method does does not,
not, in
in the
the first
first place,
place,
reflect
reflect fixity,
fixity, but but rather
rather mirrors
mirrors Hurston’s,
Hurston’s, the the anthropologist’s,
anthropologist’s, understanding
understanding
of
of and
and experience
experience with with culture,
culture, as as well
well as,
as, specifically,
specifically, the the organic
organic diversity
diversity of of
African
African American
American culture culture in in her books. To
her books. To quote
quote Eliade
Eliade again
again “through
“through the the
repetition,
repetition, the reacmalization, of
the reactualization, of thethe traditional
traditional rites,
rites, the
the entire
entire community
community is is
regenerated”
regenerated” (Rites (Rites and Symbols 4).
and Symbols 4). Thus
Thus Hurston’s
Hurston’s apparently
apparently mythic
mythic universe
universe
serves
serves to to revitalize
revitalize AfricanAfrican American
American culture culture andand identity
identity byby remotivating
remotivating the the
cultural
cultural plethora.
plethora.

29
29 Hurston’s
Hurston’s evaluation
evaluation of
of her
her life
life in
in her
her concluding
concluding chapter
chapter is
is remarkably
remarkably reminiscent
reminiscent of
of
Janie’s
Janie’s concluding
concluding phase.
phase. When
When Hurston
Hurston confesses
confesses that
that “I
“I have been in
have been in Sorrow’s
Sorrow’s kitchen
kitchen and
and
licked
licked out
out all
all the
the pots.
pots. Then
Then II have
have stood
stood on
on the
the peaky
peaky mountain
mountain wrappen
wrappen inin rainbows,
rainbows, with
with aa
harp
harp and
and aa sword
sword in
in my
my hands”
hands” (280),
(280), she
she claims
claims aa similar,
similar, parallel
parallel evaluation
evaluation of
of her
her own
own life.
life.

79
79
80
80
6. Gendered Space: Transparent Space, Female Social Space, and
the Production of the Female Body

6.1. Masculine Social Space as Transparent Space

Ships
Ships at
at aa distance
distance have
have every
every man’s
man’s wish
wish on board. For
on board. For some
some they
they come
come in
in with
with the
the
tide.
tide. For
For others
others they
they sail
sail forever
forever on
on the
the horizon,
horizon, never
never out
out of
of sight,
sight, never
never landing
landing until
until
the
the Watcher
Watcher turns turns his
his eyes
eyes away
away in
in resignation,
resignation, his
his dreams
dreams mocked
mocked toto death by Time.
death by Time.
That
That is
is the
the life
life of
of men.
men.
Now,
Now, women
women forgetforget everything
everything they
they don’t
don’t want
want toto remember,
remember, andand remember
remember
everything
everything they they don’t
don’t want
want toto forget.
forget. The
The dream
dream isis the
the truth.
truth. Then
Then they
they act
act and
and do
do
things
things accordingly.
accordingly. (Their Eyes 1)
(Their Eyes 1)

Besides
Besides the the race
race stratum,
stratum, it
it is
is the
the stratum
stratum of of gender,
gender, which
which determines
determines the the
identity
identity and
and social
social positioning
positioning of black women
of black women in in Barbara
Barbara Johnson’s
Johnson’s tetrapolar
tetrapolar
structure.
structure. Cultural
Cultural determinism
determinism appears
appears therefore
therefore in in the
the fact
fact that
that Hurston’s
Hurston’s
females
females are
are positioned
positioned in in gendered
gendered space.
space. In In this
this chapter
chapter II will
will examine
examine placesplaces
in
in which
which women
women are are incarcerated:
incarcerated: in in particular,
particular, my my focus
focus centers
centers on on spatial
spatial
settings
settings to
to explore
explore how how thethe female
female body body isis produced
produced in in hegemonic
hegemonic masculine
masculine
social
social space,
space, asas well
well as
as the
the dynamics
dynamics of of female
female place
place construction,
construction, that that is,
is, how
how
women
women in in Hurston’s
Hurston’s fiction
fiction retain
retain subjectivity
subjectivity through
through the the counterhegemonic
counterhegemonic
activity
activity of
of shaping
shaping their
their own
own places
places andand social
social spaces
spaces andand obtain
obtain integration
integration in in aa
socio-cultural
socio—cultural context.
context.
Female
Female place-construction
place—construction shows shows female
female spatiality,
spatiality, hence
hence an an always
always
already
already female
female subjectivity—even
subjectivity—even though though conditioned
conditioned by by broader
broader contexts
contexts such
such
as
as social
social space—that
space—that denotes denotes aa spatial
spatial imagination
imagination independent
independent of of its
its
materialization.
materialization. The The epigraph
epigraph indicates
indicates that that the
the narrator
narrator of of Their
Their EyesEyes
establishes
establishes aa spatiality
spatiality preceding
preceding place-construction
place—construction and, and, indeed,
indeed, “being-in-the-
“being—in—the—
world”
world” for
for Hurston’s
Hurston’s womenwomen is is often
often notnot material.
material. Truth
Truth experienced
experienced by by her
her
women
women in in their
their dreams,
dreams, visions;
visions; and, and, in
in general,
general, mentally
mentally and and spiritually
spiritually
provides
provides the basis for
the basis for the
the exploration
exploration of of space.
space. Memory
Memory offers offers thus both aa
thus both
spatiality
spatiality ofof subjectivity
subjectivity and and aa challenge
challenge to to the
the dominant
dominant (masculine)
(masculine) social
social
space (Singh 6).
space (Singh 6).
In
In this
this way,
way, the
the epigraph
epigraph establishes
establishes aa dialectics
dialectics ofof social
social space,
space, inin which:
which:

The
The movement
movement in in and
and out
out of
of gender
gender [. [. .. .]
.] is
is aa movement
movement between between the
the
(represented)
(represented) discursive
discursive space
space of
of the
the positions
positions available
available by by hegemonic
hegemonic
discourses
discourses and
and the
the space-off,
space—off, the
the elsewhere,
elsewhere, of of those
those discourses:
discourses: those
those
other
other spaces both discursive
spaces both discursive and
and social
social that
that exist
exist [.[. .. .]
.] in
in the
the margins
margins [.[. ..
.].
.]. These
These two
two kinds
kinds of
of spaces
spaces [.[. .. .].] coexist
coexist concurrently
concurrently and and in in
contradiction.
contradiction. The
The movement between them
movement between them [. [. .. .] .] is
is the
the tension
tension ofof
contradiction,
contradiction, multiplicity,
multiplicity, and
and heteronomy.
heteronomy. (De (De Lauretis
Lauretis 26) 26)

81
81
The
The dynamic
dynamic movement
movement of of female
female subjects becomes conspicuous
subjects becomes conspicuous in in oppressive
oppressive
social
social spaces
spaces in in which
which Hurston’s
Hurston’s female female characters
characters are are not
not allowed
allowed to to construct
construct
their
their genuine
genuine placesplaces and and are are forced
forced to to turn
turn toward
toward alternative
alternative solutions
solutions such such as as
female
female communal
communal spaces spaces or or to
to individual
individual female female places.
places.
It
It is
is the
the former,
former, oppressive
oppressive social social space space that that shapes
shapes the the focus
focus of of thethe
present
present subchapter.
subchapter. Oppressive
Oppressive space space is is “transparent
“transparent space” space” (Rose
(Rose 40)—a
40)—a term term II
borrow
borrow from from feminist
feminist geographers
geographers to to refer
refer to to masculine
masculine socialsocial spacespace that
that is is
viewed
viewed by by these
these thinkers
thinkers as as public
public and and hegemonic.
hegemonic. In In this
this social
social space
space the the
female
female body body has has aa symbolic
symbolic value value as as determined
determined by by patriarchal
patriarchal society.
society. The The
symbolic/metaphorical
symbolic/metaphorical (Rose (Rose 58) 58) body body is is what
what Susan Susan BordoBordo calls calls the the
“intelligible
“intelligible body” body” that that “includes
“includes [. [. .. .]
.] our
our cultural
cultural conceptions
conceptions of of the body,”
the body,”
such
such as as norms,
norms, influencing
influencing the the implementation
implementation of of positioning
positioning of of women
women in in
transparent
transparent socialsocial spacespace as as “useful bodies” (Unbearable
“useful bodies” (Unbearable Weight Weight 181),
181), or or “docile
“docile
bodies”
bodies” in in Foucauldian
Foucauldian coinage coinage (see Discipline and
(see Discipline Punish). While
and Punish). While it it isis
customary
customary to to speak,
speak, concerning
concerning such such contexts,
contexts, of of the
the public/private
public/private divide,divide, the the
latter
latter realm
realm cannotcannot be be regarded
regarded autonomous
autonomous space, space, in in other
other words,
words, aa place place
constructed
constructed by by women;
women; instead,
instead, it it marks
marks exclusion
exclusion from from public
public social
social space
space and and
the
the body
body politics
politics of of positioning
positioning as as well
well as as ofof the
the inscription
inscription of of “normalcy”
“normalcy” on on
the body. Hurston’s
the body. Hurston’s women women are are often
often positioned
positioned in in thethe private—most
private—most
prominently:
prominently: kitchens, bedrooms, back
kitchens, bedrooms, back porches,
porches, and and back
back yards;
yards; and and rarely
rarely in in
the
the public—where
public—where they they are are marginalized
marginalized and and alienated.
alienated. These
These women
women are are thus
thus
ascribed
ascribed to to inflexible
inflexible places, places, where,
where, under under the the male
male gaze,
gaze, they they become
become
immobile.
immobile. Outside Outside the the homehome and and masculine
masculine social social space
space theythey evolve
evolve into into
“nomads”
“nomads” (to (to useuse Rosi
Rosi Bradiotti’s
Bradiotti’s term)term) in in the
the sense
sense that
that they
they areare excluded
excluded and and
placeless,
placeless, yet yet mobile.
mobile.
In
In the
the feminist
feminist discourse
discourse of of space,
space, transparent
transparent space space denotes
denotes masculine
masculine
space,
space, which
which is is conceptualized
conceptualized as as homogeneous
homogeneous and and uncontested.
uncontested. It It represents
represents
the
the social
social construction
construction of of masculinity:
masculinity: it it isis seen
seen as as public
public (as
(as opposed
opposed to to private
private
femininity),
femininity), hegemonic,
hegemonic, and and heterosexual
heterosexual (see (see Hanson
Hanson and and Pratt);
Pratt); as as well
well as as itit
internalizes
internalizes in in the
the male
male subject
subject the the connectedness
connectedness of of masculinity
masculinity to to such
such notions
notions
as
as the
the outside,
outside, the the official,
official, the the rational,
rational, the the elevated
elevated (Bourdieu, Fe’rfiumlom 38),
(Bourdieu, Férfiuralom 38),
or
or the
the representative
representative (56). (56). Transparency
Transparency refers refers to to order,
order, that
that is,is, control
control and and
domination,
domination, in in the
the first
first place.
place. Certainly,
Certainly, it it has
has consequences
consequences for for men
men as as much
much it it
does
does forfor women.
women. As As Bourdieu
Bourdieu points points out, out, masculinity
masculinity must must be be understood
understood in in
terms
terms of of relationality
relationality as as itit is
is constructed
constructed within within aa malemale collectivity
collectivity (with(with respect
respect
to
to other
other men)
men) and and in in spite
spite of of women
women (Férfiuralom
(Fe’rfiumlom 62). 62). The
The malemale subject
subject is is
placed
placed in in aa social
social space,
space, in in which
which he he isis endowed
endowed with with expectations
expectations both both enabling
enabling
and
and limiting.
limiting. It It isis clear
clear that
that transparency
transparency describesdescribes aa regulatory
regulatory (or (or intelligible
intelligible as as
Bordo
Bordo would would have have it) it) framework;
framework; but but it it cannot
cannot deny deny the the multiplicity
multiplicity of of
masculinity
masculinity as as thethe example
example of of Tea
Tea Cake
Cake in in Their Eyes also
Their Eyes also proves.
proves. Judith
Judith Butler
Butler
too
too criticizes
criticizes the the idea
idea of of aa “universal
“universal patriarchy,”
patriarchy,” arguing arguing for for the
the diversity
diversity of of
cultural
cultural background
background in in which
which it it appears
appears (“Subjects
(“Subjects of of Sex”
Sex” 3), 3), andand Miklós
Miklos

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82
Hadas
Hadas calls calls attention
attention to to the
the deconstruction
deconstruction of of hegemonic
hegemonic masculinitymasculinity by by
insisting
insisting on on its
its multiplicity
multiplicity (40). (40). On On thethe one
one hand,
hand, transparent
transparent space space becomes
becomes an an
oppressive
oppressive framework
framework if if it
it can
can handle
handle innerinner disruptions.
disruptions. As As Lefebvre
Lefebvre insists,
insists,
“Space
“Space assumes
assumes aa regulatory
regulatory role role when
when and and to to the
the extent
extent that that contradictions—
contradictions—
including
including contradictions
contradictions of of space
space itself—are
itself—are resolved”
resolved” (420).
(420). On On thethe other
other hand,
hand,
the
the assumed
assumed multiplicity
multiplicity of of masculine
masculine space space establishes
establishes that that males
males can can appear
appear in in
oppressed
oppressed positions
positions in in masculine
masculine social social space
space as as well
well asas women,
women, while, while, forfor the
the
latter,
latter, marginalized
marginalized positionspositions are are presupposed.
presupposed.
For
For Hurston’s
Hurston’s women women transparent
transparent masculine
masculine space space effects
effects exclusion,
exclusion,
surveillance,
surveillance, and and situatedness
situatedness in in terms
terms of of work,
work, time,
time, and and place
place (Bourdieu,
(Bourdieu,
Fe’rfiuralom 17-18).
Férfiuralom 17—18). The The threefold
threefold stratification
stratification differentiating
differentiating the the masculine
masculine
and
and thethe feminine
feminine is is connected
connected through through praxis,
praxis, which
which constitutes
constitutes the the discursive
discursive
production
production of of femininity
femininity in in Hurston’s
Hurston’s works. works. More More specifically,
specifically, Hurston’s
Hurston’s
socio-cultural
socio—cultural space space is is constructed
constructed around around the the public/private
public/private divide, divide, whichwhich
regulates
regulates the the positioning
positioning of of her
her female
female characters,
characters, in in the
the first
first place,
place, by by thethe
assignment
assignment of of places,
places, domestic
domestic work, work, and and thethe limitation
limitation on on mobility.
mobility. Hurston
Hurston
establishes
establishes that that inin transparent
transparent masculine
masculine socialsocial space
space of of this
this socio-cultural
socio—cultural space space
women
women are are placed
placed in in the
the private
private sphere
sphere of of social
social space,
space, or or else
else they
they appear
appear in in aa
marginalized
marginalized position position in in masculine
masculine (public)(public) places.
places. BothBoth types types of of enclosed
enclosed
places
places detectable
detectable in in these
these works
works present
present women
women in in an
an environment
environment in in which
which they they
are
are socialized
socialized into into gender
gender through
through “the “the repeated
repeated stylization
stylization of of the body” (Butler,
the body” (Butler,
“Subjects
“Subjects of of Sex”
Sex” 33) 33) under
under the the regulatory
regulatory male male gaze.
gaze.
Female
Female placesplaces in in masculine
masculine social social space
space are,
are, thus,
thus, gendered
gendered places, places, where
where
women
women are are defined
defined and and positioned within—in enclosed
positioned within—in enclosed places,
places, which which render
render
them
them immobile,
immobile, out out of of sight,
sight, and and voiceless.
voiceless. Their Their position
position is is foregrounded
foregrounded in in
both
both novels:
novels: 1) 1) in Jonah’s
in Jonah ’s Gourd
Gourd Vine Vine (essentially
(essentially the the fictionalization
fictionalization of of
Hurston’s
Hurston’s familyfamily history
history evolving
evolving aroundaround aa malemale protagonist)
protagonist) our our first
first encounter
encounter
of
of Lucy
Lucy places
places her her within
within the the fences
fences of of the
the school
school garden,
garden, and, and, with
with the the passing
passing
of
of time,
time, herher case becomes worse
case becomes worse in in the
the sense
sense thatthat wewe findfind herher mostly
mostly in in the
the
bedroom;
bedroom; 2) 2) in in Their
Their Eyes Eyes WereWere Watching
Watching God God thethe initial
initial twotwo stages
stages of of Janie’s
Janie’s
evolution
evolution mark mark the the domination
domination of of enclosed
enclosed places:
places: the the kitchen
kitchen at at Logan
Logan
Killicks’s
Killicks’s place
place and and Jodie
Jodie Starks’s
Starks’s big, big, white
white house
house and and his
his store.
store.
The
The comparison
comparison between between Janie’s Janie’s conception
conception of of Killicks’s
Killicks’s house house
exemplifies
exemplifies well well whatwhat enclosed
enclosed places places mean
mean for for Hurston’s
Hurston’s women. women. This This is is valid
valid
despite
despite the the fact
fact that
that only
only scarce
scarce number
number of of objects
objects describe
describe the the spatial
spatial setting
setting of of
Killicks’s
Killicks’s lower lower classclass house,
house, as as opposed,
opposed, for for example,
example, to to Jodie
Jodie Starks’s
Starks’s big big
white
white house belonging to
house belonging to the
the middle
middle class.
class. InIn the
the case
case ofof the
the former,
former, the the location
location
of
of the
the place
place and and thethe discursive
discursive maneuver
maneuver of of positioning
positioning the the female
female body,body, which
which
also
also lacks
lacks supportive
supportive props—the
props—the subjectivesubjective rendering
rendering of of objects—are
objects—are indicative
indicative
of
of the
the nature
nature of of place.
place.
In
In Nanny’s
Nanny’s materialistic
materialistic understanding,
understanding, which which is is aa prime
prime example
example of of how
how
power
power produces
produces knowledge
knowledge and and perpetuates
perpetuates appropriate,
appropriate, normalized
normalized behavior—behavior—

83
83
also
also toto promote
promote actionaction in in favor
favor of of the
the patriarchal
patriarchal order—as
order—as well well as as generates
generates aa
subject
subject position
position in in masculine
masculine social social space:
space: to to be be situated
situated in in aa man’s
man’s house house
implies
implies protection
protection in in aa hostile
hostile masculine
masculine world,world, in in which
which women,
women, nevertheless,
nevertheless,
“uh
“uh pullin’
pullin’ and and uhuh haulin’
haulin’ and and sweatin’
sweatin’ and and doin’
doin’ fromfrom can’t
can’t see see inin de de mornin’
mornin’
till
till can’t
can’t seesee atat night”
night” (22).(22). Despite
Despite Nanny’s
Nanny’s intentions,
intentions, her her remark
remark points points to to aa
disruption
disruption in in her
her argument:
argument: the the time
time span
span in in this
this reference
reference establishes
establishes aa culturalcultural
regulation between time
regulation between time andand social
social space
space in in that
that thethe overwhelming
overwhelming presence presence of of
the
the latter
latter isis prohibiting
prohibiting to to female
female privacy,
privacy, in in which
which gendered
gendered job job rolesroles are
are
advocated.
advocated. In In Nanny’s
Nanny’s view, view, security,
security, or, or, rather,
rather, social
social acceptance
acceptance in in masculine
masculine
transparent
transparent space space is is obtained
obtained for for Janie
Janie through
through the the integration
integration in in gendered
gendered places places
such
such as as Killicks’s
Killicks’s house. house. Gendered
Gendered socialization
socialization becomes becomes palpable palpable in in her
her
narrative,
narrative, whenwhen she she explains
explains the the importance
importance of of marriage
marriage to to Janie:
Janie: “De “De thought
thought
uh
uh you bein’ kicked
you bein’ kicked aroundaround from from pillar
pillar tuh
tuh post
post is is aa hurtin’
hurtin’ thing”
thing” (15); (15); andand
then:
then: “Ah
“Ah can’t
can’t die die easy
easy thinkin’
thinkin’ maybe maybe de de menfolks
menfolks white white or black is
or black is makin’
makin’ aa
spit
spit cup
cup outa
outa you”
you” (19).(19). Nanny
Nanny denies denies any any possibility
possibility of of selffulfillment
selffulfillment (even (even
though
though her her vision
vision usedused to to include
include for for her
her daughter,
daughter, who who waswas thenthen seduced
seduced by by aa
[male]
[male] teacher,
teacher, to to become
become aa teacher—a
teacher—a considerable
considerable upward upward movement
movement on on the
the
social
social ladder
ladder forfor her),
her), thethe relevance
relevance of of Janie’s
Janie’s vision
vision under
under the the pear
pear tree;
tree; andand she
she
accepts
accepts gendered
gendered places places as as thethe negotiated
negotiated site site ofof identity
identity formation.
formation. Her Her
conceptualization
conceptualization of of aa home
home parallels
parallels MonaMona Domosh’s
Domosh’s understanding
understanding of of the
the
home,
home, which,
which, for for her,her, represents
represents “a “a site
site of of confirming
confirming gender gender and and sexual
sexual
identities”
identities” (277).
(277). Indeed,
Indeed, Nanny Nanny views views the the home
home as as the
the site
site ofof initiation
initiation into into
womanhood,
womanhood, but but that
that can,
can, in in fact,
fact, bebe equated
equated with with entering
entering the the (reproductive)
(reproductive)
labor
labor market
market of of the
the household.
household. Initiation
Initiation refers
refers herehere toto discipline
discipline and and the the sense
sense
of
of integration
integration signifies
signifies the the production
production of of knowledge
knowledge that that is, is, for
for example,
example,
revealed
revealed in in “the
“the internalized
internalized patriarchal
patriarchal standard”
standard” (Bartky(Bartky 77) 77) of of accepting
accepting
marital
marital abuse.
abuse. This becomes palpable
This becomes palpable when when JanieJanie asksasks Nanny
Nanny for for advice
advice aa short short
time
time after
after the
the wedding:
wedding: “Lawd, “Lawd, Ah Ah know
know dat dat grass-gut,
grass—gut, liver-lipted
liver—lipted nigger nigger ain’t
ain’t
done
done took
took and beat mah
and beat mah babybaby already!”
already!” (21, (21, emphasis
emphasis added).
added).
In Jonah’s,
In Jonah ’s, the
the harsh
harsh social social environment
environment of of the
the working
working class class places
places
John’s
John’s mother,
mother, Amy, Amy, in in aa similar
similar position
position to to Nanny
Nanny and and Janie
Janie at at thisthis point.
point.
Hurston
Hurston conceptualizes
conceptualizes this this character
character too too as as restricted
restricted to to the the household.
household.
However,
However, Amy’s Amy’s position
position is is different
different from
from theirs
theirs since
since she
she isis surrounded
surrounded by by the
the
protecting
protecting shieldshield of of her
her sonssons against
against their
their stepfather,
stepfather, Ned. Ned. In In aa scene,
scene, for for
example,
example, when when Ned Ned whipswhips and beats Amy,
and beats Amy, she she “wheel[s]
“wheel[s] to to fight”
fight” (8), (8), andand John
John
comes
comes to to her
her aid.
aid. InIn this
this sense,
sense, her her status
status is is ambiguous
ambiguous in in masculine
masculine transparent
transparent
space:
space: while
while she she isis located
located in in the
the home
home (the (the reproduction
reproduction site site ofof social
social space),
space),
exposed
exposed to to the
the violence
violence of of her her husband,
husband, and and her her existence
existence can can well well be be
characterized
characterized by by immobility,
immobility, whereby whereby the the “local
“local laborlabor market”
market” makes makes her her
oscillate between house
oscillate between house and and field,
field, she
she isis granted
granted aa well-established,
well—established, empowering empowering
space
space as as aa mother,
mother, and and also
also aa voice
voice in in protection
protection for for her
her sons.
sons. The The legitimation
legitimation
of
of Amy’s
Amy’s position
position in in the
the house becomes ostentatious
house becomes ostentatious before before the the fighting,
fighting, when when

84
84
“[t]he
“[t]he clash
clash and and frenzy
frenzy in in the the air air was
was almost
almost visible”visible” (7), (7), precipitating
precipitating the the
divisions between the
divisions between the opposing
opposing parties parties in in thethe social
social spacespace of of the
the home;
home; and and
“Ned
“Ned stood
stood up up and and shuffled
shuffled toward toward the the door”
door” (7), (7), whereby
whereby he he unknowingly
unknowingly
accepts
accepts thatthat “the “the househouse is is women’s
women’s spatial spatial domain”domain” (Pellow (Pellow 162). 162). Despite
Despite
Amy’s
Amy’s firm firm identification
identification with with the the house,
house, which which means means security,
security, but but it it also
also
imposes
imposes on on herher limiting
limiting anchorage
anchorage (which (which is is why
why she she cannot
cannot leaveleave with with John)
John)
and
and reveals
reveals thus thus aa socially
socially constructed
constructed identity,identity, which which is is void
void of of selffulfillment.
selffulfillment.
The
The description
description of of the
the place
place echoes echoes Nanny’s
Nanny’s life life in in Their Eyes, when
Their Eyes, when Amy, Amy, after after
saying
saying good-bye
good—bye to to his
his son
son in in the
the open,
open, where
where “For “For aa minute
minute she she hadhad felt
felt free
free
and
and flighty”
flighty” (12), (12), she she returned
returned to to the
the house
house “across“across the barren hard
the barren hard clayclay yard”
yard”
(12).
(12). The barrenness of
The barrenness of the
the working
working class class female
female life life parallels
parallels Nanny’s
Nanny’s barren barren
tree-like
tree—like statue
statue and and indicates
indicates the the devastation
devastation of of her
her life
life simultaneously.
simultaneously.
Both
Both Amy’s
Amy’s and and Nanny’s
Nanny’s narratives narratives proveprove the the presence
presence of of the
the knowledge-
knowledge—
producing
producing mechanism
mechanism of of masculine
masculine and and racial
racial power,power, but but this
this mechanism
mechanism also also
leaves
leaves itsits imprints
imprints on on their
their body. body. As As Foucault
Foucault claims, claims, “the “the social
social bodybody is is the
the
effect
effect [. [. .. .].] ofof the the materiality
materiality of of power
power operating
operating on on thethe very bodies of
very bodies of
individuals”
individuals” (“Body/Power”
(“Body/Power” 55). 55). Power
Power can can be be pinpointed
pinpointed in in “the constitution of
“the constitution of
the
the very
very materiality
materiality of of thethe subject”
subject” (Butler,
(Butler, Bodies Bodies that Matter 34)—in
that Matter 34)—in its its
physicality
physicality and and positionality,
positionality, as as well
well as as inin thethe politics
politics of of mobility
mobility (Law (Law 583).583).
This
This refers
refers to to thethe discourse
discourse of of the body; but,
the body; but, as as Butler
Butler argues,
argues, placesplaces have have
materiality
materiality too too inasmuch
inasmuch they they are are instruments
instruments and and vehicles
vehicles of of power,
power, that that is,is,
they
they are
are “invested
“invested with power” (Butler,
with power” Bodies that
(Butler, Bodies Matter 34).
that Matter 34). More
More precisely,
precisely,
“[t]he
“[t]he whole
whole of of (social)
(social) space space proceeds
proceeds from from the body, even
the body, even though
though it it so
so
metamorphoses
metamorphoses the body that
the body that it it may
may forget
forget it it altogether—even
altogether even though though it it may
may
separate
separate itself
itself so so radically
radically from from the the body
body as as to to kill
kill it”
it” (Lefebvre
(Lefebvre 405). 405). Spatial
Spatial
discourses
discourses involve,
involve, therefore,
therefore, the the interrelation
interrelation of of both body, itself
both body, itself “concreteness
“concreteness
and
and concrete
concrete (and (and limiting) location” (Bordo,
limiting) location” (Bordo, TwilightTwilight Zones Zones 185),185), andand space.
space.
In
In Nanny’s
Nanny’s case, case, thethe home home has has thethe function
function of of mediating
mediating the the discursive
discursive
acts
acts of
of regulating
regulating the body regarding
the body regarding “its “its veryvery forcesforces and and operations,
operations, the the
economy
economy and and efficiency
efficiency of of itsits movements”
movements” and and the the proliferation
proliferation of of “the
“the utility
utility of of
the body” (Bartky
the body” (Bartky 61, 61, 62).
62). Apart Apart from from the the situatedness
situatedness of of Nanny’s
Nanny’s working working
class,
class, female
female body, body, which which is is viewed
viewed as as an
an old
old treetree “torn
“torn away
away by by storm”
storm” and and thatthat
“no
“no longer
longer mattered”
mattered” (Their (Their Eyes Eyes 12), 12), the the engendering
engendering of of the body is
the body is
insufficiently
insufficiently described.
described. One One can can induce
induce Hurston’s
Hurston’s concept concept of of working
working class class
homes
homes and and the
the female
female body body in in these
these places,
places, for for instance,
instance, on on the basis of
the basis of her
her short
short
story,
story, “Sweat.”
“Sweat.” Delia’s Delia’s home home parallelsparallels Killicks’s
Killicks’s place place and and Amy’s
Amy’s home; home; and and
Delia’s
Delia’s description,
description, who who is is aa washwoman
washwoman (that (that is, is, in
in the
the same
same class
class as as Janie
Janie at at
this
this point
point of of her
her development),
development), represents represents what what Amy Amy has become and
has become and whatwhat Janie
Janie
might
might have become. As
have become. As it it is is narrated,
narrated, “her “her knotty,
knotty, muscledmuscled limbs,limbs, her her harsh
harsh
knuckly
knuckly hands”
hands” (957) (957) have
have come come to to characterize
characterize her her work-worn
work—worn body body that that stands
stands
in
in sharp
sharp contrast
contrast (as (as inin Janie’s
Janie’s case) case) withwith the the garden
garden of of selfplanted
selfplanted trees trees and and
flowers.
flowers. The The radical
radical geography
geography of of Delia’s
Delia’s alienation
alienation can can be be pinpointed
pinpointed on on

