20110530125505!2006 09 21 FINAL Ethiopia Biogas Feasibility Report

(FINAL)Report on
the feasibility study of a national programme for

domestic biogas in Ethiopia.
For SNV – Ethiopia.
Dr Getachew Eshete
Dr. Kai Sonder
Felix ter Heegde
May 2006
0.1 Summary
Rural domestic energy supply in Ethiopia is (virtually) entirely biomass based. In
combination with the increasing pressure of the rural population, this has led to rapid
depletion of natural resources and degradation of the environment in large areas of the
country.
As most of the rural households are involved in (subsistence) farming, integrating

agriculture and animal husbandry, domestic biogas could theoretically not only foresee
in the need for cooking energy, but also provide a good source for organic fertilizer.
Furthermore, domestic biogas could improve the livelihood situation of rural households
regarding aspects of workload, health and sanitation. From a need assessment
perspective, therefore, domestic biogas would be very promising indeed.
This study researched the extent to which essential conditions for large scale
dissemination of domestic biogas are present. It concludes that there is a significant
technical potential for domestic biogas. In the four studied regions (Amhara, Oromia,
SNNPRS and Tigray) this potential is estimated to be between 1.1 and 3.5 million
households.
But the team also identified important constraints: the low level of disposable income of
most rural households prohibits any significant investment; the scarce availability of
process water endangers proper plant operation; the (very) limited rural dissemination
infrastructure in combination with the scattered population pattern make dissemination
activities laborious and (thus) expensive; the gender imbalance in decision making at
household level will increase the threshold for the investment, and; the low awareness
of alternative energy technology in general and domestic biogas in general will
necessitate a large investment in promotion work.
Clearly, despite its promising features and the significant technical potential,
implementation of a large scale domestic biogas programme will not be “plain sailing”.
The team proposes a pilot domestic biogas programme in four regions over a period of
5 years, aiming to support the construction of 10,000 installations. In addition to the
direct benefits the programme is expected to have, the sizeable pilot will provide better
insights of the exact nature of Ethiopia‟s rural domestic energy sector and dissemination
constraints and allow the programme to adjust its implementation strategy accordingly.
Total programme costs, including all hard and software, have been budgeted to
approximately € 11 million.
The report is divided in 5 sections.
Section 1 addresses the background of the country, Ethiopia‟s main climatic

characteristics, the agriculture and animal husbandry sector and the energy situation. It
ends with a brief explanation on biogas and its benefits.
ii
Section 2 starts with the study set up. It furthers with the main study findings regarding
installations visited, functionality, economics, operation, dissemination modalities and
lists the organizations active in the field of domestic biogas.
Section 3 addresses the main conditions for large scale dissemination of domestic
biogas, including technical, financial, social and institutional aspects. From a mapping of
Ethiopia‟s livestock data and an interpretation of data regarding the availability of
process water, a first estimate of the technical potential for domestic biogas is offered.
Section 4 presents the lessons learnt and the recommendations based thereon. Some
main programme design considerations –technical design, sizing, costs and benefit of
biogas, subsidy and credit are addressed in more detail. Section 4 ends with a brief
reflection on opportunities of CDM as a co-financing mechanism.
Section 5 drafts the first outline of an activity schedule and budget for a possible pilot of
a large-scale biogas programme in Ethiopia. The section concludes with listing some of
the opportunities and threats of such a programme.
0.2 Acknowledgement
Ethiopia is a large country of great social and geographic variation and domestic energy
–including biogas- is a multifaceted topic. Consequently, for the study our team leaned
heavily on the sympathetic cooperation of a large number of households and
professionals. Everywhere our questions were answered elaborately, where we
overlooked relevant issues our hosts filled us in anyway, and we were provided with a
wealth of background information and documentation.
The team is indebted to all the persons and organizations that took time to assist us and
it was a privilege to have this many knowledgeable and experienced people sharing
their understanding of domestic energy and rural development with us.
Thank you al very much for your contributions and cooperation; it provided the study
with meaning and made doing the study a true pleasure.
Despite all your input, there will likely be errors in the report. Obviously, those are fully
our responsibility.
Addis Abeba,
June 2006.
iii
0.3 Table of content
Section Chapter Title Page
1 Introduction & country background
1 Introduction 2
1.1 Recent history in brief 2
1.2 Current political situation 3
2 Country background 3
2.1 Poverty traps 4
3 Climatic conditions 6
3.1 Rainfall 6
3.2 Drought 6
3.3 Temperature 7
4 Agriculture and animal husbandry 8
4.1 Agriculture 8
4.2 Animal husbandry 10
5 Energy demand & supply, policy and plans 11
5.1 The primary energy resource base 11
5.2 The macro perspective 13
5.3 The micro perspective 15
5.4 The energy sub-sector institutional set-up 17
5.5 Domestic energy in summary 18
6 Biogas 19
6.1 Benefits of domestic biogas 19
6.2 Biogas & Sustainable Development 20
6.3 Biogas & the UN Millennium Development Goals 21
6.4 Biogas & PASDEP 24
6.5 History and current status of domestic biogas in Ethiopia 25
2 Study findings 26
1 Study objectives 27
1.1 Methodologies 27
1.2 Limitations 28
2 Study observations 28
2.1 Types of installations visited 28
2.2 Functionality 29
2.3 Economics 31
2.4 Operation 33
2.5 Dissemination modalities 39
2.6 Policy and strategy 40
2.7 Organizations active in the biogas sector 41
3 Potential demand for domestic biogas 43

1 Conditions for large-scale dissemination 44
1.1 Technical aspects 45
1.2 Financial aspects 47
1.3 Social aspects 49
1.4 Institutional aspects 51
2 Livestock population mapping. 52
3 Technical potential 53
3.1 Amhara 53
3.2 Oromia 54
iv
3.3 SNNPRS 55
3.4 Tigray 56
3.5 Summary technical potential 56
4 Design considerations 57
1 Lessons learnt 58
1.1 Technical issues 59
1.2 Operational issues 60
1.3 Economic issues 60
1.4 Dissemination issues 60
1.5 Policy issues 61
2 Recommendations 62
2.1 Sectoral, market oriented approach 62
2.2 Pilot of reasonable size 62
2.3 Investment costs 63
2.4 Technical aspect 63
2.5 Specific recommendations for SNV-Ethiopia 63
3 Some particular considerations 65
3.1 Installation design 65
3.2 Appliances 66
3.3 Plant size 67
3.4 Investment costs 67
3.5 Costs & benefits of domestic biogas 69
3.6 Subsidy 71
3.7 Credit 72
3.8 Biogas & the Clean Development Mechanism 73
5 Outline of the Ethiopia Biogas Programme 75

1 Main features 76
2 Programme goal and purpose 77
3 Programme components 77
4 Expected results 78
5 Actors and activities 79
6 Activity schedule and budget outline 81
6.1 Subsidy 82
6.2 Direct investment 82
6.3 Credit 83
6.4 The regional support budget 84
6.5 The national support budget 84
6.6 Technical assistance 85
6.7 Budget summary 85
7 Opportunities and risks 87
7.1 Opportunities 87
7.2 Risks 88
v
0.4 List of annexes
1 ToR Feasibility study

2 Description of regions in the study area
3 Construction manual biogas installation type GGC 2047
4 Expected programme results
5 Programme activity schedule and budget
6 Draft profile sketch SNV Senior Technical Advisor
Addendum with comments of EREDPC
0.5 Abbreviations
AATPI Appropriate Agricultural Technology Promotion Initiative (World Vison

ACSI Amhara Credit and Savings Institute
AEMFI Association of Ethiopian Micro Finance Institutions
ANRS Amhara National Regional State
BoA Bureau of Agriculture
BOAM Support to Business Organizations and Access to their Markets (SNV)
BoE Bureau of Energy
BoQ Bill of Quantities
€ Euro
EIRR Economic Rate of Return
EPRDF Ethiopian Peoples Revolutionary Democratic Front
EREDPC Ethiopian Rural Energy Development and Promotion Centre
EU European Union
FIRR Financial rate of Return
FDRE Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia
ODA Official Development Assistance
PASDEP Plan for Accelerated Sustainable Development to End Poverty
Masl meters above sea level
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GEF Global Environment Facility
GNP Gross National Product
GTZ German Technical Cooperation
FAO Food and Agriculture Organizations
GJ, TJ Giga (109) Joule, Tera (1012)Joule
hh household
ha hectare
BLT Branches, Leaves and Twigs
ETB Ethiopian Birr
SNV The Netherlands Development Organization
STVC Selam Technical and Vocational Centre
GHG Greenhouse Gas
CDM Clean Development Mechanism
MDG Millennium Development Goal
vi
MFI Micro Finance Institute
MoFED Ministry of Finance and Economic Development
NGO Non Governmental Organization
PPP Public Private Partnership
REF Rural Energy Fund
SME Small and Medium Enterprise
SNNPRS Southern Nations and Nationalities People‟s Regional State
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
(US) $ (United States) Dollar
WB World Bank
WBISPP Woody Biomass Inventory Strategic Planning Project
0.6 References
001 2001 Kellner, C: Biogas Technology. Technical paper developed for the GTZ
Land use planning and resource management project in region (LUPO).
002 April 2001 Kellner, C.: First steps of an Ethiopian Biodigester Standard.
003 May 2004 Eshete, G et al: Final report of the identification study on renewable
energy and energy efficiency in Southern Nations and Nationalities Peoples
Regional State and Ethiopia.
004 January 2005 FAO: Global information and early warning system on food and
agriculture, special report crop and food supply assessment mission to
Ethiopia.
005 CIA world fact book (www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/).
006 January 2005: USDA Production estimates and crop assessment division
007 October 2005: Ministry of Finance and Economic Development. Ethiopia:
Building on Progress: A Plan for Accelerated and Sustained Development to
End Poverty (PASDEP).
008 January 2006 Ministry of Energy and Mines, Ethiopian Rural Energy
Development and Promotion Centre: Indicative dissemination strategies of
biogas energy in Ethiopia (based on technical and socio-economic
assessment), unpublished report.
009 Metaferia Consulting engineers, for the Federal Democratic Republic of
Ethiopia, Ministry of Economic Development and Cooperation Environmental
and social analysis food security project No. ENIBER 2001
010 December 2004, UNESCO: National Water Development Report for Ethiopia.
011 June 2005, Guday Emirie: Early marriage and its effect on girl‟s education in
rural Ethiopia, the case of Mecha woreda in West Gojjam, North Western
Ethiopia, Master Thesis.
012 December 2004, UNESCO et al: National Water Development Report for
Ethiopia.
013 August 1995, Melis Teka Nega: Biogas as Rural Household energy Option –
the Case of Ethiopia, Master Thesis.
014 January 1998, Mulat Demeke et al, Grain Market Research Project:
Determinants of fertilizer use in Ethiopia
vii
0.7 Exchange rates
1 Euro 10.41 Ethiopian Birr
1 Euro 1.19 US Dollar
viii
Report on
Preparation of dung cake
Section 1
Introduction and background
1 Introduction and background Page 2
1 Introduction. Horn of Africa
“The Horn of Africa is known today as a land

of famine and war, but it is also the last secret
kingdom of the world, a land of mystery and
fierce beauty. Cut off by soaring mountain
ranges, burning lava deserts, unexplored
wildernesses and an isolated Indian Ocean
coastline, the Horn of Africa is a great ark that
has, for centuries, sheltered an astonishing
variety of human societies against the storms
of the world. From the sophisticated cultures
of the Christian highlands and the Islamic
coast to the proud nomads of the Ogaden
desert and the primitive tribes of the last
wildernesses of the continent, the region is a true microcosm of Africa and a time
capsule in which we can see many stages of development of the human race.” 1
1.1 Recent history in brief. Regions in Ethiopia

Unique among African countries, the ancient
Ethiopian monarchy maintained its freedom
from colonial rule, with the exception of the
1936-41 Italian occupation during World War II.
In 1974 a military junta, the Derg, deposed
Emperor Haile Selassie (who had ruled since
1930) and established a socialist state.
Torn by bloody coups, uprisings, wide-scale

drought, and massive refugee problems, the
regime was finally toppled in 1991 by a
coalition of rebel forces, the Ethiopian People's
Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF). Under federalism and through the 1990s
political representation and territorial administration were recognized in terms of
ethnicity2. A constitution was adopted in 1994 and Ethiopia's first multiparty elections
were held in 1995.
Zones in Ethiopia
A two and a half year border war with Eritrea
ended with a peace treaty on 12 December
2000. Final demarcation of the boundary is
currently on hold due to Ethiopian objections to
an international commission's finding requiring
it to surrender sensitive territory.
The current government, with the EPRDF as

the ruling party, took charge in 1992, after
1
Carol Beckwith and Angela Fisher, African Ark, 1990.
2
Sarah Vaughan, Ethnicity and power in Ethiopia, 2003
Report on the feasibility study of a national programme for domestic biogas in Ethiopia
having fought a war with the regime of Mengistu Haile Mariam, the Derg, for over a
decade. As a result, Eritrea became an independent country, and Ethiopia a federation
of reasonably independent regions (the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia).
Region Population [# of persons] Share [%] Area Pop density

2 2
Rural Urban Total Total Rural [km ] [# of pers / km ]
1 Tigray 3,367,000 746,000 4,113,000 5.8% 81.9% 56452 73

2 Affar 1,213,000 117,000 1,330,000 1.9% 91.2% 92371 14
3 Amhara 16,138,000 2,005,000 18,143,000 25.5% 88.9% 153474 118
4 Oromia 21,891,000 3,207,000 25,098,000 35.3% 87.2% 312980 80
5 Somali 3,438,000 671,000 4,109,000 5.8% 83.7% 321737 13
6 Benishangul 538,000 56,000 594,000 0.8% 90.6% 50542 12
7 SNNPR 12,922,000 1,163,000 14,085,000 19.8% 91.7% 117263 120
8 Gambela 191,000 43,000 234,000 0.3% 81.6% 25649 9
9 Harari 71,000 114,000 185,000 0.3% 38.4% 394 470
10 Addis Abeba - 2,805,000 2,805,000 3.9% 0.0% 526 5333
11 Dire Dawa 98,000 272,000 370,000 0.5% 26.5% 1507 246
59,867,000 11,199,000 71,066,000 84.2% 1,132,895 63
Source: CSA Statistical abstract 2003
1.2 Current political situation.