85
85
Delia’s body, which
Delia’s body, which signifies,
signifies, in in Lefebvre’s
Lefebvre’s mode, mode, the the separation
separation of of the body
the body
and
and space,
space, as as well
well as as it bears the
it bears the marks
marks of of the
the regulatory
regulatory function
function of of space.
space.
The
The two
two occasions,
occasions, when when Janie
Janie is is imparted
imparted aa lecturelecture at at this
this stage,
stage, occur
occur inin
Nanny’s bedroom and
Nanny’s bedroom and in in Mrs.
Mrs. Washburn’s
Washburn’s kitchen, kitchen, with with Nanny Nanny preparing
preparing
biscuits—gendered
biscuits—gendered places places forfor women
women within within the the house.
house. At At these
these places
places Janie
Janie isis
socialized
socialized into
into the
the acceptance
acceptance of of her
her gender
gender rolesroles by by Nanny’s
Nanny’s narrative.
narrative. It It takes
takes
place
place inside
inside houses
houses and and isis conducted
conducted by by aa woman,
woman, which which proves
proves how how gender
gender has has
grown
grown to to “congeal
“congeal over over time
time to to produce
produce the the appearance
appearance of of substance
substance of of aa natural
natural
sort
sort of being” (Butler,
of being” (Butler, “Subjects
“Subjects of of Sex”
SeX” 33) 33) in in women
women for for itit to become
to become
selfperpetuating.
selfperpetuating. As As itit is
is narrated:
narrated: “she “she [Janie]
[Janie] extended
extended herselfherself outside
outside of of her
her
dream
dream and and went
went inside
inside the the house.
house. ThatThat was was the the endend of of herher childhood”
childhood” (12). (12).
Nanny
Nanny and and the
the spatial
spatial discourse
discourse of of the
the places
places associated
associated with with her her fulfill
fulfill power-
power—
related
related functions
functions to to incorporate
incorporate Janie Janie into into the the masculine
masculine order. order. Spatial
Spatial
anchorage
anchorage of of Janie’s
Janie’s vision
vision outside
outside the built environment
the built environment forms forms aa contrast
contrast withwith
Nanny’s
Nanny’s house,
house, which
which heightens
heightens Nanny’s
Nanny’s malfunction
malfunction as as aa “spiritual
“spiritual mentor”
mentor” or or
“spiritual
“spiritual mother”
mother” (Alonzo(Alonzo Johnson,
Johnson, “Pray’s“Pray’s House House Spirit”
Spirit” 29), 29), andand renders
renders
Nanny’s
Nanny’s house
house aa socio-spatial
socio—spatial fixation,
fixation, and and herher sense
sense of of place
place akin akin to to Killicks’s
Killicks’s
place.
place.
Contrary
Contrary to to Janie’s
Janie’s expectations
eXpectations (“Ah (“Ah wants
wants thingsthings sweet sweet wid wid mah mah
marriage
marriage lak lak when
when you you sitsit under
under aa pear
pear treetree andand think”
think” [[ 23]),
23]), her her marriage
marriage to to
Logan
Logan Killicks
Killicks turns
turns outout toto bebe aa material
material treatise,
treatise, an an undesired
undesired job job with
with clearly
clearly
defined
defined gender
gender roles
roles emplaced
emplaced in in definite
definite spheres
spheres of of the
the house.
house. Initially,
Initially, Janie
Janie
finds
finds there
there notnot sweetness,
sweetness, but but aa “lonesome
“lonesome place place like
like aa stump
stump in in the
the middle
middle of of
the
the woods
woods where
where nobody
nobody had had ever been” (20),
ever been” (20), aa house
house “absent
“absent of of flavor”
flavor” (21).(21).
The
The strong
strong contrast between the
contrast between the metaphors
metaphors of of aa stump
stump defocalized
defocalized by by the
the
immensity
immensity of of the
the woods
woods and and thethe trope
trope of of the
the visionary blossoming pear
visionary blossoming pear tree,
tree,
which
which centers
centers place
place around
around itself
itself and
and heightens
heightens the the sense
sense of of Janie’s
Janie’s alienation.
alienation.
Establishing
Establishing aa nature/culture
nature/culture binary, binary, Michael
Michael AwkwardAwkward draws draws aa parallel between
parallel between
Genesis
Genesis and and Janie’s
Janie’s “natural
“natural education”
education” in in the
the “ahistorical backyard,” where
“ahistorical backyard,” where
Janie
Janie isis presented
presented as as aa “prelapsarian,
“prelapsarian, precultural
precultural human human being”being” (19) (19) andand aa
prophetess.
prophetess. Conversely,
Conversely, Killicks’s
Killicks’s house
house provesproves to to be be aa place
place of of incarceration
incarceration
here
here too
too asas Janie
Janie experiences
eXperiences it it at
at Nanny’s.
Nanny’s. It It crowds
crowds in in onon her.
her. Nevertheless,
Nevertheless,
accepting
accepting temporarily
temporarily the the gender
gender roles roles signified
signified by by thethe framework
framework of of the
the
kitchen,
kitchen, she
she still
still maintains
maintains her her vision
vision and and tries
tries toto find
find validification
validification of of her
her dream
dream
revelation
revelation under
under the the pear
pear tree, but to
tree, but to nono avail.
avail. The
The lacklack ofof the
the description
description of of the
the
inner
inner structuring
structuring of of Killicks’s
Killicks’s house,
house, apart
apart fromfrom thethe visible
visible separation
separation of of gender
gender
roles,
roles, establishes
establishes this this place
place for for Janie
Janie as as empty,
empty, void void of of personal
personal significance,
significance,
and,
and, therefore,
therefore, oppressive.
oppressive. It It “signif[ies]
“signif[ies] only only absence
absence and and death”
death” (25). (25). InIn fact,
fact,
the
the vigorous
vigorous Janie Janie withwith the the cornmeal
cornmeal dough dough positioned
positioned in in the
the kitchen
kitchen is is
threatened
threatened to become predictably
to become predictably the the younger
younger version
version of of Nanny
Nanny with with the bread
the bread
board as
board as she
she appears
appears in in Mrs.
Mrs. Washburn’s
Washburn’s kitchen, kitchen, whichwhich is is inin accordance
accordance with with
Nanny’s
Nanny’s materialistic
materialistic vision
vision for for Janie.
Janie.

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 A
A dual
dual change
change in in the
the spatial
spatial setting,
setting, denoting
denoting opposing
opposing directions,
directions, appearsappears
within
within aa short
short timetime when
when Killicks
Killicks begins begins to to put
put pressure
pressure on on Janie
Janie to to extend
extend her her
sphere
sphere of of work beyond the
work beyond the wallswalls of of thethe kitchen.
kitchen. Fulfilling
Fulfilling Nanny’s Nanny’s
foreshadowing
foreshadowing statement statement (“He’s(“He’s kissin’kissin’ yo’ yo’ foot
foot andand ‘tain’t
‘tain’t in in uhuh manman tuh tuh kiss
kiss
foot
foot long.
long. [. [. .. .]
.] when
when dey dey got got to bow down
to bow down tuh tuh love,
love, dey
dey soonsoon straightens
straightens up” up”
[22]),
[22]), Killicks
Killicks leavesleaves for for Lake
Lake City City to buy her
to buy her aa mule
mule to to plow
plow with, with, explaining
explaining
later
later that
that “Tain’t
“Tain’t no no use
use in in fooling
fooling round round in in dat
dat kitchen
kitchen allall day
day long”
long” (30).
(30). At At the
the
same
same time,
time, however,
however, Janie Janie resists
resists this this development
development when, when, in in herher rhetoric,
rhetoric, she she
relies
relies onon thethe given
given division
division of of gender
gender roles roles spatially
spatially established
established to to prevent
prevent the the
completion
completion of of her
her objectification:
objectification: “Youse “Youse in in yo’
yo’ place
place and
and Ah’m
Ah’m in in mine”
mine” (30). (30).
Simultaneously,
Simultaneously, she she makes
makes aa marked marked move move out out ofof the
the kitchen,
kitchen, whereby whereby she she
refuses
refuses thethe extended
extended identification
identification with with thethe place
place and and her
her assigned
assigned role role within
within it. it.
She
She goes
goes to to the barn to
the barn to work—to
work—to “a “a place
place in in the
the yard
yard where
where she she could
could see see the
the
road”
road” (26).
(26).
Lucy
Lucy in Jonah’s
in Jonah ’s has
has an an even
even moremore confined
confined space space in in Alabama.
Alabama. She She is is
locked
locked intointo the the cycle
cycle of of reproduction
reproduction that that literally
literally relegates
relegates her her to to bed.
bed. Her Her
physical
physical enslavement
enslavement as as aa breeder
breeder is is also
also symbolically
symbolically reified,
reified, sincesince the the wedding
wedding
bed is
bed is aa gift
gift from
from Alf Alf Pearson,
Pearson, the the white
white (slave)
(slave) owner
owner of of the
the place.
place. The The bedbed thusthus
symbolizes
symbolizes the the continuation
continuation of of antebellum
antebellum slavery slavery in in the
the casecase of of free black
free black
women,
women, and and frameworks
frameworks “normative
“normative expectations
expectations of of the
the gendered
gendered body” body” (Park (Park
213).
213). She
She is is always
always presented
presented in bed in
in bed in herher marriage
marriage both both in in Alabama
Alabama and and inin
Eatonville,
Eatonville, Florida,
Florida, where
where she she reaches
reaches aa middle middle classclass status
status on on the
the side
side of of her
her
husband.
husband. The The metaphor
metaphor of of the
the bedbed signifies
signifies disability
disability and and social
social marginalization
marginalization
that
that really
really becomes
becomes powerful
powerful as as against
against the the promiscuous
promiscuous behavior behavior of of John,
John, who who
is
is seldom
seldom presented
presented in in the
the home,
home, but but whose
whose figurefigure is is connected
connected to to superior
superior
physical
physical powerpower and and agency.
agency. Lucy’s Lucy’s deprivation
deprivation reaches reaches its its climactic
climactic point point whenwhen
her brother, Bud,
her brother, Bud, takes
takes away
away her her wedding
wedding bed, bed, on on which
which she she hashas come
come to to depend
depend
despite
despite itsits regulatory
regulatory character:
character: “Lucy “Lucy was was crumpled
crumpled in in aa little
little dark
dark ballball in in the
the
centre
centre of of the
the deep
deep mound
mound of of feathers”
feathers” (91). (91). TheThe contrast
contrast between
between her broken
her broken
stature
stature and
and the the nest-like
nest—like image
image parallels
parallels the the demolition
demolition of of Janie’s
Janie’s vision.
vision.
Much
Much as as Eatonville
Eatonville is is presented
presented as as thethe setting
setting ofof possible
possible socialsocial upheaval
upheaval
in both novels
in both novels for for men
men and and for for their
their women,
women, the the constraint
constraint of of class
class only
only addsadds to to
aa sharpened
sharpened maintenance
maintenance of of gender
gender differences
differences and and the
the representation
representation of of gender
gender
remains
remains also also inscribed
inscribed in in places.
places. Starks Starks and, and, as as aa satellite
satellite entity,
entity, JanieJanie stand
stand on on
“high
“high ground,”
ground,” which which fulfills
fulfills Nanny’s
Nanny’s expectations
expectations for for Janie
Janie to to bebe established
established in in
the
the middle
middle class. class. Hemenway
Hemenway points points out out thatthat thethe vertical
vertical metaphor
metaphor of of “high”
“high”
Nanny
Nanny uses,uses, and and which
which is is also
also induced
induced by by Starks,
Starks, proves
proves how how the the notion
notion of of
classism
classism institutionalized
institutionalized by by whites
whites in blacks is
in blacks is misleading
misleading Hurston’sHurston’s African African
American
American community
community (237). (237). However,
However, Orvar Orvar Löfgren’s
Lofgren’s argument
argument concerningconcerning
the
the differences
differences between between workingworking and and middlemiddle classclass home-making
home—making does does not not
pertain
pertain to to aa mostly
mostly agrarian
agrarian black black community
community setting, setting, even
even if if the
the fundamental
fundamental
conceptions
conceptions of of menmen as as “homo
“homo economicus”
economicus” and and of of women
women as as “femina
“femina

87
87
domestica”
domestica” (147) (147) are are identical.
identical. Whereas
Whereas home home for for menmen is is aa “place
“place of of retreat
retreat and and
rest”
rest” (Löfgren
(Lofgren 146), 146), Hurston
Hurston shows shows that that middle
middle class class womenwomen remain remain captive captive to to
working
working class class gender
gender conceptions.
conceptions. So, So, for
for example,
example, Starks, Starks, relying
relying on on an an
ambiguous
ambiguous class class argument,
argument, forbids forbids Janie Janie to to makemake speeches
speeches on on thethe porch
porch on on
story-telling
story—telling occasions
occasions because, because, as as “uh“uh big big woman”
woman” (43), (43), she she is is supposed
supposed to to
class
class off:
off: “Ah
“Ah can’tcan’t see see what
what uh uh woman
woman uh uh yo’ yo’ stability
stability would would want want tuh tuh be be
treasurin’
treasurin’ all all dat
dat gum-grease
gum—grease from from folks
folks dat dat don’t
don’t even even own own de de house
house dey dey sleep
sleep
in”
in” (51).
(51). The The viewview of of thethe female
female body body reflects
reflects white white Christian
Christian concepts concepts of of
mythologized
mythologized female female morality
morality StarksStarks has has absorbed
absorbed from from Southern
Southern (aristocratic)
(aristocratic)
plantation
plantation culture,
culture, but but it it functions
functions more more like like an an ideological
ideological weapon weapon in in his
his hand
hand
to
to exhibit
eXhibit class class power power by by beingbeing chivalric
chivalric and and protective,
protective, yet, yet, in in fact,
fact,
demonstrating
demonstrating control control over over Janie.
Janie. Women
Women in in Hurston’s
Hurston’s masculine masculine world world are are
ascribed
ascribed aa materialistic
materialistic and and domestic
domestic (labor), (labor), as as well
well as as aa symbolic
symbolic function,function, but but
they
they dodo not
not fulfill
fulfill thethe symbolic
symbolic function
function of of intimacy
intimacy and and homeliness
homeliness (Löfgren (Lofgren
147-48)
147—48) that that marks
marks middle middle class class female
female roles roles of of the the time,
time, at at least
least on on an an
ideological
ideological level.
level.
Similarly
Similarly to to Janie’s
Janie’s regulation
regulation via via spatial
spatial tactics,
tactics, that that is,
is, through
through place place and and
body,
body, andand through
through language,
language, Lucy Lucy is is subjected
subjected to to thethe samesame tactics
tactics of of power
power
including
including the the constraint
constraint of of class.
class. The The change
change in in Lucy’s
Lucy’s class class position
position in in
Eatonville
Eatonville does does not not change
change her her positionality,
positionality, either—sheeither—she remains remains tied tied to to the
the
domestic
domestic sphere,
sphere, and, and, mostmost of of all,
all, to
to the bedroom. Separated
the bedroom. Separated from from her her family
family in in
Alabama,
Alabama, although
although also also separated
separated from from aa directly
directly white white environment,
environment, her her social
social
isolation
isolation and and subjection
subjection become become even even more more visible
visible as as sheshe never
never enters
enters the the allall
important
important porchporch of of thethe store—the
store—the primary primary form form of of masculine
masculine public public space space in in
Eatonville.
Eatonville. When,
When, for for example,
example, an an innocent
innocent joke joke is is made
made on on thethe porch
porch that that Lucy
Lucy
might
might leave
leave the the otherwise
otherwise unfaithful
unfaithful John, John, he he goesgoes home,home, takes takes his his Winchester
Winchester
into
into the bedroom, and
the bedroom, and threatens
threatens Lucy Lucy that that “Ahm
“Ahm de de first
first widwid you,you, andand Ah Ah mean
mean
tuh be de
tuh be de last
last [.[. .. .]
.] if
if you
you ever
ever start
start out
out de de door
door tuh tuh leave
leave me, me, you’ll
you’ll nevernever make make
it
it tuh
tuh dede gate”
gate” (110-1).
(110—1). John John proves
proves his his dominance
dominance over over Lucy’s
Lucy’s small, small, frailfrail
body—an
body—an act act notnot only
only to to serve
serve the the purpose
purpose of of discipline,
discipline, but but alsoalso to to verify
verify his his
masculinity
masculinity for for John,
John, bothboth before
before himself
himself and and within
within the the male
male community.
community. As As itit
is
is narrated,
narrated, “he “he heldheld Lucy Lucy tightly
tightly and and thought
thought pityingly
pityingly of of other
other men” men” (111).(111).
Throughout
Throughout the the novel
novel Lucy Lucy remains
remains locked locked in in this
this position,
position, in in the
the shadow
shadow of of her
her
husband,
husband, and and seems
seems to to have
have lessless mobility
mobility and and eveneven less less voice
voice thanthan Janie
Janie in in Their
Their
Eyes. Only
Eyes. Only on on her her death
death bed bed does
does she she raise
raise her
her voice
voice once once to to complain
complain about about his his
lover,
lover, Hattie,
Hattie, for for which
which John John hits hits her. her. Lucy’s
Lucy’s social social marginalization
marginalization and and
debasement
debasement are are eveneven more more striking,
striking, becausebecause Lucy’s Lucy’s guidance guidance from from the the
background
background enables enables him him to to accomplish
accomplish aa career career also also expressed
eXpressed by by the the porch,
porch,
when
when Mayor
Mayor Moseley
Moseley calls calls him
him “uh “uh wife-made
wife—made man” man” (113). (113).
As
As mentioned
mentioned above, beyond the
above, beyond the construction
construction of of masculinity
masculinity in in opposition
opposition
to
to femininity,
femininity, the the relational
relational aspectaspect of of masculine
masculine space space requires
requires the the validation
validation of of
masculinity before other
masculinity before other males.
males. So So inin interpreting
interpreting Addison Addison Gayle, Gayle, Jr’s Jr’s argument
argument

88
88
that
that “the
“the black
black man’s
man’s routeroute toto manhood
manhood lay lay in in the
the exploitation
exploitation of black women”
of black women”
(39),
(39), it becomes conspicuous
it becomes conspicuous that that hishis statement
statement does does notnot only
only referrefer toto labor
labor or or
marital
marital abuse,
abuse, but but toto games
games directed
directed at at defeat
defeat and and precedence
precedence regardingregarding both both
men
men andand womenwomen (Hadas(Hadas 34). 34). When
When peoplepeople gather
gather on on the
the porch,
porch, StarksStarks finds
finds aa
way
way to to send
send Janie
Janie in in the
the store,
store, an an act
act he
he takes
takes pleasure
pleasure in in (51),
(51), disregarding
disregarding
Janie’s
Janie’s preferences,
preferences, in in order
order to to demonstrate
demonstrate aa higher higher classclass and
and gender
gender status
status as as aa
male before other
male before other males.
males. John’s
John’s treatment
treatment of of Lucy
Lucy as as shown
shown above above confirms
confirms this this
thesis.
thesis. The The negotiation
negotiation of of masculine
masculine identityidentity is is mostly
mostly conducted
conducted in in public
public
spaces,
spaces, in in concert
concert withwith other
other males.
males.
In
In Eatonville
Eatonville the the discursive
discursive production
production of of femininity
femininity appearsappears spatially,
spatially, in in
the
the first
first place,
place, in in both
both novels,
novels, through
through place
place and and thethe structuring
structuring of of place;
place; eveneven
when
when the the docilicization
docilicization of of the the female
female body body evolvesevolves often often through
through the the
performativity
performativity of of language.
language. In In fact,
fact, language
language occupies occupies aa significant
significant role role inin
Janie’s
Janie’s Eatonville
Eatonville experience,
experience, but but language
language and and space
space complement
complement each each other.
other.
In
In Janie’s
Janie’s case, case, they
they formform twotwo conspicuous
conspicuous functionsfunctions of of regulation.
regulation. Language
Language
(or
(or speech)
speech) is is both
both situated
situated in in space
space (and
(and oftenoften time);
time); e.g.,
e.g., as as inin the
the case
case of of
evening
evening porch porch talks,
talks, andand it it is
is the
the constitutive
constitutive elementelement of of thethe Eatonville
Eatonville socio-socio—
cultural
cultural space.
space. It It emplaces
emplaces Janie Janie in in masculine
masculine social social space,
space, and and place
place provides
provides
for
for the
the maintenance
maintenance of of this
this position.
position. Furthermore,
Furthermore, in in Eatonville
Eatonville agency agency is is
assigned
assigned to to language
language (voice),
(voice), and,and, by by the
the same
same token,token, language
language constructs
constructs place.
place.
Joe
Joe Starks
Starks speaksspeaks Eatonville,
Eatonville, the the initially
initially “scant
“scant dozen dozen of of shame-faced
shame—faced houses” houses”
(32),
(32), into being by
into being by voicing
voicing his his vision.
vision. He He first
first calls
calls forfor aa committee,
committee, the the nuclear
nuclear
social
social spacespace of of thethe settlement,
settlement, which which gradually
gradually increases
increases through through the the
deployment
deployment of of aa post
post office/store,
office/store, his his house,
house, and and thethe houses
houses of of newcomers.
newcomers. His His
porch
porch remains
remains the the “meetin’
“meetin’ place place fuh fuh dede town”
town” (38), (38), the
the centre
centre of of Eatonville,
Eatonville,
where
where story
story telling,
telling, “playin’
“playin’ the the dozens,”
dozens,” and and so so on,
on, prove
prove to be the
to be the centripetal
centripetal
forces
forces in in the
the community.
community.
Conversely,
Conversely, Starks’sStarks’s new new house
house takes
takes up up aa regulatory
regulatory function
function alsoalso forfor the
the
town
town as as the
the town becomes “servants’
town becomes “servants’ quarters
quarters surrounding
surrounding the the ‘big
‘big house’”
house’” (44).
(44).
Starks,
Starks, in in fact,
fact, personifies
personifies white white powerpower structure
structure in black Eatonville.
in black Eatonville. Since Since he he
has been trained
has been trained under
under whites,
whites, StarksStarks hashas absorbed
absorbed their their tactics
tactics of of power,
power,
enabling
enabling him him to build up
to build up aa plantation
plantation structure
structure around around his his “gloaty,
“gloaty, sparkly
sparkly
white”
white” (44) (44) house,
house, which which renders
renders him him aa vehicle
vehicle of of white
white regulatory
regulatory power power
within
within aa broader
broader racial
racial social
social space.
space. OnceOnce timetime Starks
Starks runs
runs aa man man off off the
the place
place
and
and the
the town
town denounces
denounces him him as as aa white
white slave-master:
slave—master: “He “He lovesloves obedience
obedience out out
of
of everybody
everybody under under de de sound
sound of of his
his voice”
voice” (46).
(46).
The
The contrast
contrast between
between speech speech and and silence
silence codifies
codifies social
social hierarchy,
hierarchy, whichwhich
is
is paralleled
paralleled by by the
the contrast
contrast of of visibility
visibility and and invisibility
invisibility (the (the public/private
public/private
divide)
divide) to to accompany
accompany Janie’s Janie’s mode mode of of dwelling
dwelling throughout
throughout this this stage
stage of of her
her
development.
development. Already Already at at the beginning of
the beginning of their
their staystay inin Eatonville,
Eatonville, Starks Starks is is
presented
presented directly
directly on on the the porch talking to
porch talking to men,
men, while while Janie
Janie “could
“could be be seen
seen
through
through the bedroom window
the bedroom window getting getting settled”
settled” (34)—a (34)—a clear clear indication
indication of of the
the

89
89
decentering
decentering of of the
the female
female subject.
subject. Janie Janie is is shown
shown alone,
alone, isolated
isolated and and muted
muted in in
closed
closed place,
place, secondary
secondary to to the
the public
public spacespace of of the
the porch.
porch. Her Her fixation
fixation in in space
space
through
through language
language becomes becomes aa constant constant practicepractice of of Starks’s.
Starks’s. This becomes
This becomes
obvious,
obvious, when when Tony Tony Taylor
Taylor asks asks Janie
Janie to to articulate
articulate somesome words
words on on the
the occasion
occasion
of
of opening
opening the the newnew store.
store. Starks
Starks doesdoes not not allow
allow her her to
to speak
speak up up publicly:
publicly: “mah “mah
wife
wife don’t
don’t know
know nothin’nothin’ ‘bout ‘bout no no speech-makin’.
speech—makin’. Ah Ah never
never marriedmarried her her for
for
nothin’
nothin’ lak lak dat.
dat. She’s
She’s uh uh woman
woman and and her her place
place is is in
in de
de home”
home” (40-41).
(40—41). His His
statement
statement echoesechoes Killicks’s
Killicks’s understanding
understanding of of women;
women; yet, yet, Janie
Janie does does not not speak
speak
up
up immediately
immediately against against it it as
as she
she does
does at at Killicks’s
Killicks’s placeplace beforehand.
beforehand. Still, Still, the
the
instance
instance marks
marks aa turning
turning point point in in their
their relationship.
relationship. As As Starks’s
Starks’s coarse
coarse statement
statement
“took
“took the bloom off
the bloom off of of things”
things” (41),(41), Janie’s
Janie’s social
social marginalization;
marginalization; but but also,
also,
from
from aa different
different angle,
angle, her her centered
centered position
position as as an
an objectified
objectified satellite
satellite entity
entity in in aa
higher
higher class,
class, asas the
the “bell-cow”
“bell—cow” (39) (39) of of Eatonville
Eatonville betraysbetrays again
again the the vision
vision of of the
the
blossoming
blossoming pear pear treetree surrounded
surrounded by by thethe alto
alto chant
chant of bees (10).
of bees (10).
The
The “gloaty,
“gloaty, sparklysparkly white” white” house house and and the the store, both constituents
store, both constituents of, of,
what
what Lefebvre
Lefebvre calls calls “dominant
“dominant space” space” (39), (39), alienate
alienate Janie,
Janie, since
since theythey squeeze
squeeze
her
her into
into role-play
role—play that that renders
renders her her “far
“far away
away fromfrom things
things and
and lonely”
lonely” (Their(Their EyesEyes
44).
44). She becomes an
She becomes an unwilling
unwilling part part of of Starks’s
Starks’s imitation
imitation of of white
white malemale powerpower
structure,
structure, which which separates
separates her her alsoalso from from the the rest
rest ofof thethe settlement.
settlement. Her Her
perception
perception of of thethe place
place shows shows that that herher immediate
immediate environment
environment grows grows to be
to be
estranging—partly
estranging—partly due due to to monotony
monotony that that derives
derives from from thethe fact fact that
that she she is is
socialized
socialized into into thisthis setting
setting without
without the the ability
ability to to endow
endow it it with
with personal
personal
significance,
significance, as as only
only laborlabor and and “representation”
“representation” are are required
required from from her. her. The
The
oppressive
oppressive context
context of of the
the house
house and and store
store doesdoes not not leave
leave herher bodybody unmarked
unmarked
either.
either. By By having
having to to wear
wear aa head-rag,
head—rag, her her female
female subjectivity
subjectivity is is attacked,
attacked,
which—as
which—as noted before—debunks the
noted before—debunks the middle
middle classclass ethos
ethos ofof intimacy
intimacy and beauty
and beauty
as
as constituting
constituting elements
elements of of femininity.
femininity.
Masculine
Masculine (public) (public) placesplaces appear
appear markedly juxtaposed with
markedly juxtaposed with the the private
private
sphere
sphere of of social
social space
space in in Eatonville
Eatonville in in Their Eyes. The
Their Eyes. The porch
porch functions
functions indeed indeed as as
“a
“a public
public alternative
alternative to to the
the court”
court” (Joseph
(Joseph 467), 467), but,but, from
from aa gender
gender perspective,
perspective,
not
not in in the
the sense
sense PhilipPhilip Joseph
Joseph uses uses it: it: “a“a place
place where
where manifold
manifold conflicting
conflicting
viewpoints
viewpoints and and endless
endless qualification
qualification take take precedence
precedence over over thethe arrival
arrival at at aa final
final
verdict”
verdict” (467).
(467). It It isis true
true thatthat the
the porch
porch in in the
the African
African American
American context context and and inin
Hurston’s
Hurston’s works works represents
represents the the capstone
capstone of of culture,
culture, where
where thethe value
value hierarchy
hierarchy of of
the
the community
community is is articulated,
articulated, and and where
where identity
identity within
within the the community
community is is
negotiated
negotiated through,
through, for for example,
example, the the praxis
praxis of of games
games and and verbal
verbal interaction.
interaction.
Especially,
Especially, from from the the point
point of of view
view of of the
the latter,
latter, however,
however, the the democratic
democratic nature nature
of
of the
the porch
porch is is questioned.
questioned. As both Lucy’s
As both Lucy’s case, case, whowho does
does not not appear
appear on on the
the
porch
porch at at all,
all, and
and thatthat of of Janie,
Janie, whowho is is marginalized
marginalized on on the
the porch,
porch, women women cannot cannot
negotiate
negotiate an an identity
identity there;there; that that is,
is, only
only gendered
gendered identities
identities are are interpolated
interpolated in in
objectified
objectified positions.
positions. Janie Janie is is thus
thus muted
muted on on the
the porch,
porch, andand other
other women
women are are the
the
objects
objects of of verbal
verbal games games such such as as mock
mock courtships.
courtships. The The porch
porch is is also
also thethe place,
place,

90
90
where
where femininity
femininity is is verbally
verbally constituted
constituted in in public
public forfor Janie.
Janie. OnceOnce Starks
Starks rebukes
rebukes
Janie
Janie on on thethe porch,
porch, “All “All you you got got tuhtuh dodo is is mind
mind me” me” (66);
(66); and and later:
later: “Somebody
“Somebody
got
got toto think
think forfor women
women and and chillun
chillun and and cows.cows. I1 god,god, they
they sho sho don’t
don’t think
think nonenone
theirselves”
theirselves” (67). (67). Non-acceptance
Non—acceptance to to the
the porch-community
porch—community means means the the denial
denial ofof
subjectivity
subjectivity and and social
social legitimation,
legitimation, while while Janie’s
Janie’s public
public debasement
debasement that that later
later
evolves
evolves also also around
around her her bodybody (when(when StarksStarks growsgrows intointo thethe habit
habit of of mocking
mocking her her
looks),
looks), serves both chastising
serves both chastising into into gender
gender and and the
the validation
validation of of masculinity,
masculinity, as as
Löfgren
Lofgren puts puts itit in
in another
another context,
context, to to “help
“help underline
underline the the maleness
maleness of of the
the manman in in
the
the public
public sphere”
sphere” (148).(148).
The
The constraint
constraint of of race
race shapes
shapes anotheranother form form of of masculine
masculine public public space,
space,
which
which appears
appears in both novels:
in both novels: the the courthouse.
courthouse. African African Americans,
Americans, regardless
regardless of of
which
which gender
gender they belong to,
they belong to, know
know that that “Courthouses
“Courthouses were were bad bad luck
luck to to colored
colored
people”
people” (Jonah’s
(Jonah ’s 165). 165). The The courthouse
courthouse proves proves to to bebe aa “dispositif”
“dispositif” (see (see Deleuze)
Deleuze)
that
that denotes
denotes not not only
only legallegal spacespace which which mediates
mediates masculine
masculine order, order, but but also
also aa
regulatory
regulatory interface,
interface, aa Lefebvrian
Lefebvrian representation
representation of of space,
space, in in white
white (masculine)
(masculine)
power
power structure.
structure. In Jonah’s
In Jonah ’s there
there are are twotwo instances
instances when when the the apparatus
apparatus of of the
the
court
court occupies
occupies aa central
central role role in in the
the narrative.
narrative. Both Both times
times JohnJohn is brought before
is brought before
court.
court. There
There he he is judged by
is judged by whites,
whites, while while blacksblacks bring
bring charges
charges against
against him— him—
first,
first, for
for beating
beating up up Lucy’s
Lucy’s brother,brother, and, and, later
later inin Eatonville,
Eatonville, Hattie Hattie (his (his second
second
wife)
wife) wants
wants to to divorce
divorce him. him. The The court
court in Jonah’s
in Jonah ’s is
is important
important for for twotwo reasons.
reasons.
First,
First, it it illustrates
illustrates aa racialracial context,
context, in in which
which African
African Americans
Americans are are forced
forced to to
allow
allow whites
whites to to settle
settle matters
matters that that emerge
emerge among among blacks.blacks. As As it it is
is reported
reported
explicitly:
explicitly: “de “de laws
laws and and de de cotehouses
cotehouses and and de jail houses
de jail houses all all b’longed
b’longed tuh tuh white
white
folks.”
folks.” (165).
(165). Also,Also, as as an an interface,
interface, the the court
court superimposes
superimposes on on the the African
African
American
American communitycommunity and and enforces
enforces white white valuesvalues in in aa top-down
top—down manner. manner. The The
court
court is is presented
presented as as an an impenetrable
impenetrable wall, wall, at at which,
which, instead
instead of of negotiation,
negotiation,
judgment is
judgment is passed:
passed: “John “John saw saw the the smirking
smirking anticipation
anticipation on on the
the faces
faces of of the
the
lawyers,
lawyers, the the Court
Court attendants,
attendants, the the white
white spectators,
spectators, and and feltfelt as
as ifif hehe had
had fallen
fallen
down
down aa foul foul latrine”
latrine” (167).
(167). The The non-differentiating
non—differentiating gaze gaze of of this
this white
white panopticon
panopticon
objectifies
objectifies John John as as aa badbad “loafer”
“loafer” (169),(169), and and strips
strips himhim of of his
his pride,
pride, replacing
replacing it it
with
with shame.
shame. Second,
Second, from from aa femininefeminine perspective,
perspective, Hurston Hurston empowers,
empowers, in in
striking
striking ways,
ways, herher female
female characters
characters in in such
such settings.
settings. They become heroines
They become heroines like like
Lucy,
Lucy, who who “thrust[s]
“thrust[s] her her frailty between [John]
frailty between [John] andand trouble”
trouble” (165).(165). The The white
white
court becomes aa setting,
court becomes setting, where where black black malesmales depend
depend on on their
their women
women for for voice.
voice.
The
The court
court scene
scene shows
shows that, that, while
while Hurston
Hurston maintains
maintains the the concept
concept of of the
the social
social
marginalization
marginalization in in transparent
transparent social social space,space, she she alsoalso rejects
rejects the the simplistic
simplistic
male/female
male/female binary, binary, and and insists
insists on on the
the interdependence
interdependence of black men
of black men and black
and black
women
women within within aa broader
broader white white space.
space.
Furthermore,
Furthermore, Hurston Hurston uses uses the the image
image of of the
the court
court to to visualize,
visualize, perhaps,perhaps,
ironically
ironically white white (female)
(female) patronagepatronage for black women
for black women in in face
face of of thethe African
African
American
American community.
community. In In herher career
career as both aa writer
as both writer and and an an anthropologist,
anthropologist, she she
had
had to to rely
rely onon white
white patronage—most
patronage—most notably, notably, on on herher Godmother,
Godmother, Mrs. Mrs. Mason
Mason

91
91
(Hemenway
(Hemenway 108), 108), while
while it it happened
happened several several times
times that that sheshe waswas confronted
confronted by by
hostility
hostility fromfrom the black community
the black community during during her her field
field trips
trips and and from black
from black
intellectuals
intellectuals who who criticized
criticized her her writing.
writing. JanieJanie in in Their
Their Eyes Eyes raises
raises her her voice
voice in in
public
public in in aa courtroom
courtroom the the first
first time,
time, when when she she is is charged
charged of of murdering
murdering her her
husband,
husband, Tea Tea Cake.
Cake. The The act act of of telling
telling her her story
story is is aa testimony
testimony of of her
her newly
newly
acquired
acquired selfconsciousness.
selfconsciousness. The The acquittal
acquittal by by thethe white
white court court sanctions
sanctions Janie’s Janie’s
new
new consciousness
consciousness in in opposition
opposition to to the black community.
the black community. In In fact,
fact, the black
the black
community
community is is marginalized
marginalized in in the
the courtroom
courtroom as as “colored
“colored peoplepeople [were] [were] standing
standing
up
up in
in the back of
the back of the
the courtroom
courtroom [. [. .. .]
.] packed
packed like like aa case
case of of celery”
celery” (176), (176), and and
they
they are
are notnot allowed
allowed to to testify
testify before
before the the court.
court. Despite
Despite Hurston’s
Hurston’s love love of of her
her
own
own people,
people, she she appears
appears utterly utterly critical
critical of of themthem when when she she calls calls them
them an an
“anonymous
“anonymous herd” herd” (177),
(177), whilewhile she she is is sympathetic
sympathetic toward toward white white women.
women.
The
The image
image of of the
the court
court proves
proves to be aa powerful
to be powerful metaphormetaphor in both major
in both major
novels
novels by by Hurston,
Hurston, where where it it emerges
emerges at at decisive
decisive moments
moments of of the
the narratives.
narratives. In In
the
the everyday
everyday lives lives of of Hurston’s
Hurston’s female female protagonists,
protagonists, however, however, two two metaphors
metaphors
haunt
haunt in in enclosed
enclosed spaces.
spaces. The The spatial
spatial metaphor
metaphor of of contrast
contrast of of thethe (“big”)
(“big”) road road
serves
serves as as anan important
important trope trope for for Hurston
Hurston to to define
define the the location
location of of enclosed
enclosed
places.
places. It It heightens
heightens the the contrast
contrast betweenbetween women’swomen’s situatedness
situatedness and and the the seeming
seeming
unboundedness
unboundedness of of the
the other-than-private
other—than—private sphere. sphere. Houses—more
Houses—more importantly: importantly:
porches—are
porches—are built built onon roads
roads (usually
(usually on on the
the main
main road road of of the
the settlement),
settlement), where where
public
public andand communal
communal events events take take place.
place. So So inin Eatonville
Eatonville every every evening
evening is is “the
“the
time
time for
for sitting
sitting on on porches
porches beside beside the the road”
road” (1),(1), where
where the the porch
porch constitutes
constitutes aa
genuine
genuine cultural
cultural space.
space. Furthermore,
Furthermore, houses houses builtbuilt on on thethe main
main road road alsoalso lend
lend
status
status to to them
them in in the
the eyeseyes of of thethe community.
community. Nanny, Nanny, for for example,
example, tries tries to to
convince
convince JanieJanie to to marry
marry Logan Logan Killicks
Killicks by by arguing
arguing that that he he “Got
“Got aa house bought
house bought
and
and paid
paid forfor and
and sixty
sixty acres
acres uh uh land
land right
right on on de big road
de big road [. [. .. .]!
.]! Dat’s
Dat’s de de very
very
prong
prong allall us black women
us black women gits gits hung
hung on” on” (22).
(22). ForFor Hurston’s
Hurston’s important
important women women
the big road
the big road hashas thus
thus aa dual
dual role.
role. On On the the one
one hand,
hand, it it embodies
embodies masculine masculine social social
space
space marked
marked by by mobility
mobility as as well
well as as agency,
agency, where where only only men men appear;
appear; and and as as aa
contrast
contrast it it refers
refers backback to to female
female rootedness
rootedness in in closed
closed place.place. MoreMore specifically,
specifically,
the
the big
big road
road forfor women
women depicts depicts limited
limited socialsocial mobility
mobility and and marginalization
marginalization in in
gendered
gendered space.space. On On thethe other,
other, the the roads, beyond representing
roads, beyond representing aa mere mere token
token of of
possible
possible escape,
escape, metaphorize
metaphorize the the horizon
horizon for for these
these women.
women. It It is
is reported
reported of of Janie
Janie
that
that “she began to
“she began to stand
stand around
around the the gate
gate andand expect
eXpect things”
things” (23) (23) at at Killicks’s
Killicks’s
place,
place, and
and remaining
remaining inside inside the the fence
fence “she“she hung
hung over over thethe gate
gate andand looked
looked up up the
the
road
road towards
towards way way off” off” (24).(24). The The equation
equation of of the
the roadsroads with with expectations
eXpectations
becomes
becomes more more concrete
concrete when when JanieJanie leaves
leaves Killicks
Killicks and and finds
finds that
that “[t]he
“[t]he morning
morning
road
road air
air was
was like
like aa new
new dress”
dress” (31).(31). The The sensuous
sensuous description
description of of Janie’s
Janie’s renewed
renewed
hopes
hopes shows
shows her her outside
outside lived lived environment
environment and and her her identification
identification with with nature;
nature;
or,
or, rather,
rather, the the wilderness,
wilderness, which, which, in in African
African American
American terminology,
terminology, is is the
the
counterspace
counterspace to to social
social space.
space.

92
92
 Janie’s
Janie’s nonidentification
nonidentification with with social
social space
space is is further
further strengthened
strengthened through through
the
the metaphor
metaphor of of the
the veil,
veil, which
which reveals
reveals an an important
important pattern pattern of of oppositionality
oppositionality in in
Hurston’s
Hurston’s gendered
gendered places places that that affect
affect the the female
female body body directly.
directly. Whereas
Whereas the the
house
house serves
serves as as the
the symbol
symbol of of thethe extended
extended self self (see (see Clare
Clare Cooper),
Cooper), for for
Hurston’s
Hurston’s womenwomen it becomes detached
it becomes detached from from the the body,body, becomes
becomes oppressive,
oppressive,
regulating
regulating the body, and
the body, and the the selfself is is transposed
transposed into into the the natural
natural realm,
realm, wherewhere
identification
identification with with place place can can be be instituted.
instituted. This This establishes
establishes the the
functional/pragmatic
functional/pragmatic employment employment of of the the Cartesian
Cartesian body; body; thatthat is,
is, the body is
the body is
deliberately
deliberately separated
separated from from the the self.
self. On On thethe oneone hand,hand, it it presents
presents aa mode mode of of
selfempowerment
selfempowerment through through the the separation
separation of body and
of body and mind.
mind. As As it
it is
is reported
reported in in
the
the text,
text, [Janie]
[Janie] had had an an inside
inside and and an an outside
outside now now and and suddenly
suddenly she she knew
knew how how
not
not to
to mix
mix them”
them” (68).(68). “The “The co-presence
co—presence of of twotwo distinct
distinct poles”
poles” of of inside
inside and and
outside
outside without
without “their
“their collapse
collapse into into oneness”
oneness” (Johnson,
(Johnson, “Metaphor”
“Metaphor” 165) 165) enables
enables
Janie
Janie toto maintain
maintain subjectivity
subjectivity and and leads
leads to to selfempowerment,
selfempowerment, which which is is not
not
connected
connected to to “verbal
“verbal assertiveness”
assertiveness” in in the
the first
first place,
place, as as Awkward
Awkward suggests
suggests (32). (32).
Selfempowerment
Selfempowerment is is connected
connected to to Janie’s
Janie’s remembrance
remembrance of of her
her vision
vision of of the
the pear
pear
tree,
tree, which
which is is place,
place, to to her
her disembodied
disembodied mind mind that that proves
proves increasingly
increasingly aa well well of of
memories
memories and and ideas,
ideas, and and to to herher identification
identification with with placeplace other
other than
than Starks’s
Starks’s
white
white house.
house. On On thethe other
other hand, hand, as as Awkward
Awkward insightfully
insightfully reminds reminds us, us, Janie
Janie
rediscovers
rediscovers nature nature that that effects
effects revitalization
revitalization through through “her “her psychological
psychological
reincarnation”
reincarnation” (28). (28). Sitting
Sitting under under aa tree tree around
around the the store
store sheshe experiences
experiences the the
refreshing
refreshing power power of of the the wind,wind, which which works works “like “like aa drug” drug” and and whichwhich
“reconcile[s]
“reconcile[s] her her toto things”
things” (Their (Their Eyes Eyes 73). 73). TheThe renewed
renewed identification
identification with with aa
tree
tree provides
provides her her with
with aa placeplace on on her
her own,own, aa “space-off”
“space—off” in in Lauretis’s
Lauretis’s coinage,
coinage,
where,
where, through
through an an act
act ofof transpatiality,
transpatiality, she she finds
finds peacepeace and and acquiescence
acquiescence in in her
her
existence.
existence.
The
The surrealistic
surrealistic scene scene of of the burial of
the burial of Matt
Matt Boner’s
Boner’s mule mule in in Their
Their Eyes Eyes
sums
sums up up powerfully
powerfully Hurston’s Hurston’s view view of of transparent
transparent space. space. TheThe scene scene is is
significant
significant forfor twotwo reasons
reasons regarding
regarding transparent
transparent space, space, even even though
though it it has been
has been
criticized
criticized asas aa disruption
disruption of of aa realistic
realistic plot plot and
and as as anan overdone
overdone piece piece of of folklore
folklore
(Hemenway
(Hemenway 234). 234). First,
First, it it is
is interpolated
interpolated in in thethe story
story as as aa dense
dense allegory
allegory of of
female
female fate
fate in in masculine
masculine space. space. Nanny’s
Nanny’s manifesto
manifesto (“De (“De nigger
nigger woman
woman is is dede
mule
mule uhuh dede world”
world” [14])[14]) renders
renders this this scene
scene aa macabre
macabre inversioninversion of of Janie’s
Janie’s vision
vision
of
of the
the pear
pear tree.
tree. Here
Here Hurston
Hurston uses uses the blossoming tree
the blossoming tree metaphor
metaphor implicitly—as
implicitly—as
she
she does
does previously,
previously, by by likening
likening Killicks’s
Killicks’s house house to to aa stump—to
stump—to contrast
contrast the the
ideal
ideal with
with limitation.
limitation. The The treetree in bloom is
in bloom is contrasted
contrasted with with thethe mule
mule carcass
carcass and and
the
the pollinating
pollinating bees bees with buzzards. Evoking
with buzzards. Evoking the the “repressive
“repressive and and regulatory
regulatory
30
structure”
structure”3O (Butler,
(Butler, “Subjects
“Subjects of of Sex”
Sex” 35) 35) of
of patriarchy,
patriarchy, Starks Starks and
and another
another man man
stand
stand onon the
the “distended
“distended belly belly of of thethe mule”
mule” (57) (57) to to make
make mocking
mocking speeches
speeches and, and,

30
30 It
It must be noted
must be noted that
that in
in the
the context
context of
of this
this reference
reference Butler
Butler promotes
promotes aa view
view that
that questions
questions aa
universal
universal “transcultural
“transcultural notion
notion of
of patriarchy”
patriarchy” (35).
(35).

93
93
then,
then, the
the village
village leaves
leaves the
the mule
mule for
for the buzzards to
the buzzards to devour.
devour. Second,
Second, on on the
the story
story
level,
level, Starks’s
Starks’s denial
denial forfor Janie
Janie to to participate
participate in in this
this social
social event
event marks
marks aa
culminating
culminating point
point in
in her
her subservience.
subservience. While
While the
the entire
entire town
town goes
goes to to the
the funeral,
funeral,
she
she is
is marginalized
marginalized socio-spatially,
socio—spatially, as as she
she has
has to
to stay behind in
stay behind in the
the home:
home: “you
“you
ain’t
ain’t goin’
goin’ off
off in
in all
all dat
dat mess
mess uhuh commonness
commonness [. [. .. .]
.] Shet
Shet dede door behind yuh,
door behind yuh,
Janie”
Janie” (56-57).
(56—57). The
The instance
instance also
also exposes
exposes Janie
Janie thethe farthest
farthest from
from her
her original
original
(envisioned)
(envisioned) precultural/natural
precultural/natural state.state. AsAs Hemenway
Hemenway rightly rightly suggests,
suggests, “the
“the
restriction
restriction illustrates
illustrates how
how sheshe is
is out
out ofof touch
touch with
with the the cadence
cadence of of nature”
nature” (234-
(234—
35).
35).
Transparent
Transparent masculine
masculine social
social space
space thus
thus provides
provides the the context
context for for
Hurston’s
Hurston’s women,
women, in in which
which they
they experience
eXperience places
places as as “social
“social products”
products” (Soja,
(Soja,
Geographies 126).
Postmodern Geographies
Postmodern 126). In
In the
the microcosm
microcosm of of places
places under
under thethe male
male gaze
gaze
they
they are
are exposed
eXposed to to dematerialization.
dematerialization. However,
However, it it is
is not
not only
only the
the male
male gaze
gaze that
that
proves
proves subversive
subversive forfor Hurston’s
Hurston’s women,
women, but but also
also aa network
network of of other
other women.
women.

6.2. Female Social Space

The
The inner
inner functioning
functioning of of masculine
masculine social social space
space goes
goes with
with aa strategy
strategy of of
power,
power, which
which crystallizes
crystallizes as as female
female social
social space.
space. This
This space bears similar
space bears similar traits
traits
to
to masculine
masculine transparent
transparent space.
space. The
The reasons
reasons are are twofold:
twofold: a) a) female
female social
social space
space
is
is structured
structured on on similar
similar premises
premises as as its
its masculine
masculine counterpart,
counterpart, that that is,
is, to
to maintain
maintain
the
the female
female status
status quoquo via
via subversive
subversive powerpower mechanisms;
mechanisms; b) b) the
the female
female statusstatus
quo
quo exists
eXists much
much in in relation
relation to
to masculine
masculine transparent
transparent space,space, asas aa kind
kind ofof subspace
subspace
for
for “reproduction
“reproduction of of social
social relations”
relations” (Lefebvre
(Lefebvre 50), 50), which
which showsshows the the
naturalization
naturalization of of (white)
(white) masculine
masculine values
values in in the
the female
female consciousness,
consciousness, and and that
that
female
female communal
communal “[s]tructures
“[s]tructures are both the
are both the medium
medium and and the
the outcome
outcome of of social
social
practices”
practices” (Parker
(Parker Pearson
Pearson andand Richards
Richards 3). 3). In
In this
this way,
way, Hurston’s
Hurston’s struggle
struggle to to
establish
establish aa genuine
genuine female
female space
space marks
marks also
also strife
strife against
against aa female
female transparent
transparent
space.
space.
In both novels
In both novels the the status
status of of transparent
transparent female female subspace
subspace withinwithin the the
masculine
masculine conceptualized
conceptualized space space (see(see Lefebvre
Lefebvre 38) 38) isis easily
easily recognizable.
recognizable. It It
derives
derives from
from the the traditional
traditional and and gendered
gendered division
division of of labor
labor that
that ascribes
ascribes
spatially,
spatially, inin the
the first
first place,
place, the
the domestic
domestic spheresphere to to women,
women, as as well
well asas from
from the the
gendered
gendered distribution
distribution of of social
social roles.
roles. ItIt is
is true
true that
that the
the status
status ofof women
women renders
renders aa
high
high degree
degree of of social
social andand spatial
spatial immobility
immobility in in these
these novels;
novels; however,
however, it it also
also
demarcates
demarcates aa limited
limited space
space for
for women,
women, where,where, in in accordance
accordance with with the
the rules
rules of of
masculine
masculine transparency,
transparency, women women can can acquire
acquire aa gendered
gendered position
position of of power.
power.
Furthermore,
Furthermore, much much likelike Sartre’s
Sartre’s practico-inert
practico—inert ensemble
ensemble this this space
space also
also effects
effects
homogeneity
homogeneity in in praxis,
praXis, that
that is,
is, in
in the
the mediation
mediation of of masculine
masculine power.
power. TheThe limited
limited
spatial
spatial framework
framework construes
construes aa social
social space
space with
with aa clear
clear hierarchy
hierarchy along
along lines
lines ofof

94
race,
race, gender,
gender, and and class.
class. Thus,
Thus, arguably,
arguably, the the female
female subspace
subspace is is aa dispositif
dispositif
within
within the the larger
larger masculine
masculine function: function: it it shapes
shapes aa power power centrecentre for for thethe
socialization
socialization of of women
women and and forfor the
the interpolation
interpolation of of gendered
gendered identities.
identities.
Interestingly,
Interestingly, the the existence
existence of of female
female social social space space often often suggests
suggests the the
juxtaposition of
juxtaposition of the
the twotwo transparent
transparent spaces spaces with with the the apparent
apparent exclusion
exclusion of of males
males
from
from female
female spaces.spaces. From From time time to to time,
time, the the relative
relative autonomy
autonomy of of female
female social
social
space
space is is manifest
manifest in both novels.
in both novels. In Jonah’s,
In Jonah ’s, for
for example,
example, rituals rituals around
around birthbirth
and
and death
death enacted
enacted by by women
women grants grants marginal
marginal position position to to males.
males. Similarly,
Similarly, in in
Their Eyes Janie,
Their Eyes Janie, Nanny,Nanny, and and Mrs. Mrs. Washburn,
Washburn, the the white
white landlady,
landlady, shape shape aa
community
community in in which
which men men do do notnot appear
appear at at all.
all.
The
The relationship
relationship of of the
the two
two transparent
transparent spaces spaces to to each
each other
other produces
produces aa
dynamics
dynamics that that is,is, however,
however, not based on
not based on mutuality
mutuality or or reciprocity.
reciprocity. Rather, Rather, as as aa
subspace,
subspace, female female transparency
transparency is is complementary,
complementary, enabling enabling the the system
system to to
function
function smoothly,
smoothly, effecting effecting “continuity
“continuity [and] [and] cohesion”
cohesion” (as (as II quote
quote Lefebvre
Lefebvre
[33]
[33] inin Chapter
Chapter 2) 2) by by thethe indoctrination
indoctrination of of bothboth men men and and women
women via via the
the
production
production of of knowledge,
knowledge, and, and, consequently,
consequently, appropriate appropriate social social behavior.
behavior.
The
The female
female community
community displays displays three three spatialities,
spatialities, similar similar to to Mazumdar’s
Mazumdar’s
stratification
stratification of of female
female roles roles in in thethe casecase of of thethe Hindu
Hindu house house (161):
(161): familial
familial
space,
space, ritual
ritual space,
space, and and communal
communal space. space. Here Here II want want to to concentrate
concentrate on on
communal
communal space space as as II have
have already
already elaborated
elaborated on on domestic
domestic spaces spaces and and already
already
dealt
dealt with
with Hurston’s
Hurston’s sacred sacred space.space. Suffice
Suffice it it toto say,
say, female
female ritual
ritual space
space in in
Hurston’s
Hurston’s works works is is largely
largely constructed
constructed by by birth
birth rituals
rituals and and deathdeath rituals. Jonah’s
rituals. Jonah ’s
offers
offers excellent
excellent examplesexamples in in this
this regard.
regard. Lucy’s Lucy’s childbirth
childbirth is is attended
attended by by aa
friend,
friend, Pheemy,
Pheemy, who, who, aidedaided by by two
two assistants,
assistants, “performed
“performed the the ancient
ancient rites”
rites” (92).
(92).
Birth
Birth is is purified
purified throughthrough ritual,
ritual, but but also,
also, in in this
this way, way, LucyLucy is is taken
taken up up byby the
the
community
community “so “so thatthat no no harm
harm couldcould come come to to [her]”
[her]” (92).(92). Ritual
Ritual naturalizes
naturalizes her her
into
into and
and renders
renders her her intelligible
intelligible for for the
the community.
community. As As Émile
Emile Durkheim
Durkheim points points
out
out regarding
regarding ritual ritual practice:
practice: “[. “[. .. .]
.] practices
practices [. [. .. .]
.] unite
unite its its adherents
adherents in in aa single
single
moral
moral community
community [. [. .. .]”
.]” (46).
(46). However,
However, the the ritual
ritual is is not
not necessary
necessary to to support
support
Janie’s
Janie’s subjectivity.
subjectivity. As As Carla
Carla L. L. Peterson
Peterson notes notes about about communities:
communities: “[. “[. .. .]
.]
women
women most most oftenoften entered
entered the the space
space of communitas alone
of communitas alone and and remained
remained isolated
isolated
within
within it it [.[. .. .].
.]. Indeed,
Indeed, they they rarely
rarely becamebecame part part of of the
the communitas
communitas but but rather
rather
maintained
maintained an an ambiguous
ambiguous insider/outsider
insider/outsider status status to to it” it” (39).
(39). EvenEven more more
conspicuously,
conspicuously, Lucy’s Lucy’s death death agony
agony shows shows how how ritualritual seemingly
seemingly sets sets herher apart
apart
from
from males,
males, yet yet her her wish
wish to to bebe buried
buried as as sheshe wants
wants is is denied
denied by by cultural
cultural ritual
ritual
enacted
enacted by by women.
women. As As much
much as as immersion
immersion in in aa community
community is is conditioned,
conditioned,
departure
departure from from it it is
is also
also systematized.
systematized. The The female
female leader leader of of the
the ritual
ritual concerts
concerts
the
the tasks
tasks and and doesdoes not not allow
allow Lucy’s
Lucy’s wishes wishes to to be be granted.
granted. Thus, Thus, for for example,
example,
despite
despite Lucy’s
Lucy’s explicitexplicit desire—“don’t
desire—“don’t let let ‘em‘em take take de de pillow
pillow from from underunder mah mah
head,
head, andand be be covering
covering up up dede clock
clock and and de de lookin’
lookin’ glass glass [. [. .. .]”
.]” (130)—the
(l30)—the women women
enacting
enacting the the ritual
ritual tasks
tasks taketake away
away the the pillow.
pillow. In In her
her agony
agony Lucy Lucy is is silent, but
silent, but
her
her silence
silence also also signifies
signifies her her lacklack of of control
control over over the the events:
events: her bedroom
her bedroom

95
95
becomes—as
becomes—as Kathleen Kathleen Komar Komar theorizes
theorizes enclosed
enclosed spaces—an
spaces—an “arena “arena ofof
punishment
punishment or or atat least
least confinement”
confinement” (91), (91), not
not at
at all
all unlike
unlike herher experience
experience ofof
masculine
masculine transparent
transparent space.space. AsAs aa result
result of
of spatial
spatial practice,
practice, Lucy
Lucy is is marginalized
marginalized
even
even inin the
the centre,
centre, and and only
only herher eyes
eyes reveal
reveal her
her will
will and
and her
her dependence
dependence on on
Isis’s
Isis’s selfassertion,
selfassertion, when when “Isis“Isis saw saw herher set
set eyes
eyes fasten
fasten on on her”
her” (132).
(132).
Conversely,
Conversely, the the fact
fact that
that Janie
Janie isis excluded
excluded from
from Starks’s
Starks’s sicksick room
room andand his
his death
death
agony
agony inin the bedroom shows
the bedroom shows her her marginalization,
marginalization, which
which she,she, in
in fact, breaks, by
fact, breaks, by
going
going into
into the bedroom to
the bedroom to reassert
reassert herself before Starks.
herself before Starks. She She does
does soso
successfully,
successfully, whichwhich is is also
also ritually
ritually expressed
expressed as as she
she manages
manages to to occupy
occupy the
the
leading
leading role
role inin the
the ritual
ritual and
and thereby
thereby to to reclaim
reclaim her
her social
social role,
role, despite
despite previous
previous
neglect:
neglect: “Come
“Come heah heah people!
people! Jody
Jody is is dead.
dead. Mah
Mah husband
husband is is gone
gone from
from me”
me” (83).
(83).
The
The inner
inner structuring
structuring of of female
female social
social space
space thus
thus enhances
enhances appropriate
appropriate
social
social behavior
behavior to to aa great
great degree,
degree, emerging
emerging powerfully
powerfully in both Nanny’s
in both Nanny’s and and Mrs.
Mrs.
Turner’s
Turner’s case.
case. For both these
For both these characters
characters assimilation
assimilation to to white
white masculine
masculine values
values
embodies
embodies the the peak
peak of of social
social upheaval.
upheaval. Neither
Neither of
of these
these women
women can can imagine
imagine anan
independent
independent woman woman as as aa functioning
functioning unitunit of
of their
their community.
community. As As Kevin
Kevin Everod
Everod
Quashie
Quashie hypothizes
hypothizes African
African American
American female
female subjectivity
subjectivity at at one
one point:
point:

Black
Black female
female subjects
subjects mostly
mostly materialize
materialize asas figures
figures of of difference
difference in in
someone
someone else’s
else’s complicated
complicated subjectivity
subjectivity [. [. .. .].
.]. In
In fact,
fact, if
if the
the
intersectionality
intersectionality that binary identity
that binary identity systems
systems make
make necessary
necessary isis definitive
definitive
of
of Black
Black women’s
women’s experience
experience of of subject,
subject, then
then it it seems
seems almost
almost
ideologically
ideologically andand theoretically
theoretically impossible
impossible forfor there
there to be aa Black
to be Black female
female
essentialism:
essentialism: the
the subjectivity
subjectivity isis too
too piecemeal,
piecemeal, tootoo deployed
deployed in in something
something
other
other than
than itself,
itself, too
too much
much an an afterthought
afterthought of of Black
Black men’s
men’s or or white
white
women’s
women’s totalization
totalization ofof race
race or
or gender.
gender. (9)
(9)

For both characters

For both characters female
female identity
identity is
is grounded
grounded in in something
something otherother than
than itself.
itself.
Nanny’s
Nanny’s preoccupation
preoccupation with with capital
capital shows
shows howhow gender
gender and and class
class are
are interwoven
interwoven
for
for her.
her. Mrs.
Mrs. Turner
Turner exemplifies
exemplifies how how race
race and
and class join to
class join to shape
shape the
the peak
peak of of
female
female upward
upward mobility
mobility in in transparent
transparent space.
space. SheShe associates
associates color
color withwith
refinement:
refinement: thethe lighter
lighter (that
(that is,
is, closer
closer to
to white
white people
people in in complexion)
complexion) aa person
person is,
is,
the
the higher
higher position
position s/he
s/he deserves
deserves inin the
the community.
community. Mrs.Mrs. Turner’s
Turner’s complexion,
complexion,
her
her pointed
pointed nose,
nose, herher thin
thin lips,
lips, her
her statue,
statue, and
and her
her brother’s
brother’s straight
straight hair
hair grant
grant
her
her the
the desired
desired similarity
similarity toto whites
whites andand urge
urge her
her to to “class
“class off”
off” (135).
(135). HerHer
selfhatred becomes pronounced:
selfhatred becomes pronounced: “Ah “Ah don’t blame de
don’t blame de white
white folks
folks from
from hatin’
hatin’ em
em
‘cause
‘cause AhAh can’t
can’t stand
stand ‘em
‘em mahself”
mahself” (135).
(135). Her
Her nonidentification
nonidentification with with and
and her
her
distancing
distancing from
from the the African
African American
American community
community is is shown
shown explicitly
explicitly by by her
her
objectifying
objectifying herher people
people as as “them.”
“them.” HerHer ideology
ideology positions
positions her her above
above herher people
people
on
on the basis of
the basis of the
the constraint
constraint of of race:
race: “We
“We oughta
oughta lighten
lighten up up dede race”
race” (135).
(135). Her
Her
dilemma
dilemma is is not
not toto enlighten
enlighten thethe workers
workers of of the
the Everglades
Everglades or or to
to bring
bring about
about
reform,
reform, but
but itit verifies
verifies her her positioning
positioning in in transparent
transparent space
space andand inin its
its female
female

96
96
subspace.
subspace. Not Not only
only does
does sheshe define
define herself
herself in in connection
connection withwith whites,
whites, more
more
specifically,
specifically, with with thethe white
white middle
middle class, but, in
class, but, in addition,
addition, she she does
does so by
so by
defining
defining herself
herself in in relation
relation toto men.
men. When,
When, for for example,
example, aa brawl
brawl is is initiated
initiated inin her
her
restaurant
restaurant to to reprimand
reprimand her, her, she
she isis seeking
seeking to to rely
rely on on her
her husband
husband “to “to put
put aa stop
stop
to
to things”
things” (144).
(144). InIn aa rather
rather comical
comical way,way, Hurston
Hurston reveals
reveals that
that in
in Mrs.
Mrs. Turner’s
Turner’s
consciousness
consciousness power power is is ultimately
ultimately connected
connected to to masculinity
masculinity despite
despite whatwhat her
her
elitist
elitist standoffishness
standoffishness and and her
her ideology-induced
ideology—induced speeches speeches would
would suggest.
suggest.
The
The pluralistic
pluralistic nature
nature of of the
the muck
muck cannot
cannot coexist
coexist withwith hegemonic
hegemonic
discourses
discourses presented
presented by by Mrs.
Mrs. Turner,
Turner, so so she
she isis driven
driven away;
away; but but elsewhere
elsewhere in in
Georgia,
Georgia, for for example,
example, as as Emmeline’s
Emmeline’s character
character provesproves in Jonah’s,
in Jonah ’s, classism
classism
along
along lines
lines ofof race
race and
and gender
gender is is aa common
common practice.
practice. Kathy
Kathy Russel
Russel shows
shows that
that
light
light complexion
complexion has been connected
has been connected to to elitism
elitism (24)(24) in
in the
the African
African American
American
community,
community, so so much
much so so that
that mulattos
mulattos formed
formed aa “buffer“buffer class”
class” (15)
(15) between
between
whites
whites and blacks. Light
and blacks. Light complexion
complexion denoted
denoted higherhigher status
status inin the
the racial
racial matrix,
matrix,
but also
but also psychological
psychological indoctrination
indoctrination in in favor
favor of of white
white values.
values. A A simple binary
simple binary
is
is established
established thus between the
thus between the ideal
ideal woman
woman of of light
light skin
skin color
color on on the
the side
side of
of aa
man,
man, reflecting
reflecting values
values of of (white)
(white) male
male transparent
transparent space, space, and
and those
those women
women who who
lack
lack any
any of of the
the outstanding
outstanding valuesvalues of of these
these constrains,
constrains, be be it
it capital,
capital, aa man,
man, oror
light
light complexion.
complexion.
The
The strong
strong differentiation
differentiation along along these
these lines
lines can be noticed
can be noticed as as early
early as
as
childhood.
childhood. In In fact,
fact, very
very similar
similar structures
structures can can be be detected
detected in in children’s
children’s
communities
communities in both novels.
in both novels. In In Their Eyes Janie
Their Eyes Janie tells
tells her
her friend,
friend, Pheoby
Pheoby
Watson,
Watson, how how she she was
was different
different early
early in in her
her childhood,
childhood, when when she she and
and Nanny
Nanny
were
were living
living on on Washburn’s
Washburn’s property:
property:

Mis’
Mis’ Washburn
Washburn useter
useter dress
dress me
me up
up in
in all
all de
de clothes
clothes herher gran’chillun
gran’chillun didn’t
didn’t
need
need no
no mo’
mo’ which
which wuz better’n whut
wuz better’n whut de
de rest
rest uhuh de
de colored
colored chillum
chillum had.
had.
And
And then
then sheshe useter
useter put
put hair
hair ribbon
ribbon on
on mah
mah head
head fuh
fuh me
me tuh
tuh wear.
wear. Dat
Dat
useter
useter rile
rile Mayrella
Mayrella uh
uh lot.
lot. So
So she
she would
would pick
pick atat me
me all
all de
de time
time and
and put
put
others
others up
up tuh
tuh do
do de
de same.
same. They’d
They’d push
push me’way
me’way from from dede ring
ring plays
plays and
and
make
make out
out they
they couldn’t
couldn’t play
play wid
wid nobody
nobody dat
dat lived
lived on
on premises.
premises. (9)
(9)

Not
Not only
only does
does Hurston
Hurston establish
establish Janie
Janie as
as an
an outsider
outsider from
from early
early on,
on, she
she also
also calls
calls
attention
attention to
to the background of
the background of her
her difference
difference explicitly
explicitly that
that later
later leads
leads toto the
the
realization
realization andand conscientization
conscientization of of herher difference.
difference. Radhika
Radhika Mohanram’s
Mohanram’s
Freudian
Freudian analysis
analysis conceptualizing
conceptualizing the the child’s body is
child’s body is revealing:
revealing: “The body
“The body
becomes the
becomes the visual
visual perception
perception of of [a
[a cultural/social
cultural/social entity]
entity] rather
rather than
than anan
experience”
experience” (25).
(25). Even
Even though
though Mohanram
Mohanram emphasizes
emphasizes the the development
development of of the
the
child
child and
and the
the correlation between his/her
correlation between his/her “sensation
“sensation ofof space/place”
space/place” andand his/her
his/her
“historical
“historical perspective”
perspective” (25),
(25), the
the community’s
community’s view view ofof Janie
Janie can
can bebe regarded
regarded
similarly.
similarly. Inversely,
Inversely, Janie
Janie is
is discriminated
discriminated against
against on
on the bases that
the bases that later
later serve
serve as
as
the
the grounds
grounds to be elevated
to be elevated in in Eatonville:
Eatonville: a) a) the
the place
place she
she lives
lives at,
at, which
which

97
97
indicates
indicates aa higher
higher classclass position
position through
through the the association
association with with whites;
whites; b) b) her
her class
class
position
position is backed up
is backed up even
even amongamong children
children by by her
her looks,
looks, that that is,
is, her
her “spoiling”
“spoiling”
by
by aa white
white woman
woman and and herher complexion.
complexion. The The antagonism
antagonism against against Janie Janie is is fueled
fueled
by
by the
the grown
grown female female community
community (“they (“they mama mama told told ‘em ‘em [. [. .. .]”
.]” [9]),
[9]), which
which also also
indicates
indicates the the inert
inert power
power mechanism
mechanism and and thethe power-related
power—related structuring structuring within within
the
the female
female community:
community: daughters daughters are are socialized
socialized into into transparent
transparent space space by by their
their
mothers.
mothers.
Jonah’s
Jonah ’s also
also provides
provides palpablepalpable examples
examples of of the
the presence
presence of of transparent
transparent
female
female spacespace in in childhood.
childhood. ExactlyExactly the the same
same happens
happens to to Amy
Amy in in Georgia
Georgia as as to
to
Janie:
Janie: forfor thethe girls,
girls, not
not only
only does does her her family
family represent
represent class; class; she she also
also wants
wants to to
marry
marry John,John, the the most
most popular
popular boy, boy, who who has has alsoalso light
light pigmentation.
pigmentation. Russel Russel
points
points out out that
that dating
dating in in thethe African
African American
American community community often often shows
shows aa
psychological
psychological drive drive toto find
find “pale
“pale genes”
genes” (115), because “embracing
(115), because “embracing Whiteness Whiteness
is
is aa matter
matter of of economic,
economic, social, social, or or political
political survival”
survival” (55). (55). BothBoth scenes
scenes show show thethe
socialization
socialization of of girls
girls into
into transparent
transparent space space along
along thesethese lines
lines so so much
much so so that
that the
the
structure
structure of of the
the female
female subspace
subspace becomesbecomes visiblevisible in in children’s
children’s games. games.
Female
Female communalcommunal space space is is mostly
mostly present
present throughthrough its its absence.
absence. The The
scarcity
scarcity of of female
female socialsocial tiesties shows
shows explicitly
explicitly the the subtlety
subtlety of of thethe working
working of of
male
male transparent
transparent space, space, which which rendersrenders femalefemale social social space space also also spatially
spatially
fragmented.
fragmented. While While familial
familial or or domestic
domestic spaces spaces as as wellwell as as ritual
ritual space
space are are
validated
validated in in masculine
masculine space, space, they they remain
remain limited,
limited, eithereither defined
defined by by the
the location
location
of
of the
the home
home or or by by the
the incidence
incidence of of ritual
ritual events.
events. Communal
Communal space, space, which
which can can bebe
regarded
regarded primarily
primarily as as social
social space,
space, appears
appears in in collaboration
collaboration and and under
under the the
control
control of of men.
men. In In Their
Their Eyes,Eyes, in in aa mock
mock courtship
courtship in in Eatonville,
Eatonville, young young men men
address
address Bootsie,
Bootsie, Teadi,Teadi, and and BigBig ‘oman
‘oman and and later
later Daisy,
Daisy, objectifying
objectifying them them as as pets
pets
and
and denying
denying them them voicevoice in in the
the narrative
narrative game.game. Girls Girls gain gain their
their public
public or or social
social
identities
identities underunder the the gaze
gaze of of the
the male
male community.
community. In In this
this scene
scene womenwomen are are played
played
off
off against
against each each other,
other, which becomes conspicuous,
which becomes conspicuous, when when they they engage
engage in in
Sartrean
Sartrean serial
serial praxis
praxis as as “The
“The girls
girls andand everybody
everybody else else help
help laugh”
laugh” (63).(63). There
There is is
no
no collaboration
collaboration between between women, women, only only functional
functional juncturesjunctures as as when
when it it isis
reported
reported regarding
regarding aa villagevillage social
social event:
event: “The
“The womenwomen got got together
together the the sweets
sweets
and
and the the men
men lookedlooked afterafter the the meats”
meats” (42). (42). In In another
another instance,
instance, which which often often
characterizes
characterizes female female relationships
relationships in in Hurston’s
Hurston’s works, works, Janie Janie chases
chases another
another
woman,
woman, Nunkie,Nunkie, away, away, who who wanted
wanted to to make
make advances
advances to to Tea
Tea CakeCake (131).
(131). The The
fact
fact that
that this
this happens
happens in in the
the Everglades,
Everglades, the the liberating
liberating haven haven for for men
men andand women
women
alike,
alike, is is indicative
indicative of of Hurston’s
Hurston’s skepticism
skepticism infiltrating
infiltrating the the narrative.
narrative.
Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, the the event
event signifies
signifies female
female communal
communal space, space, which,
which, in in this
this way,
way,
denounces
denounces female female relations
relations based based on on mutuality,
mutuality, but but establishes
establishes aa competitive
competitive
framework
framework in in favor
favor of of men,
men, muchmuch in in contrast
contrast to to how
how critics,
critics, for for example
example Komar, Komar,
like
like to to consider
consider female female communality:
communality: “The “The interior
interior of of thethe circle
circle formed
formed by by
women
women together
together describes
describes aa newly newly femalefemale socialsocial space
space in in which
which communality
communality
outstrips
outstrips competition”
competition” (97). (97). As As Pheoby
Pheoby admits admits on on welcoming
welcoming Janie Janie backback in in

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98
Eatonville:
Eatonville: “An “An envious
envious heart heart makes
makes aa treacherous
treacherous ear” ear” (5). (5). The
The sharp sharp
evaluation
evaluation of of thethe female
female community
community is backed up
is backed beforehand by
up beforehand by the
the narrator:
narrator:
“The
“The women
women took took thethe faded
faded shirt shirt and
and muddymuddy overalls
overalls [that [that is, is, in
in which
which JanieJanie
returns
returns to to Eatonville]
Eatonville] and and laid laid them
them awayaway for for remembrance.
remembrance. It It was
was aa weapon
weapon
against
against her
her strength
strength [. [. .. .]”
.]” (2).
(2).
Nurturing
Nurturing female female relationships
relationships are are formed
formed only between mothers
only between mothers and and
daughters
daughters and and thethe possibility
possibility of of extrafamilial
extrafamilial female female relationships
relationships is is projected
projected by by
the
the friendship
friendship between between Janie Janie and and Pheoby.
Pheoby. Mother-daughter
Mother—daughter relations relations come come intointo
foreground
foreground in Jonah’s,
in Jonah ’s, when
when Lucy Lucy in in herher deathbed
deathbed shares shares her her wisdom
wisdom with with her her
daughter,
daughter, Isis,
Isis, andand gives
gives her her instructions
instructions about about whatwhat IsisIsis is is supposed
supposed to to do
do whenwhen
Lucy
Lucy is is dying.
dying. Lucy Lucy gives
gives Isis Isis her bed, which
her bed, which is is her
her only
only property,
property, an an act
act that
that
enhances
enhances aa direct
direct matrilineal
matrilineal linkage linkage in in the
the book.
book. Similarly
Similarly to to Nanny
Nanny in in Their
Their
Eyes, Lucy
Eyes, Lucy admonishes
admonishes her her daughter
daughter by by sharing
sharing her her motherwit
motherwit with with her,
her, further
further
contextualizing
contextualizing Lucy Lucy in in (gendered)
(gendered) femininity.
femininity. By By giving
giving provisions
provisions to to Isis,
Isis,
Lucy
Lucy establishes
establishes aa communal communal space space as as sheshe renders
renders trust trust and and mutuality
mutuality in in the
the
pool
pool ofof their
their relationship.
relationship. She becomes dependent
She becomes dependent on on Isis
Isis forfor voice.
voice.
Much
Much as as motherwit
motherwit can can be be imbued
imbued with with malemale coercive
coercive practice
practice (as (as in
in
Nanny’s
Nanny’s case case in in Their
Their Eyes Eyes or or Emmeline’s
Emmeline’s in Jonah’s,
in Jonah ’s, whose
whose spatial
spatial habit
habit is is
greatly
greatly conditioned
conditioned by by the the naturalizing
naturalizing maneuvers
maneuvers of of transparent
transparent space), space), it it aids
aids
the
the sprouting
sprouting of of nurturing
nurturing female female relationships.
relationships. In Jonah’s
In Jonah ’s such
such aa realization
realization of of
female
female tiesties is is practically
practically absent absent for for Lucy’s
Lucy’s hermeneutic
hermeneutic isolation isolation from from otherother
females.
females. However,
However, in in Their
Their Eyes Eyes Hurston
Hurston establishes
establishes aa strong strong bond bond between
between
Janie
Janie and
and Pheoby
Pheoby that that setssets themthem apart
apart bothboth fromfrom male male and and female
female transparent
transparent
spaces.
spaces. The
The intimacy
intimacy of of their
their friendship
friendship is is realized
realized in in that
that the the transmission
transmission of of the
the
text,
text, that
that is,
is, ofof Janie’s
Janie’s life life story,
story, creates
creates aa female
female genealogy
genealogy and and the backyard aa
the backyard
“place
“place ofof anchoring”
anchoring” (Casey (Casey 196). 196).
Apart
Apart from from thesethese two two scarce
scarce examples,
examples, the the shallowness
shallowness of of female
female
communal
communal space space of of Hurston’s
Hurston’s Southern Southern black black communities
communities is is further
further
accentuated
accentuated by by thethe fact
fact that,
that, in in the
the first
first place,
place, in in Their
Their Eyes Eyes the black female
the black female
individual
individual findsfinds support
support under under the the protective
protective wings wings of of whites.
whites. WhiteWhite paternalism
paternalism
can be seen
can be seen as as power
power mechanism
mechanism keeping keeping African African Americans
Americans in in an
an inferior
inferior
position—an
position—an aspect aspect to to be be detected
detected in in Tea
Tea Cake’s
Cake’s consciousness:
consciousness: after after the the
hurricane
hurricane in in Palm
Palm Beach
Beach he he states,
states, “So
“So Ah Ah means
means tuh tuh go go where
where de de white
white folks
folks
know
know me. me. Ah Ah feelfeel lak
lak uh uh motherless
motherless chile chile round
round heah”heah” (164).(164). Tea Tea Cake
Cake reciting
reciting
aa traditional
traditional AfricanAfrican American
American spiritual—aspiritual—a genre genre with with aa culturally
culturally centripetal
centripetal
function—may
function—may appear appear absurd absurd in in this
this context,
context, since since the the spiritual
spiritual overtly
overtly
addresses
addresses aa slave slave child’s
child’s yearning
yearning for for his/her
his/her lost lost parents,
parents, and and connecting
connecting
parenthood
parenthood to to whites
whites by by aa black black man man is is anan expression
expression of of loss
loss of of agency.
agency.
Regarding
Regarding communal
communal space, space, HurstonHurston exercises
exercises aa powerfulpowerful critiquecritique when when she she
shapes
shapes aa protective
protective white white femalefemale circle
circle around
around Janie.
Janie. NotNot only only can can it be seen
it be seen as as aa
tribute
tribute toto Hurston’s
Hurston’s white white femalefemale Maecenas,
Maecenas, but but also
also as as aa harsh
harsh criticism
criticism of of the
the
black community,
black community, which, which, in in Hurston’s judgment and
Hurston’s judgment and despite
despite her her devotedness
devotedness to to

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99
it,
it, devises
devises alsoalso aa strong
strong parochial
parochial and and provincial
provincial aspect. aspect. In In Their Eyes Janie
Their Eyes Janie
experiences
experiences the the protection
protection of of white
white females
females twice. twice. First,
First, at at the
the beginning
beginning of of
Janie’s
Janie’s quest
quest Mrs. Mrs. Washburn’s
Washburn’s care care and and the the antagonism
antagonism of black girls
of black girls and and
women
women are are contrasted:
contrasted: “Mis’ “Mis’ Washburn
Washburn helped helped out out uh uh whole
whole heap heap widwid things”
things”
(10),
(10), while black girls
while black girls instigated
instigated by by their
their mothers
mothers mock mock Janie.
Janie. Then,
Then, at at the
the end end
of
of the
the work,
work, Janie
Janie finds
finds refuge
refuge from
from her her ownown in in the
the understanding
understanding embrace embrace of of
white
white women
women in in the
the court
court room.
room. There
There it it is
is spatially
spatially neatly
neatly depicted
depicted that that “The
“The
white
white women
women made made aa little
little applause
applause [. [. .. .]”
.]” (178)
(178) and and “[they]
“[they] criedcried andand stood
stood
around
around her her like
like aa protecting
protecting wall wall [.[. .. .]”
.]” (179),
(179), whilewhile the black mass
the black mass appears
appears
marginalized
marginalized as as aa depersonalized
depersonalized wall wall of of animosity.
animosity. In In this
this sense,
sense, the the courthouse
courthouse
becomes aa metaphor
becomes metaphor of of moral
moral space,
space, in in which
which justicejustice is is administered
administered in in aa
mothering
mothering environment
environment and and recognition
recognition is is granted,
granted, which which is is why
why Janie
Janie goes
goes “to “to
visit
visit the
the kind
kind white
white friends
friends whowho hadhad realized
realized her her feelings
feelings and and thank
thank them”
them” (179).
(179).
The
The twotwo scenes
scenes show show that that Janie
Janie ends
ends up up where
where she she sets
sets outout from
from regarding
regarding
spatial
spatial paradigms.
paradigms.
Hurston’s
Hurston’s conceptualization
conceptualization of of transparent,
transparent, oppressiveoppressive space space represents
represents
masculine
masculine domination
domination “by “by defining
defining aa particular
particular intersection between aa spatial
intersection between spatial
order
order andand aa system
system of of surveillance”
surveillance” (Wigley
(Wigley 332) 332) through
through the the positioning
positioning of of the
the
female
female bodybody in in space
space and and time,
time, as as well
well as as through
through praxis,
praxis, thatthat is,is, ritual
ritual and and
work—both
work—both empowering
empowering for for men
men andand assigning
assigning gender gender roles
roles to to women.
women. For For
Hurston’s
Hurston’s women,
women, regardless
regardless of of their
their class
class status,
status, the the limiting,
limiting, enclosed
enclosed context
context
materializes
materializes via via private,
private, domestic
domestic places,places, the the familial
familial context,
context, in in which
which
transparent
transparent space
space is is realized
realized through
through the the domineering
domineering presence presence of of the
the masculine
masculine
body and
body and through
through masculine
masculine spatial
spatial ordering
ordering inclusive
inclusive of of the
the female body; and
female body; and
via
via public
public places,
places, where where female
female identity
identity is is constituted
constituted as as the
the result
result of of the
the
concerted
concerted action
action (verbal
(verbal and and ritual)
ritual) of of the
the masculine
masculine as as well
well as as of
of female
female
community
community in in social
social space.
space. The The African
African AmericanAmerican female female community
community in in
Hurston’s
Hurston’s novels
novels can can be be seen
seen asas aa dispositif
dispositif of of masculine
masculine transparent
transparent space; space; thatthat
is,
is, within
within thethe latter,
latter, itit functions
functions as as the
the primary
primary carriercarrier for for the
the socialization
socialization into into
gender
gender forfor Hurston’s
Hurston’s female female characters.
characters. Thus Thus “the “the pathology
pathology of of the
the communal
communal
expectations”
expectations” (Quashie (Quashie 53) 53) isis also
also detectable
detectable in in this
this subspace
subspace and and renders
renders
women
women “superwoman,
“superwoman, matriarch, matriarch, mule mule of of the
the world”
world” (53)—all
(53)—all roles roles assigned
assigned to to
them
them in in masculine
masculine transparent
transparent space space and
and controlled
controlled by by the
the male
male gaze.gaze.