Ever since, except for few minor (threats of) wars over border disputes with Eritrea, the
country has been fairly stable. In view of the volatile geo-political and socio-
environmental situation in the Horn of Africa, this is an accomplishment to be valued
highly.
Last year‟s election in May, however, threatened to change the political climate. The
government, expecting voters to confirm their position, appeared to be surprised by
significant popular support to the opposition. With some delay, the polling results now
seem to be largely accepted, with new voting in a couple of hundred polling stations.
2 Country background.
With a total land area of 1.1 million km2, Ethiopia is about twice the size of France and
the tenth largest country in Africa. It accommodates Africa‟s third biggest population,
currently some 73.1 million people, at a population growth rate of over 2.3 percent per
annum3.
Ethiopia‟s physical landscape is characterized GDPPPP per capita

US$
by great topographic variations; arid and semi 2,500
arid low lands, dissected plateaus and massive 2,000
mountains often traversed by deep river gorges 1,500

and valleys.
1,000
500
-
Eritrea Ethiopia Kenya Somalia Sudan Tanzania Uganda
3
CIA World Fact book
Population under poverty line

With 85% of the population living in rural areas, 60%
mostly in small and very scattered settlements, 50%

the remaining 15% of the population lives in 40%
922 towns having over 2000 inhabitants. 30%
20%
Ethiopia is one of the least developed 10%
countries; not only in the world, but also in the 0%
region it is scoring amongst the poorest: Eritrea Ethiopia Kenya Somalia Sudan Tanzania Uganda
featuring a bottom 10 ranking for its Gross

National Product (PPP) (ranking 223 out of 232 Human Development Index
0.600
with US$ 800) and its Human Development
0.500
Index (ranking 170/177; with an HDI of 0,367).
0.400
50% of the population lives below the poverty
0.300
line.
0.200
Ethiopia is a receiver of substantial bilateral and 0.100
multilateral development assistance to the tune -

of US$ 900 mln in 2000, steadily growing to
US$ 1,920 mln in 2003. With a GDPoff exch rate of ODA by selected sectors, avg 2000 - 2005
US$ 9,034 mln (2005), ODA obviously has a Agric, for & fish Area development
Other sectors 6% 3%
significant relationship to the country‟s GDP. Transport 8% Eco. Management
10% 14%
Over this period, the lion share of ODA was Social dev
5%
Education
3%
allocated to humanitarian and relief aid (33% on Energy
average) against only 6% for agriculture and 7%
10% for transport. Multi sectoral

4% Health
7%
Hum / relief aid
2.1 Poverty traps. 33%
The PASDEP document identifies the following

five poverty traps in Ethiopia. As all five are relevant for rural development and domestic
energy issues, they are presented hereunder.
Productive resource base: A crucial mechanism, which has perpetuated poverty in

Ethiopia, is the interaction of poverty and population pressure with the productive
resource base. Unprecedented population pressures have resulted in decreasing plot
size (average landholdings declined from 0.5 hectares per person in the 1960s to 0.11
in 1999), making an increasing number of households dependent on inadequately small
and unproductive plots, and more vulnerable to the vagaries of unpredictable rainfall,
and rendering some traditional farming practices unsustainable. These households are
too poor to leave land fallow or invest in it, leading to a progressive deterioration of their
asset base. In the past moving onto new lands absorbed this additional population
growth, but in many areas the limits of useable land have been reached, forcing farmers
onto lower productivity, more fragile lands.
Investment in human capital: Poverty and low investment in human capital present
another type of self-perpetuating dynamic. Investing in education may be prohibitive for
poor households, due both the direct costs, as well as the fact that all members need to
contribute to the family‟s income, including time-consuming tasks such as collecting
water and firewood. Even if returns of education are high, the inability to finance that
initial investment means that there is under-investment. Without significant increases in
productivity it is difficult for capital to be accumulated, so that returns to unskilled labour
are unlikely to grow. Poverty and low education, therefore, reproduce themselves in
future generations.
Infrastructure: Low levels of infrastructure offer another example of perverse dynamics,

as they result in underdeveloped markets, high transaction costs and coordination
failures. The benefits of exchanges cannot be realized and the economy remains
trapped in a largely subsistence-oriented structure. Without basic economic
infrastructure, returns to private investment may be too low to spur dynamic growth;
while the large, lumpy nature of infrastructure costs makes it hard to make the initial
investments to break out of these traps. In the rugged and difficult geography of
Ethiopia, many remote areas see their potential for dynamic private sector growth and
diversification out of agriculture hindered by the lack of basic infrastructure.
Low-Risk / Low Return: Small farmers, who constitute the bulk of the population, are
often caught in production of low-risk/low-return food grains. With insufficient cash
funds, and unpredictable outcomes, they cannot afford to take the risk of diversifying
from subsistence food production into potentially higher-return activities (such as
growing cash crops for market), or of spending their limited cash on purchased
agricultural inputs, because if they fail – either because of crop failure, price collapse,
or failure of demand, they will not have either the basic food they would otherwise have
produced, nor the cash to purchase it, and their families will go hungry.
Early-Childhood: Nutrition offers a similar story, with malnutrition very early in life
affecting long-term mental and physical development, and thus limiting lifetime potential
and productivity, and creating a low-income, low-consumption household in the next
generation
Annual rainfall
3 Climatic conditions.
3.1 Rainfall
The country has a tropical monsoon climate.
Topographic differences –central highlands vs
lowlands- result in significant climatic variety
and three distinct rainfall regimes. In general,
precipitation ranges from 800 – 2000 mm per
annum in the highlands (>1500 m) to less than
200 – 800 mm per annum in the lowlands.
In most areas, rain falls in two distinct

seasons: the minor season (belg) begins in January / February and ends in April / May;
and the main rainy season (kiremt) from June / July to September / October. In
Southern Ethiopia the rainfall pattern is opposite, the larger, more important rainy
season takes place in February, March, April and May with a second smaller one in
September, October and November.
Rainfall patterns
During the main rain season most parts of the
country receive 60-90% of the rainfall. The
kiremt is particularly important as 90-95% of
the food is produced during this main meher
crop season. However, in some parts of the
highlands, the belg harvest may contribute up
to 50% of the food supply4.
3.2 Drought.
Ethiopia is a country where some 80 percent
of the population depends for its livelihood on
rain-fed agriculture, yet much of the good
topsoil - more than two billion tons a year -
gets blown away or washed down the Blue
Nile River to Egypt. Periodic droughts have
been Ethiopia's lot for hundreds of years. In
recent years droughts are becoming more
frequent and severe. A century ago the country suffered a drought every 10-15 years.
Today they come with alarming regularity every five years or less. Although the drought-
caused famine of 1984-85 remains well known, less serious but nonetheless significant
droughts were observed in 1972-74, 1975-76, 1987, 1988, 1990-91, 1992-93, 1994-95,
1997-98, 2001-02 and 2002-03.
While global climate change may have something to do with increasing the frequency
and intensity of drought in the country, other factors have also contributed to making
Ethiopians more vulnerable to erratic or scarce rainfall. A high population growth rate,
4
FAO crop and food supply assessment mission report, January 2005
% of total population affected by drought
dwindling farm size, unjust patterns of land 25
tenure, inefficient farming techniques,

deforestation, and degraded soils have all 20
Moving average
contributed to chronic disaster. 15
As a result, not only the frequency of droughts 10
is increasing, but over the past 15 years the

share of drought affected population affected 5
appears to be rising5. 0
1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006
3.3 Temperature.
Ethiopia features extremely varied climatic conditions from cool to very cold in the
highlands where most of the population inhabits, to one of the hottest places on earth at
the Dallol Depression.
Most of Ethiopia was supposed to enjoy a tropical climate for its proximity to the
equator, but, due to the fact that most of the country‟s land mass stands over 1,500 m
(4,920 ft), this is not the case.
The climate is broadly divided into three zones. 30

Addis Abeba temperature and rain
12
 Dega (Cool Zone)-Areas above 2,600 25 10
masl where temperatures range from

temperature oC
20 8
rain days
near freezing to 16O Celsius. This is 15 6
where most alpine and afro-alpine 10 4
5 2
vegetation occurs.

0 0
Woyina Dega (Temperate Zone)-Areas Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Avg MAX temp Avg MIN temp Avg rain days
between 1,500 and 2,600 masl where
temperatures range from 16O Celsius to Gondar temperature and rain
30O Celsius. This is where most of the 35
30
9
8
population lives. 7
temperature oC
25
6

rain days
Qola (Hot Zone)-Areas below 1,500 masl 20 5
15 4
with both tropical and arid conditions 10
3
where temperatures range from 27O 5

2
1
Celsius to 50O Celsius. Bereha is a 0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
0
general term that refers to the extreme Avg MAX temp Avg MIN temp Avg rain days
form of Qola.
Awassa temperature and rain
35 18
30 16
The graphs provide an impression on annual 14
temperature oC
25
12
temperature and rainfall development in three
rain days
20 10
distinct areas. 15 8
6
10
4
5 2
0 0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Avg MAX temp Avg MIN temp Avg rain days
5
December 2004, UNESCO et al National Water Development Report for Ethiopia,
4 Agriculture and animal husbandry.

GDP and labour composition
The structure of the economy is dominated by
composition labour force

services
Division of
agriculture, which contributes 40.1% of the industry
country‟s gross domestic product (GDP), 90% agriculture
of the export earnings and 80% of the services
employment. The role of industry in the
GDP
industry
economy has always been very small. agriculture
Currently, the contribution of industry to GDP is
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
about 11%, and its share to employment is less
than 5% of the total labor force.
4.1 Agriculture. Major commodity exports 2001-2004
Traditionally, Ethiopia‟s most important 250.0
agricultural export commodity is coffee, 200.0

coffee
[Mtonnes]
followed by pulses, oil seeds and chat. Crops 150.0 pulses
contributing to household food security vary 100.0 oilseeds

chat
over the different areas, but include teff, wheat, 50.0
barley, maize, sorghum, finger millet and 0.0

2001/02 2002/03 2003/04
pulses.
Despite its immense contribution to the national

# of hh
Land holding distribution

3,000,000
economy, the agricultural sector is largely
characterized by subsistence farming. Frequent 2,500,000
droughts and poor cultivation practices
negatively impact production. 2,000,000
1,500,000
The average landholding is small; current
estimates mention about 1 ha per holding, and 1,000,000
under Ethiopian farming conditions often
insufficient to sustain the household ref014. The 500,000
table shows the landholding distribution for

19966. Ethiopia‟s population increased since -
< 0.10 0.10 - 0.51 - 1.01 - 2.01 - 5.01 - > 10
from 55 to 73 million, it is likely that the average 0.50 1.00 2.00 5.00 10.00
holding area [ha]
land holding has further reduced consequently.
The sector is nearly totally dependent on Share of arable land under irrigation
50%
rainfall, with only 2% of the total arable land 45%
being irrigated7. Ethiopia is the water tower of 40%

35%
the region with 110 billion m3 of surface water 30%

25%
with an irrigation potential of 3-5 million ha 20%
15%
excluding rainwater harvesting and 10%
5%
underground water. 0%
6
Source CSA Agricultural Sample Survey 1995/96 in ref 014.
7
CIA World fact Book
Currently, only 160,000 ha are under

irrigation8. The current level of irrigation
development is much lower than the 50% of
the over 600,000 ha of irrigable land that
should have been developed to meet the food
demand of the present population in addition to
what is being cultivated under rain fed
agriculture.
The proportion of area under improved seeds

is less than 3%. For 2004, the FAO estimated Small scale irrigated agriculture
that 12% of the maize and 8% of the wheat
sown would have originated from newly Production of cereals and pulses 2004/05 mener season
purchased improved varieties. The proportion 8000
cereals
of area treated with pesticides is less than 10%. pulses
This coupled with low fertilizer use, 6000
susceptibility to pest and disease and extensive

highland soil erosion has meant high variability 4000
in year to year agricultural production, which is
predominantly in the hands of peasants working 2000
smallholdings.
0
The relatively low productivity of Ethiopia‟s crop
ri
ar
ay
a
a
i
la
ra
iya
uz
al
ra
aw
eb
l
NP
Af
ha
be
gr
um
m
Ha
Ab
D
So
Ti
Am
SN
sub-sector is not only the result of the low
am
ro
re
O
s
G
ul
Di
di
ng
Ad
ha
adoption rate of the many yield enhancing
s
ne
Be
technologies, but also the poor promotion and
marketing schemes, Government policy Jan 28 2006 Ethiopia sees 15.1% increase in agricultural
towards tenure security and agricultural terms production in 2005-06
Addis Ababa - Ethiopian Prime Minister Meles Zenawi says the
of trade (price fluctuations between harvest of country's agricultural production indicates a 15.1 per cent
20% (teff) to over 50% (sorghum) are not increase during the current harvest season and its overall
economy would register a 'double-digit' growth at the end of the
exceptional). current fiscal year ending in June, the local press reported
Saturday.
Chemical fertilizer is recognized as one of the key means to increase agricultural yields.
Fertilizer use has been promoted under the previous as well as the current governments
with distribution systems, extension and credit. For the 1995/96 cropping season, the
average national application was 35 kg/ha for all holdings and 95 kg/ha for fertilizer-
using holdings ref014. This must represent a steep increase for that time, as slightly
earlier documents still mention an average national dosage of 10 kg/ha ref013.
Nevertheless, the application isstill far below the nutrient needs of the heavily cropped
soils.
Currently, the Government‟s extension programme, advises an economically optimum

application rate9 as 100 kg DAP and 100 kg Urea per ha for cereal crops.
8
Dr Alemneh Dejene, FAO, The Nexus of natural resources degradation, food security and poverty in the Ethiopian Highlands:
Towards sustainable agriculture and rural development, November 200
9
This rate produces a marginal rate of return of 100%
More recently, the profitability of fertilizer

application shows a declining trend, mainly as
a result of increasing input prices against
decreasing output prices.
The high population pressure, in particular in

the Ethiopian highlands, in combination with
the low adoption rate of improved agricultural
practices result in massive soil degradation
and a very high nutrient depletion (The
amount of soil lost is estimated at 2 billion tons
per annum ref012).
4.2 Animal husbandry.

The livestock population in Ethiopia is the
second largest in Africa, and ninth in the
world. Livestock includes over 44 million
cattle, 30 million small ruminants, 1 million
camels and 4.5 million equines. Animal
husbandry contributes to the livelihoods of
80% of the rural population. Livestock is an
integral part of the farming system and is
highly linked to land/soil and water resource
management.
Over-grazed communal lands
This sector too is characterized by a low-input
system based on common grazing and the use
of crop residues. Common grasslands provide
extensive pasture and browse for livestock in
most regions, but are particularly important to
livestock producers in the eastern regions of
Afar and Somali, the southern zones of Bale,
Borena and South Omo, and in the western
lowlands ranging from Gambella to Tigray.
In the highlands, livestock are kept under

settled or trans-human systems utilizing crop residues and common pastures and fallow
land which have high clover content. Such livestock includes some 14 million oxen
providing draught power for the mixed farming system that prevails.
Rapidly growing population in the face of limited agricultural productivity, very low rural
incomes, ever-increasing fragmentation of agricultural land and consequent
environmental degradation are some of the major problems from which the nation is
trying to extricate itself.
Dairy production.
Almost 99% of the cattle, sheep and goat population are
indigenous. The current national production of milk from cattle is
about 400 litres for a lactation period, whereas cross-breeds (1%
of the whole population) give 3000 litres over the same period.
There is serious degradation related to intensive cultivation, overgrazing, deforestation,

soil erosion, poor water control, shortage of livestock feed and fuelwood crisis. These
factors interact and lead to a vicious cycle often referred to as "the poverty, food
insecurity and natural resources degradation trap"10.
5 Energy demand & supply, policy and plans.

With less than 2% of Ethiopia‟s rural population having access to the national grid and
85% of the population living and working in rural areas – the lack of modern energy
severely restricts social and economic development. Therefore the government has
embarked upon a national energy access project that aims to increase electricity and
other modern energy sources to a much larger proportion of the population over the
next ten years.
Key issues are the availability, the relative cost The National Energy Policy in Ethiopia aims to satisfy the basic
(energy) needs of all households. The energy policy recognizes
of this energy, the sustainability and the the importance of energy as a means for sustainable development.
environmental acceptability when harnessed Key areas include:
 Priority development of hydro and traditional energy
for productive use. Except for petroleum, which resources.
is wholly imported, Ethiopia is endowed with  Diverse and enhanced biomass based technologies (biogas,
agricultural residue briquetting, ethanol production).
many types of indigenous energy resources.  Energy conservation technologies and measures.
Renewable energy sources such as hydro,
Vital to the development of the energy sector are:
solar, wind, etc. are available in reasonable  Self-reliance on indigenous resources.
quantities though they remain largely  Formulation of conducive sector regulations and directives.
untapped.  Ensuring of environmental sustainability.
In this respect, the Ethiopian Conservation Strategy adds:

5.1 The primary energy resource base.  A development process which integrates energy development
with conservation, environmental protection and sustainable
The main indigenous sources of energy are utilization of renewable resources;
biomass, hydropower, fossil fuels, natural gas,  Decentralized energy supply systems servicing remote areas;
 Institutional and regulatory arrangements stimulate efficient
coal, geothermal, solar and wind. To meet energy development and utilization.
domestic energy requirements, rural  Development of renewable energy resources shall be
preferred above the use of fossil energy.
populations use various forms of biomass  Energy development and planning shall be incorporated at
almost exclusively (e.g.: fuel wood, agricultural woreda and local development plans.
residues and animal wastes such as dung). In
addition to heavy dependency on biomass, there is limited use of electrical energy and
a generally low level of energy consumption. Ethiopia, whose economy depends almost
entirely upon subsistence agriculture, has had little need for electrical energy in the
past. Most agricultural products ere exported directly with only little processing of those
commodities that are consumed domestically. There has been awareness in Ethiopia
that to raise the standard of living would require a gradual shift from an agricultural
economy to one, which processes agriculture surpluses for foreign export as well as the
development of other basic light and heavy industries.
5.1.1 Renewable energy

Hydropower: The hydro resource of the country is said to be of immense potential. The
gross hydro potential of the country is estimated at 650TWh/year (CESEN, 1986). Out
10
Dr Alemneh Dejene, FAO, The Nexus of natural resources degradation, food security and poverty in the Ethiopian Highlands:
Towards sustainable agriculture and rural development, November 2003
of this potential, about 280TWh/year and 161TWh/year is believed to be technically and

economically feasible respectively.
Primary energy and domestic biogas.
Geothermal: This energy resource has proven
The mission estimates that the studied four regions accommodate
reserve, which is extended from Danakil between 1.1 and 3.5 million rural households with both sufficient
depression of Afar Region along the Rift Valley cattle dung as well as water to operate a domestic biogas
installation (see section 3 for details).
to the Kenyan border. About 7000 MW
potential exists from geothermal (the Lake Taking the lower estimate, these households could generate over
3
1.3 m biogas daily, equalling more than 11,000 TJ per year
district 170 MW, Southern Afar 120MW, domestic energy. Assuming that the biogas will be used primarily
Central Afar 260 MW and Danakil Depression for cooking, and that on average a household will use the stove for
2.5 hours per day, this would equal over 3500 MW installed power.
150 MW).
The investment for such a programme, including investment and
overhead, could be safely estimated at € 1000 per installation.
Biomass energy resources: The country's Power generation costs would thus result in approximately € 312 /
natural forest which was estimated to have kW.
40% before 50 years (45 million hectares) of
the total land area now covers less than 3% (!)
(3 million hectares) (EFAP, 1994). The total available woody biomass resources are
estimated to be around 1,389 million ton in terms of standing stock and about 26 million
ton in terms of annual sustainable yield.
Solar energy: Although Ethiopia is endowed

with vast solar energy resources, these are not Solar cooker provided by AATPI
readily used. Because of its proximity to the
equator, the country enjoys receiving adequate
sunshine throughout the year. For Ethiopia as
a whole, the average daily radiation reaching
the ground is 5.2 Kwh/m2. The minimum
annual average radiation is estimated to be 4.5
Kwh/m2 in July (the main rainy season) to a
maximum of 5.55 Kwh/m2 in February and
March. The radiation reaching the ground,
however, varies significantly from one area- to
another as well as from season to season
(EEA, 2002).
Wind power: The wind energy potential of the country varies from place to place and
from season to season, as the energy is absolutely seasonal and dependent on the
velocity. In the western part of the country, the average wind speed at 10m a.g.l. is
3.5m/s. In the Rift Valley and eastern part of the country, the average values range
between 3.5-5.5m/s (CESEN, 1986). From this wind speeds an estimated power level of
65W/m^2 and 200W/m^2 can be obtained. In addition, an average wind speed of
6.7m/s, at 10masl was observed in recent wind speed measurement carried out in the
Mekele area. This justifies that the location is suitable for an economic operation of wind
speed turbines (Benjamin, 2004).
5.1.2 Non-Renewable Energy

Oil and Natural Gas: Exploration for oil and natural gas has been carried out to date.
Recent sub surface drilling data confirmed the presence of 100-120 million ton of oil
shale deposit at Delbi area (Tibebe M., Haile Michael F., 2003). There is also proven
natural gas reserve of 108 billion m3 or 2.7 trillion cubic feet in Calub field alone
(Asress, 2002).
Coal: A number of coal deposit sites have been identified in certain parts of the country.
The total coal deposit of the country is estimated about 178 million tons (Tibebe M.,
Haile Michael F., 2003). The deposit quality varies from high quality to lignite category
with low heating value, high ash content and low quality, but some of them can be
exploited for household and industrial use as alternative source of energy.
700000
Energy consumption
5.2 The macro perspective. 600000
Petroleum
Electricity
The energy sector in Ethiopia is also one of the 500000
Charcoal
Dung
least developed in the world. The country‟s Crop residues
400000
annual energy consumption amounts to ~ Woody biomass
[TJ]
746.000 TJ, equalling 130 GJ per capita per 300000
annum. Over 94% of the total consumption is 200000
supplied by biomass. 100000
0
Urban hh Rural hh Agriculture Transport Industries Services
Energy consumption by sector and by source [TJ]

Woody
biomass Crop residues Dung Charcoal Electricity Petroleum Total
Urban hh 34969 2824 3263 5856 1832 4161 52905 7.1%

Rural hh 507172 49186 50629 2709 3171 612867 82.1%
Agriculture 1497 1497 0.2%
Transport 26743 26743 3.6%
Industries 17101 1409 1396 112 1864 4573 26455 3.5%
Services 22110 1031 1046 109 1145 331 25772 3.5%
Total 581352 54450 56334 8786 4841 40476 746239

77.9% 7.3% 7.5% 1.2% 0.6% 5.4% 100.0%
source EREDPC 1999
With over 94% of the total consumption Electricity consumption / capita

350
supplied by biomass, wood contributing the lion 300
share, Ethiopia is third in the list of countries 250
using traditional fuels11.

[kW/yr]
200
150
100
In line with the above, the per capita electric 50
energy consumption in Ethiopia is –even in the 0

Ethiopia Kenya Tanzania Sudan Djibouti
regional context, extremely low at 28 KW/year.
11
World Bank 2002
Dung Charcoal Electricity Petroleum
8% 1% 1% 5%
Electrification rates are correspondingly low; the

national electrification rate is 10% overall, Crop residues
7%
dropping below 1%12 for rural Ethiopia (average
rural electrification in sub-Saharan Africa
amounts to 4%).
Woody biomass
Nearly 90% of the total energy consumption is Energy consumption by source 78%
for residential use with the main purpose being Transport Industries Services Urban hh
4% 4% 3% 7%
cooking and baking. Agriculture
0%
The recent woody biomass study has compiled

data on each regions woody biomass stocks.
Standing stock is some 1,187 million tons with
an annual increment of 52.5 million tons13. Rural hh
Consumption is detailed as some 48.7 million Energy consumption by sector
82%
tons.
Including dead wood as fuel, there is a sustainable biomass supply of some 60.9 million
tons. This suggests there is no overall deficit but that the problem of deficits is local and
not national. The margins, however, are very small, as witnessed by the constinuously
declining forest cover of the country
forest cover
15500
Out of 482 Woredas surveyed, 336 were 15000
y = -140.93x + 295562
consuming more than their annual increment 14500

[ha * 1000]
and this is especially the case for Woredas in 14000
the highland areas. The demand and supply of 13500
construction poles is becoming a serious 13000
12500
problem that cannot be ignored in reforestation 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006
programmes.
Fuelwood burning contributes to deforestation

with biomass fuels supplying nearly 95 percent
of the country's energy market. The countries
forest cover diminishes –quite linearly- with
141000 ha per year over the past 15 years
(other sources noting a deforestation rate at
100,000 to 200,000 ha annually). The current
national forest cover is claimed to be below
3%.
Degraded slopes
“Poverty is both cause and effect of environmental degradation”
“
12
Aklilu Dalelu (PhD), Rural electrification in Ethiopia: Opportunities and Bottlenecks 2001(?)
13
World Bank ISPP, 2003.
There are significant regional differences, with

the forest coverage in Amhara region
reportedly down to 3%, and the Tigray region
is probably worse-off. At the other hand, forest
coverage in parts of South and West Ethiopia
is still lush at places.
5.3 The micro perspective

The staple food in Ethiopia is injerra. A large
(60 cm diameter) spongy pancake made of
fermented teff dough. A family would at least
once, but often twice a day, eat injerra with
vegetable or meat sauce (wot).
Traditionally, injerra is baked in batches (20 to Traditional “metad”

40 at a time), mostly two times a week on a
clay plate over an open fire. By its nature –clay
plate at > 150oC, large diameter and open fire-
these traditional “metads” have a high energy
consumption (stove efficiency ~ 7%); an
average family would burn 10 kg of fuelwood
per session for baking injerra only. Injerra
baking may account to up to 60% of the total
energy consumption of a household
Improved, more efficient stoves have been

disseminated in Ethiopia over a long period.
Especially the cement “Mirte metad” is
promoted intensively, but improved clay
metads (Lakech, charcoal) and traditional
closed stoves (especially in Tigray) are –
locally- well known too. The Mirte metad
claims to reduce fuelwood consumption by
50%. The local clay models reportedly are only
slightly worse (Lakech 25%, local closed
metad, 40% savings).
In addition, the sauce (“wot”) that comes with

the injerra is cooked as well. Traditionally in
clay pots (although these are slowly “Mirte” improved metad
disappearing) and simmering over a long time.
The result is a delicious but very energy-intensive dish. Fuelwood consumption was
reported to be over 700 kg per capita per year (a WB/UNDP assessment from 1984
mentioning 2 kg/cap/day for cooking only ref 013), whereby metads are often fired with
branches, leaves and twigs (BLT) and agricultural residue.
Fuelwood supply is getting scarce in Ethiopia

as the supply source dwindles, being
substituted by other forms of biomass fuels like
dung, BLT and agricultural residue. In 1986-87,
the demand for fuelwood exceeded supply by
twofold with 42 million cubic metres while
supply remained at 24 million cubic metres. By
2000, demand exceeded by four times
reaching 58 million m3 while supply dwindled to
11 million m3. The alternative use of dung and
crop residues as fuel instead of organic
fertilizers affects crop productivity significantly Collection of eucalyptus leaves
when most farmers cannot afford to buy
chemical fertilizer.
Commercial drying and storage of dung cake
Although data from different sources do not
always match, calculations would indicate
dung cake use amounts to some 2.5 tons per
household per year.
Observations and interviews second the

impression of fuel scarcity in rural Ethiopia. In
Amhara region, the fuelwood demand (17
million tons) outnumbers the supply (3.6
million tons) near five fold. Many interviewed
households in Tigray indicated that they were
not using fuelwood at all anymore because it became too expensive.
As a result, the cost of domestic energy is high and rapidly increasing. In many parts of
the country dung cake and agricultural residue is (rapidly becoming) a commercial
energy source, traded on markets. At places, air dried dung cake can sell for as much
as ETB 1 per piece of ~ 250 grams and families storing dung cakes for sale are not an
exception in large parts of Orromia, Amhara and Tigray.
At the Bahr Dar market charcoal is sold at ETB

1.50 to 1.70 per kg, and fuelwood at ETB 0.60
to 0.80 per kg. The bureau of Agriculture
reported that these prices have tripled over the
past four years. Much of the fuelwood,
charcoal, dung cake and agricultural waste at
the market is transported in and out over large
(>30 km are no exception) distances.
Bahr Dar fuelwood market
5.4 The energy sub-sector institutional set-up

The Ministry of Rural Development: Established in 2001, and responsible for initiating
rural development policies, (such as rural electrification) ensuring conducive
environment for development are created, supporting regions in expanding rural
development as well as monitoring the Food Security Program.
The Ministry of Water Resources: Responsible for formulating national sectoral policies
and strategies concerning the protection and utilization of water resources, issuing
permits to construct and operate water works, determining the conditions and methods
required for the optimum allocation and utilization of water that flows across or lies
between more than one regional government. The Ministry of Water Resources has
also responsibilities in the study, design and supervision of medium-large scale
hydropower projects.
The Ministry of Infrastructure: The Ministry was established in 2001, and one of its
responsibilities is to look into the expansion of the energy development in the country
and promote the growth and expansion of the country's electric energy supply. It also
supervises the activities of the Ethiopian Electric Agency and the Ethiopian Electric
Power Corporation.
The Ethiopian Electricity Agency (EEA): The agency was established in 1997.
According to proclamation No. 86/1997, the objective of the Agency is to promote the
development of efficient, reliable high quality and economical electricity services. The
EEA is the government‟s regulatory body ongeneration, transmission, distribution and
sale of electricity are carried out in accordance with the stated proclamation.
The Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation (EEPCO):The Ethiopian Electric Light and
Power Authority (EELPA), the sole Government agency since its establishment in 1956
was responsible for generating, transmission, distribution and sales of electric energy
throughout the country on the principles of commercialization and decentralization of
electricity nationwide until it was restructured and reorganized in 1997 and became a
public company called EEPCo (Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation) with its board of
management designated by government.
The Ethiopia Rural Energy Development and Promotion Centre (EREDPC): Established
in 2002 with the objective to create an enabling environment for the development and
promotion of rural energy resources and technologies. It is thus responsible among
others, to identify the energy resources suitable for the rural areas, study the energy
demand, supply and consumption patterns of the rural areas, evaluate the social,
economic and environmental impacts of using various energy sources and
technologies, raise the awareness of the rural community and provide trainings
concerning the production, distribution, utilization and conservation of energy.
The Rural Electrification Fund (REF): Established in 2003 with the objectives to provide
loans and technical services for rural electrification projects on renewable energy
sources carried out by private operators, cooperatives and local communities as well as
to encourage the utilization of electricity for production and social welfare purposes in
the rural areas. The Fund is to be operated by the Rural Electrification Board and an
Executive Secretariat. The Secretariat is responsible among others, to review
applications from rural electrification project sponsors and decide upon them based on
the criteria set by the Board, sets out criteria for the selection of Trust Agents, prepare
directives and selection criteria and procedures for the issuance of loans, promote and
support access to and productive use of electricity in the rural areas, as well as facilitate
and co-ordinate the rural electrification programme activities with other rural
development programmes.
5.5 Domestic energy in summary