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7. Female Places in Masculine Spaces: Hurston’s Feminine
Spatiality

Even
Even though
though Hurston
Hurston acknowledges
acknowledges masculinemasculine transparent
transparent socialsocial spacespace
that
that denotes
denotes the the superimposed
superimposed position position of of the
the masculine,
masculine, she she moves beyond the
moves beyond the
simple binary of
simple binary of masculine
masculine and and feminine
feminine and and establishes
establishes female
female subjectivity
subjectivity and and
feminine
feminine sensesense of of place
place apart
apart from
from (or
(or notwithstanding)
notwithstanding) masculine masculine socialsocial space,
space,
yet
yet within
within it. it. Hurston
Hurston envisions
envisions placesplaces constructed
constructed by by women—that
women—that is, is, place
place
constituting
constituting identity,
identity, not not producing
producing it—andit—and aa space space in in which
which women
women negotiate
negotiate
identities
identities for for themselves
themselves through through subjective
subjective praxis. praxis. These
These places
places represent
represent
thirding
thirding in in Soja’s
Soja’s and and Bhabha’s
Bhabha’s sense sense and and function
function as as individual
individual centers
centers of of
meaning
meaning enframed
enframed by by the
the masculine
masculine socialsocial space;
space; thatthat is,
is, apart
apart from
from it,it, opposing
opposing
it,
it, yet
yet depending
depending on on it
it for
for identity.
identity.
As
As aa result,
result, we we can
can count
count on on the
the presence,
presence, even even ifif only
only through
through its its lack,
lack, of
of
the
the masculine
masculine in in Hurston’s
Hurston’s feminine
feminine spaces
spaces as as well,
well, which
which produces
produces not not only
only
opposition,
opposition, but but also
also cohesive
cohesive interrelation.
interrelation. So So even
even though
though Hurston’s
Hurston’s strategy
strategy is is
to
to envision
envision feminine
feminine private
private places
places constructed
constructed by by women,
women, in in which
which women women
negotiate
negotiate identities
identities for for themselves
themselves through,
through, for for instance,
instance, ritual
ritual praxis,
praxis, Hurston’s
Hurston’s
feminine
feminine “spaces-off”
“spaces—off” are are ambivalent
ambivalent in in nature.
nature. De De Lauretis’s
Lauretis’s term term also
also entails
entails
such
such anan interpretation:
interpretation: space-off
space—off meansmeans ultimately
ultimately place place elsewhere,
elsewhere, not not in in the
the
centre,
centre, butbut constructed
constructed in in opposition
opposition to to the
the hegemonic
hegemonic spatial spatial discourse.
discourse. Space-Space—
off
off suggests
suggests relationality;
relationality; furthermore,
furthermore, it it also
also devises
devises spatial
spatial tactics
tactics thatthat are
are
characteristic
characteristic of of the
the masculine
masculine hegemonic
hegemonic discourse.
discourse. For For instance,
instance, female
female social
social
space
space renders
renders malemale presence
presence limited
limited as as it
it becomes
becomes conspicuous
conspicuous when when LucyLucy diesdies
in Jonah’s.
in Jonah ’s. In
In this
this scene
scene JohnJohn is is excluded
excluded from from the the death
death ritual
ritual and
and is is clearly
clearly
marginalized.
marginalized. Thus Thus De De Lauretis’s
Lauretis’s claimclaim of of “movement
“movement in in and
and outout ofof gender”
gender”
(26)
(26) cannot
cannot mean mean the the abolition
abolition of of gender
gender in in the
the space-off,
space—off, as as masculine
masculine
transparent
transparent space space and and feminine
feminine spaces spaces “coexist
“coexist concurrently
concurrently and and in in
contradiction”
contradiction” (26), (26), andand gender
gender has has as
as much
much sensesense in in the
the latter
latter asas in
in the
the former.
former.
Rather,
Rather, we we witness
witness the the inversion
inversion of of gender
gender in in these
these other
other spaces juxtaposed to
spaces juxtaposed to
(even
(even if if within)
within) transparent
transparent space. space. Only
Only in in this
this (pluralizing)
(pluralizing) way way can can De De
Lauretis’s
Lauretis’s assertion
assertion of of “multiplicity”
“multiplicity” and and “heteronomy”
“heteronomy” be be regarded
regarded as as
applicable.
applicable.
In
In addition,
addition, the
the concept
concept of
of space-off
space—off suggests
suggests thatthat feminine
feminine spaces
spaces and
and
places,
places, andand thus
thus feminine
feminine subjectivity,
subjectivity, are
are notnot merely
merely socio-ideological
socio—ideological
constructs.
constructs. AndAnd this
this is
is true
true for
for Hurston’s
Hurston’s fiction
fiction too.
too. Even
Even if
if not
not indicated
indicated
directly
directly in
in the
the text,
text, her
her female
female characters
characters perform
perform their
their subjectivities,
subjectivities, as
as well
well as
as
they
they enact
enact them
them in
in their bodies, and
their bodies, and inscribe
inscribe and
and reinscribe
reinscribe space
space socially
socially and
and
individually,
individually, proving
proving an
an always
always already
already presence
presence of of the
the subject
subject as
as aa “holistic,
“holistic,
irreducible
irreducible unit”
unit” (Eshelman,
(Eshelman, “Postmodernism”
“Postmodernism” 1) 1) despite
despite aa panoptic
panoptic context.
context. InIn
fact,
fact, the
the subject
subject cannot
cannot not be and,
not be and, therefore,
therefore, it it is
is able
able to to resist
resist

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contextualization,
contextualization, that that is, is, totalization.
totalization. As As Raoul
Raoul Eshelman
Eshelman points points out, out,
elaborating
elaborating on on the the novelnovel move move of of generative
generative anthropology
anthropology that that he he calls
calls
“performatism”:
“performatism”: “Subjectivity
“Subjectivity and and semiosis
semiosis are are nono longer
longer treated
treated as as context-
context—
dependent,
dependent, continually
continually failing failing gestures
gestures but but rather
rather form
form closed,
closed, performatively
performatively
realized
realized wholes
wholes that that resist
resist dispersal
dispersal in in surrounding
surrounding contexts”
contexts” (“Postmodernism”
(“Postmodernism”
2).
2). Hurston’s
Hurston’s feminine
feminine subjects subjects go go through
through aa process
process from from aa position
position with with
gendered
gendered identities
identities throughthrough aa “vertiginous
“vertiginous progression
progression toward toward deconstruction
deconstruction of of
identity”
identity” and and “molecularization
“molecularization of of the
the self”
self” (Eshelman,
(Eshelman, “Architecture”
“Architecture” 16) 16) to
to
nomadism.
nomadism. This This process
process differs differs from from Bradiotti’s
Bradiotti’s proposition
proposition in in that
that forfor
Hurston’s
Hurston’s women women “territories
“territories are are not
not be be crossed
crossed in in the
the nomad’s
nomad’s never-ending
never—ending
journey” (17)
journey” (17) in in order
order to to secure boundary transgression
secure boundary transgression for for its
its own
own sake, but
sake, but
through
through aa journey
journey to to (re)connect
(re)connect to to place
place andand self,
self, to
to the
the “originary
“originary ostensive”
ostensive” in in
Eric
Eric Gans’s
Gans’s term.
term. In In this
this way,
way, nomadism
nomadism marks marks for for Hurston’s
Hurston’s women women ability
ability toto
transgress
transgress and and use use space;
space; and and thethe resistance
resistance of of contextualization
contextualization means means for for her
her
female
female characters
characters that that theythey areare able
able to both connect
to both connect to to masculine
masculine socialsocial space
space
(which,
(which, at at the
the most,
most, can can mean
mean partial
partial contextualization)
contextualization) and and establish
establish their
their own
own
places
places through
through “the “the ability
ability to to manipulate
manipulate time, time, space,
space, andand causality
causality for for their
their own
own
benefit”
benefit” (Eshelman,
(Eshelman, “Postmodernism”
“Postmodernism” 4). 4). For
For Hurston,
Hurston, stability
stability of of the
the minimal
minimal
31
self
self31 through
through connectedness
connectedness to to place
place is is anan imperative,
imperative, and and thethe creative,
creative,
existential
existential use use ofof space
space aa must.must.
Accordingly,
Accordingly, Hurston’s Hurston’s female female placesplaces evolve
evolve in in private
private or or public
public
masculine
masculine places places in in the the first
first place,
place, as as they
they are are tightly
tightly connected
connected to to the
the
positioning
positioning of of the
the female
female body. body. There
There are are three
three kinds
kinds of of female
female places
places detectable
detectable
in
in the
the works
works under under discussion,
discussion, which which also also function
function as as signifiers
signifiers of of these
these
women’s
women’s stage stage of of development
development of of these
these women
women and and thethe degree
degree of of maturation
maturation of of
their
their subjectivity:
subjectivity: domestic domestic space, space, the the (back)
(back) yard,yard, and and places
places outside
outside the the
former,
former, for for example,
example, outside built environment.
outside built environment. These These are are physical,
physical, geographic
geographic
locales,
locales, where,
where, apartapart from from their bodies as
their bodies as minimal
minimal places,
places, Hurston’s
Hurston’s womenwomen can can
identify
identify with
with thethe environment
environment freely. freely.
Even
Even if if the
the particular
particular femalefemale character
character liveslives onon her
her own
own as as Nanny
Nanny in in Their
Their
Eyes does,
Eyes does, herher place
place is is situated
situated in in and
and surrounded
surrounded by by transparent
transparent space.space. The The
constraint
constraint of of race
race complements
complements the the first
first stage
stage of of Janie’s
Janie’s lifelife asas she
she and
and Nanny
Nanny
lived
lived “in“in de
de white
white folks’
folks’ back back yard”
yard” (9).(9). Her
Her sense
sense of of place
place is is determined
determined to to an
an
extent
extent by by Washburn’s
Washburn’s place place so so that,
that, as as Janie
Janie reports,
reports, “Ah “Ah didn’t
didn’t know
know Ah Ah
wuzn’t
wuzn’t white
white till
till AhAh was was round
round six six years
years old”
old” (8).
(8). Her
Her reduced
reduced self self is
is also
also shown
shown
by
by the
the fact
fact that
that at at the
the Washburns’s
Washburns’s she she does
does notnot even
even havehave aa name;
name; she she isis called
called
“Alphabet”
“Alphabet” for for herher manymany names.
names. Furthermore,
Furthermore, stigmatized
stigmatized by by the
the place,
place, sheshe isis
excluded
excluded from from the the ring
ring plays
plays by by the
the other, black children
other, black children (8).(8).
31
31 Hurston’s
Hurston’s idea
idea of
of aa minimal
minimal self
self is
is in
in contrast
contrast to
to Christopher
Christopher Lasch’s
Lasch’s concept,
concept, who,
who, in
in aa
Freudean
Freudean manner,
manner, conceptualizes
conceptualizes the
the minimal
minimal self
self as
as an
an ambivalent
ambivalent entity
entity in
in the
the function
function
of
of aa “tension between the
“tension between the desire
desire for
for union
union and
and the
the fact
fact of
of separation”
separation” (177).
(177). For
For Hurston
Hurston it
it
signifies
signifies stability
stability supported by spatial
supported by spatial embeddedness.
embeddedness.

102
102
 Janie’s
Janie’s genuine
genuine sense sense of of place,
place, which
which characterizes
characterizes her her feminine
feminine place- place—
construction,
construction, is is revealed
revealed at at Nanny’s
Nanny’s place, place, and and it it is
is closely
closely connected
connected to to aa
“blossoming
“blossoming pear pear tree
tree inin the back yard”
the back yard” (10).
(10). This
This all-important
all—important scene scene marks
marks her her
sexual
sexual awakening,
awakening, the the advent
advent of of her
her maturing
maturing subjectivity,
subjectivity, as as well
well as as herher
socialization
socialization intointo gender.
gender. The The ambivalence
ambivalence of of Hurston’s
Hurston’s space space cancan be be pinpointed
pinpointed
in
in the body politics
the body politics thatthat the
the tree
tree also
also expresses:
expresses: on on thethe one
one hand,
hand, subjugating
subjugating
power
power mechanism
mechanism in in aa patriarchal
patriarchal world world through
through the the fecundating
fecundating activityactivity of of
active bees and,
active bees and, onon thethe other,
other, traditionally,
traditionally, femalefemale wisdomwisdom and and history,
history, as as well
well
as
as the
the engendering
engendering of of an
an autonomous
autonomous horizon horizon of of expectations.
expectations. Home Home for for Janie,
Janie,
in
in Yi-Fu
Yi—Fu Tuan’s
Tuan’s terms, becomes the
terms, becomes the place
place demarcated
demarcated by by the
the pear
pear tree.
tree. It It is
is aa
place
place of of knowledge
knowledge and and domination
domination through through meaningful
meaningful epistemology.
epistemology. More More
concretely,
concretely, the the tree-signified
tree—signified territory
territory is is displayed
displayed in in this
this scene
scene as as aa depositor
depositor of of
“deeply
“deeply meaningful
meaningful memories memories and and experiences”
experiences” (Rose (Rose 47). 47). InIn line
line with
with Gillian
Gillian
Rose’s
Rose’s argument
argument concerning
concerning feminization
feminization of of place,
place, one one can
can easily
easily admit
admit that,
that, viavia
the
the tree
tree trope,
trope, “place
“place is is represented
represented as as Woman”
Woman” (56) (56) enframed
enframed by by masculine
masculine
social
social space.
space. ForFor Hurston
Hurston the the backback yard
yard and and nature
nature in in general become private
general become private
and,
and, more
more significantly,
significantly, feminine
feminine representations
representations as as itit is
is also
also implied,
implied, for for
32
instance,
instance, by by Robert
Robert Hemenway.
Hemenway.32
The
The duality
duality of of resistance,
resistance, even even if if through
through apparently
apparently passivepassive subjectivity,
subjectivity,
and
and masculine
masculine domination
domination becomes becomes conspicuous
conspicuous when when Janie Janie cries
cries out,
out, “Oh
“Oh to be
to be
aa pear
pear tree—any
tree—any tree tree in bloom!” (16).
in bloom!” (16). She She redoubles
redoubles the the idea
idea of of passivity
passivity
through
through Freudian
Freudian imageryimagery and and acknowledges
acknowledges male male domination
domination represented
represented by by
the
the independent
independent bee; bee; however,
however, Janie’sJanie’s revelation
revelation under under the the pear
pear tree
tree endows
endows her her
with
with aa source
source to to subjectivity,
subjectivity, which which is is why
why she she keeps
keeps coming
coming back back to to it,
it, to
to think
think
and
and meditate
meditate there
there (27).
(27). ItIt grants
grants her her aa filter,
filter, aa set
set of of expectations,
expectations, and and aa valuevalue
hierarchy
hierarchy independent
independent from from the the male
male world,
world, although
although interconnected
interconnected with with it. it.
Female
Female wisdom
wisdom and and history
history further
further materialize
materialize through
through an an analogy
analogy with with Nanny’s
Nanny’s
tree-like body, proving
tree—like body, proving also also aa specific
specific feminine
feminine subjectivity
subjectivity through
through the the treetree
symbolism—much
symbolism—much as as Nanny
Nanny can can be be regarded
regarded as as an an agent
agent of of masculine
masculine
transparent
transparent space.
space. Janie
Janie cools
cools Nanny’s
Nanny’s head head withwith herbs,
herbs, which
which “looked
“looked like like thethe
standing
standing roots
roots of of some
some old old tree
tree thatthat had
had beenbeen torn
torn awayaway by by storm”
storm” (17),
(17), whichwhich
by connecting
by connecting womanhood
womanhood to to nature
nature reconnects
reconnects Janie’sJanie’s subjectivity
subjectivity to to that
that of of
Nanny’s,
Nanny’s, that that is,
is, to
to aa feminine
feminine genealogy.
genealogy.
The
The scene
scene withwith thethe pear
pear treetree shows
shows explicitly
explicitly how how aa particular
particular placeplace can can
be symptomatic
be symptomatic of of space:
space: the the autonomy
autonomy of of thethe self self does
does not not denote
denote aa
hermeneutically
hermeneutically sealed sealed development
development of of subjectivity.
subjectivity. HurstonHurston proves
proves that that power
power
precedes
precedes knowledge
knowledge (even (even if, if, atat the
the same
same time,time, it it does
does notnot obliterate
obliterate it) it) and,
and,
thus,
thus, it it conditions
conditions meaning.meaning. Brian Brian Stock
Stock reveals
reveals that that “a “a significant
significant text text is is
32
32 Describing
Describing Arvay’s
Arvay’s psychic
psychic world
world inin Hurston’s
Hurston’s Seraph
Seraph on 0n the Suwanee, Hemenway
the Suwanee, Hemenway
identifies
identifies her
her self
self as
as closely
closely associated
associated with
with nature,
nature, that
that is,
is, with
with “the
“the ‘great
‘great swamp’
swamp’ near
near
[their]
[their] home,
home, aa dark
dark and
and murky
murky wilderness
wilderness that
that symbolizes
symbolizes thethe fearful
fearful tangle
tangle of
of Arvay’s
Arvay’s
subconscious”
subconscious” (309).
(309).

103
103
embedded
embedded in in the
the place;
place; and
and itit can
can bebe recognized
recognized byby the
the viewer
viewer asas falling
falling in
in the
the
class
class of
of literary
literary tropes
tropes that
that he
he already
already knows”
knows” (315),
(315), which
which for
for him
him suggests
suggests
“pre-read
“pre—read texts”
texts” (320).
(320). In
In this
this way,
way, coercive
coercive and
and contesting
contesting as as Janie’s
Janie’s sense
sense of
of
place
place may
may appear,
appear, the
the pollinating
pollinating beebee entails
entails active
active power
power despite
despite the
the apparently
apparently
overruling
overruling proportion
proportion ofof the
the tree
tree representing
representing Janie.
Janie. The
The example
example of of the
the pear
pear
tree
tree reveals
reveals that,
that, as
as Foucault
Foucault argues,
argues, power
power functions
functions in in subtle
subtle ways
ways (“Questions
(“Questions
on
on Geography”
Geography” 72). 72). Resistance
Resistance and and the
the focus
focus onon freedom
freedom as as sense
sense ofof place
place
incorporate
incorporate also
also preread
preread power
power mechanisms
mechanisms thatthat influence
influence territorialization
territorialization and
and
result
result in
in ambivalence.
ambivalence.
The
The visionary
visionary pear
pear tree
tree in bloom engenders
in bloom engenders for for Janie
Janie aa specific
specific and
and
subjective
subjective sense
sense of of place,
place, and
and itsits consequent
consequent lack
lack conditions
conditions her behavior
her behavior
powerfully:
powerfully:

She
She was
was sixteen.
sixteen. She
She had
had glossy
glossy leaves
leaves and bursting buds
and bursting buds and
and she
she wanted
wanted
to
to struggle
struggle with
with life but it
life but it seemed
seemed to to elude
elude her.
her. Nothing
Nothing on
on the
the place
place nor
nor
in
in her
her grandma’s
grandma’s house
house answered
answered her.her. She
She searched
searched as
as much
much ofof the
the world
world
as
as she
she could
could from
from the
the top
top of
of the
the front
front steps
steps and
and then
then went
went on
on down
down toto the
the
front
front gate
gate and
and leaned
leaned overover toto gaze
gaze upup and
and down
down the
the road.
road. Looking,
Looking,
waiting, breathing short
waiting, breathing short with
with impatience.
impatience. Waiting
Waiting for
for the
the world
world to be
to be
made.
made. (11)
(1 l)

The
The vivid
vivid description
description shows
shows Janie’s
Janie’s maturation
maturation and, and, spatially,
spatially, her
her effort
effort toto make
make
use
use ofof Nanny’s
Nanny’s house,house, that
that is,is, to
to enliven
enliven it, it, asas well
well as as Janie’s
Janie’s final
final
disenchantment
disenchantment with with Nanny’s
Nanny’s house.
house. Hurston’s
Hurston’s description
description is is existentially
existentially even
even
more
more relevant
relevant as as her
her alienation
alienation isis heightened
heightened by by Nanny’s
Nanny’s penetrating
penetrating antagonism:
antagonism:
“Her
“Her [Nanny’s]
[Nanny’s] eyes eyes didn’t bore and
didn’t bore and pierce.
pierce. They
They diffused
diffused and
and melted
melted Janie,
Janie, thethe
room
room and and the the world
world into
into one
one comprehension”
comprehension” (12). (12). The
The palpable
palpable coinage
coinage
demonstrates
demonstrates the the extreme
extreme mechanism
mechanism of of power,
power, as as elaborated
elaborated onon previously,
previously, as as
not
not only
only is is Janie’s body marginalized
Janie’s body marginalized and and positioned
positioned unwillingly
unwillingly inin space,
space, butbut the
the
contours
contours of of her body, those
her body, those of
of the
the minimal
minimal self,
self, are
are attacked.
attacked. Her
Her newly
newly emerging
emerging
sense
sense ofof place
place denoting
denoting her
her subjectivity
subjectivity symbolized
symbolized by by the blossoming pear
the blossoming pear tree
tree
is
is endangered.
endangered.
The
The other
other striking
striking aspect
aspect ofof Janie
Janie attempting
attempting to to enliven
enliven Nanny’s
Nanny’s place
place is is
how
how her
her habitus
habitus urges
urges her
her to
to construct
construct herher own
own place,
place, but
but it
it also
also characterizes
characterizes
the
the nature
nature of of her
her sense
sense of
of place,
place, which
which is is tied
tied to
to anan immaterial,
immaterial, visionary
visionary place.
place.
Bourdieu
Bourdieu conceptualizes
conceptualizes habitus
habitus as as aa “strategy-generating
“strategy—generating principle”
principle” (Outline
(Outline
72)
72) and
and asas “universalizing
“universalizing mediation”
mediation” (79),
(79), which
which “reproduce[s]
“reproduce[s] regularities
regularities [as]
[as]
history
history turned
turned into
into nature”
nature” (78).
(78). Thus
Thus habitus
habitus is is rooted
rooted inin past
past experiences
experiences and and
reoccurs
reoccurs as as aa horizon
horizon of of expectations
expectations in in present
present situations.
situations. Searching
Searching thethe world
world
from
from the
the top
top ofof the
the steps
steps means
means searching
searching out out the
the horizon, but not
horizon, but not so
so much
much the the
geographic
geographic environment
environment as as the
the regions
regions of of her
her mind.
mind. Such
Such confabulation—
confabulation—
“wherein
“wherein the the remembering
remembering subject
subject intercalates
intercalates fictitious
fictitious elements
elements or or events
events into
into

104
104
memory
memory withoutwithout awareness
awareness of of the
the intercalation”
intercalation” (Casey, (Casey, “Stompin’”
“Stompin’” 230)—is 230)—is
activated
activated by by herher habitus.
habitus. It It is
is enabled
enabled by by “the
“the demands
demands of of thethe current
current situation
situation
and
and past
past activity”
activity” (Schatzki
(Schatzki 698), 698), and,and, through
through the the mediation
mediation of of confabulation,
confabulation,
“habitus
“habitus generates
generates action” action” (698). (698). Janie’s
Janie’s daydreaming
daydreaming engendering, engendering, what what
Foucault
Foucault calls,
calls, “countermemory”
“countermemory” (Braidotti (Braidotti 25) 25) is is anan ultimate
ultimate characteristic
characteristic of of
Hurston’s
Hurston’s women.women.
The
The tree tree metaphor
metaphor plays plays aa significant
significant role role at at Killicks’s
Killicks’s place, place,
accompanying
accompanying Janie Janie all all herher life.
life. Similarly
Similarly to to Lucy
Lucy in Jonah’s,
in Jonah ’s, Janie
Janie is is urged
urged to to
identify
identify withwith the the gender
gender roles roles by by “Nanny
“Nanny and and thethe oldold folks”
folks” (20) (20) andand tries
tries toto
render
render Killicks’s
Killicks’s house house motivated
motivated for for herself.
herself. In In this
this way,
way, thethe collective
collective attempt
attempt
at
at socializing
socializing her her into
into gender
gender seems seems successful
successful as as she
she accepts
accepts initially
initially the the gender
gender
divides
divides spatially
spatially within
within the the home,
home, as as well
well as as she
she even
even inscribes
inscribes genderedgendered space, space,
when
when sheshe insists
insists on on herher own own domestic
domestic territories
territories such such as as the
the kitchen
kitchen (30).(30). This
This
notion
notion proves
proves her her need
need of of place-construction
place—construction and and sense
sense of of place,
place, and and also
also thethe
crack
crack inin hegemonic
hegemonic spatial spatial tactics
tactics that that enables
enables JanieJanie to to use
use even
even gendered
gendered space space
creatively
creatively and and forfor her
her ownown goals.
goals.
Besides
Besides domesticdomestic places, places, the the yard
yard takes
takes aa central
central position
position in in the
the spatial
spatial
discourse.
discourse. MovingMoving to to the
the yardyard to to work
work under
under aa “fine
“fine oakoak tree”
tree” (26) (26) is is her
her first
first
attempt
attempt to break away
to break away from from gendered
gendered environment.
environment. There There she she is is able
able toto enact
enact
her
her vision
vision of of the
the pear
pear treetree authentically.
authentically. The The recuperation
recuperation to to thethe vision
vision prompted
prompted
by the
by the trope
trope of of thethe tree
tree pinpoints
pinpoints Janie’sJanie’s nomadic
nomadic character
character as as this
this scene
scene marks,
marks,
for
for the
the first
first time,
time, nomadic
nomadic cohesion cohesion in in Bradiotti
Bradiotti sense:sense: it it is is “engendered
“engendered by by
repetitions,
repetitions, cyclical
cyclical moves, moves, [and] [and] rhythmical
rhythmical displacement”
displacement” (22). (22). TheThe oakoak tree
tree
can
can bebe identified
identified as as the
the first
first cyclical
cyclical move move in in Janie’s journey. Not
Janie’s journey. Not only
only does
does thethe
firm
firm stature
stature of of thethe oak
oak tree tree releasing
releasing associations
associations with with an an ancient
ancient settingsetting suggest
suggest
so, but, and
so, but, and especially
especially in in contrast
contrast to to the
the desolate
desolate atmosphere
atmosphere of of Killicks’s
Killicks’s house,house,
the
the sensuous
sensuous description
description of of thethe moment
moment reminiscent
reminiscent of of her her vision.
vision. It It isis
springtime—the
springtime—the time time of blossoms—and “the
of blossoms—and “the noon
noon filtered
filtered through
through the the leaves
leaves of of
the
the fine
fine oakoak tree
tree where
where she she satsat and
and made
made lacylacy patterns
patterns on on thethe ground”
ground” (26). (26). In In
this
this condensed
condensed scene scene the the lacylacy patterns
patterns reveal
reveal really
really whatwhat goesgoes on on inin her.
her. IfIf the
the
scene
scene is is compared
compared to to how
how Lucy Lucy prepares
prepares and and decorates
decorates her her wedding
wedding bed bed with
with
“homemade
“homemade lace” lace” (81), (81), aa common common pattern pattern emerges.
emerges. She She is is waiting
waiting for for the
the
visionary
visionary to to happen
happen as as sheshe does
does previously
previously underunder the the pear
pear tree,
tree, whenwhen she she hears
hears
whistling
whistling and and herher future
future husband
husband appears.
appears.
Jonah’s
Jonah ’s presents
presents the the relevant
relevant femalefemale characters,
characters, Amy Amy and and Lucy,
Lucy, captives
captives
of
of domestic
domestic places.
places. In In Amy’s
Amy’s case case nature
nature enforces
enforces limitation
limitation even even more.
more. It It does
does
not
not present
present her boundless with
her boundless with opportunities
opportunities and and thethe possibility
possibility of of freedom
freedom in in
Alabama,
Alabama, as as Amy
Amy lives lives on on thethe wrong
wrong side side of of “de
“de Big Big Creek”
Creek” (14) (14) among
among
sharecroppers.
sharecroppers. Here Here social
social and and economic
economic opportunities
opportunities are are strongly
strongly curtailed
curtailed by by
the
the geographic
geographic location location and and limitedness
limitedness of of nature—its barrenness signifying
nature—its barrenness signifying her her

105
105
 own.
own. HerHer forlornness
forlornness explains
explains why why she she felt
felt free
free only
only “for
“for aa minute”
minute” and and hadhad to to
return
return to to the
the house,
house, wherewhere she she could
could experience
experience relative relative autonomy
autonomy in in gendered
gendered
space—a
space—a seemingseeming contradiction.
contradiction.
It
It is
is indeed
indeed in in the
the domestic
domestic sphere sphere for for both
both Amy Amy and and Lucy,
Lucy, where
where they they
can
can establish
establish their their ownown places,
places, even even if if those
those powerfully
powerfully intermingle
intermingle with with
masculine
masculine transparency,
transparency, and and can can only
only obtain obtain aa degree degree of of “transcendent
“transcendent
functionalism” (Eshelman,
functionalism” (Eshelman, “Architecture”
“Architecture” 4) 4) characteristic
characteristic of of subjective
subjective places.
places.
Feminine
Feminine places places in Jonah’s
in Jonah ’s owe
owe theirtheir nature
nature to to the juxtaposition of
the juxtaposition of the
the twotwo
spaces,
spaces, whilewhile the the culturally
culturally dominant
dominant masculine masculine is is superimposed
superimposed over over the the
feminine.
feminine. The The two two coexist,
coexist, nevertheless,
nevertheless, and and feminine
feminine privateprivate places
places dodo retain
retain aa
definite
definite degree
degree of of subjectivity.
subjectivity. Amy Amy is, is, for
for instance,
instance, able able to to construct
construct her her own
own
place
place in in the the home
home with with thethe help
help of of her her children
children by by relying
relying on on “spatially
“spatially
mediated,
mediated, minimal minimal relations”
relations” (Eshelman,
(Eshelman, “Architecture”
“Architecture” 4) 4) that
that form
form aa
distinctive
distinctive family
family spacespace inin opposition
opposition to to her
her husband
husband Ned. Ned.
Lucy,
Lucy, similarly
similarly to to Janie,
Janie, can can initially
initially discover
discover only only an an immaterial
immaterial world world
for
for herself
herself at at herher parents’
parents’ place because her
place because her class-conscious
class—conscious mother, mother,
ideologizing
ideologizing gender gender relations,
relations, seeksseeks to to exert
exert total
total control
control over over her.
her. Emmeline
Emmeline
represents
represents the the same
same African
African American
American middle-class
middle—class code code Joe Joe Starks
Starks does does in in
Eatonville.
Eatonville. By By insisting
insisting on on “proper”
“proper” gender gender relations
relations and and by by policing
policing Lucy Lucy
closely
closely when
when John John courts
courts her,
her, Emmeline
Emmeline seeks seeks to to instill
instill gender
gender consciousness
consciousness of of
her
her class
class intointo Lucy,
Lucy, but but without
without success.
success. Even Even though,
though, unlikeunlike Janie’s
Janie’s explicitly
explicitly
illuminated
illuminated vision vision of of the
the pear
pear tree,
tree, Lucy
Lucy experiences
experiences the the same
same revelation—and
revelation—and
thus
thus new
new horizons
horizons and and aa sense
sense of of place—in
place—in aa moment moment John John squeezes
squeezes her her armarm
and
and “in
“in aa flash
flash she she discovered
discovered for for herself
herself old old truths”
truths” (68).(68). These
These prelapsarian
prelapsarian
truths
truths are,
are, of of course,
course, contrary
contrary to to Emmeline’s
Emmeline’s gender gender code code of of masculine
masculine space,space,
and
and their
their realization
realization by by Lucy
Lucy indicates
indicates the the advent
advent of of aa definite
definite subjectivity
subjectivity for for
her.
her. As
As it it is
is reported
reported of of her
her the
the nextnext morning
morning after after thethe encounter
encounter with with John:
John:
“Lucy
“Lucy foundfound aa hair hair upon
upon her her bodybody and and exulted”
exulted” (68). (68). ThisThis echoes
echoes Janie’s
Janie’s
resolution
resolution after after herher vision
vision of of thethe pear
pear tree:tree: “So“So thisthis waswas aa marriage!”
marriage!” (11). (11).
Lucy’s
Lucy’s response
response is is identical:
identical: “Ahm“Ahm aa woman woman now” now” (68). (68). HerHer revelation
revelation may may
seem
seem childish
childish at at first, but it
first, but becomes especially
it becomes especially significant
significant in in aa closely
closely policed
policed
environment.
environment. Not Not onlyonly does
does this
this scene
scene signify
signify sexual
sexual awakening
awakening for for Lucy
Lucy and and
her
her declaration
declaration an an act
act of
of subjectivity,
subjectivity, this this “step
“step away
away from from childhood”
childhood” (69) (69) also
also
loosens
loosens her her ties
ties toto her
her mother
mother and and detaches
detaches Lucy Lucy from from the the parental
parental place.
place. In In the
the
selfconscious
selfconscious reassertion
reassertion of of her
her emerging
emerging womanhood,
womanhood, opposition opposition to to the
the gender
gender
conceptions
conceptions of of the black middle-class
the black middle—class mimicking mimicking of of white
white middle-class
middle—class
ideological
ideological notionsnotions concerning
concerning gender gender is is shaping
shaping up. up. By By voicing
voicing who who she she is,is,
Lucy
Lucy designates
designates aa place place of of her
her own,own, in in this
this case
case her her body
body as as minimal
minimal place,place,
juxtaposing her
juxtaposing her world
world andand the other in
the other in aa pluralist,
pluralist, or or rather,
rather, coercive
coercive fashion—as
fashion—as
Janie
Janie does
does in in Their
Their EyesEyes several
several times.
times.
“Unsilencing”
“Unsilencing” (DuPlessis (DuPlessis 108) becomes conspicuous
108) becomes conspicuous when when LucyLucy talkstalks
back
back to to herher mother
mother on on the
the dayday of of her
her wedding,
wedding, evoking evoking the the feminine
feminine tree tree