The most prominent issues in Ethiopia‟s domestic energy sector include:
 Heavy reliance on biomass fuels,
 By tradition a relatively high domestic energy consumption,
 Low levels of renewable energy and/or energy efficiency technology,
 Energy demand in most (visited) areas significantly exceeds the supply.
As a result:
 Fuelwood is over-harvested in many areas, contributing to deforestation of
already ecologically sensitive areas,
 Fuelwood and charcoal have been and are rapidly becoming more expensive.
 Households (and to a large extend institutions) cope by substituting fuelwood
with dung cake and agricultural residue.
The –often painfully obvious- consequences include:

 Massively denuded areas, particularly in Tigray, Amhara and the Rift Valley
 Further degradation of soils, large eroded areas with gullies, further reduction of
soil fertility.
 Reducing agricultural productivity, both for cropping as well as livestock.
6 Biogas. Substance Symbol %

When any organic matter such as animal Methane CH4 50 – 70
dung, crop residue or kitchen waste is Carbon dioxide CO 2 30 – 40
fermented in the absence of oxygen, biogas is Hydrogen H2 5 – 10
generated. Biogas contains combustible Water vapour H2O 0.3
methane (~ 60%) along with carbon dioxide Hydrogen Sulphide H 2 S Traces
and traces of other gasses. This gas can serve Source: biogas handbook Nepal
as a convenient fuel for a variety of applications such as cooking, lighting and motive
power. The bio-slurry that comes out of the plant after the gas is produced can be used
–directly or as a composting agent- as organic manure to augment soil fertility. Thus,
biogas technology produces fuel without impairing the fertilizer value of the dung.
Biogas production is a bio-chemical process
occurring in three stages: hydrolysis; Anaerobic digestion process
Complex organic matter
acidogenesis and methanogenesis, during Fermentative bacteria
which different bacteria act upon the organic
matter resulting in the formation of methane Hydrolysis
Organic acids alcohols
and acids. The main factors influencing biogas

production are the level of acidity of the CH COOH Acetate H +C HCOOH Formate
Acidogenesis 3 2 2
feedstock and the temperature. It is well
established that biogas plants work best with a Acetogenic bacteria
near to neutral solution and a temperature of CH +CO

around 350C.
CH +CO 4 2
4 2
Methanogenesis Methanogenic bacteria
6.1 Benefits of domestic biogas

Biogas
The benefits of biogas in energy supply,
agriculture, health, sanitation, gender and environment are well documented. There are
a number of aspects of biogas production that have multiple benefits:
Animal dung and night soil is collected regularly and fed into the biogas plant, this:
 reduces pollution: that leads to a cleaner farm environment;
 reduces human and animal disease: by improving sanitary conditions related to
bad sanitation and polluted surface water for both the household and the greater
catchment-area, and;
 reduces greenhouse gas emissions: depending on the traditional manure
handling, the improved manure management system can significantly reduce
GHG emissions.
The generated gas substitutes conventional fuels. In doing so, biogas:

 reduces indoor air pollution: that is caused by incomplete combustion of
conventional fuels is minimized, resulting in a reduction of eye and respiratory
illnesses particularly of those most heavily exposed to smoke namely women and
children;
 reduces workload: especially in regards to fetching firewood, maintaining the fire
and cleaning cooking pots. The use of biogas can reduce workload by 2 to 3
hours per day, particularly the workload of women and children;
 reduces fuel expenses: traditional domestic fuels increasingly become part of the
formal economy. Biogas significantly decreases consumption of these traditional
sources;
 increases opportunities to use appliances: such as gas lamps and water heaters;
 reduces greenhouse gas emissions: from the conventional energy sources;
 reduces deforestation: by reducing the demand for firewood;
 provides income generation opportunities: by providing an energy source for
technologies and activities such as incubators, kilns, lanterns and cooking flame
that is a new resource or more cost effective than previous sources.
The residue of the anaerobic process - bio-slurry-, is a potent organic fertilizer. When
used in this way it can:
 provide a superior organic fertiliser: in terms of available nutrients and soil
texture, increasing agricultural yields with 20-40%.
 provide a catalyser for composting other agricultural waste: Applying this practice
increases the amount and quality of organic fertilizer;
 improve handling safety: of residue due to the fact that the process of digestion
followed by composting makes handling of the residue much safer from a
hygienic point of view;
 reduce chemical fertiliser costs of farmers: by reducing the amount of synthetic
fertiliser used;
 reduce greenhouse gas emissions: through avoiding the application and
production of synthetic fertiliser
 enables farmers to participate in animal husbandry in areas in which discharge
regulations would otherwise have been prohibitive: anaerobic digestion reduces
odour and environmental load resulting from livestock holding.
These benefits, although not all equally tangible, do not only profit the investor, but have
an impact on the community at meso and macro levels as well. (See also the biogas
tangibility matrix in Section 4.3)
6.2 Biogas & Sustainable Development Bruntland & biogas

Sustainable development covers three The generally accepted definition of Sustainable development,
aspects of society - economic, social and published in the Bruntland Report in 1987:
environmental. Biogas contributes to these "Sustainable development is development that meets the
three aspects of sustainable development in needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs."
the following ways:
Domestic biogas is compatible with the Bruntland definition by:
Domestic biogas digesters contribute to  meeting household energy and income generation needs;
 reducing greenhouse gas emissions
economic development because:  reduces reliance on fire wood therefore pressure on forest
 The expenses for domestic energy are resources
 reduces ground and surface water pollution
significantly reduced.  reduces reliance on non-renewable energy sources and
 The labour required to maintain raises the profile of renewable energy technology
 providing a long term solution to pollution and energy needs
traditional energy systems (such as  reducing reliance on chemical fertizer and improving soil
firewood collection) can be used in condition and fertility through proper application of bio-slurry
more directly economically productive
ways.
 Substitution of petroleum products will reduce the countries foreign exchange
demand.
 Application of bio-slurry increases the yield and reduces the need` -and
expenses- for synthetic fertilizer.
 A vibrant biogas sector creates significant employment and related economic
activities, particularly in rural areas.
 Reduced disease (human and animal) can improve productivity.
Domestic biogas digesters contribute to social development because:

 The reduction in domestic workload, particularly for women and children,
increases opportunities for education and other social activities.
 Respiratory illnesses resulting from indoor air pollution and gastro-enteric
diseases as a result of poor sanitary conditions reduce significantly.
 In rural areas, biogas digesters often initiate innovation (education, sanitation,
agriculture).
 Increase awareness of alternative farming and animal husbandry practices and
environmental impacts of behaviour.
Domestic biogas digesters contribute to environmental development as follows:

 Substituting conventional fuels and synthetic fertilizer, and changing traditional
manure management systems, biogas installations reduce the emission of
greenhouse gasses significantly.
 Bio-slurry improves soil texture, thus reducing degradation, and reduces the
need for further land encroachment.
 Reduction of firewood use contributes to checking deforestation and reduces
forest encroachment.
 Improved manure management practices reduce ground and surface water
pollution, odour and improve aesthetics.
6.3 Biogas & the United Nations Millennium Development Goals.

Domestic biogas programmes contribute to reaching the UN-MDGs in the following
ways:
MDG 1 Eradicate extreme poverty and Biogas and the World Summit on Sustainable Development
hunger. As a follow-up to the Rio Summit of 1992, the World Summit on
Target 1: To halve extreme poverty Sustainable Development was held in Johannesburg in 2002.
Energy was highlighted as a key topic for discussion as it was felt
In general, households who install biogas are that there had not been enough focus on it at the previous summit.
not amongst the poorest of the poor due to the As with the previous Plan of Implementation, waste management,
pollution control and social sustainability were highlighted.
fact that for a biogas plant to function a
household must have a minimum number of The Plan of Implementation states that about two billion people, or
one third of the world's population, presently lack access to
animals that is often more than a very poor electricity or modern energy services and rely on burning firewood
family has. However, the biogas or biomass to meet their cooking and heating needs. Meeting the
energy needs of these people with modern energy services was a
dissemination process and the resulting major issue at the Summit, and governments committed
reduced claim on common ecosystem services themselves to "improving access to reliable, affordable,
economically viable, socially acceptable and environmentally
do affect the livelihood conditions of (very) sound energy services and resources."
poor non-biogas households as well. For example:

 Construction and installation of biogas creates employment for landless rural
people
 Biogas saving on the use of traditional cooking fuels increases the availability of
these fuels for (very) poor members of the community
 Pollution control and waste management benefit all members of the community
MDG 3 Promote gender equality and empower women.

Target 4: Eliminate gender disparity in education
It is predominantly women and girls who spend the most time and effort providing
traditional energy services and using a domestic energy supply. Biogas directly benefits
this group in the following ways:
 Biogas can provide light that helps women and girls to extend the amount of time
in the day that they can study and gain access to education and information or
engage in economic activities.
 Domestic biogas reduces the workload of women by reducing the need to collect
firewood, tend fires and clean the soot from cooking utensils. This can save on
average 2-3 hours per household per day
 The reduced smoke from replacing traditional fire wood stoves with biogas can
improve the health of women (and children) who are most exposed to the
dangers of wood smoke.
 The provision of biogas can provide an additional or more cost effective home
based energy source that can enable women to participate in home based
enterprises to generate additional income or at least generate income in a way
that suits their life and obligations.
MDG 4 Reduce child mortality.

Target 5: Reduce by two-thirds the under-five mortality rate
Half of the world‟s population cooks with traditional (mostly biomass based) energy
fuels. Indoor air pollution from burning of these fuels kills over 1.6 million people each
year, out of which indoor smoke claims nearly one million children‟s (<5) lives per year.
Diseases that result from a lack of basic sanitation, and the consequential water
contamination, cause an even greater death toll, particularly under small children (<5
mortality caused by diarrhoea is approximately 1.5 million persons per year).
 Biogas stoves substitute conventional cook stoves and energy sources, virtually
eliminating indoor smoke pollution and, hence, the related health risks that
particularly affect children who are often
heavily exposed to indoor smoke. Biogas and the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
 Biogas significantly improves the As part of the implementation of the MDGs, the Millennium
Ecosystem Assessment was released in March 2005. This
sanitary condition of the farm yard and assessment examined the relationship between ecosystems and
its immediate surrounding, lowering the achieving the MDGs. It not only found that not sustainable
ecosystem management and development are imperative for
exposure of household members to reaching the MDGs, but moreover that ecological limits to
harmful infections especially children worldwide growth will affect both developed and developing
countries.
who spend extended periods in the
farm yard. In addition to providing predictions and evidence the assessment
 Proper application of bio-slurry will provided a series of proposed responses and interventions. Biogas
programmes have elements that are relevant to each of these
responses and interventions.
improve agricultural production (e.g. vegetable gardening), thus contributing to

food security for the community.
MDG 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases.

Target 8: Halt / reverse the incidence of malaria and other major diseases
Indoor air pollution and poor sanitary conditions annually cause millions of premature
deaths.
 Biogas virtually eliminates health risks (e.g. respiratory diseases, eye ailments,
burning accidents) associated with indoor air pollution.
 Biogas improves on-yard manure and night-soil management, thus improving
sanitary conditions and protecting freshwater sources, lowering the exposure to
harmful infections generally related with polluted water and poor sanitation.
MDG 7 Ensure environmental sustainability

Domestic biogas can help to achieve sustainable use of natural resources, as well as
reducing (GHG) emissions, which protects the local and global environment. Application
of bio-slurry increases soil structure and fertility, and reduces the need for application of
chemical fertilizer.
Target 9: Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies and
program and reverse the loss of environmental resources.
 Large scale domestic biogas programmes positively influences national policies
on sustainable development (e.g. agriculture, forestation, poverty reduction)
 Biogas programmes usually comply with and support government policies and
programmes that have positive environmental impacts including pollution control,
green house gas emission reduction and forestation
Target 10: Halve the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking
water and basic sanitation.
 Biogas reduces fresh water pollution as a result of improved management of
dung.
 Connection of the household toilet to the biogas plant significantly improves the
sanitary conditions in the farmyard therefore reducing the risk of water
contamination.
6.4 Biogas & PASDEP.

Ethiopia‟s guiding strategic development framework of the period 2005 to 2010 -the
Plan for Accelerated and Sustained Development to End Poverty- is largely compatible
with the MDG requirements. The PASDEP argues that to have a lasting impact on
poverty and to finance the necessary social investment for human development,
economic growth should be to the tune of 8% p.a. for the next ten years; about double
of the country‟s current economic performance.
The report urges for progress on 8 major areas, hereunder the relevancy of domestic
biogas regarding improvement in those areas is briefly discussed.
Agriculture: because it still represents the bulk of economic activity, especially in rural
areas, and because the potential to shift to higher-valued crops has not yet been
exploited.
Biogas reduces the workload of the farming household (fuelwood collection, cooking,
cleaning kitchen utensils, weeding of vegetable fields), so increasing the labour
availability for productive agricultural activity.
Bio-slurry, properly applied, is a powerful organic fertilizer, potentially increasing yields
with 10 to 40%. Organic produce fits well into a high-value crop policy.
Much more rapid development of the modern private sector; because there is no other
sustainable way to generate high growth in the long term, nor to create the millions of
off-farm jobs that are needed.
A domestic biogas programme is relatively (non-agricultural, skilled) labour intensive,
providing good quality employment opportunities (see “expected results, section 5.4)
Exploitation of niches markets and opportunities wherever they present themselves,

such as tourism, mining, and production of spices.
Applying bio-slurry, farmers can embark up on growing organic crops, a high value
niche market.
A major expansion of exports, and diversification beyond coffee, which has been
subject to declining prices; in order to fuel growth, to widen the economic base and
reduce susceptibility to shocks, to earn essential foreign exchange, and, in the longer-
term, to reduce the dependency on foreign aid;
Organic produce could be an export commodity. Biogas can replace kerosene for
lightning, thus reducing foreign exchange expenditure.
Infrastructure: to better link markets and producers, to enable business to take place, to
lower the costs of international trade and improve Ethiopia’s competitiveness, and to
allow people easier access to essential services.
No direct link with domestic biogas.
A continued increase in the education and skill levels of the workforce.

A domestic biogas programme implies a significant investment in training and education
of –in particular- the rural population (see section 5.4).
Unleashing the potential of Ethiopia’s 35 million women – because they represent a

major under-used resource, and although they already do much of the country’s work,
they tend to be trapped in low-productivity occupations, in part due to lower education
levels; their potential is held back by poorer health, and repeated and dangerous
pregnancies; and much of their time is consumed with low return tasks such as the
gathering of water and fuel wood.
Studies in Asia revealed the households switching to biogas reduce the workload
related with fuelwood collection, cooking and cleaning of kitchen utensils with 2 to 3
hours per day. Typically, women and girls are involved in these activities. Hence, biogas
improves the development conditions and opportunities for women and girls.
Biogas eliminates indoor smoke pollution and improves on-yard sanitary conditions.
Women and children benefit from this improvement disproportional, further improving
the developmental opportunities of women.
Slowing the rate of population growth: because if there continues to be an additional 2

million persons per year, all other interventions will have very limited impact – it will be
impossible to produce enough food, provide enough land, create enough jobs, or
finance enough health and education services to keep up.
Biogas in general improves the livelihood of households. In the long run, this will reduce
the requirement for large families.
6.5 History and current status of domestic biogas in Ethiopia.