106
106
metaphor
metaphor employed
employed in
in Hurston’s
Hurston’s works:
works: “Ahm
“Ahm telling
telling anybody,
anybody, ole
ole uh
uh young,
young,
grizzly
grizzly or
or gray,
gray, Ah
Ah ain’t
ain’t takin’
takin’ no
no whipping
whipping tuhnight.
tuhnight. All
All mah
mah switches
switches done
done
growed
growed toto trees”
trees” (78). bell hooks
(78). bell hooks paraphrases
paraphrases struggle
struggle in
in her
her Talking Back
Talking Back
powerfully:
powerfully:

Moving
Moving from
from silence
silence into
into speech
speech isis for
for the
the oppressed,
oppressed, the
the colonized,
colonized, thethe
exploited,
eXploited, and
and those
those who
who stand
stand and
and struggle
struggle side
side by
by side
side aa gesture
gesture ofof
defiance
defiance that
that heals,
heals, that
that makes
makes new
new life
life and
and growth
growth possible.
possible. It
It is
is that
that act
act
of
of speech
speech of
of “talking back,” that
“talking back,” that is
is no
no mere
mere gesture
gesture of
of empty
empty words,
words, that
that
is
is the
the expression
eXpression of of our
our movement
movement fromfrom object
object to
to subject—the
subject—the liberated
liberated
voice.
voice. (9)
(9)

It
It must
must bebe noted,
noted, however,
however, that that unsilencing
unsilencing is is not
not merely
merely aa language-specific
language—specific
action
action asas hooks
hooks suggests
suggests (28), but aa performative
(28), but performative action action in in the
the line
line of of De De
Lauretis’s
Lauretis’s movement
movement to to space-off,
space—off, whereby
whereby the the pantheon
pantheon of of cultural
cultural
performance
performance is is applied.
applied. Indeed,
Indeed, if if the
the struggle
struggle of of Hurston
Hurston and and herher female
female
characters
characters isis “the
“the search
search for for self
self and
and community”
community” (Awkward(Awkward 5), 5), unsilencing
unsilencing is is aa
cultural
cultural act
act of
of reimmersion.
reimmersion.
In
In her
her marriage
marriage Lucy’sLucy’s place-construction
place—construction remains remains ambiguous.
ambiguous. Her Her lifelife isis
extremely
extremely limited
limited spatially,
spatially, and and sheshe is is defenseless
defenseless against
against her her husband’s
husband’s
promiscuous
promiscuous and and sometimes
sometimes brutal brutal behavior;
behavior; she she cannot
cannot evade
evade socialization
socialization into into
gender
gender despite
despite her her promising
promising vision beforehand. Similarly,
vision beforehand. Similarly, however,
however, to to
characters
characters inin performatist
performatist fiction,
fiction, who
who oftenoften “find
“find themselves
themselves encased
encased in in aa frame
frame
or
or rigid
rigid set
set of
of circumstances
circumstances that that they
they transcend
transcend by by reverting
reverting to to reduced
reduced statesstates of of
consciousness
consciousness and/or and/or by by focusing
focusing on on simple,
simple, opaque
opaque things”
things” (Eshelman,
(Eshelman,
“Architecture”
“Architecture” 1), 1), Lucy
Lucy manages
manages to to redeem
redeem her her inner
inner self
self too.
too. Thus
Thus she she hashas to to
make
make do do with
with what what she she has:
has: her
her feminine
feminine privateprivate place
place derives
derives from from the the
identification
identification withwith thethe walnut
walnut bed, bed, the
the symbol
symbol of of marriage.
marriage. The The bedbed shapes
shapes the the
outer
outer contours
contours of of her
her extended
extended self self and
and soso “She
“She made
made it it aa spread
spread and bolster of
and bolster of
homemade
homemade lace” lace” (81).
(81). Especially
Especially in in opposition
opposition to to the
the following
following paragraph
paragraph that that
describes
describes John’s
John’s permissive
permissive concept concept of of marriage
marriage in in violent
violent contrast
contrast to to Lucy’s,
Lucy’s,
this
this sentence
sentence showsshows not not only
only her her attention
attention to to detail
detail and
and the
the effort
effort sheshe puts
puts into
into
shaping
shaping herher home,
home, but but also
also herher hopes
hopes penetrating
penetrating her her sense
sense of of place
place thatthat she she
realizes
realizes spatially.
spatially. The The bed bed alsoalso represents
represents “paradoxical
“paradoXical space”space” (150)—to
(150)—to use use
Gillian
Gillian Rose’s
Rose’s term—because
term—because of of its
its overlapping
overlapping functions
functions thatthat “complement
“complement and and
contest
contest each
each other”
other” (160):
(160): it both fulfills
it both fulfills aa regulatory
regulatory rolerole for
for Lucy
Lucy as as itit appears
appears
as
as the
the prime
prime vehicle
vehicle of of conditioning
conditioning her her life
life and
and grants
grants her
her space
space where
where she she cancan
enjoy
enjoy relative
relative autonomy
autonomy for for aa while
while in in Alabama.
Alabama. No No wonder
wonder that that Hurston
Hurston uses uses it it
as
as the
the main
main trope
trope to to illuminate
illuminate Lucy’sLucy’s utmost
utmost deprivation:
deprivation: whenwhen she she is
is pregnant
pregnant
and
and conscious
conscious of of John’s
John’s unfaithfulness,
unfaithfulness, Bud, Bud, her brother, comes
her brother, comes to to collect
collect her her

107
107
debt
debt inin herher poverty,
poverty, and and it it is
is the
the bed bed hehe takes
takes away.
away. Only Only thethe feather
feather mattress
mattress
remains,
remains, aa vague vague and and tormented
tormented reminder reminder of of herher most
most intimate
intimate autonomy:
autonomy: “Lucy “Lucy
was
was shivering
shivering and and weeping
weeping upon upon the the feather
feather mattress”
mattress” (91). (91).
Even
Even though though Eatonville
Eatonville does does notnot change
change Lucy’s Lucy’s basic basic position
position as as sheshe
remains
remains characteristically
characteristically in in domestic
domestic sphere, sphere, where where she she cannot
cannot construct
construct aa
place
place forfor herself
herself solely
solely on on her
her own own for for John’s
John’s regulating
regulating presencepresence wedging
wedging into into
it,
it, Lucy’s
Lucy’s role role changes
changes dramatically.
dramatically. Spatially Spatially it it is
is shown
shown by by the the bedbed itself,
itself,
which
which this this time
time she she earns
earns by by sewing
sewing for for aa white
white woman woman (130). (130). However,
However, she she
defines
defines herself
herself clearly
clearly withwith respect
respect to to and
and in in the
the function
function of of her
her husband
husband already already
before
before Eatonville:
Eatonville: “Ah “Ah wants
wants mah mah husband
husband tuh tuh bebe uh uh great
great big
big man man [. [. .. .].
.]. Ah
Ah
wants
wants tuh tuh uphold
uphold yuh yuh in in eve’ything”
eve’ything” (96). (96). But But in in Eatonville
Eatonville she she takes
takes aa more more
active
active role role in in determining
determining family family matters;
matters; moreover,
moreover, she she decides
decides about about her her
husband’s
husband’s career career plans.plans. As As an an éminence
éminence grise, grise, she she conditions
conditions her her husband
husband
(despite
(despite his his will:
will: “Dat’s
“Dat’s uh bigger job
uh bigger job Ah Ah wants
wants tuh tuh tackle,
tackle, Lucy.
Lucy. You You so big-
so big—
eyed”
eyed” [109])
[109]) to buy aa five-acre
to buy five—acre land land andand toto take
take onon better jobs; e.g.,
better jobs; e. g., carpentering
carpentering
and
and later
later preaching,
preaching, and, and, as as he he growingly
growingly accepts accepts Lucy’s Lucy’s work work ethic ethic and and
“maneuvering”
“maneuvering” (116), (116), he he even becomes the
even becomes the mayor
mayor in in Eatonville
Eatonville as as well
well as as
moderator
moderator in in the the state.
state. Her Her will-to-power
will—to—power is is alsoalso well well perceived
perceived by by the the
Eatonville
Eatonville community:
community: in in aa porch
porch talk,talk, for
for instance,
instance, Walter Walter Thomas
Thomas exclaims:
exclaims:
“Aw,
“Aw, ‘tain’t
‘tain’t you,you, Pearson,
Pearson, [. [. .. .]
.] iss
iss dat
dat li’l’
li’l’ handful
handful uh uh woman
woman you you got got on on de de
place”
place” (109);
(109); and and Sam Sam Mosely
Mosely adds: adds: “Anybody
“Anybody could could put put hisself
hisself on on dede ladder
ladder
wid
wid her
her in in dede house”
house” (110);(110); and and later
later onon hehe is is called
called “Uh “Uh wife-made
wife—made man” man” (113).(113).
Lucy’s
Lucy’s prestige
prestige and and her
her leading
leading role role from
from the the background
background become become even even more more
palpable
palpable in in the
the aftermath
aftermath of of the
the campaign
campaign for for mayorship
mayorship when when Lucy’sLucy’s role role in in
winning
winning the the campaign
campaign is is repeatedly
repeatedly emphasized.
emphasized.
Lucy’s
Lucy’s acceptance
acceptance by by thethe community,
community, unlike unlike Janie’sJanie’s in in Eatonville
Eatonville after after
her
her rebirth,
rebirth, derives
derives from from bothboth Lucy’s
Lucy’s acceptance
acceptance of of the
the possible
possible horizon
horizon grantedgranted
to
to her
her by by masculine
masculine space space and and the the consequent
consequent construction construction of of “personal
“personal
networks”
networks” (however, (however, not not necessarily
necessarily with with other other women)women) that that proveprove both both
“enabling
“enabling and and constraining”
constraining” (Gilbert (Gilbert 616). 616). EvenEven if if itit is
is her
her toto push
push and and shove
shove
John
John ahead
ahead (116),(116), she she never
never exceeds
exceeds the the space
space ascribed
ascribed to to her,
her, that
that is,is, domestic
domestic
space
space withwith the the role
role of of aa mother,
mother, and and social
social spacespace with with satellite
satellite roles beside her
roles beside her
husband,
husband, tied tied to to his
his identity.
identity. Lucy’sLucy’s femalefemale places places remainremain thusthus limited
limited despite
despite
the
the upward
upward movementmovement she she makes
makes socially
socially and and her her firmer
firmer and and widened
widened anchorage
anchorage
existentially.
eXistentially. Her Her confinement
confinement is is rendered
rendered conspicuous
conspicuous many many times
times in in the
the work,
work,
but,
but, perhaps,
perhaps, most most vividly
vividly by by the
the high
high degree
degree of of her
her immobility.
immobility. When When Lucy Lucy and and
John
John converse,
converse, it it happens
happens in in their
their home,
home, wherewhere John John receives
receives instructions,
instructions, but, but,
when
when LucyLucy is is in
in need,
need, she she is is left
left alone
alone in in thethe home
home and and her
her habitus
habitus does does not not
allow
allow her her to to flee
flee to to another
another place, place, e.g.,e.g., nature
nature as as John
John or or Janie
Janie does does in in Their
Their
Eyes. As
Eyes. As she she cannot
cannot hope hope for for help
help in in the
the physical,
physical, social social world,
world, her her world
world can can
only
only develop
develop inwardly,
inwardly, but but there
there “only“only thethe coldness
coldness grew grew numerous”
numerous” (115). (115). In In
fact,
fact, the
the only
only timetime she she oversteps
oversteps her boundaries is
her boundaries is when,
when, sick sick asas she
she is,is, she
she talks
talks

108
108
back
back toto John:
John: “Ah“Ah ain’t
ain’t going’
going’ tuhtuh hush
hush nothin’
nothin’ uh uh de de kind.
kind. [. [. .. .]
.] Me
Me and
and mah
mah
chillun
chillun got got some
some rights”
rights” (128).(128). Her Her reassertion
reassertion of of thethe selfself shows
shows her her
selfawareness
selfawareness and and also
also the the power
power she she gains
gains from from family
family space, space, as as well
well as as her
her
position
position in in transparent
transparent social social space,
space, but but she
she clearly
clearly overrates
overrates it—also
it also indicated
indicated
spatially
spatially initially
initially as
as John
John is is towering
towering over over her her andand she she is is lying
lying in in the bed below
the bed below
him:
him: she
she is is stopped
stopped abruptly
abruptly by by John
John hitting
hitting her.her. John’s
John’s act act shatters
shatters her her world
world so so
much
much so so that
that Lucy begins preparing
Lucy begins preparing to to die,
die, which
which is is indicated
indicated by by herher giving
giving her
her
only
only property,
property, the bed, to
the bed, to Isis.
Isis. She
She never
never leaves
leaves the the bedbed again;
again; thethe room
room remains
remains
frozen
frozen inin that
that scene,
scene, thethe countdown
countdown is is implied
implied by by thethe descending
descending movement movement by by aa
spider
spider onon the
the ceiling.
ceiling.
Besides
Besides the the tree
tree metaphor,
metaphor, the the trope
trope of of the
the road
road signifies
signifies for for Hurston
Hurston the the
possibility
possibility of of selffulfillment.
selffulfillment. As As already
already mentioned,
mentioned, the the nonplace-like
nonplace—like roads roads
possess
possess aa dualdual function
function for for Hurtson’s
Hurtson’s women, women, representing
representing also also the the horizon
horizon for for
them.
them. Several
Several times
times Janie
Janie contemplates
contemplates the the road—e.g.,
road—e.g., at at Nanny’s
Nanny’s and and then
then atat
Killicks’s
Killicks’s place.
place. ButBut even beyond engendering
even beyond engendering expectationseXpectations for for her,
her, they
they
symbolize
symbolize aa space-off
space—off for for her
her outside
outside builtbuilt environment.
environment. Female Female privateprivate places
places
(that
(that is, back yards
is, back yards andand natural
natural environments)
environments) share share aa commoncommon aspect, aspect, which
which is is
the
the detachedness
detachedness from from transparent
transparent built built environment.
environment.
Furthermore,
Furthermore, the the openopen space
space of of the
the roads
roads also also symbolizes
symbolizes aa qualitative
qualitative
difference
difference in in these
these women’s
women’s strategy strategy of of (also
(also culturally
culturally bound) bound) opposition.
opposition.
Namely,
Namely, by by escaping
escaping to to roads,
roads, while
while moving
moving away away from from builtbuilt environment,
environment, the the
female
female subject
subject a) a) sets
sets up up aa nature-culture
nature—culture binary binary (culture
(culture meaning
meaning masculine
masculine
social
social space);
space); andand b) b) abandons
abandons the the social
social in in favor
favor of of the the individual.
individual. In In fact,
fact, as
as
Janie’s
Janie’s movement
movement becomes becomes analogousanalogous to to the the dancing
dancing body, body, “presentic
“presentic
movement
movement [of [of which]
which] interrupts
interrupts the the historical
historical time-frame
time—frame and and creates
creates aa space
space of of
‘wide-openness’—an
‘wide—openness’—an unlimited unlimited and and undetermined
undetermined time-space time—space of of unforeseen
unforeseen
possibilities”
possibilities” (Clark-Rapley
(Clark—Rapley 104). 104). Roads
Roads are are liminal
liminal placesplaces and and embody
embody aa space space
of
of action,
action, where
where Hurston’s
Hurston’s female female subject
subject is is free
free to to establish
establish herself.
herself.
It
It must
must be be acknowledged,
acknowledged, however, however, that that Janie’s
Janie’s habitushabitus based based on on her
her
vision
vision conditions
conditions Janie’s
Janie’s sensesense ofof place
place at at these
these open open places.
places. Both Both timestimes she
she sets
sets
out
out on
on roads
roads sheshe does
does forfor men,men, Starks
Starks and and TeaTea Cake;
Cake; that that is,is, Hurston
Hurston determines
determines
the
the subjectivity
subjectivity of of her
her female
female characters
characters closely
closely in in relation
relation to to men.
men. Nevertheless,
Nevertheless,
Janie’s
Janie’s liberation
liberation is is explicit
eXplicit when when she breaks away
she breaks away from from Killicks:
Killicks:

The
The morning
morning road
road air
air was
was like
like aa new
new dress.
dress. That
That made
made her
her feelfeel the
the apron
apron
tied
tied around
around her
her waist.
waist. She
She untied
untied itit and
and flung
flung it
it on
on aa bush
bush beside
beside thethe road
road
and
and walked
walked on,
on, picking
picking flowers
flowers and
and making
making aa bouquet.
bouquet. [.[. .. .]
.] From
From now
now onon
until
until death
death she
she was
was going
going to
to have
have flower
flower dust
dust and
and springtime
springtime sprinkled
sprinkled
over
over everything.
everything. A bee for
A bee for her bloom. Her
her bloom. Her old
old thoughts
thoughts were were going
going toto
come
come handy
handy now, but new
now, but new worlds
worlds would
would have
have to be made
to be made and and said
said to
to fit
fit
them.
them. (31)
(31)

109
109
The
The wonderful
wonderful contrast between the
contrast between the refreshing
refreshing dawn dawn and and thethe apron,
apron, aa symbol
symbol of of
masculine
masculine socialization
socialization of of women
women into into domestic
domestic space,space, makesmakes palpable
palpable Janie’s
Janie’s
new
new consciousness,
consciousness, as as she
she obtains
obtains temporarily
temporarily “masculinist
“masculinist hypermobilty”
hypermobilty” (Pratt (Pratt
and
and Yeoh
Yeoh 160). 160). AlsoAlso the the high
high degree
degree of of her
her sense
sense of of liberation
liberation thrusts
thrusts forth
forth in in
the
the act
act of
of getting
getting rid rid of
of the
the apron
apron and and collecting
collecting flowers
flowers in in aa free
free and
and childlike
childlike
manner.
manner. Her Her spontaneous
spontaneous behavior behavior and and “nondirected
“nondirected and and nonlimited
nonlimited movement”
movement”
(qtd.
(qtd. in in Clark-Rapley
Clark—Rapley 104) 104) can can be be compared
compared to to thethe naturalness
naturalness of of
improvisational
improvisational dance, dance, in in which,
which, as as Elaine
Elaine Clark-Rapley
Clark—Rapley evaluates evaluates it, it, the
the
“dancing
“dancing body body moves moves withinwithin space, space, inhabits
inhabits space,”
space,” whereby
whereby “the body is
“the body is the
the
apex
apex or or point
point of of reference”
reference” (103). (103). Her Her sensesense of of place
place inhabits
inhabits space space forfor aa short
short
time
time through
through her her reaching
reaching back back and and recuperating
recuperating her her vision.
vision. The The “nostalgia
“nostalgia for for
fixity”
fixity” (Bradiotti
(Bradiotti 22) 22) apparently
apparently counters counters Bradiotti’s
Bradiotti’s conceptconcept of of the
the nomad;
nomad;
however,
however, it it isis this
this vision
vision that that urges
urges Janie Janie to to undertake
undertake the the quest
quest forfor self
self in in aa
“[mode]
“[mode] of of definite,
definite, seasonal
seasonal patterns
patterns of of movement
movement through through ratherrather fixed
fixed routes”
routes”
(22)
(22) that
that yet
yet reasserts
reasserts nomadism
nomadism in in this
this context
context too.too. Fixed
Fixed routes
routes bearbear special
special
importance
importance also also in in this
this scene
scene from from the the point
point of of view
view of of Hurston’s
Hurston’s geopolitics.
geopolitics.
When
When it it is
is narrated
narrated that that “Janie
“Janie hurried
hurried out out of of the
the front
front gategate andand turned
turned south”
south”
(31),
(31), not
not only
only is is the
the direction
direction of of Janie’s
Janie’s pilgrimage
pilgrimage indicated,
indicated, but but also,
also, by by wayway
of
of contrast,
contrast, the the region
region where where African African AmericansAmericans can can attain
attain whatwhat Janie Janie
experiences
experiences in in the
the following
following moments.moments.
Especially
Especially in in the
the context
context of of Janie’s
Janie’s cyclical
cyclical patterns
patterns of of movement
movement also also
paralleling
paralleling blues blues methodology
methodology (see (see Maria Maria V. V. Johnson),
Johnson), roads roads for for Hurston
Hurston
become
become thus thus indeed
indeed aa metaphor
metaphor of of aa particular
particular nomadism
nomadism in in the
the search
search of of self
self
and
and place
place embedded
embedded in in aa region
region of of cultural
cultural space.
space. The The transformation
transformation of of roads
roads
renders
renders this
this connection
connection palpable:palpable: they they carrycarry Janie
Janie south
south and and disembogue
disembogue into into aa
landscape,
landscape, where where there there is is “Wild
“Wild cane cane on on either
either side
side of of the
the road
road hiding
hiding the the rest
rest of of
the
the world
world [and] [and] PeoplePeople [are] [are] wildwild too” too” (123).
(123). Whereas
Whereas roads roads north
north from
from the the
Everglades
Everglades are are framed
framed by by houses,
houses, modernism,
modernism, and, and, in in general,
general, masculine
masculine
transparent
transparent space, space, here here the the boundaries
boundaries between between nature nature and and culture
culture are are
deconstructed,
deconstructed, as as Ann Ann R. R. Morris
Morris and and Margaret
Margaret M. M. Dunn Dunn point point out out about
about
contemporary
contemporary Florida, Florida, “[t]he
“[t]he migrant
migrant workers workers on on the
the muck
muck govern
govern theirtheir lives
lives by by
the
the crops;
crops; the the Seminoles
Seminoles in in the
the glades
glades watch watch thethe earthearth for for signs”
signs” (5).(5). TheThe
symbiosis
symbiosis is is also
also depicted
depicted by by thethe roads
roads as as they become akin
they become akin inin their
their nature
nature to to the
the
surrounding
surrounding landscape:
landscape: “Dirt “Dirt roadsroads so so rich
rich andand black
black that that aa half
half mile
mile ofof it
it would
would
have
have fertilized
fertilized aa KansasKansas wheat wheat field”field” (123).(123).
For
For Janie
Janie Eatonville
Eatonville grants grants similar
similar aspects
aspects of of social
social upward
upward mobility
mobility to to
Lucy’s.
Lucy’s. She becomes the
She becomes the “bell
“bell cow”cow” for for the
the community,
community, but but itit means
means ultimately
ultimately
incarceration
incarceration into into overmythicized
overmythicized middle-class middle—class femininity femininity with with all all its its
ambiguities
ambiguities in in anan African
African American
American community community in in the
the DeepDeep South,
South, and and physical
physical
and
and social
social limitation.
limitation. In In the the first
first place,
place, however,
however, her her status
status as as aa satellite
satellite of of
Starks’s
Starks’s marks
marks the the confutation
confutation of of herher subjectivity
subjectivity envisioned
envisioned in in the
the tree
tree trope.
trope.
Starks’s
Starks’s “homo
“homo economicus”
economicus” nature nature disenchants
disenchants Janie’sJanie’s resurfacing
resurfacing dreamwork
dreamwork

110
110
revealed
revealed in in the
the ecstatic
ecstatic momentsmoments under under the the oak
oak treetree in in Killicks’s
Killicks’s yard yard and and on on the
the
road just before.
road just before. ShortlyShortly after after their
their arrival
arrival in in Eatonville
Eatonville her her spatial
spatial practice
practice in in aa
manner
manner of of DeDe Ceratau’s
Ceratau’s walking-like
walking—like reinscription
reinscription of of space
space is is shattered
shattered as as “the
“the
new
new lumber
lumber was was rattling
rattling off off the
the wagon
wagon and being piled
and being piled under
under the big live
the big live oakoak
tree”
tree” (38).
(38). It It isis surely
surely not not by by chance
chance that that the
the timber
timber is is hauled
hauled exactly
exactly under under aa
tree
tree characterized
characterized in in this
this way.way. TheThe “life
“life oakoak tree”
tree” stands
stands for for Janie
Janie andand her her sense
sense
of
of place
place as as aa direct
direct continuation
continuation of both visions
of both visions under under treestrees previously;
previously; the the
reference
reference to to itsits size
size embodies
embodies the the amplitude
amplitude of of her
her expectations
expectations reborn reborn and, and, at at
the
the same
same time, time, threatened
threatened by by desacralizing
desacralizing industrialization.
industrialization. Moreover, Moreover, the the
rattling
rattling sound
sound contrasts
contrasts sharply sharply both both the the alto
alto chant
chant of bees and
of bees and the the homely
homely
atmosphere
atmosphere under under the the tree
tree inin Killicks’s
Killicks’s yard. yard.
The
The threat
threat of of annihilating
annihilating the the tree
tree engendering
engendering Janie’s Janie’s subjectivity
subjectivity is is
overridden
overridden when when “Jodie “Jodie moved moved his his things
things and and moved
moved downstairs”
downstairs” (77). (77). AfterAfter
this
this Janie
Janie is is beginning
beginning to to really
really reinscribe
reinscribe space space (also (also via via body
body politics
politics right right
after
after his
his death
death as as sheshe reclaims
reclaims her body with
her body with her
her “exhibitive
“exhibitive and and performative”
performative”
hairstyle
hairstyle [Newman
[Newman Phillips Phillips 38]). 38]). After
After Janie’s
Janie’s long-time
long—time subversion,
subversion, spatial spatial
inversion
inversion shows shows that that Starks’s
Starks’s is is losing
losing powerpower overover Janie,
Janie, while
while JanieJanie is is getting
getting
hold
hold of of the
the heart
heart of of the
the house:
house: the the private
private spheres.
spheres. The The meaning
meaning of of thethe house
house
changes
changes ultimately
ultimately with with Starks’s
Starks’s death,death, and,and, asas also
also Gaston
Gaston Bachelard
Bachelard explains explains
the
the nature
nature of of houses,
houses, the the house
house growsgrows to to symbolize
symbolize the the self
self asas itit is
is turned
turned into into
“felicitous space” (xxxi).
‘Telicitous space” (xxxi). FirstFirst itit can
can be be detected
detected when when JanieJanie is is afraid
afraid to to gogo home
home
alone
alone at at night:
night: “it “it waswas no no place
place to to show
show her her fear
fear there
there in in the
the darkness
darkness between between
the
the house
house and and the the store”
store” (94).(94). An An “architectonic
“architectonic closure” closure” takes takes place
place in in the
the
narrative
narrative as as the
the house
house comes comes to to signify
signify security;
security; it it has
has become
become aa privateprivate place place
for
for her,
her, andand the the embodiment
embodiment of of herher extended
extended self, self, or or asas Bachelard
Bachelard puts puts it, it, the
the
“topography
“topography of of [her]
[her] intimate being” (xxxiii).
intimate being” (xxxiii). It becomes the
It becomes the symbol
symbol of of the
the pear
pear
tree
tree in blossom that
in blossom that is is waiting
waiting for for aa bee
bee to to sink
sink into
into thethe sanctuary
sanctuary of of her bloom.
her bloom.
The
The progress
progress of of Tea
Tea CakeCake winning
winning Janie’s
Janie’s heartheart is is paralleled
paralleled clearly
clearly with with
Tea
Tea Cake’s
Cake’s advancing
advancing toward toward the the house
house and and entering
entering it. it. First
First he he appears
appears in in the
the
store;
store; the
the next
next time time theythey meet,
meet, he he accompanies
accompanies Janie Janie to to the
the house
house ontoonto thethe porch,
porch,
which,
which, by by then,
then, signifies
signifies the the outer
outer layers
layers of of her
her social,
social, public
public self,
self, or,
or, as as Clare
Clare
Cooper
Cooper puts puts it, it, the
the “public
“public exterior”
exterior” (131); (131); the the samesame evening
evening he he is is allowed
allowed
closer
closer when
when they they do do the
the washing
washing up up together
together in in the
the kitchen
kitchen (97-98)—the
(97—98)—the latter latter
representing
representing in in many
many cultures
cultures “both“both aa sacred
sacred and and functional
functional space” space” (Mazumdar
(Mazumdar
163)
163) aa transitional
transitional space space outside
outside the the private.
private. The The thirdthird timetime he he enters
enters the the
“intimate
“intimate interior”
interior” (Cooper (Cooper 131) 131) by by walking
walking into into thethe living
living roomroom without
without askingasking
to
to play
play the the piano.
piano. This This timetime he he ends
ends up up playing
playing with with Janie’s
Janie’s hairhair as as if
if with
with somesome
strings
strings of of aa musical
musical instrument
instrument (99). (99). It It is
is there
there he he confesses
confesses his his love
love for for her
her
while
while Janie
Janie is is standing
standing at at the
the newel
newel post blocking the
post blocking the wayway leading
leading up up to to her
her
bedroom.
bedroom. The The fourthfourth time time Tea Tea CakeCake visits
visits Janie
Janie “they“they went went inside
inside and and their
their
laughter
laughter rang rang out out first
first from
from thethe kitchen
kitchen and and all
all over
over the the house”
house” (103).(103). The The factfact
that
that their
their laughter
laughter fills fills thethe entire
entire house
house indicates
indicates that that Janie’s
Janie’s vision
vision of of thethe tree
tree