Biogas technology was introduced in Ethiopia as early as 1979, when the first batch-
type digester was constructed at Ambo Agricultural College. Attempting to ease the
impact of the energy crisis of the 70s, the Ethiopian Rural Energy Development and
Promotion Centre introduced new and renewable energy into rural areas of the
country14. The focus of the programme was
(and largely is) foremost on introduction and Fixed dome plant, Mekane Jesus, SNNPRS
demonstration pilots.
Anaerobic technologies are not widespread in

Ethiopia. In 1991 the EEA reported 103 biogas
installations constructed by 9 different
institutions / organizations ref 013. Early 2000,
reports mention less than 350 household
digesters (up to 30m3), a “small number of
institutional biogas installations (up to 100 m3),
6 community bio-latrines, and 4 bio-digester
septic tanks15. In addition, EREDPC mentions
the introduction of the cheaper “plastic bag” biogas plants16.
Recently, World Vision Ethiopia introduced biogas under its Appropriate Agricultural
Technology Promotion Initiative (AATPI). So far, some 150 plants have been
constructed (or are in the process of being so). In all, the total number of domestic
biogas plants would be in the range of 600 to 700 installations.
Section 2 of the report presents the observations of the study regarding to the visited
biogas installations.
14
EREDPC, Ministry of Energy & Mines, Ethiopia; Indicative dissemination strategies of biogas energy in Ethiopia
15
Christopher Kellner, Bio digester septic tank and bio latrine, construction of standardized systems for utilization and demonstration
16
Dr. Getachew Eshete et al, Identification study on renewable energy and energy efficiency in SNNPRS and Ethiopia.
Report on
Demolished floating drum installation
Section 2
Study findings.
2 Study findings Page 27
1 Study objectives
The objective of the study is to thoroughly assess the feasibility to set-up and implement
a national biogas programme in Ethiopia17. More specifically, the study will address the
following areas:
- Country background including agricultural & livestock sector, energy demand and
supply, energy policy and plans;
- History of domestic biogas;
- Potential demand for domestic biogas;
- Possible institutional set-up for a national biogas programme, and;
- Outline for a national programme on domestic biogas.
1.1 Methodologies
The following activities and methodologies are proposed:
A. Preparation of a mission to Ethiopia by collecting secondary information,
contacting key respondents and informants in Ethiopia and abroad, and drafting
checklists for biogas plant visits and interviews;
B. Mission to Ethiopia to visit domestic biogas plants constructed in the past, to
meet with key respondents and informants for interview and discussion. The
mission shall include a workshop to discuss with the main stakeholders the roles
of the different actors in Ethiopia and the outline of a possible national biogas
programme;
C. Formulation of the draft study report and submission for comment to
SNV/Ethiopia, members of the Biogas Practice Team (BPT) of SNV, RNE in
Addis Ababa and DGIS/DMW.
D. Submission of the final study report by incorporating the comment from
SNV/Ethiopia, members of the BPT, RNE/Addis Ababa and DGIS/DMW.
1.2 Limitations
The study team necessarily had to be selective in its destinations; the lowlands in the
East and South East, with large migratory cattle herds, and the South-West with its
large forests were not visited as the biogas potential can be expected to be relatively
low in those areas.
Over 4 weeks, the study team travelled large parts of North-West, North and South
Ethiopia, visited many (ex) biogas households, some non-biogas households and
interviewed many organizations that directly or indirectly are involved in domestic
energy and rural development. Even so, in the period available, the team cannot claim
to have a full and in-depth picture of the domestic energy situation in Ethiopia.
“Feasibility” is multi-facetted; this study focused more on socio-economic, energy &

environmental, technical and organizational / institutional aspects, and less on
commercial / marketing aspects. As such, the study may indicate the potential market
for biogas, but to a much lesser extent the active, commercial demand.
17
The ToR for the study is provided as annex 1 to the report
2 Study observations
The study team travelled some 4000 km over a period of 3 weeks in the North-West, the
North and the South of Ethiopia. The visited
Travel map
regions included Orromia, Amhara, Tigray and
the Southern Nations, Nationalities and
Peoples Regional States (SNNPRS). A brief
description of the 4 regions is provided in
Annex 2.
Apart from visiting relevant (government and

non government) organizations, the team
visited sites showing domestic biogas plants
(57), bio-industrial biogas installations (5),
institutional installations (3) and community
biogas / sanitation facilities (1). The map
provides an impression of the area covered.
2.1 Types of installations visited

Of the 57 domestic biogas plant sites visited, 25 were of the “fixed dome” design and 32
of the “floating drum” design.
 The fixed dome plants visited resulted from
 The World Vision AATPI programme
 Christopher Kellner‟s efforts within and outside the GTZ / Lupo programme
 An older Mekane Jesus (the Evangelical Church of Ethiopia) programme.
 All floating drum installations were
Fixed dome plant
constructed under governmental
demonstration / pilot programmes over the
past 13 years or so.
The oldest installations visited dated back

some 12 to 14 years. Most of the older plants
were government-built floating drum
installations, although the “Mekane Jesus”
fixed dome plant south of Arba Minch is
believed to be some 12 years old as well.
The youngest installations visited were the

fixed dome plants constructed with the support
of the AATPI programme of World Vision.
These plants were only just in operation at the
time of visiting.
In general, most plants, even the dismantled

ones, showed evidence of decent
workmanship.
Floating drum plant
2.2 Functionality
Overall, 60% of the visited installations were not functioning –i.e. gas could not be
utilized- at the time of the visit. Fixed dome installations (68% functioning) were scoring
significantly better than floating drum installations (16% functioning).
With this observation it should be noted that SNV feasbility study

World Vision recently started the AATPI18 100%
programme in Tigray and Oromia, for which

80%
fixed dome installations are constructed. The
study team visited a fair share of the World
60%
Vision installations. Many of the floating drum
installations, on the other hand, are up to 14
40%
years old. Obviously, the chance that
installations become dysfunctional increases
20%
with time, putting floating drum plants at a
disadvantage in the study‟s selection.
0%
Main causes for non-functioning of the visited Fixed dome Floating drum Overall
installations include:
2.2.1 Technical problems:

 Mainly smaller issues, like water
trapped in the piping, unprotected piping
damaged by cattle, broken stoves and
biogas lamps, leaking gas-hoses.
 Occasionally major technical issues like
broken digesters and inlet pipes were
observed.
 The nearly-total absence of technical
back-up services clearly aggravates the
impact of smaller technical problems.
Meeting with plant owners desperate for Indian double biogas stove
technical advice and assistance was no
exception for the study team.
 Many of the observed problems could
Structural damage
be solved with less than half a day work
of a skilled technician and little
investment to the extent that the team
could even repair some of the break
downs during the visit.
2.2.2 Water shortage:

 Particularly around Dessie, Amhara
region, a remarkably high share of older
(floating drum) plants was not in
operation. Most of these plants would
18
Word Vision Appropriate Agricultural Technology Promotion Initiative
seem principally operable; we were reported that a severe drought some six
years ago (1998) not only had its toll on the cattle holding (households reporting
that they had to sell of their entire herd of 30 cattle) but also caused drying up of
many water wells, making water-availability “suddenly” a major issue.
 In other places too, the large distance to the water source was reported to be the
reason to stop operating the plant, often in relation with children leaving the
house (thus reducing the energy requirement of the household as well as the
“free” labour of the children for fetching water).
2.2.3 Dung shortage:

 Sometimes induced by droughts, and sometimes a result of changing cattle
holding style.
 In other cases the amount of available dung was clearly not in relation with the
expectations the farmers were lead to believe. This was particularly true for
households that –with all good intentions- were provided a biogas metad; without
exception, all of those households reported that insufficient gas prevents using
the biogas metad.
Dismantled drum
2.2.4 Abandoned:
 Few plants were abandoned; families
move, and a biogas plant cannot be
moved along (although one household
did take the steel drum of the floating
drum plant).
2.2.5 “Loss of interest”:

 In a few cases, break downs were
claimed that did not add up with the
observations, very simple repairs would
be carried out for years, etc. Obviously, owners lost interest in operating the
plant, but the underlying cause was not always clear.
The findings of the study team are supported by REDPC technical & socio-economic assessment
100%
the findings of the Ethiopian Rural Energy
Development & Promotion Centre (EREDPC) in
80%
their (unpublished) study report of about half a
year earlier ref 008.
60%
This study found a higher share of functioning

40%
floating drum plants. The explanation could be
that many of the floating drum plants our study
20%
team visited were actually reported to be just
out of action. 0%
Fixed dome Floating drum Overall
The REPDC report mentions lack of water; reduced animal holding; abandoned
(resettlement); loss of interest; management, and; minor technical problems as causes
for the installation not functioning.
An even less encouraging report came from the Amhara Mines & Rural Energy and
Promotion Office: of the batch of 54 floating drum biogas plants constructed in the
period 10 to 12 years ago, a report of 2003 claimed none of them was still working.
Similarly, the Bureau of Energy of the SNNPRS surveyed 78 installations constructed

between 1989 and 2004: Out of the 65 floating drum installations, 19 were functioning
and out of 6 fixed dome plants only 1 was functioning. Of 7 plants of which the type was
not indicated, 4 were in function.
Also on the 103 installation reported in 1991 by the EEA, Mr. Melis Teka Nega reports:
Almost all of the plants were not working after some time due to19:
 Installations not were constructed from with the farmers‟ interest in mind, but
rather with a political motive;
 Gas management, every family was cooking at the same time
 Labour contribution for feeding the installation.
Biogas plant investment comparision
2.3 Economics
900
Euro
800
2.3.1 Investment costs. 700
600
The reported investment costs for domestic 500
400
biogas plants range from some ETB 6,000 to 300
200
12,000 for fixed dome installations (8 to 20m3). 100
0
Floating drum plants are more expensive, and Ethiopia Nepal Vietnam
would typically start at ETB 8,000 for the

smallest size of 8 m3 digester volume. In these reports, it was not always clear to which
extent the farmer contributed to the costs (in kind or in cash) and how far these costs
were included in the reported investment.
A detailed Bill of Quantities from 1995 informs on the costs of a 8 m3 floating drum
installation. In this BoQ the total costs amounted to ETB 8,451 (materials ETB 7,268 +
labour ETB 1,183).
Although the reported investment costs should be taken with care, the conclusion that
biogas plants in Ethiopia are high, both in absolute as well as relative terms, seems
valid.
19
These issues should probably be seen in the context to communal, shared biogas installations.
Low dung production …
2.3.2 Plant size.
In relation with the amount of available dung,
the plant size of the visited installations was
too large. Typical domestic plants would have
a digester volume of at least 8 m3, but more
often sizes of 12 to 20 m3 were observed. Most
households, however, would have only three to
eight up to fifteen heads of cattle. These cattle,
typically, would roam around at fallow land and
collective grazing grounds, would be poorly fed
and (as a result?) rather small.
The amount of available dung, as observed,

could in many cases be as low as 5 or 6 kg
dung per head per day.
Assuming an average cattle holding of six

heads, the amount of available dung would
thus not exceed, say, 36 kg per day. Further
assuming a hydraulic retention time of 60 days
for the highland plateau and a dung / water … from skinny cattle
ratio of 1:1, an installation with a 4 m3 digester
volume would suffice.
The average live weight for Ethiopian cattle is

reported as 250kg ref 013. For comparison, the
average live weight of Dutch cattle is 600 kg20.
2.3.3 Used materials.

Most pipe fitting materials, ball and gate
valves, lamp mantles and cement are
generally available in larger villages. Even so,
all visited installations had a high share of
“exotic materials”. Digesters of floating drum
plants were without exception constructed in
locally available stone, but the metal drums Traditionally burned bricks
were mostly constructed in government
workshops in the region‟s capital. Fixed dome
installations were all built in bricks that had
been trucked-in over long distances.
For both designs, appliances were either

manufactured in the region‟s capital, or
imported (Indian) stoves and lamps were
provided. Except for the lamp mantles, which
20
BINAS science information
are used for kerosene lamps as well, none of the biogas appliances or spare parts are
locally available.
The use of non-local materials increases the investment costs. Clay bricks can easily
double in price if transported over larger distances; the metal drums by nature need a
truck to get them on site. Moreover, non-local products, particularly appliances, valves
and taps, aggravate the maintenance problem as replacements, spare parts and repair
knowledge are rarely locally available.
The high investment costs of the observed plants and the high incidence of minor
technical problems leading to dysfunctional installations can both to some extent be
attributed to the use of non-local materials for plant construction and appliances.
2.3.4 Investment subsidy:

Most of the visited installations were fully subsidized. Exceptions included:
 A few government-built floating drum plants whereby the household contributed the
labour costs for digging the pit;
 All World Vision installations, where households provided similar labour;
 The plants constructed by the efforts of Christopher Kellner in Fiche, that were fully
paid for by the households,
The popular view would hold that full subsidies undermine the ownership of the
installation, resulting in the biogas plant not receiving the desired “tender love and care”.
The study team visited a few sites where this could be observed; plants were neglected,
abandoned for seemingly no reason, the smallest investment for repair being avoided.
However, this practice was not the rule; many plants were kept alive despite absence of
any technical back-up system. The study team visited quite a number of installations
that –for their age of 10 to 13 years- had been kept in good working condition.
2.3.5 Investment credit:

None of the installations was financed with credit. Although all regions currently appear
to have a fair micro credit network, only recently the MFIs adjusted their loan conditions
in such a way that investments the size of a biogas installation could be accommodated.
2.4 Operation
Many (60%!) of the visited installations were not in operation at the time of visiting. The
remaining plants can be divided in very new plants that would work without too many
problems. And older plants (mostly > 10 years) that, against all odds, were kept in
working order by the owners.
It is from this last group that the study team got an impression of how plants were kept
in operation, what farmers would do to get repairs done and, from the first group, where
and when it went wrong.
Households would at times go a long way to keep installations working: Trying to

arrange heavy lifting equipment to have a drum lifted out of dried slurry; submitting a
written (!) request to government officials to

have a pipeline repaired; walking a broken
stove to the next village for repair etc. Clearly,
many owners appreciated their plant highly
and at times expressed desperation in getting
technical assistance and advice.
2.4.1 Cooking stoves. Indian biogas stove

Households used biogas for cooking and
lighting. Cooking particularly of wot (sauce for
injerra), coffee and boiling hot water.
Most farmers had one single stove, few in

addition a larger one for baking local bread.
Stoves were of local (no-brand) origin,

manufactured by Selam in Addis Abeba, or “Selam” biogas stove
imported from India. Many older locally
produced stoves were heavily corroded, only a Locally manufactured biogas stove
few had an adjustable primary air intake. As a
result, but also because of the low gas
pressure of some of the floating drum plants,
many stoves did not seem to burn optimally.
2.4.2 Biogas lamp.