111
111
and
and aa beebee finds
finds physical
physical materialization.
materialization. The The texture
texture of of the
the embodied
embodied self self
becomes
becomes the the house
house at at that
that moment.
moment. One One expects
expects what what alsoalso happens:
happens: the the next
next
morning
morning they they are are in bed, “Tea
in bed, “Tea CakeCake almost
almost kissingkissing her breath away”
her breath away” (103). (103).
The
The major breakthrough in
major breakthrough in Janie’s
Janie’s development
development comes comes when when in in thethe
Everglades
Everglades “her “her soulsoul crawled
crawled out out from
from its its hiding
hiding place”
place” (122).
(122). From
From the the point
point of of
view
view of of spatial
spatial analysis,
analysis, this this “exterirorization
“exterirorization of of the
the mind”
mind” (Zimm(Zimm 67) 67) signifies
signifies
Janie’s
Janie’s metamorphosis
metamorphosis completed. completed. This This quotequote shows, shows, how—in how—in Gans’s Gans’s
terminology—the
terminology—the elementary elementary originary originary in in Janie
Janie grows
grows to to make
make her her last
last dynamic
dynamic
move:
move: to to identify
identify with with the the nonplace-like
nonplace—like or, or, from
from another
another angle,
angle, liminoid
liminoid open open
space.
space. TheThe curvecurve of of her
her final
final development
development becomes becomes visible visible in in thethe difference
difference
between
between the the exaltation
exaltation in in her bedroom with
her bedroom with Tea Tea Cake Cake andand this this scene.
scene. It It isis
reported
reported thatthat in in the bedroom “after
the bedroom “after aa long long timetime of of passive
passive happiness,
happiness, she she got
got up up
and
and opened
opened the the window
window and and let let Tea
Tea CakeCake leap leap forth
forth to to the
the sky
sky on on aa wind”
wind” (103).(103).
Here,
Here, despite
despite her her sense
sense of of happiness
happiness and and liberation,
liberation, Janie Janie remains
remains in in enclosed
enclosed
space
space and built environment,
and built environment, which which stands stands in in sharp
sharp contrast
contrast to to Florida’s
Florida’s
Southern
Southern open open landscapes.
landscapes. She She opens
opens the the window,
window, aa clear clear spatial
spatial indication
indication of of
the
the dissolution
dissolution of of her
her previous
previous inner inner fortification
fortification that that was built up
was built up in in anan answer
answer
to
to Starks’s
Starks’s harassments
harassments (“She (“She stoodstood there
there until
until something
something fell fell off
off thethe shelf
shelf inside
inside
her.
her. She
She went
went inside
inside there
there to to see
see what
what it it was”
was” [67].).
[67].). Outgoing
Outgoing in in Casey’s
Casey’s sense sense
represents
represents the beginning of
the beginning of her
her subsequent
subsequent transformation
transformation into into Braidotti’s
Braidotti’s
nomadic
nomadic subject
subject as as Janie
Janie is is able
able toto “free
“free the the activity
activity of of thinking
thinking from from the the hold
hold of of
phallocentric
phallocentric dogmatism,
dogmatism, returning returning thought thought to to itsits freedom,
freedom, its its liveliness,
liveliness, its its
beauty”
beauty” (8), (8), or, or, from
from another
another (African(African American)American) angle, angle, the the lastlast movemove in in
completing
completing her blues performance.
her blues performance. Still, Still, similarly
similarly to to Lucy,
Lucy, forfor whom
whom this this isis the
the
most
most sheshe can
can reach,
reach, Janie
Janie does does notnot leave
leave the bedroom (the
the bedroom (the house
house of of herher self)
self) to to
meet
meet the
the outside
outside world world in in order
order to to materialize
materialize her her vision,
vision, uniting
uniting body body and and soul,
soul,
in
in the
the exterior
exterior context.
context. At At thisthis point
point she she is is only
only ableable to to persist
persist on on the the level
level of of
mental
mental and and spiritual
spiritual endeavors
endeavors metaphorized
metaphorized by by herher looking
looking up up to to thethe sky,
sky, butbut
remaining
remaining standing
standing on on the
the earthearth inin aa room.
room. The The importance
importance of of Florida
Florida for for Janie
Janie
lies
lies in
in finding
finding aa space-off,
space—off, where where she she manages
manages to to unite body and
unite body and soul soul andand to to
contextualize
contextualize herself herself in in aa cultural
cultural space space that that does does not not discard
discard her her unitary
unitary
originary
originary subjectivity,
subjectivity, but but enhances
enhances it. it.
Her
Her space-off
space—off is is even
even then then intact
intact when when Janie
Janie reaches
reaches the the final
final stagestage of of her
her
development
development in in her
her marriage
marriage with with TeaTea Cake. Cake. ToddTodd McGowan
McGowan argues argues that that Janie
Janie
can
can obtain
obtain momentary
momentary freedom freedom after after she she kills
kills TeaTea CakeCake (5), but regarding
(5), but regarding even even
the
the subtlety
subtlety of of previous
previous frameworks
frameworks Janie Janie is is forced
forced into,into, her
her actact of of killing
killing Tea Tea
Cake
Cake signifies
signifies ratherrather Hurston’s
Hurston’s suture suture of of her
her ownown disappointment
disappointment with with marriage
marriage
into
into the
the novel,
novel, and and in in this this way,
way, the the momentary
momentary shattering shattering of of Hurston’s
Hurston’s
“metaphysical
“metaphysical optimism” optimism” (Eshelman, (Eshelman, “Postmodernism”
“Postmodernism” 8). 8). II must
must agree agree with with
Selwyn
Selwyn R. R. Cudjoe
Cudjoe who who claims
claims that that “a “a person
person is is not
not complete
complete until until she she locates
locates
herself
herself fully
fully in in her
her time
time (history)
(history) and and her her place
place (geography)”
(geography)” (qtd. (qtd. in in Olga
Olga Idriss
Idriss
Davis,
Davis, par.par. 7). 7). Janie
Janie reaches,
reaches, via via transpatial
transpatial migrationmigration acrossacross the the Southern
Southern

112
112
landscape,
landscape, an an “amorphous”
“amorphous” state state of of existence
existence “connected
“connected to to many
many identities”
identities”
(Gatson
(Gatson 40),40), that
that is,is, not
not simply
simply gendered
gendered first first andand foremost,
foremost, but, but, unlike
unlike Sarah
Sarah N. N.
Gatson’s
Gatson’s identification
identification of of amorphous
amorphous individuals,
individuals, she she reconstructs
reconstructs her her self
self byby
finally
finally “validating
“validating self self [and]
[and] rhetorically
rhetorically reconstructing
reconstructing the the past
past (Olga
(Olga Idriss
Idriss
Davis,
Davis, par.
par. 9)9) inin her
her sovereign
sovereign private
private place:
place: her back yard.
her back yard.
While
While it it is is thethe shared
shared experience
experience in in gendered
gendered space space and and praxis
praxis
reinscribing
reinscribing space space that that connect
connect women women in in Hurston’s
Hurston’s fictionfiction too, too, for
for Janie
Janie these
these
represent
represent alsoalso waysways to to distance
distance herself
herself from
from masculine
masculine space space and and other
other women
women
likewise.
likewise. Her Her feminine
feminine spatiality
spatiality renders
renders her her subjectivity
subjectivity autonomous;
autonomous; however, however,
she
she hybridizes
hybridizes properties
properties of of masculine
masculine space space and and transposes
transposes them them into into thethe
feminine,
feminine, unlike
unlike other other women
women of of the
the Eatonville
Eatonville community.
community. Clear Clear instances
instances of of
the
the latter
latter are
are thethe games
games she she plays
plays such
such as as checkers
checkers and and shooting,
shooting, as as well
well as as the
the
man
man she she is is associated
associated with—allwith—all of of them
them transgress boundaries. In
transgress boundaries. In fact,
fact, aa
“deconstructive
“deconstructive playfulness”
playfulness” (McGowan
(McGowan 1) 1) characterizes
characterizes the the praxis
praxis sheshe devises
devises
in
in her
her new
new spatial
spatial framework.
framework.
As
As for
for Tea
Tea Cake,Cake, I1 have
have already
already indicated
indicated men’s men’s socialization
socialization into into gender
gender
and
and the
the implications
implications of of power
power relations
relations for for menmen in in masculine
masculine social social space.
space. Tea Tea
Cake
Cake in in this
this framework
framework occupies occupies aa subordinate
subordinate position position also also spatially
spatially expressed,
expressed,
even
even ifif his
his position
position can can bebe seen
seen as as ambivalent:
ambivalent: he he never
never settles,
settles, so so socially
socially he he is
is
placeless
placeless and and marginalized,
marginalized, but but his his freedom
freedom derives derives exactly
exactly from from his his social
social
exclusion
exclusion and and his his consequent
consequent physicalphysical mobility.
mobility. In In aa systematic
systematic practice
practice of of
thirding,
thirding, Janie,
Janie, by by associating
associating with with him,
him, transgresses,
transgresses, but, but, at at the
the same
same time,time,
transcends
transcends the the boundaries
boundaries of of social
social space,
space, especially
especially its its class
class andand gender
gender
constrains.
constrains. On On Starks’s
Starks’s side side Janie
Janie acquires
acquires previously
previously aa middle-class
middle—class status status andand
later
later aa prestigious
prestigious positionposition of of aa well-to-do
well—to—do widow, widow, who who is is supposed
supposed to to maintain
maintain
proper
proper gender
gender relations,
relations, whilewhile remaining
remaining in in gendered
gendered space.space. Tea Tea Cake
Cake represents
represents
the
the negation
negation of of gender
gender ideology
ideology by by being
being younger
younger and and poorer,
poorer, and and through
through his his
praxis
praxis andand gender
gender conceptions,
conceptions, particularly
particularly in in contrast
contrast to to other
other males
males courting
courting
Janie.
Janie. By By choosing
choosing Tea Tea Cake,
Cake, Janie
Janie inverts
inverts masculine
masculine space space by by the
the de-re-
de—re—
construction
construction of of gender
gender (De (De Lauretis
Lauretis 24), 24), which becomes really
which becomes really visible
visible in in the
the
figure
figure of of Hezekiah,
Hezekiah, who who helps
helps outout inin the
the store:
store: Janie,
Janie, the the owner
owner of of the
the store,
store,
standing
standing higher
higher in in the
the social
social hierarchy
hierarchy than than the the seventeen
seventeen year year oldold boyboy alsoalso
because
because of of her
her age,age, develops
develops the the habit
habit ofof playing
playing checkers
checkers on on thethe porch,
porch, which
which
previously
previously was was aa tool tool inin Starks’s
Starks’s handhand in in herher subordination
subordination (one (one time
time Starks
Starks
orders
orders Janie,
Janie, “Go “Go fetch
fetch de de checker-board
checker—board and and de de checkers”
checkers” [71], [71], meaning
meaning that that
Janie
Janie isis not
not intelligent
intelligent enoughenough to to play
play aa male’s
male’s game), game), whilewhile Hezekiah
Hezekiah (“the best
(“the best
imitation
imitation of of Joe”
Joe” in in his
his habits,
habits, at at which
which “she“she laughed
laughed outright”
outright” [87, [87, 88])
88]) remains
remains
in
in the
the store
store toto work
work instead
instead of of Janie.
Janie.
By
By letting
letting Janie Janie reassert
reassert her her subjectivity
subjectivity through through hybridization
hybridization and and
through
through drawing
drawing aa map map of of “counter
“counter topography”
topography” (Pratt (Pratt and and YeohYeoh 163) 163) in in
physical
physical space,
space, HurstonHurston distances
distances her her character
character from from her her community
community via via
bordercrossing,
bordercrossing, and and particularly
particularly from from the the race-,
race—, gender-,
gender—, class class ideology
ideology that that

113
113
penetrates
penetrates the the African
African American
American community.
community. Janie Janie inverts
inverts both both gender
gender and and class
class
conventions
conventions by by transgressing
transgressing gender boundaries imbued
gender boundaries imbued with with class
class ideology,
ideology, and and
Hurston
Hurston exerts
exerts aa powerful
powerful critique
critique of of “the
“the race”
race” by by ironically
ironically separating
separating JanieJanie
from
from mainstream
mainstream ideals ideals alsoalso in in space.
space. By By allowing
allowing Janie Janie to to enact
enact herher vision,
vision,
Hurston
Hurston subverts
subverts “controlling
“controlling images” images” (Simms (Simms 879) 879) of of the black female,
the black female, and and
proposes
proposes an an autonomous
autonomous subjectivity
subjectivity yet yet embedded
embedded in in aa socio-cultural
socio—cultural space. space.
Autonomous
Autonomous subjectivity subjectivity can can be be detected
detected in in thethe fact
fact that
that Janie
Janie is is able
able to
to
form
form aa communal
communal space space with
with her her friend.
friend. However,
However, Hurston Hurston deconstructs
deconstructs female female
transparent
transparent space space individually
individually and and socially
socially already
already before before the the Everglades.
Everglades.
Hurston’s
Hurston’s strategy
strategy is is not
not to to construct
construct an an entirely
entirely new, new, alternative
alternative universe,
universe,
which
which is is ultimately
ultimately proved proved by by thethe devastation
devastation in in thethe Hurricane
Hurricane scene, scene, but but to
to
build
build in
in fissures
fissures in in masculine
masculine and and female
female transparent
transparent spaces. spaces. In In thethe focal
focal point
point ofof
these
these schisms
schisms one one can can detect
detect the the genuinely
genuinely individual
individual that that is is able
able to to shape
shape
nurturing
nurturing social
social relations
relations as as well.
well.
It
It isis Southern
Southern black black cultural
cultural space,space, wherewhere Hurston’s
Hurston’s female female characters
characters
reach
reach ultimately
ultimately the the horizon
horizon of of their
their female
female subjectivities
subjectivities and and sensesense of of place.
place. ItIt
is
is not
not that
that gendered
gendered space becomes overridden,
space becomes overridden, but, but, rather,
rather, Hurston
Hurston constructs
constructs aa
space,
space, in in which
which gendergender relations
relations are are embedded
embedded in in aa pluralist
pluralist context.
context. On On the
the
muck
muck in in Their
Their EyesEyes femalefemale and and masculine
masculine spaces spaces are juxtaposed in
are juxtaposed in natural
natural
heterotopia
heterotopia and, and, at at the
the same
same time,
time, intertwined
intertwined not not to to abolish
abolish gender,
gender, but but toto form
form
an
an integrated
integrated spacespace (from (from aa womanist
womanist perspective)
perspective) of of aa large
large variety
variety of of mosaics.
mosaics.
Janie’s
Janie’s overalls
overalls undergird
undergird this this statement
statement as as they
they symbolize
symbolize “nice “nice bitbit ofof cross-
cross—
dressing,
dressing, signifying
signifying equalityequality and and sexuality
sexuality in in gender
gender terms terms [. [. .. .]”
.]” (DuPlessis
(DuPlessis 25). 25).
Thirding
Thirding renders
renders possible
possible for for Janie,
Janie, forfor instance,
instance, what what previously
previously only only menmen have
have
power
power to to dodo with
with women:
women: in in anan inverted,
inverted, yet yet parallel
parallel scenescene with Jonah’s,
with Jonah ’S, Janie
Janie
“cut
“cut him
him [that[that is,
is, Tea
Tea Cake]Cake] shortshort withwith aa blow”
blow” (131)
(131) in in aa fitfit of jealousy; and
of jealousy; and
after
after they
they makemake love,love, “she “she hadhad to to crow
crow over over thethe fallen
fallen Nunkie”
Nunkie” (132), (132), justjust as
as
John
John in Jonah’s
in Jonah ’s “held
“held LucyLucy tightly
tightly and and thought
thought pityingly
pityingly of of other
other men”
men” (111).
(111).
This
This shows
shows the the neatness
neatness of of thethe mechanism
mechanism of of integrating
integrating feminization,
feminization,
problematizing
problematizing the the supposed
supposed homogeneity
homogeneity of of social
social space,space, and and effecting
effecting
polyvalence.
polyvalence. For For Hurston
Hurston feminine
feminine space-offspace—off cuts cuts across
across gendergender lines,lines, class
class
boundaries,
boundaries, and and it it is
is realized
realized idealistically
idealistically in in the
the geographic
geographic region region of of Florida,
Florida,
where
where spacing
spacing off off isis notnot aa matter
matter of of life
life instinct
instinct only,
only, but but aa possibility
possibility of of choice.
choice.

114
114
8. Conclusion

II have
have set set the
the context
context of of the
the present
present research
research by by delineating
delineating two two seemingly
seemingly
mutually
mutually exclusiveexclusive understandings
understandings of of space:
space: phenomenological
phenomenological place- place—
construction
construction and and thethe post-Marxist
post—Marxist production
production of of space.
space. According
According to to the
the former,
former,
the
the subjective
subjective self self is
is the
the active
active agent
agent to to establish
establish space
space andand places.
places. ItIt is
is mainly
mainly
the
the habitus
habitus (based (based on on past
past experiences)
experiences) of of the
the subject
subject that that influences
influences the the
inhabiting
inhabiting of of aa place
place by by aa subject.
subject. TheThe embodied
embodied subject
subject enlivens
enlivens and and organizes
organizes
space
space around him/herself. Conversely, in post—Marxist thought the subject is
around him/herself. Conversely, in post-Marxist thought the subject is
decentered
decentered and and embedded
embedded in in aa spatial
spatial context
context in in which
which power power discourses
discourses
condition
condition the the establishment
establishment of of the
the places
places by by the
the subject;
subject; subjects
subjects are are positioned
positioned
in
in places in the same way. Thus places of a social space prove to be dispositifs
places in the same way. Thus places of a social space prove to be dispositifs
facilitating
facilitating the the spatial
spatial indoctrination
indoctrination and and socialization
socialization into into identity
identity of of the
the Post-
Post—
Marxian
Marxian subject.
subject.
II have
have offered
offered aa more more accommodating
accommodating (less (less confrontational)
confrontational) theoretical
theoretical
framework—though
framework—though not not as as aa synthesis
synthesis of of the
the twotwo theoretical
theoretical paradigms—
paradigms—
building
building on on the the propositions
propositions of both schools.
of both schools. Much
Much as as the
the subject
subject encounters
encounters
social
social space
space as as aa sociopolitical
sociopolitical fixity,fixity, s/he
s/he manages
manages to to find
find ways
ways of boundary
of boundary
crossing
crossing via via heterotopous juxtaposition and
heterotopous juxtaposition and hybridization.
hybridization. These These spatial
spatial
practices
practices entail
entail not not only
only thethe construction
construction of of places
places apart
apart fromfrom places
places of of social
social
space—that is, elsewhere—but also the reworking
space—that is, elsewhere—but also the reworking of previously indoctrinating of previously indoctrinating
places.
places. Relying
Relying on on thethe theories
theories of of Bhabha
Bhabha and and Soja,
Soja, II havehave referred
referred to to the
the
activity
activity of of the
the subject
subject as thirding—a praxis
as thirding—a praxis reinscribing
reinscribing and and restructuring
restructuring space.space.
Within
Within the the given
given sociospatial
sociospatial fixity,
fixity, thirding
thirding enables
enables refusal
refusal of of categorization
categorization
and
and grants
grants the the subject
subject aa means means to to construct
construct his/her
his/her placesplaces creatively—a
creatively—a
testimony
testimony of of subjectivity.
subjectivity.
Relying
Relying on on the
the outline
outline of of theories
theories of of space
space andand place,
place, II havehave argued
argued that,
that,
in
in her
her two
two mostmost renowned
renowned novels novels Their Eyes Were
Their Eyes Were Watching
Watching God God and Jonah’s
and Jonah ’s
Gourd Vine, Hurston constructs a cultural space that
Gourd Vine, Hurston constructs a cultural space that can be best conceptualized can be best conceptualized
in
in the
the light
light of of her
her cultural
cultural philosophy,
philosophy, which which relies
relies on on thethe anthropologist’s
anthropologist’s
knowledge
knowledge of of African
African American
American culture culture and and her
her experience
experience of of the
the American
American
(racial
(racial and
and gender)
gender) matrix.
matrix.
Hurston’s strategy
Hurston’s strategy builds builds on on her
her knowledge
knowledge of of African
African American
American cultural
cultural
performances
performances and and places.
places. She She revitalizes
revitalizes cultural
cultural performances
performances such such asas tactics
tactics of
of
insiderness,
insiderness, call-and-response,
call—and—response, or or tricksterism
tricksterism in in order
order to to portray
portray thethe inherent
inherent
nature of the African American community, as
nature of the African American community, as manifested in the relationship manifested in the relationship
between the
between the individual
individual and and community.
community. The The apparent
apparent ambivalence
ambivalence shows shows
attachment
attachment to, to, and
and interdependence
interdependence with, with, thethe African
African American
American community,
community, as as
well as distancing from it, which can be taken as an
well as distancing from it, which can be taken as an act of subjectivation withinact of subjectivation within
it.
it. Hurston’s
Hurston’s fiction fiction thus
thus fulfills
fulfills the
the individual’s
individual’s quest both in
quest both in opposition
opposition and and inin
relation
relation to to the
the community.
community. Individual
Individual conduct
conduct reinforces
reinforces the the African
African American
American
cultural
cultural core—hence necessarily a centripetal performance—instead of
core—hence necessarily a centripetal performance—instead of

115
115
transgressing
transgressing it, it, and
and thethe centre,
centre, anticipating
anticipating apparently
apparently dissenting
dissenting action,
action, reacts
reacts
to
to it it in in aa call-and-response
call—and—response communicational
communicational pattern. pattern. The The inherently
inherently
intracommunal
intracommunal pattern pattern grants
grants Hurston
Hurston aa multidimensional
multidimensional approach approach to to African
African
American
American culture culture since since improvisation
improvisation facilitatesfacilitates pluralism
pluralism and and heteronomy
heteronomy
within
within the the cultural
cultural framework.
framework. In In Hurston’s
Hurston’s cultural/cosmological
cultural/cosmological space space the the
construction
construction of of places
places shows
shows similar
similar characteristics:
characteristics: she she hybridizes
hybridizes places
places by by
inverting
inverting them them to to express
express the the subjectivity
subjectivity of of her
her characters.
characters. The The resulting
resulting lack
lack of of
fixity
fixity is is evidence
evidence of of cultural
cultural immersion
immersion and and manifestation
manifestation of of underground
underground
performance
performance in in Baker’s
Baker’s sensesense as as well
well asas trickster
trickster performance
performance in in Gates’s.
Gates’s.
Her
Her writing
writing strategy
strategy displays
displays her her cultural
cultural self.
self. Blending
Blending anthropology
anthropology and and
literature,
literature, she she introduces
introduces in in her
her writing
writing aa constant
constant movement
movement in in and
and out
out of of the
the
paradigms
paradigms of of literature
literature and and anthropology,
anthropology, so so much
much so so that
that her
her novels
novels can
can be be read
read
at
at times
times as as ethnography
ethnography with with the the narrator
narrator as as aa participant
participant observer.
observer. In In Hurston’s
Hurston’s
cultural
cultural philosophy,
philosophy, her her writing becomes the
writing becomes the disclosure
disclosure of of an
an authentic
authentic cultural
cultural
space.
space. Despite
Despite criticalcritical accusations
accusations of of inauthenticity,
inauthenticity, Hurston Hurston performs
performs an an
African
African American
American cultural cultural act act conceptualized
conceptualized as masking—an African
as masking—an African American
American
reassertion
reassertion of of culture.
culture. Her Her masking
masking strategy,
strategy, for for which
which her her cultural
cultural space
space has has
been at
been at times
times dismissed
dismissed as as static,
static, is is clearly
clearly aa signsign of of her
her cultural
cultural approach
approach to to
literature,
literature, that that is, is, writing
writing fromfrom within;
within; not not toto conceal,
conceal, but but toto disclose
disclose aa world
world in in
which
which heterogeneity
heterogeneity establishesestablishes cultural
cultural variety
variety and and dynamism.
dynamism. In In this
this line
line of of
thought,
thought, it it can
can be be explained
explained why why Hurston
Hurston was was such
such aa controversial
controversial figure
figure of of her
her
age.
age. She
She resisted
resisted categorization
categorization in in all
all aspects
aspects of of her
her life,
life, including
including herher writing.
writing.
The
The playfulness
playfulness implied implied by by herher cultural
cultural understanding
understanding precipitates
precipitates in in her
her
place
place construction.
construction. Just Just as as African
African American
American cultural
cultural performance
performance is is toto bebe
understood
understood in in the
the matrix
matrix of of community
community and and self,
self, individual
individual place-making
place—making exists exists
also
also within
within the the context
context of of aa socio-cultural
socio—cultural space—a space—a transparent
transparent spacespace which
which
often
often proves
proves to to be be indoctrinating,
indoctrinating, presentingpresenting aa normative
normative environment
environment with with
explicit
explicit and and implicit
implicit power-mechanisms,
power—mechanisms, and and influences
influences individualindividual place place
construction.
construction. Place-making,
Place—making, however, however, emerges emerges as as aa phenomenological
phenomenological entity, entity,
intrinsic
intrinsic in in subjectivation.
subjectivation. In In this binary, the
this binary, the question
question presents
presents itself
itself how.
how.
In
In Hurston’s
Hurston’s case, case, it it can
can rightly
rightly be be argued
argued thatthat the
the twotwo constraints,
constraints, culture
culture
(not
(not primarily
primarily race) race) andand gender—which
gender—which justify justify the
the examination
examination of of an
an African
African
American
American cultural cultural and and gendered
gendered space space in in Hurston’s
Hurston’s novels—provide
novels—provide two two
overlapping
overlapping spaces spaces to to specify
specify different
different aspects
aspects of of the
the samesame cultural
cultural space.
space. In In
negotiating
negotiating aa place/identity
place/identity in in these
these spaces,
spaces, Hurston
Hurston proceeds
proceeds with with the
the help
help of of
strategies
strategies informed
informed by by trickster
trickster energies
energies to to establish
establish an an integrated
integrated cultural
cultural space
space
and
and network
network of of places,
places, which
which are are simultaneously
simultaneously both both encultured
encultured (in (in the
the sense
sense
they
they represent
represent an an African
African American
American cultural cultural space)
space) andand engendered.
engendered.
Hurston’s
Hurston’s rejectionrejection of of fixity
fixity is is foregrounded
foregrounded in in the
the nature
nature of of her
her places,
places,
both regarding
both regarding their their positioning
positioning and and their
their inner
inner structure.
structure. II have have employed
employed the the
terms
terms third third space space (Bhabha)(Bhabha) and thirding (Soja)
and thirding (Soja) to to identify
identify Hurston’s
Hurston’s
hybridization
hybridization of of place.
place. The The strategy
strategy implied
implied by by these
these terms
terms pervades
pervades all all aspects
aspects

116
116
of
of her
her cultural
cultural space.space. She She turns
turns gendered
gendered places places into space-0]?” to
into space-off to indicate
indicate aa
position
position of of difference
difference underlining
underlining the the subjectivity
subjectivity of of her
her female
female characters,
characters,
transforms
transforms African
African American
American places places into nonplace to
into nonplace to show
show the the distanced,
distanced, yet yet
mainstream
mainstream position
position of of her
her individuals
individuals in in relation
relation to to African
African American
American culture culture
(more
(more specifically,
specifically, the the Harlem
Harlem Renaissance);
Renaissance); and and sheshe uses
uses liminal
liminal placesplaces in in her
her
religio-cultural
religio—cultural space space to to allow
allow her her subjects
subjects an an individual
individual (but (but culturally
culturally
conditioned)
conditioned) encounter
encounter with with thethe numinous.
numinous.
Thirding
Thirding suggestssuggests that that thethe place
place established
established in in this
this wayway stepssteps out out ofof aa
narrowing
narrowing dialectics
dialectics designating
designating an an opposition
opposition between between transparent
transparent space space andand
individual
individual placeplace construction.
construction. It It does
does not not denote
denote harsh harsh rejection
rejection of of aa social
social
space,
space, the
the rejection
rejection of of its
its places,
places, nornor doesdoes it it mean
mean aa pervasive
pervasive negationnegation of of its
its
values.
values. Much
Much rather,rather, one one can
can talk
talk about
about constituting
constituting difference
difference on on another
another level,
level,
whereby
whereby propsprops (such(such as as place)
place) and and strategies
strategies (e.g., (e.g., power
power mechanisms)
mechanisms) of of the
the
respective
respective social
social spacespace are built upon
are built upon or or incorporated
incorporated into into aa different,
different, subjective
subjective
spatiality.
spatiality. This
This doesdoes not not imply
imply aa synthesis
synthesis of of spaces,
spaces, but but thethe reinscription
reinscription of of
space
space within
within that that particular
particular social
social space.
space.
Hurston’s
Hurston’s employment
employment of of aa thirding
thirding strategy,
strategy, however,
however, is is not
not simply
simply thethe
reinscription
reinscription of of aa sociocultural
sociocultural space. space. Her Her intention
intention is is toto establish
establish an an integrated
integrated
cultural
cultural space
space that that allows
allows the the African
African American
American individual
individual to become an
to become an agent
agent
within
within his/her
his/her culture.
culture. Places
Places of of thirding
thirding are are always
always related
related to to African
African American
American
culture;
culture; even
even if if located
located in in the
the in-between,
in—between, they they remain
remain embedded
embedded inherentlyinherently in in
the
the sociocultural
sociocultural space space Hurston
Hurston seemingly
seemingly criticizes.
criticizes. Thirding,
Thirding, therefore,
therefore, can can bebe
identified
identified as as aa meansmeans of of cultural
cultural inclusion
inclusion and and thethe instrument
instrument of of cultural
cultural
emergence
emergence in in Hurston’s
Hurston’s philosophy.
philosophy.
The
The notion
notion of of cultural
cultural emergence
emergence is is most
most motivated
motivated in in her
her religio-cultural
religio—cultural
space,
space, in
in which
which Hurston’s
Hurston’s main main characters,
characters, John John in Jonah’s
in Jonah ’s and
and Janie
Janie in in Their
Their
Eyes go
Eyes go toto liminal
liminal places,
places, where
where their
their subjectivation
subjectivation is is aided
aided in in the
the axis
aXis mundi,
mundi,
as
as well
well as as theythey obtain
obtain subjectivity
subjectivity at at liminal
liminal placesplaces that that connect
connect them them
intrinsically
intrinsically to to the
the African
African American
American tradition
tradition via via anan initiation
initiation rite. rite. These
These places
places
partake
partake in in aa blackblack sacred
sacred cosmos
cosmos (see (see Lincoln
Lincoln and and Mamiya)
Mamiya) informed informed by by
African
African American
American cosmology cosmology and and the
the ritual
ritual movement
movement of of the
the African
African American
American
subject
subject to
to liminal
liminal places.
places.
Hurston’s
Hurston’s nonplacesnonplaces and and space-offs
space—offs prove prove vitalvital in in her
her cultural
cultural space space since
since
they
they serve
serve as as aids
aids of of subjectivation
subjectivation and become communicational
and become communicational interfaces interfaces with with
aa motivated
motivated African
African American
American culturalcultural context.
context. On On thethe oneone hand,
hand, thesethese places
places
present
present fissures
fissures in in hegemonic
hegemonic discourses
discourses of of African
African American
American culture culture and and
gender,
gender, as as they
they project
project the the possibility
possibility of of agency
agency and and the the establishment
establishment of of
alternative
alternative spatialities;
spatialities; on on thethe other
other hand,
hand, they they serve
serve as as individual
individual statements
statements as as
against
against the
the mainstream
mainstream cultural cultural discourse
discourse of of thethe Harlem
Harlem Renaissance
Renaissance and and the
the
gender
gender discourse
discourse of of transparent
transparent socialsocial space.
space.
Hurston’s
Hurston’s cultural cultural spacespace proves
proves dynamic
dynamic despite despite apparent
apparent rigidity.
rigidity. TheThe
interplay
interplay of of space
space and and place
place dramatizes
dramatizes interaction
interaction between
between them them in in aa way
way that
that

117
117
ensures justification of
ensures justification of places
places regarding
regarding the
the different
different aspects
aspects of
of social
social space.
space.
Hurston
Hurston conceptualizes
conceptualizes their
their relation
relation as
as interrelation
interrelation and
and not
not as
as superimposition
superimposition
of
of space
space over
over place.
place. The
The ultimately
ultimately African
African American
American pattern
pattern follows
follows the
the
traditional
traditional call-and-response
call—and—response dialogicity,
dialogicity, whereby
whereby places,
places, supposedly
supposedly ofof the
the
margin,
margin, are
are complementary
complementary categories
categories that
that embody
embody necessary
necessary tethering
tethering of
of the
the
African
African American
American cultural
cultural core.
core.