In rural Ethiopia, only 2% of the households
have access to electricity. Illumination is done
mostly by kerosene (“mash” pressure lamp
and simple “kuraz” wick lamps) and to a lesser
extent with candles and battery lamps.
Not surprisingly then, that biogas lamps are

highly appreciated. Where households had
working lamps, the lighting ranked highly on
appreciated benefits. So much so that often
the feeding of the biogas plant was taken care
off by the children, in order for them to have
light in the evening. Subsequently, it was
observed that the interest in the biogas plant
waned when a biogas lamp stopped
functioning.
Local biogas lamp
Indian biogas lamp

As the kerosene pressure lamp is well
introduced in rural Ethiopia, mantles (that are
used both for the “Masho” kerosene pressure
lamp and the biogas lamp) are widely available
at reasonable costs (ETB 2-3 per piece).
Mantles are very fragile; household reported to
replace them weekly to monthly.
The observed biogas lamps were all

(duplicates) of Indian design. Without
exception, all glasses were broken, and often
replaced by mesh wire. And nearly without
exception, the biogas lamps were in a terrible
state of repair, with many non-functioning.
Selam Vocational Training Centre showed a

very promising pilot cast aluminium biogas
lamp, which might be marketable for around
ETB 200.
“Selam” proto biogas lamp
2.4.3 Maintenance. Main pipe repair

Many (but not all!) farmers showed limited
understanding of the working of the installation.
As a result, plants would stop functioning as a
result of a minor issue as simple as water
being trapped in the pipeline, even when a
water trap was installed.
Dried-up substrate in digesters, as a result of

temporary water shortages, is another
maintenance problem frequently observed,
particularly with the floating drum installations
(low pressure, difficult to remove the drum).
Unblocking inlet pipe
Clearly, the situation is further aggravated by
the absence of technical back-up and spares
parts.
Fetching water with donkey

2.4.4 Water collection.
The effort for water collection appears to be
underestimated during the selection of the
household. For many of the visited non-
functioning installations, absence of water
(dried-up substrate in digester, see above)
was reported as the main cause.
A number of plants visited (e.g. around

Dessie) seemed to have become non-
functional after a severe drought period.
Drought affects all aspects of rural live brutally Harvesting water
and biogas installations are not exempted.
However, with proper advice and assistance
these installations could / should be revived
after the drought period. For a country with
frequent, recurring drought periods, the
absence of mitigating mechanisms in this
respect is surprising.
2.4.5 Slurry use.

Many farmers highly appreciated the bio- Dried, composted bio-slurry
slurry. Proper application of slurry (direct or
diluted, dried and composted) on the
vegetable garden was not an exception, and
farmers reported increased yields and reduced
weeding.
Organic fertilizer …
2.4.6 Bio-metads.
Although some farmers were supplied with biogas operated metads (baking plates for
injerra) none of the visited households was using this stove as its gas consumption was
claimed to be too high. The design of an appropriate domestic bio-metad is challenging:
Limited amount of biogas:

 Based on the household visits of the
study team, typically 25 to 35 kg of
dung should be expected available as
substrate. Thus, the amount of
disposable biogas would be limited to,
say, 0.8 to 1.4 m3 per day.
 The normal stove, the biogas lamp and
the bio-metad are competing for the
available gas. It can easily be seen that
3 hours of a normal, smaller stove (~
250 litre biogas / hour) and 3 hours of a
biogas lamp ( ~ 120 litre biogas / hour)
per the day will deplete already (nearly)
all the available biogas.
Intrinsic inefficiency of metads:

 From an energy efficiency point of view,
the metad is a nightmare; heating a
clay plate (poor heat transfer) of huge
diameter (up to 60 cm, significant heat
losses) to a temperature of 150 to 180
o
C is bound to consume large quantities Biogas metad
of fuel.
 Although the study team was unable to
obtain gas-use figures for bio-metads, Biogas metad test model
judging from the size and burner design
consumption might well be as high as
1000 litre / hour.
 For a bio-metad, heat distribution over
the plate, heat transfer through the plate
and heat loss will be major issues.
Technically, solutions might be available
but these would likely further increase
costs and necessitates proper research.
Injerra baking by batch:

 Housewives typically will prepare injerra batch-wise; twice a week some 20 to 30
injerra‟s.
 The gas requirement for one batch will be considerable (say 2 hours equalling
perhaps 2 m3), exceeding the gas storage capacity of most domestic biogas
plants
Improved metads (local, Mirte and Lakech) are Possible technical improvements for bio-metads:
currently widely available and strongly
 improved burner for better heat distribution,
promoted by multiple actors. Their efficiency  aluminium or cast iron plate for better heat transfer,
improvement is significant and these stoves  plate of smaller diameter (reducing the diameter from 60 cm
to 50 cm reduced the area to be heated with one-third)
can be fuelled by multiple fuels including dung  placing the bio-metad in a “Mirte-like” housing to reduce heat
and agricultural residue, these stoves seem - losses.
for the moment- more appropriate and
economic for the preparation of injerra than (the potential of improved) bio-metads.
2.4.7 Toilet connection.

Connecting a toilet to a biogas plant is a
sensitive issue for most rural households.
Interviews with biogas practitioners in the
region indicated that families may be reluctant
using the bio-slurry -or even the biogas- of
plants fed with human faeces.
Not surprisingly, then, is that very few of the

visited biogas plants even had a preparation
(second inlet pipe) for future toilet connection.
A few plants formed a happy exception: some

of the World Vision/AATPI and GTZ/
Christopher Kellner plants did have a Toilet connected to biogas plant
connected toilet and proudly satisfied owners.
But also some older initiatives proved

innovative enough to promote toilet connection
In view of the advanced and fairly widely

implemented health education programme of
Finnida (extension, mobilization, water pumps,
latrines with special slabs and separate urine
collection, etc), it can be expected that proper
extension would go far in “softening” taboos
around toilet connection
Connected toilet in need of maintenance
2.5 Dissemination modalities.

Dissemination of biogas in Ethiopia can, in extremis, be grouped in two approaches.
The older approach, mainly practiced by government agencies (EREDPC, Bureaus of

Energy and Bureaus of Agriculture), could be characterized as a stand alone,
technology driven. The objective often is to
pilot / demonstrate the technology in certain M a in fin din gs, disse m in a t ion m oda lit ie s
areas. St and- alone Full package
t echnology driven developm ent driven
The newer methodology, practiced in particular
• Mainly governm ent • Mainly NGO
by World Vision, would then be more a
• Non- poor farm ers • Poor farm ers
development approach in which households
• Fair, but expensive plant s • Fair, but expensive plant s
are offered a full “development package” that • Single- act or const ruct ion • Single- act or const ruct ion
would serve as a springboard towards a • I solat ed • Clust ered
“happy and self sufficient” life. • No t echnical back - up • Lim it ed ownership
• Lim it ed ownership • Lim it ed org. cooperat ion
The picture presents some observations of • Lt d operat ional int egrat ion • Very cost ly package wit h
both approaches in opposition, and –with the • Lim it ed org. cooperat ion high “ whit e elephant ” risk
following remarks- largely is self-explanatory.
World Vision Ethiopia AATPI
2.5.1 Single-actor construction:
In both approaches, most installations were Around Wukro in northern Tigray and Adama in Oromia (rift
valley), World Vision is supporting poor families with “development
constructed by the “own organization” as packages. Besides ample technical advice, families are provided
opposed to involving local craftsmen and with “hardware” that would serve them, once all is in place, as a
“springboard” to a rich life in a self-sufficing way. The hardware
private entrepreneurs in the process. component, to some extent depending on the area, would include:
Evidently, this allows for short lead times and  Biogas plant (fixed dome, with stove and lamp)
simple quality management arrangements in  Latrine, connected to the biogas plant
 Wheel barrow and rake, to collect additional manure for the
the construction process. The consequence, plant

2
however, is that knowledge and skill on Small scale (100 – 250 m vegetable garden) drip irrigation
system
operation, construction and maintenance is not  One dairy cow (heifer)
locally retained. The initial gain, thus, is off-set  One donkey + donkey cart for water collection
 Dug wells and engine – water pump
as soon as repair, maintenance and extension  Parabolic solar cooker
requirements are expressed by the owner. World Vision is further contemplating on a cattle fattening
programme, providing fodder for the first animal free of costs, after
which farmers are expected to carry the programme on their own
strength.
The investment for a typical package would be in the range of ETB

30,000 per household
2.5.2 Isolated: Drip irrigation in the AATPI programme

Building biogas plants in isolation as opposed
to clustered (say 20 biogas plants in one
limited area) construction makes
dissemination, supervision, extension and
maintenance processes unnecessary
complicated and biogas plants expensive.
2.5.3 Operational integration:

To enjoy all biogas benefits to the max, it is
important to integrate the biogas plant in its
rural, agricultural setting. To that extent,
dissemination programmes should aim to Finnida extension material
integrate biogas with initiatives to improve
cattle stables (floor), sanitation (connected
latrines, hand washing programmes)
agricultural production (bio-slurry use, drip
irrigation, vegetable growing, dairy and meat
farming, cut and carry promotion), water
harvesting, area closure and reforestation etc.
2.5.4 Organizational cooperation:

Biogas dissemination programmes can be expensive. In line with the above, to improve
effect and efficiency, and to support sustainability, it would be recommendable for
different (local) programmes to work together more closely.
NB:
 For “argument‟s sake” the situation is presented dialectically. The reality is not so
black and white; the Bureau of Energy in Awassa, SNNPRS, for instance indicated
that they are increasingly cooperating with manufacturers of the private sector, and
one of the visited households mentioned its contribution to the tune of ETB 4,000 for
the installation
 The “Christopher Kellner” approach differs from the above two extremes in scale of
dissemination, and in that the households were not offered financial support, only
technical advice.
2.6 Policy and strategy.

Interviews at regional Bureaus of Energy and Bureaus of Agriculture left the study team
with the impression that regionally and at this “executive” level, the involved officials are
very well aware of the (domestic) energy crisis and its socio-economic and
environmental ramifications. Often detailed studies on biogas history, domestic energy
consumption and energy sourcing are available. And often, proposals are submitted to
alleviate the energy / environment pressure.
Unfortunately, despite policy largely being in place, at the higher “political” level, the
issue seems not to get the required attention and priority. This results in totally
inadequate funding for even the smallest surveys or dissemination programmes. The
executing bureaux thus are typically seriously resource-limited (project finance,
transport, staffing), resulting more in frustration than implementation.
The interview with Ato Asress, director Ethiopian REDPC, however, gave some
indication that also at central political level the severity of the situation starts to hit
home.
2.7 Organizations active in the biogas sector.

“Biogas sector” is probably too large a concept for the combined biogas activities in
Ethiopia, but the following organizations were visited that implement biogas activities:
2.7.1 Ethiopian Rural Energy Development and Promotion Centre.

The central (federal) organization mandated for all issues on domestic rural energy. The
centre constructed biogas installations under own management and implements /
commissions rural / domestic energy studies. Increasingly, the Centre supports the
Bureaus of Energy in implementation of regional rural energy policy. The EREDPC has
a “biomass desk”; knowledge on socio-economic and technical issues of biogas is very
good.
2.7.2 Regional “Bureaux of Energy”. Large biogas installation constructed by Selam

All regions run a Bureau of Energy, whereby
the precise name may differ from region to
region as it is often moved around between
water, energy, agriculture and mining sectors.
Indications are, however, that in view of the
threatening energy - environmental situation,
the Bureaux of Energy will increasingly
become more independent. The Bureaux of
Energy construct small numbers (say 10 p.a.)
of biogas plants under own management
(mostly floating drum designs). Bureaux
execute or participate in rural household
studies, focussing on the domestic energy
situation. Currently, most Bureaux focus on
dissemination of improved metads (Mirte,
Lakesh etc).
2.7.3 Selam Technical Vocational Training

Centre.
Based in Addis Abeba, Selam is a leading
Technical Vocational Training Centre, with a
significant production capacity. Inspired by
Christopher Kellner, Selam embarked up on
biogas technology some 5 years ago.
The Centre mainly constructs larger fixed dome installations (up to 200 m3), turn-key, for
the bio-industry around Addis Abeba, but they have been involved in some domestic
installations as well. Selam operates three biogas plants on its own premises.
In general, Selam, over the past 20 years or so, has built a solid reputation on quality
and this shows in their biogas plants.
2.7.4 Ashebir Teferra.

A result from the Selam Vocational Training Centre; Ashebir Teferra is constructing
fixed dome biogas installations, mainly for the bio-industry, around Addis Abeba.
2.7.5 Biofarm.
Organization directed by Dr. Getachew Tikubet. Biofarm promotes an integrated
approach to biogas, not dissimilar to the Chinese 3 in 1 and 4 in 1 ideas and the
considerations the Carmatec team in Tanzania documented. Biofarm provides technical
services to the World Vision AATPI programme for the construction of domestic biogas
plants. The organization is a bit secretive about the technology they promote. From our
observations, their “Chinese design” is comparable to the “Lupo” design of Christopher
Kellner, with large cylindrical vertical inlet and outlet.
Biofarm‟s approach could be described as a mix between “single-actor construction”

and technical consultancy, whereby sometimes construction is done by Biofarm masons
and sometimes local technicians are trained on pilot plants. In terms of sustainability
and pricing, the team was left with some questions about Biofarm‟s dealings.
Unfortunately, the study team was stood up for the interview.
2.7.6 Women and Children Development Organization.

WCDO promotes a latrine – biogas – kitchen – WCDO community kitchen
vegetable garden set-up for poor urban
communities. The biogas plant is of the
“Christopher Kellner – Lupo” fixed dome
design, measuring 25 m3. WCDO constructed
some 9 units over the past 6 years, of which
the team visited a well functioning unit in
Awassa.
Report on
Section 3
Potential demand for domestic biogas.
3 Potential demand Page 44
1 Conditions for large-scale dissemination.
Conditions for large-scale dissemination of domestic biogas in Ethiopia

Condition Score Remark
o
Even daily temperatures over 20 C ++ Average maximum temperatures range in the 20s throughout the year. On
o
throughout the year the plateau, however, night temperatures may drop to 10 C or slightly lower
during the rainy season
At least 20kg of fresh animal dung ++ As argued earlier, under the current holding regime sedentary farmers
available per plant per day would need at least 4 cattle. Large parts of the plateau have an average
cattle holding of 4 or more per household.
Technical
Availability of water required to mix +/- Water availability is very area dependent, and in most parts of Ethiopia
with fresh dung in a 1:1 ratio recurrent droughts have to be taken in consideration.
Sufficient space for biogas plant in ++ Compound space is not an issue in rural areas; farmers have yards of
the compound of potential users reasonable size.
History of proper performing biogas +/- 60% non-functioning is not a good track record, but up to 750 plants nation
installations wide is not a large amount either.
Traditional practice of using of + Traditionally, dung is used as fertilizer. Unfortunately, energy shortage
organic fertilizer increasingly force households to use dung as energy source instead
Scarcity of traditional cooking fuels ++ Fuelwood is scarce to the extent that its use is considered a luxury in large
like firewood parts of the country
Financial
Potential users have access to credit + All visited regions have good, albeit recent, micro credit facilities. There is,
however, no experience yet with biogas credit
Livestock farming is the main source ++ Farming integrates cropping and livestock. Hence, livestock may not be the
of income for potential households main source of income, but it is an indispensable part of it
Role of women in domestic decision- __ Traditionally, domestic decision making is male skewed. The decision for
making process and life an investment in a biogas installation would definitely be within the male
domain.
Biogas plant can be integrated into ++ In view of the integrated farming system, biogas will fit seamlessly in most
normal working routine at the farm situations in the highlands, where cattle are night-stabled.
Social
Awareness of effects of biogas - In view of the low penetration of new technologies in general and biogas in
technology among potential users particular, many farmers may not be very aware
Willingness among potential users to +/- Handling (products of) night soil definitely is a sensitive issue. However,
attach a toilet to the plant there are some good examples.
Political will of the Government to + At REDPC and BoE level, the political will is certainly there. The MoFED
support a national biogas programme and BoFEDs, however, have not been consulted in this detail yet
Institutional
Willingness of (potential) ++ Both from government side (REPDC, BoEs, BoAs) as well as NGO side
stakeholders to get engaged in (UNDP-GEF, Selam, RNE, SNV-Ethiopia) the team met with considerable
biogas programme enthusiasm.
Availability of organizations having + The government‟s agricultural extension network reaches down to kebele
access to potential users level, but habitats are much dispersed.
Score Condition
++ Fully met
+ Met
+/- Doubtful
- Not yet met
-- Falls short
1.1 Technical aspects.