118
118
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Lukinbeal. “Disassociated
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Geographies
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the Road.”
Road.” The Road Movie
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Ina
Ina Rae
Rae Hark.
Hark. London:
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349—70. Print.
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Althusser,
Althusser, Louis.
Louis. “Contradiction
“Contradiction and and Overdetermination.”
Overdetermination.” For Marx. Trans.
For Marx. Trans. BenBen
Brewster.
Brewster. London:
London: Verso,
Verso, 1985.
1985. 87-129.
87—129. Print.
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Ammons,
Ammons, Elizabeth.
Elizabeth. “Introduction.”
“Introduction.” Tricksterism
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Turn-of-the-century
American Literature:
American Literature: A A Multicultural Perspective. Ed.
Multicultural Perspective. Ed. Elizabeth
Elizabeth Ammons
Ammons
and
and Annette
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White Parks.
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Index
Acting
Acting out
out 4242 Cooper,
Cooper, Clare
Clare 93,
93, 111,
111, 121
121
Africanism
Africanism 59, 59, 60,
60, 69,
69, 73,
73, 76
76 Counterspace
Counterspace 34, 34, 92,
92, 113
113
Africanist
Africanist 44,
44, 59,
59, 69,
69, 70,
70, 73
73 Cultural
Cultural determinism
determinism 81 81
Althusser,
Althusser, Louis
Louis 28,28, 119
119 Cultural
Cultural immersion
immersion 72, 72, 74,
74, 75,
75, 116
116
Anthropological
Anthropological turn turn 9,9, 38,
38, 119
119 Cultural
Cultural projection
projection 76 76
Anzaldúa,
Anzaldua, Gloria
Gloria 34,34, 123
123 Dasein
Dasein 14ff.,
14ff., 21
21
Anxiety
Anxiety 21,
21, 23
23 De
De Certeau,
Certeau, Michel
Michel 31-33,
31—33, 70,
70, 121
121
Arefi,
Arefi, Mahyar
Mahyar 60, 60, 61,
61, 119
119 De-distancing
De—distancing 14, 14, 15
15
Augé,
Augé, Marc
Marc 51, 51, 52,
52, 53,
53, 58,
58, 63,
63, 119
119 De
De Lauretis,
Lauretis, Teresa
Teresa 12,12, 81,
81, 93,
93, 101,
101,
Authentication
Authentication 9, 9, 10,
10, 38,
38, 66,
66, 76
76 113,
113, 121
121
Awkward,
Awkward, Michael
Michael 86, 86, 93,
93, 107,
107, 119
119 Diasporic
Diasporic 4848
Bachelard,
Bachelard, Gaston
Gaston 17, 17, 18,
18, 19,
19, 22,
22, 111,
111, Directionality
Directionality 14,14, 16,
16, 19
19
119
119 Dispositif
Dispositif 28,
28, 95,
95, 100
100
Baker,
Baker, Houston
Houston 11, 11, 41,
41, 48,
48, 49,
49, 50,
50, Dixon,
Dixon, Melvin
MelVin 68, 68, 78,
78, 79,
79, 122
122
116,
116, 119
119 Double-Consciousness
Double—Consciousness 53 53
Bakhtin,
Bakhtin, Mikhail
Mikhail 23, 23, 77,
77, 119
119 DuBois,
DuBois, W.E.B.
W.E.B. 44,44, 48,
48, 53,
53, 122
122
Bhabha,
Bhabha, Homi
Homi 33, 33,69,69, 101,
101, 115, 116,
115,116, Durkheim, Émile
Emile 95, 122122
119
119 Dwelling
Dwelling 15,15, 17,
17, 19, 20, 33,
19,20, 33, 89
89
Bible
Bible 56,
56, 57,
57, 63,
63, 76-77,
76—77, 78, 78, 129
129 Eliade,
Eliade, Mircea
Mircea 12,12, 68,
68, 70,
70, 72,
72, 77,
77, 79,
79,
Black
Black Women
Women 41, 78, 81,
41,78, 81, 91,
91, 92
92 122
122
Blues
Blues 11,
11, 41,
41, 42,
42, 48,
48, 49,
49, 75,
75, 110,
110, 112
112 Embodied
Embodied subject
subject 16,
16, 17,
17, 112,
112, 115
115
Body
Body 12,
12, 16-23,
16—23, 43,
43, 57,57, 60,
60, 63,
63, 74,
74, 81-
81— Enclosed
Enclosed space/place
space/place 83,83, 92,
92, 96,
96, 112
112
94, 97, 100,
94,97, 100, 103,
103, 104,
104, 106,
106, 110,
110, Eshelman,
Eshelman, Raoul
Raoul 101,
101, 102,
102, 106,
106, 107,
107,
111
111 122
122
Bordercrossing
Bordercrossing 74, 74, 115
115 Ethnographic
Ethnographic novel
novel 3838
Bordo,
Bordo, Susan
Susan 82, 82, 85,
85, 120
120 Ethnography
Ethnography 36, 36, 38,
38, 39,
39, 45,
45, 46,
46, 50,
50,
Bourdieu,
Bourdieu, Pierre
Pierre 82,
82, 83,
83, 104,
104, 120
120 53,
53, 56,
56, 60,
60, 116
116
Bradiotti,
Bradiotti, Rosi
Rosi 82,
82, 102,
102, 105,
105, 110,
110, 120
120 Federal
Federal Writers’
Writers’ Project
Project 49,
49, 126
126
Butler,
Butler, Judith
Judith 82,82, 83,
83, 85,
85, 86,
86, 93,
93, 120
120 Femininity
Femininity 82,82, 83,
83, 88,
88, 89,
89, 90,
90, 91,
91, 99,
99,
Call-and-response
Call—and—response 43, 43, 44,
44, 116,
116, 118,
118, 110
1 10
119
119 Feminization
Feminization 103,103, 114
114
Carby,
Carby, Hazel
Hazel V. V. 54,
54, 55,55, 120
120 Florida
Florida 49,
49, 110,
110, 112,
112, 114
114
Casey,
Casey, Edward
Edward S. S. 18,
18, 19,
19, 20,
20, 22-23,
22—23, Folk
Folk culture
culture 9,
9, 46,
46, 50,
50, 65
65
31,
31, 33,
33, 105,
105, 112,
112, 120
120 Folklore
Folklore 93,
93, 67
67
Chronotope
Chronotope 23 23 Foucault,
Foucault, Michel
Michel 23ff.,
23ff., 26,
26, 27,
27, 29,
29, 30,
30,
Church
Church 66,
66, 67,
67, 69,
69, 7676 60, 85, 104, 105,
60,85,104, 105, 122
122
Coming
Coming through
through religion
religion 67,67, 77
77 Gans,
Gans, Eric
Eric 102,
102, 112,
112, 122
122
Communication
Communication 41, 41, 43,
43, 45,
45, 116,
116, 117
117 Gates,
Gates, Henry
Henry Louis
Louis 11,11, 39ff.,
39ff., 48,
48, 116,
116,
Communitas
Communitas 67, 67, 72,
72, 9595 123
123
Concept-city
Concept—city 31 31 Geertz,
Geertz, Clifford
Clifford 36,
36, 38,
38, 123
123

131
131
Gender
Gender 9, 9, 10,
10, 11,
11, 12,
12, 38,
38, 56,
56, 59,
59, 62,
62, Their
Their Eyes
Eyes Were
Were Watching
Watching
74,
74,78,78, 81ff.,
81ff., 101,
101, 102,
102, 105,
105, God 9,
God 9, 10,
10, 51,
51, 61,85,
61,85, 117,
117, 124
124
106,
106, 114,
114, 115
115 “To
“To Jean
Jean Parker
Parker Waterbury”
Waterbury” 35, 35,
Genius
Genius loci
loci 18,
18, 127,
127, 129
129 124
124
Habitation
Habitation 19, 19, 20,
20, 23
23 “To
“To Langston
Langston Hughes”
Hughes” 65, 65 , 124
124
Habitus
Habitus 18-20,
18—20, 22,22, 33,
33, 104,
104, 105,
105, 109,
109, Hybrid
Hybrid 33,
33, 40,
40, 46,
46, 50,
50, 53,
53, 64,
64, 70,
70, 71,
71,
115,
115, 120120 74
74
Hadas,
Hadas, Miklós
Miklos 83, 83, 89,
89, 123
123 Hybridization
Hybridization 11, 11, 12,
12, 29ff.,
29ff., 46,
46, 52,
52, 64,
64,
Hall,
Hall, Stuart
Stuart 35, 35, 36,
36, 123
123 72, 79, 113, 116
72,79,113,116
Harlem
Harlem Renaissance
Renaissance 9, 9, 10,
10, 11,
11, 45,
45, 46,
46, Imitation
Imitation 5454
52,
52, 55,
55, 117
117 Implosiveness
Implosiveness 59, 59, 61,
61, 62
62
Harvey,
Harvey, David
David 25, 25, 26,
26, 27,
27, 31,
31, 123
123 Improvisation
Improvisation 45, 45, 46,
46, 110,
110, 116
116
Heidegger,
Heidegger, Martin
Martin 14ff.,
14ff., 18,
18, 19,
19, 20,
20, In-between
In—between 13, 13, 29ff.,
29ff., 40,
40, 46,
46, 58,
58, 67,
67,
29,
29, 31,
31, 33,
33, 123
123 117
117
Hemenway,
Hemenway, Robert Robert E. E. 36,
36, 74,
74, 87,
87, 94,
94, Initiation
Initiation 12,
12, 46,
46, 65,
65, 66,
66, 68,
68, 72,
72, 77,
77,
103,
103, 123123 79,
79, 84,
84, 117
117
Heterotopia
Heterotopia 30, 30, 31,
31, 32,
32, 33,
33, 114,
114, 115
115 Insiderness
Insiderness 38,38, 40,
40, 50,
50, 115
115
Hill,
Hill, Lynda
Lynda Marion
Marion 54,54, 56,
56, 124
124 Intentionality
Intentionality 15,15, 17,
17, 18,
18, 19,
19, 21,
21, 22
22
hooks, bell 37,
hooks, bell 37, 107,
107, 124
124 Intracommunal
Intracommunal 41, 41, 42,
42, 116
1 16
Hubbard,
Hubbard, DolanDolan 75,75, 76,
76, 78,
78, 124
124 Jameson,
Jameson, Frederick
Frederick 28, 28, 125
125
Hughes,
Hughes, Langston
Langston 52, 52, 58,
58, 124
124 Johnson,
Johnson, Barbara
Barbara 9, 9, 81,
81, 93,
93, 125
125
Hurricane
Hurricane 59, 59, 75-76,
75—76, 78,
78, 99
99 Keményfi,
Kemenyfi, Róbert
Robert 66,66, 68,
68, 71,
71, 125
125
Hurston,
Hurston, ZoraZora Neale
Neale Lefebvre,
Lefebvre, Henri
Henri 14,
14, 24-26,
24—26, 29,29, 83,
83, 86,
86,
“Characteristics
“Characteristics of of Negro
Negro 90,
90, 126
126
Expression”
Expression” 42, 42, 43,
43, 50,
50, 54,
54, 71,
71, Levinas,
Levinas, Emmanuel
Emmanuel 19, 19, 126
126
124
124 Liminal
Liminal 12, 49, 65ff.,
12,49, 65ff., 109,
109, 117
117
Dust Tracks
Dust Tracks on on the Road 36,
the Road 36, 65,
65, Lincoln,
Lincoln, C.C. Eric
Eric 12, 66, 117,
12,66, 117, 126
126
66,
66, 67,
67, 79,
79, 124
124 Locke,
Locke, Alain
Alain 55,
55, 126
126
Every Tongue
Every Tongue GotGot toto Löfgren,
Lofgren, Orvar
Orvar 87,87, 91,
91, 126
126
Confess:
Confess: NegroNegro Folk-tales
Folk-tales Masculinity
Masculinity 58, 58, 82,
82, 88,
88, 91,
91, 97
97
from the
from the Gulf States 46,
Gulf States 46, 124
124 Masking
Masking 46,46, 54,
54, 56,
56, 64,
64, 116116
“How
“How It It Feels
Feels to
to Be
Be McGowan,
McGowan, Todd Todd 112,
112, 113,
113, 126
126
Colored
Colored Me” Me” 10,
10, 35,
35, 124
124 Memory
Memory 33, 74, 81,
33,74, 81, 105
105
Jonah’s
Jonah ’s Gourd Vine 10,
Gourd Vine 10, 37,
37, 51,
51, Merleau-Ponty,
Merleau—Ponty, Maurice
Maurice 16, 16, 17,
17, 18,
18,
72,
72, 87,
87, 115,
115, 124
124 19,
19, 21,
21, 126
126
Mules and
Mules Men 36,
and Men 36, 54,
54, 56,
56, 124
124 Mimicry
Mimicry 54,54, 55,
55, 64
64
“Negro
“Negro Mythical
Mythical Places”
Places” 49,
49, Modernism
Modernism 11, 11, 27,
27, 52,
52, 53,
53, 56,
56, 64
64
124
124 Molnár,
Molnar, Gábor
Gabor Tamás
Tamas 36, 36, 37,
37, 127
127
“Sweat”
“Sweat” 85, 85, 124
124 Moral
Moral geography
geography 68 68
Tell
Tell My Horse 56,
My Horse 56, 73,
73, 124
124 Morrison,
Morrison, Toni
Toni 74,
74, 127
127
The
The Sanctified Church: 46,
Sanctified Church: 46, 67,
67, Motherwit
Motherwit 78, 78, 79,
79, 99,
99, 120,
120, 126
126
124
124 Munn,
Munn, D. D. Nancy
Nancy 51,51, 52,
52, 53,
53, 60,
60, 127
127

132
132
Narrative
Narrative 47,
47, 65,
65, 75
75 Representational
Representational spaces
spaces 25,25, 26
26
Negative
Negative space
space 51,
51, 52,
52, 60
60 Representations
Representations of of space
space 25,
25, 2626
Nomad
Nomad 42, 42, 82,
82, 102,
102, 105,
105, 110,
110, 112,
112, Reterritorialization
Reterritorialization 50 50
120
120 Rituals
Rituals 35,
35, 39,
39, 46,
46, 51,
51, 52,
52, 65,
65, 67,
67, 72,
72,
Nomadism
Nomadism 102, 102, 110
110 75, 77, 95,
75,77, 95, 101
101
Nonplace
Nonplace 10, 10, 11, 49, 51ff.,
11,49, 51ff., 56ff.,
56ff., 67,
67, Rose,
Rose, Gillian
Gillian 82,
82, 103,
103, 107,
107, 128
128
109,
109, 117,
117, 119
119 Ryan,
Ryan, Judylyn
Judylyn 47,47, 128
128
Oneiric
Oneiric house
house 22,
22, 23,
23, Sartre,
Sartre, Jean-Paul
Jean—Paul 16, 16, 21,
21, 22,
22, 94,
94, 98,
98,
Ong,
Ong, Walter
Walter J. J. 37,
37, 127
127 128
128
Overdetermination
Overdetermination 28, 28, 119
119 Sense
Sense of
of place
place 15,
15, 19, 86, 101,
19,86, 101, 103,
103,
Pavlíc,
Pavlic, Edward
Edward M. M. 48,
48, 127
127 104,
104, 109,
109, 110
110
Performance
Performance Sermon
Sermon 45,45, 69,
69, 70,
70, 72
72
Blues
Blues 11,
11, 42,
42, 49,
49, 50,
50, 112
112 Sheldrake,
Sheldrake, Philip
Philip 69,
69, 70,
70, 71
71 128
128
Underground
Underground 48, 48, 49,
49, 50,
50, 116
116 Signifying
Signifying 11,
11, 39,
39, 41,
41, 46,
46, 53,
53, 123
123
Performatism
Performatism 42, 42, 102,
102, 122
122 Socio-spatial
Socio—spatial dialectic
dialectic 27,27, 28
28
Performatist
Performatist 107107 Socio-spatial
Socio—spatial fixation
fixation 86 86
Performativity
Performativity 41, 41, 8989 Soja,
Soja, Edward
Edward W. W. 23,
23, 24,
24, 27,
27, 28,
28, 101,
101,
Phenomenology
Phenomenology 10, 10, 13ff.,
13ff., 21,
21, 29,
29, 70,
70, 115,
115, 116,
116, 129
129
115,
115, 116
116 South
South 10,
10, 37,
37, 47,
47, 48,
48, 49,
49, 52,
52, 56,
56, 57,
57,
Place
Place 14ff.,
14ff., 64,
64, 112
112
Construction
Construction 10, 10, 12,
12, 31,
31, 81,
81, Space
Space
105,
105, 107,
107, 116
116 Abstract
Abstract 22,
22, 25,
25, 26,
26, 29-33,
29—33, 120120
Inter-
Inter— 19
19 Communal
Communal 12, 12, 43,
43, 48,
48, 82,
82, 95,
95,
Intra-
Intra— 19
19 98,
98, 99,
99, 114
114
Inverted
Inverted 30,30, 49,
49, 78
78 Cultural
Cultural 9,9, 10,
10, 35ff.,
35ff., 51ff.,
51ff., 83,
83,
Liminal
Liminal 65ff.,
65ff., 79,
79, 109,
109, 117
117 92, 110, 112,
92,110, 112, 115ff.
115ff.
Mythical
Mythical 49, 49, 50,
50, 124
124 Gendered
Gendered 10, 10, 12, 57, 81ff.,
12,57, 81ff., 116
116
Placelessness
Placelessness 42,42, 82,
82, 113,
113, 119
119 Legal
Legal 9191
Place-making
Place—making 19, 19, 21,
21, 49,
49, 116
116 Masculine
Masculine 82, 82, 83,
83, 88,
88, 93,
93, 98,
98,
Post-Marxist
Post—Marxist 10, 10, 21ff.,
21ff., 28,
28, 115
115 101,
101, 106,
106, 108, 113
108,113
Power
Power 10,10, 23,
23, 24ff.,
24ff., 42,
42, 70,
70, 83,
83, 85,
85, 95,
95, Moral
Moral 100100
104,
104, 116
116 Public
Public 88,
88, 89,
89, 91
91
Practice
Practice 17,
17, 25,
25, 31,
31, 38,
38, 95,
95, 113
113 Religio-Cultural
Religio—Cultural 10, 10, 61,
61, 65ff.,
65ff.,
Practico-inert
Practico—inert ensemble
ensemble 21, 21, 22,
22, 94
94 117
117
Production
Production 21ff.,
21ff., 23,
23, 24,
24, 34,
34, 51,
51, 81ff.,
81ff., Social
Social 11,
11, 13,
13, 24,
24, 30,
30, 33,
33, 35, 42,
35,42,
84,
84, 95,
95, 115
115 57ff.,
57ff., 68,
68, 69,
69, 71,
71, 74,
74, 77,
77, 81ff.,
81ff.,
Race
Race 9, 25, 75, 78, 81,
9,25,75,78, 81, 91,
91, 96,
96, 102
102 94ff.,
94ff., 101,
101, 103,
103, 108, 109, 115,
108,109, 115,
Reinscription
Reinscription 32, 32, 50,
50, 111,
111, 117
117 117
117
Religion
Religion 44,
44, 61,
61, 65,
65, 7272 Socio-cultural
Socio—cultural 10, 10, 13,
13, 67,
67, 83,
83, 89,
89,
Religiosity
Religiosity 65,
65 , 66,
66, 7171 114
114
Remembering
Remembering 18, 18, 19,
19, 104,
104, 120
120 Transparent
Transparent 12, 12, 26,
26, 31,
31, 52,
52, 57,
57,
Representation
Representation 19, 19, 25,
25, 55,
55, 87
87 81ff.,
81ff., 95ff.,
95ff., 101,
101, 110,
110, 114
114

133
133
Spatial
Spatial Metaphor
Metaphor 14, 14, 19,
19, 20,
20, 21,
21, 31,
31,
39,
39, 86,
86, 87,
87, 92,
92, 93,
93, 100,
100, 105,
105, 109
109
Spatial
Spatial practice
practice 25,
25, 26,
26, 31,
31, 96,
96, 111,
111,
115
115
Stepto,
Stepto, Robert
Robert B.B. 47,
47, 75,
75, 129
129
Stock,
Stock, Brian
Brian 103-104,
103—104, 129 129
Storytelling
Storytelling 32,
32, 37,
37, 40,
40, 46,
46, 58,
58, 63,
63, 76,
76,
77,
77, 121
121
Technology
Technology 26,26, 28,
28, 32,
32, 121
121
Thick
Thick description
description 36 36
Third
Third space
space 33,
33, 34,
34, 63,
63, 116
116
Tie-camp
Tie—camp 54,
54, 56,
56, 62,
62, 72
72
Time-space
Time—space compressions
compressions 26, 26, 27
27
Transpatial
Transpatial 60,
60, 93,
93, 112
112
Trickster
Trickster 11,
11, 40,
40, 42,
42, 44,
44, 46,
46, 48,
48, 50,
50, 51,
51,
54,
54, 62,
62, 64, 76, 116,
64,76, 116, 119
119
Tricksterism
Tricksterism 11,
11, 39,
39, 46,
46, 49,
49, 50,
50, 115,
115,
119
119
Tuan,
Tuan, Yi-Fu
Yi—Fu 103,
103, 130
130
Turner,
Turner, Victor
Victor 66,
66, 67,
67, 70,
70, 72,
72, 130
130
Underground
Underground 48, 48, 49,
49, 50,
50, 116,
116, 127
127
Unsilencing
Unsilencing 106,
106, 107
107
Van
Van Gennep,
Gennep, Arnold
Arnold 66,66, 130
130
Vizenor,
Vizenor, Gerald
Gerald Robert
Robert 34,
34, 130
130
Voodoo
Voodoo 61,
61, 66,
66, 71,
71, 73,
73, 74,
74, 76,
76, 129
129
Walker,
Walker, Alice
Alice 9,9, 130
130
Walking
Walking 31,
31, 32,
32, 33,
33, 111
111
Wilderness
Wilderness 50,
50, 62,
62, 66,
66, 67,
67, 72,
72, 78,
78, 92,
92,
122,
122, 123,
123, 130
130
Wollan,
Wollan, Gjermund
Gjermund 14, 14, 15,
15, 16,
16, 21,
21, 130
130
Womanist
Womanist God-talk
God—talk 78, 78, 130
130
Wright,
Wright, Richard
Richard 48,48, 52,
52, 54,
54, 130
130

134
134
 Debrecener Studien zur Literatur

Herausgegeben von Tamas Lichtmann

Band Tama’s Lichtmann: Nicht (aus, in, iiber, von) Osterreich. Zur osterreichischen Literatur, zu
Celan, Bachmann, Bernhard und anderen. 1995. 2., unveranderte Auflage 1996.

Band Nora Séllei: Katherine Mansfield and Virginia Woolf. A Personal and Professional Bond.
1996.
Band 3 Thomas Sohestag (Hrsg.): "geteilte Aufmerksamkeit". Zur Frage des Lesens. 1997.

Band lstvan Bitskey: Konfessionen und literarische Gattungen der friihen Neuzeit in Ungarn.
1999.
Band 5 Klaus Bonn: Entgegnungen — Erzahlungen zur Literatur. 1999.

Band Tama’s Be’nyei: Acts of Attention. Figure and Narrative in Postwar British Novels. 1999.

Band Tamas Lichtmann (Hrsg.): Angezogen und abgestoBen. Juden in der ungarisohen Litera-
tur. 1999.

Band Kalman Kovacs: Kaspar-Hauser-Geschichten. Stationen der Rezeption. 2000.

Band 9 Klaus Bonn / Edit Kovacs / Csaba Szabo (Hrsg.): Entdeokungen. Uber Jean Paul, Robert
Walser, Konrad Bayer und anderes. 2002.
Band 10 Kalman Kovacs: Textualitat und Rhetorizitat. 2003.
Band 11 Karl Katsohthaler: Xenolektographie. Lektiiren an der Grenze ethnologischen Lesens und
Schreibens. Hubert Fichte und die Ethnologen. 2005.
Band 12 Kalman Kovacs (Hrsg.): Ideologie der Form. 2006.
Band 13 Gabor Pusztai: An der Grenze. Das Fremde und das Eigene. Dargestellt an Werken der
deutschen und der niederlandischen Kolonialliteratur in der ersten Halfte des 20. Jahrhun-
derts von C.W.H. Koch, H. Grimm, M.H. Székely-Lulofs und W. Walraven. 2007.

Band 14 Peter Eredios: Ungarisohe Studenten und ihre Ubersetzungen aus dem Niederlandischen
ins Ungarische in der Friihen Neuzeit. 2008.

Band 15 Eszter Pabis: Die Schweiz als Erzahlung: Nationale und narrative Identitatskonstruktionen
in Max Frischs Stiller, Wilhelm Tell fL'ir die Schu/e und Dienstch/ein. 2010.

Band 16 Zsuzsanna Ablonczyné-Nador: Ungarn ,,Das gesegneteste Land Europas“. Das Ungarnbild
der niederlandischen Reisebeschreibungen (1555—1774). Vergleichende Analyse im Spie-
gel der rhetorisch-apodemischen Traditionen dargestellt an Werken der niederlandischen,
deutschen und englischen Reiseliteratur. 2011.
Band 17 Peter Gaal-Szabo: “Ah done been tuh de horizon and back“. Zora Neale Hurston's Cultural
Spaces in Their Eyes Were Watching God and Jonah 's Gourd Vine. 2011.

www.peterlang.de
The book investigates African American writer and anthropologist Zora Neale
Hurston’s cultural space. More specifically, different aspects of the interplay
of space and place are studied in two of her novels: Their Eyes Were Watching
God (1937) and Jonah is Gourd Vine (1934). Besides representing the peak of
her art as a novelist, the novels present fine examples of her philosophy of
culture, her conceptions of space, and ways of place construction. The richness
and vitality of her novels denote a particular view of culture and an African
American way of authentication that enable her to construct a fulfilling cultural
universe for the individual, with/despite inbuilt tensions. The cultural space
Hurston establishes is embedded in an African American cultural context as-
sociated with the South. At the same time her cultural space proves to be
diverse, due to inward heterogeneity and external contexts.

Peter Gaal-Szabo is an associate lecturer at the Ferenc Kolcsey Teacher Train—

ing College of the Reformed Church, Debrecen (Hungary), and earned his
PhD in the American Studies Program at the University of Debrecen. His
main academic interests include the anthropology of space and place, African
American literature and culture, as well as intercultural communication.

WWW-Peterlaflg-de ISBN 978-3-631-61649-9

9 783631 616499