Temperature: Climatic issues will hardly limit the potential for large-scale dissemination
of domestic biogas. Over 78% of the population lives above 1800 m.a.s.l. The average
temperature range at these altitudes, 15 – 200C, is high enough for plants –properly
located and covered with soil- to function throughout the year.
Livestock keeping: The current practice of Little fodder, small cattle …

cattle roaming on communal grazing lands and
fields outside the cropping season limits the
amount of available dung to some extent. In
addition, cattle are mostly not well fed and
often skinny. The low productivity in terms of
milk and meat also reflects negatively on the
amount of dung produced. Hence, farmers
should rather have a minimum of four heads of
cattle to secure sufficient dung availability.
Improvement of cattle sheds and floors would
improve this situation considerably for most
farms.
It is likely that the free grazing practice gradually but increasingly will be replaced by
“cut and carry”, stable feeding of livestock, as the traditional practice may just have to
high a toll on the environment. Parallel, other cattle breeds would be introduced,
improving the situation for biogas.
Water: The availability of water is critical. The Water is at a premium

findings of this mission too indicated that water
should not be further away than 20 to 30
minutes. There are definitely many farm
locations that meet this requirement, but there
will be many that don‟t too. Careful and strict
selection should avoid disappointment in any
future programme. In addition, following the
World Vision example, a more integrated
approach whereby water harvesting
techniques, water wells and a water-carrying
donkey become economically feasible, would
improve the situation.
Proximity to water source (CSA 1998)
more than 15 km 0.7
The 1998 census would indicate that nearly
64% of the rural population live within 1 km 10 to 14 km 0.8
(approx 12 minutes walking) of a water source 5 to 9 km 4.0
and 30% of the population lives at a distance 1 to 4 km 30.4
of 1 to 4 km from a water source (12 to 48 Less than 1 km 63.8
minutes walking). 0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0
[%]
Assuming that a proximity of 20 to 30 minutes would be equivalent to a distance of

maximally 2 km, and assuming that population shares in the 1 to 4 km segment is
distributed evenly, in total 64 + (30/4) = 71% of the rural population would live within 20
to 30 minutes from a water source.
This would not quite match the observations of the mission in some of the visited areas
(Amhara, Tigray). In addition, water source yields may reduce significantly during longer
dry periods, forcing water carriers to use lower quality water (not a problem for biogas)
at even longer distances.
Access to safe water would be another proxy Access to safe drinking water
Region rural total
to account for regional variations in water
21
accessibility . The share of the rural Amhara 23% 31%
population thus having access to safe drinking Oromia 23% 30%
water, say 22%, is considerably lower than the SNNPRS 21% 28%
Tigray 26% 34%
share of the rural population living within 30
minutes from a water source. Part of this Source: MoWR - WWDSE 2001
difference may be explained by not all water
sources providing safe drinking water and “access” might be defined more narrow in the
second source
Space: The study team did not visit any farm where the physical space requirement of a
biogas plant could have been a limiting factor. Besides, when fixed dome installations
would be promoted in stead of floating drum plants, the required amount of place will
further reduce.
Biogas & resettlement.
Track record: There are only few domestic
In an attempt to lower the anthropogenic pressure in heavily
biogas plants in Ethiopia. Although their track degraded areas, the previous regime introduced quite rigorous
record is worrying, their impact on the resettlement programmes. Communities were resettled in villages
(often also a new concept) in more prosperous areas, often
reputation of the technology would be limited provided with a wide range of services. Among these services
as the technology as a whole is little known. could be biogas installations.
The policy intentions might have been right, but resettlement

occasionally met with fierce resistance. In some areas, bad
“resettlement experiences” might be associated with biogas.
21
For SNNPR and Tigrai region, a figure on rural accessibility was not available. The share has been calculated assuming 75% of
the share of the total, as is the case for Amhara and Oromia regions, would result in the rural access to safe water.
1.2 Financial aspects.

1.2.1 Handling manure: While the benefits of manure-use as fertilizer are well known to
farmers it is only used frequently in some areas in the South of Ethiopia. In most areas
the competing value (opportunity costs) as energy and income source is too high to
allow the farmers the luxury to use it for the crops. The fact that most of the visited
biogas households used the bio-slurry for fertilizing vegetables and other crops shows
that farmers will use the organic fertilizer if their energy needs are covered form other
sources.
Many farmers visited by the study team, over Intensive small scale farming in Gurage area
the whole country, had smaller or larger
vegetable gardens on their farm yard. These
farmers used their manure (or bio-slurry in the
case of biogas households) as manure for their
crops. In some areas, however, vegetable
growing is more intensive than others; Gurage,
for instance, is a typical intensive vegetable
growing area, and manure has a high fertilizing
value. In other areas (parts of Amhara and
Tigray), cattle are using common grazing
grounds and manure is less handled by
farmers.
Dairy farm, Addis Abeba
1.2.2 Dairy production: Increasingly, farmers
embark up on dairy production as a
commercial activity. To that extent, dairy
cooperatives with transport / refrigeration
facilities are popping up. The traditional diet of
most (rural) families knows little dairy products
(some butter for cooking, “aib”, the local
cottage cheese and little “urgu” (local yoghurt)
to eat with injerra), promotion aims especially
on increasing urban dairy consumption.
1.2.3 Selling dung-cake: As the efficiency of a biogas stove is easily five times higher
compared with a traditional (dung-cake) stove, contrary to common belief, biogas would
not compete with the commercial value of dung cake as an energy source, as a farmer
would be better off converting the dung to biogas rather than burning it directly.
Additionally, the farmer would reap the fertilizing benefit of bio-slurry
Fuel prices ETB Euro

1.2.4 Fuelwood: The scarcity of fuelwood in Unit
most of the visited areas is factual, as is its Agricultural residue (50% repl value wood) [ /kg] 0.38 0.04
Dung cake [ /kg] 0.40 0.04
high and rapidly increasing price. So much so Fuelwood [ /kg] 0.75 0.07
that fuelwood and charcoal are gradually Charcoal [ /kg] 1.50 0.14
Kerosene [ /ltr] 3.00 0.29
becoming luxury goods for rural households.
Besides fuelwood, BLT, dung cake and agricultural residue are increasingly becoming
commercial energy sources, traded at markets.
1.2.5 The value of biogas: This value depends directly on the value of the substituted
fuels. The table provides the calculated value of 1 m3 of biogas, based on the fuel price,
the substitution ratio (biogas stoves have a significant higher efficiency than traditional
stoves) and the assumed fuel mix (the share of the substituted fuel in the total energy
supply. The table shows two values; the economic value, taking the full market price of
the substituted fuel into account, Euro
and the financial value, taking substitution economic financial financial
Biogas replacement value Unit ratio fuel mix value share value
only a share of the market price
3
into account. Thus, the financial Agric residue + BLT (50% repl value wood)
Dung cake
[Euro/m gas]
[Euro/m gas]
3
7.06
6.05
15%
15%
0.038
0.035
10%
30%
0.004
0.010
value better allows for the fact Fuelwood [Euro/m gas] 3
3
9.79 68% 0.480 70% 0.336
Charcoal [Euro/m gas] 1.99 1% 0.003 80% 0.002
that rural farmers acquire fuel Kerosene [Euro/m gas]
3
0.63 1% 0.002 100% 0.002
often by hard labour (often by the Biogas [Euro/m biogas]

3
100% 0.56 0.35
women and children) rather than Vietnam values: 0.16 0.10
buying it on the market.
Striking in the results is not only the significant difference of Euro 0.20 between the
economic and the financial value of biogas, but also that the value of biogas is three
times higher in Ethiopia (economic € 0.56, financial € 0.35) as compared with Vietnam
(economic € 0.16, financial € 0.10).
1.2.5 Micro credit: With the micro credit facilities modernizing and extending their
services, credit is becoming a feasible financing option for biogas in many of the visited
areas. Credit terms are not prohibitive, but it has to be taken in mind that there is no
experience with biogas credit yet. Hence, micro financing organizations may require
assistance in covering the risk initially.
In the past, farmers did have a reputation of being reluctant to take loans. Obtaining
credit could be difficult; micro credit facilities were less developed and land could not be
used as collateral. The situation has improved since, but the extent to which this
reluctance may still hamper a biogas credit component would need further study during
the preparation of the implementation document of the programme.
1.3 Social aspects.

1.3.1 Role of women: The team did not get
the impression that women play a crucial role Boy ploughing
in making decisions in the household, and
certainly not where a financial investment of
the size of a biogas plant would be concerned.
A more balanced, scientific view, however,

could be obtained from Guday Emirie‟s
dissertation (reference 011); in the chapter on
“decision making patterns in the extended
family” (5.4.2.1) structure the following can be
read:
The dominant family structure is characterized by formal and informal power structures
based on the principles of sex, age and relatedness. The gender division of power is
primary, with males, except the very young ones) having power over females. Decisions
regarding education, marriage of children, construction of a house, farm work schedules
of the household members, hiring farm labourers land allocation and the use of farm
inputs are made by the (mostly male) head of the household.
Wives make decisions pertaining to child care, food preparation and household
management. Male dominance is paramount, Injerra basket weaving
but when asked to define who the ultimate
decision maker in family matters is, most
husbands express that both wife and husband
make decisions jointly.
Obviously, with biogas being a significant

investment for the household, whereby a large
share of the advantages of the technology
benefit women and children in particular, male
skewed decision authority is an important
potential programme risk.
1.3.2 Integration in farming practice: Biogas will easily find its place in the typical
integrated farming set-up of the Ethiopian highlands. Cattle is night stabled, yards allow
enough space for placing an installation, vegetable gardens are often adjacent to the
yards, distances to the kitchen and the stable can mostly be chosen favourable for
biogas.
1.3.3 Awareness on benefits: With the low current penetration of the technology, one
cannot expect wide awareness of the benefits of biogas. Information and promotion,
hence, shall be a significant component in any programme. Biogas benefits, however,
are likely to be very appealing for most households; not only in view of the scarcity of
energy and fertilizing sources, but also from a workload, health and sanitation point of
view.
1.3.4 Toilet connection: The taboos around

handling (products of) human faeces seem not
as principally imbedded in culture and religion
as can be the case in India or Nepal.
Advanced sanitation programmes, as for
instance the one from Finnida in Amhara, are
making good progress.
Nevertheless, households are likely to be

reluctant to connect their toilet to the biogas
plant. Proper information and extension on the
advantages and the risks of toilet connection is
the key to a successful programme
Latrine promotion
component, as is the provision of a second
inlet pipe that allows the connection at a later
stage. Defecation practice Ethiopia 2000
100%
90% country
Compulsory connection would be ill advised; 80% rural
70% urban
risking that households avoid using the bio 60%
slurry or even the gas. It should be noted that 50%
40%
modern sanitation facilities are not quite 30%
common place yet in rural Ethiopia. 20%
10%
0%
Flush toilet Pit latrine Container Field/forest Other
1.3.5 Health: Biogas installations improve the health situation of families. Most
prominently by eliminating indoor air pollution, the main cause of respiratory diseases,
and in particular for women and small children who are often close to the cooking fire.
Biogas installations further improves the sanitary condition of the farmyard and its direct
environment by feeding animal manure directly to the installation and connecting a toilet
to the plant respectively.
Mortality rates of diseases
14
As such, biogas installations directly contribute 12
to the betterment of the two of Ethiopia‟s three
mortality / 1000 pers
10
main diseases in terms of mortality rate.
8
0
<5
<5
<5
<5
>15
all
all
all
all
AIDS Acute Cardio- Diarrhea Injury / Malaria Measles Nutritional TB

Respir vascular trauma deficiency
1.4 Institutional aspects.

1.4.1 Political will: The federal Rural Energy Development and Promotion Centre and
the regional Bureaux of Energy are very well aware of the domestic energy issue and its
ramifications on rural livelihood, agriculture and environment. These government offices
are not only mandated to support and coordinate a larger scale domestic biogas
programme, they would probably also be best place in terms of knowledge and skill
related to domestic energy. The impression from the interviews is that any biogas
programme would find eager supporters in these organizations. The team‟s impression
is, however, that the capacity of these organizations, in terms of operating funds,
infrastructure and manpower, may be insufficient to effectively support a larger initiative.
Hence, programmes should consider an appropriate capacity building component.
At higher level, particularly regarding the Ministry and Bureaux of Finance and
Economic Development (MoFED / BoFED), further study will be required to gauge the
willingness to co-finance (directly or “in kind”) such a large scale programme. The
BoFED officials visited showed a good understanding of the issues around rural
development, energy and environment.
Indirectly, through the interviews, it transpired that in political circles of the government
the awareness of energy and environment, and hence the concern regarding providing
basic energy services to rural poor households, is very limited indeed.
1.4.2 Stakeholders: Potential enthusiastic stakeholders from the Government side

could include at central level the REPDC and Bureaux of Energy (and agriculture) at
regional level. At national as well as regional level a cooperation agreement with the
Ministry / Bureaux of Finance and Economic Development will likely be necessary and
helpful.
The private sector does not show great presence in rural Ethiopia. For construction and
maintenance, any programme would have to invest in establishing (initially small and
informal) biogas enterprises. In some areas, linking with Mirte manufacturers or
technicians trained for pump and latrine construction (e.g. Finnida) might be a good
option.
For starting-up, Selam would be a good partner for manufacturing and marketing of
appliances as well as applied research and development. Selam would also –at least
initially- be well placed to provide biogas mason and technician training.
UNDP-GEF, and the Netherlands Embassy in Ethiopia should certainly be approached

with an eventual programme document; both would look favourably at co-financing such
initiatives.
Biogas would add well to SNV-Ethiopia‟s new BOAM (support to Business

Organizations and Access to Markets) initiative, and SNV would be well-placed to
channel biogas technical and programme experience from the Asia Biogas Programme
to Ethiopia.
2 Livestock population mapping.
As argued earlier, in view of the cattle stabling customs as well as the poor diet of most
cattle in Ethiopia, households should rather have 4 heads of cattle to ensure sufficient
available manure (>20 kg / day) to produce a reasonable amount of biogas per day (>
1m3 biogas / day). The map indicates that most parts of the studied regions (Amhara,
Oromia, SNNPRS and Tigray) have an average cattle population larger than 4 heads
per household.
3 Technical potential.
To come to a first estimate on the potential for domestic biogas, the number of
households with 4 or more cattle is taken at Woreda level. As substrate, manure of
other stabled animals (donkeys, horses) would do equally well. However, avoiding an
over-optimistic picture, for the calculation only cattle holding is considered.
The availability of manure as substrate for the installation is not the only technical
parameter. Equally important, and much more critical in the Ethiopian context, is the
availability of process water. Practically, in view of the considerable amount of water
that has to be fed to the installation, the water source should be within 20 to 30 minutes
from the farm yard.
3.1 Amhara.
Amhara counts nearly 3.2 million households, out of which 81% keep cattle. Out of
these 2.6 million cattle holdings, 39% are keeping 4 or more cattle.
 The country average for proximity to a water source within 20 to 30 minutes is
71%. The high technical potential for domestic biogas in Amhara region thus
would amount to approximately 716 thousand installations.
 In rural Amhara 23% of the population has access to safe drinking water; the low
technical potential thus would amount to 232 thousand installations.
Amhara
Cattle % Cattle Cattle Avg cattle cattle holding cattle holding share cattle
Area House holds holdings Cattle population holdings density holding / hh <4 >4 holding >4
Zone [km2] [# of hh] [# of ch] [#of heads] [%] [head/km2] [head/hh] [# of ch] [# of ch] [%]
Awi 6346 175494 137552 638868 78% 101 4.6 0 137552 100%
East Gojam 14186 406823 333321 1257843 82% 89 3.8 207136 126185 38%
North Gondar 45486 462119 375422 1931400 81% 42 5.1 85427 289995 77%
North Shewa (K3) 16077 369828 287843 1018055 78% 63 3.5 240700 47143 16%
North Wollo 12702 324963 253403 910492 78% 72 3.6 187463 65940 26%
South Gondar 14607 407519 336299 1181472 83% 81 3.5 300694 35605 11%
South Wollo 17212 553574 441555 1582857 80% 92 3.6 415106 26449 6%
Wag Hemira 8479 80546 61467 355056 76% 42 5.8 0 61467 100%
West Gojam 13413 413888 347974 1399484 84% 104 4.0 129473 218501 63%
Total Amhara 148509 3194754 2574836 10275527 81% 69 4.0 1565999 1008837 39%
Distance to nearest water source <1km 71%

Rural access to safe water 23%
Technical potential domestic biogas Amhara region

Based on watersource distance 716274
Based on access to safe water 232033
3.2 Oromia.
Oromia counts over 4.6 million households, out of which 79% keep cattle. Out of these
3.6 million cattle holdings, 78% are keeping 4 or more cattle.
71%. The high technical potential for domestic biogas in Oromia region thus
would amount to approximately 1.978 million installations.
 In rural Oromia 23% of the population has access to safe drinking water; the low
Oromia
Arsi 23713 573680 480821 2783892 84% 117 5.8 0 480821 100%
Bale 60805 297018 256654 1614990 86% 27 6.3 0 256654 100%
Borena 70604 321428 227715 1732020 71% 25 7.6 0 227715 100%
East Harerghe 23544 406076 338674 975054 83% 41 2.9 338674 0 0%
East Shewa 13893 353342 264953 1416553 75% 102 5.3 20576 244377 92%
East Wellega 22181 295540 229597 1458188 78% 66 6.4 0 229597 100%
Illubabor 16411 220714 158226 794176 72% 48 5.0 0 158226 100%
Jimma 18486 514489 417041 1805867 81% 98 4.3 148888 268153 64%
North Shewa (K4) 11269 269663 222689 1173542 83% 104 5.3 53721 168968 76%
Oromia Zone 4073 78911 60704 326825 77% 80 5.4 0 60704 100%
West Harerghe 17461 309862 261931 994224 85% 57 3.8 150711 111220 42%
West Shewa 21812 554009 449463 2431375 81% 111 5.4 14667 434796 97%
West Wellega 24316 354436 214316 1034513 60% 43 4.8 68448 145868 68%
Hundene 372 15045 11288 34008 75% 92 3.0 11288 0 0%
Total Oromia 328939 4564213 3594072 18575227 79% 56 5.2 806973 2787099 78%

Technical potential domestic biogas Oromia region

3.3 SNNPRS.
SNNPRS counts nearly 2.7 million households, out of which 75% keep cattle. Out of
these 2.0 million cattle holdings, 39% are keeping 4 or more cattle.
71%. The high technical potential for domestic biogas in SNNPRS region thus
would amount to approximately 550 thousand installations.
 In rural SNNPRS 21% of the population has access to safe drinking water; the
low technical potential thus would amount to 163 thousand installations.
SNNPRS
Amaro Special Woreda 1557 23714 17374 78473 73% 50 4.5 0 17374 100%
Basketo Special Woreda 419 10348 7509 23611 73% 56 3.1 7509 0 0%
Benchi Maji 23159 102783 81521 319902 79% 14 3.9 72986 8535 10%
Burji Special Woreda 1353 7980 6433 32970 81% 24 5.1 0 6433 100%
Dawuro 4380 81637 65541 292664 80% 67 4.5 0 65541 100%
Derashe Special Woreda 1526 23278 12396 66701 53% 44 5.4 0 12396 100%
Gamo Gofa 12153 257901 205707 850291 80% 70 4.1 93563 112144 55%
Gedeo 1356 141168 41506 117356 29% 87 2.8 41506 0 0%
Guraghe 7914 419708 335151 1353983 80% 171 4.0 130601 204550 61%
Hadiya 4026 253305 199648 733814 79% 182 3.7 199648 0 0%
Kaffa 10539 157734 128591 575024 82% 55 4.5 20742 107849 84%
Kembata Alaba Tembaro 2493 193843 144008 472681 74% 190 3.3 144008 0 0%
Konso Special Woreda 2323 36261 22919 103413 63% 45 4.5 0 22919 100%
Konta Special Woreda 2287 17062 13780 52576 81% 23 3.8 13780 0 0%
Shaka 1530 29386 18755 65817 64% 43 3.5 13574 5181 28%
Sidama 6779 528046 404560 1573318 77% 232 3.9 244331 160229 40%
South Omo 23145 91237 60446 1392822 66% 60 23.0 8483 51963 86%
Wolayita 4525 297226 230520 658886 78% 146 2.9 230520 0 0%
Yem Special Woreda 753 16353 13315 51387 81% 68 3.9 13315 0 0%
Total SNNPRS 112217 2688970 2009680 8815689 75% 79 4.4 1234566 775114 39%

Technical potential domestic biogas SNNPRS region

3.4 Tigray.
Tigray counts nearly 725 thousand households, out of which 77% keep cattle. Out of
these 559 thousand cattle holdings, 44% are keeping 4 or more cattle.
71%. The high technical potential for domestic biogas in Tigray region thus would
amount to approximately 176 thousand installations.
 In rural Tigray 21% of the population has access to safe drinking water; the low
Tigray
Central Tigray 10327 230761 174810 627831 76% 61 3.6 162010 12800 7%
Southern Tigray 9408 183354 136515 631185 74% 67 4.6 46361 90154 66%
Western Tigray 24652 180952 152793 1081963 84% 44 7.1 20264 132529 87%
Eastern Tigray 5795 129897 95216 324150 73% 56 3.4 82341 12875 14%
Total Tigray 50182 724964 559334 2665129 77% 53 4.8 310976 248358 44%

45847
Technical potential domestic biogas Tigray region
3.5 Summary technical potential.

In total, the four regions of the study area count together nearly 11.2 million households.
8.7 million households (78%) are keeping cattle. Out of these 8.7 million “cattle
holdings”, nearly 5 million (55%) are holding 4 cattle or more.
Country wide, 71% of the rural households live within 20 to 30 minutes walking from a
water source. The “high” technical potential for domestic biogas in the 4 regions hence
is estimated on some 3.5million households.
On average, 23% of the households in the four visited regions have access to safe
water. The “low” technical potential for domestic biogas in the studied area thus would
amount to approximately 1.1 million households.
hh
cattle cattle access to Technical
House Cattle Cattle % Cattle Cattle Avg cattle holding holding share cattle hh water safe potential Technical
Region Area holds holdings population holdings density holding / hh <4 >4 holding >4 < 30 min water HIGH potential LOW
[km2] [# of hh] [# of ch] [#of heads] [%] [head/km2] [head/hh] [# of ch] [# of ch] [%] [%] [# of ch] [# of ch] [# of ch]
Amhara 148509 3194754 2574836 10275527 81% 69 4.0 1587506 1110264 43% 71% 23% 788,287 255,361
Oromia 328939 4564213 3594072 18575227 79% 56 5.2 799379 2787099 78% 71% 23% 1,978,840 641,033
SNNPRS 112217 2688970 2009680 8815689 75% 79 4.4 1213824 758760 38% 71% 21% 538,720 159,340
Tigray 50182 724964 559334 2665129 77% 53 4.8 284879 290733 52% 71% 26% 206,420 75,591
Total study area 639846 11172901 8737922 40331572 78% 63 4.6 3885588 4946856 57% 71% 23% 3,512,268 1,131,324
Report on
Section 4
Design
considerations.
Storage jar
4 Design considerations Page 58
1 Lessons learnt.
From the study findings, the following main lessons can be learnt:
1.1 Technical issues.

1.1.1 Domestic biogas installations cannot supply the full domestic energy demand:
 Sedentary farmers may occasionally have reasonably large cattle herds, but the
average seams not to exceed the range of 4 to 8 heads per household. Most of
these households use fallow land and communal grazing grounds for their cattle
during the day, having the cattle on stable during the night only. In addition, the
condition of stables is rarely geared towards efficient collection of dung and
urine. Hence, the amount of dung available as substrate for the installation
seems limited; an average of 20 to 30 kg of dung per day seems a prudent
estimate. Gas production, hence, for most potential clients will unlikely exceed 1
to 1.5 m3 biogas per household per day.
 Domestic energy consumption is typically high. Preparation of daily food –
especially injerra baking- is not only energy intensive, but also requires a large
amount of energy in a short period of time. The amount of gas that can be stored
in domestic biogas installation of simple design is limited –roughly up to about
50% of the daily production.
1.1.2 Non-local materials increase investment costs and maintenance problems:

 To a certain extent, application of “non-
local” materials cannot be avoided (e.g.
cement, most fitting materials). In view
of the investment costs, however,
significant savings can be made by
constructing in stone rather than bricks.
 Many of the appliances (gas taps,
stoves, biogas lamp) could be
manufactured locally. This may further
reduce the costs, but more importantly
will increase the chance that smaller
and larger repairs can be made locally
as well, reducing the “out-of-operation”
time considerably. Traditional coffee on local biogas stove
1.1.3 In relation with the available dung, most installations are over sized:
See also “1.1.1”, the proper digester size for typical rural Ethiopian households would
be 4 to 6 m3 rather than the often observed 8m3 or larger.
1.1.4 Without proper technical back-up, any plant will fail sooner or later:
 However good the initial construction quality, smaller or larger maintenance and
repair requirements will sooner of later hamper proper operation of a biogas
installation when proper (locally available and affordable) technical back-up
installations is not available.
 Equally important in this respect is the

proper maintenance and operation
training and instruction for the owning
household.
1.2 Operational issues.

1.2.1 Farmers need proper instruction to
maximize the benefits from their investment:
Operation of many of the visited installations
could improve:
 in drier periods, part of the thinner liquid
discharge can be re-used to mix new Floating drum plant, out of operation
input;
 cattle sheds and shed floors can be
improved to make dung collection
easier and more efficient and to
accommodate cattle urine collection;
 maintenance instructions (booklet)
could assist farmers in simple
maintenance and repair (gas hose, gas
tap repair, cleaning stoves, draining
water from the pipeline etc);
 bio-slurry can be used as catalyser for
composting other agricultural waste,
thus increasing the amount of organic
Direct bio-slurry application
fertilizer and making it easier to handle.
1.2.2 Biogas installations as a “stand alone” application are likely to fail:

Households that judge their installation only on its capability to substitute conventional
cooking fuels are likely to put less effort in keeping their installation in good working
order. Other formal (illumination, bio-slurry fertilizer) as well as non-formal advantages
(smoke reduction, improving sanitation etc) should be promoted and appreciated as
well.
1.2.3 The plant’s water requirement shall not be underestimated.

A significant share of the visited installations became non-functional when collecting the
daily amount of water proved to be too large a burden for the household. A limit of 20 to
30 minutes to reach the water source, as used in other biogas countries, seems
prudent.
1.3 Economic issues.
1.3.1 Investment costs for biogas are prohibitive for farmers:

The costs of the visited installations (ETB 8000 to 15,000) are prohibitive for most
farmers. Even with a significant reduction of the investment costs, supporting financing
facilities will be necessary.
1.3.2 Full subsidy schemes show disadvantages:

 Nearly all visited installations had had a very large or full subsidy component. In
some cases, non-functionality could be attributed to little feeling of ownership of
the family, which could be induced by the family not having had to pay for the
plant.
 In view of the requirement of the country as a whole, a full subsidy approach
would be infeasible from a sourcing point of view.
1.3.3 Micro-finance can play an important role in making domestic biogas affordable:
Most visited biogas installations were constructed in a period when micro-finance
facilities were not well developed. However, currently micro-finance institutions
increasingly adjust lending conditions in such a way that biogas financing becomes a
promising opportunity.
1.4 Dissemination issues.

1.4.1 Cooperation to promote full integration of the technology:
Relevant organizations (Bureau of Energy, Bureau of Agriculture, extension networks,
government and non-government organizations active in the fields of water, health and
sanitation) could cooperate to stimulate that biogas households make full use of their
installation.
1.4.2 “Single actor construction” weakens local technical back-up facility.

 Most of the visited installations were constructed by non-local organizations in a
“project” modality. Once the project is executed, the organization typically
withdraws from the area, and with them construction and maintenance
knowledge and skills.
 More appropriate and sustainable, project organizations should invest in training
and support for local construction entities, the private sector, which can continue
to provide services after the project is terminated.
1.4.3 Standardization will improve quality.

 Homogeneous design standards both for the installation and the appliances, will
make large scale dissemination less complex and improve the quality of the
services at large.
 Standardization will better accommodate proper training of users, constructors,
extension workers and technicians
 The necessary quality standards will only be really effective when combined with
a quality management system that is mandated to monitor service quality and
propose and implement adjustments where necessary.
1.5 Policy issues.

1.5.1 EREDPC seems the best placed lead agency for a federal domestic biogas
programme:
 Coordination of a federal domestic biogas programme would be within the
mandate of the EREPDC. The centre would be willing and able to take-up this
role, they have experience and expertise in biomass / biogas.
 Indication is that the policy integration between EREPDC at national level and
the Bureaux of Energy at national level will improve.
 The Ministry of Finance and Economic Development would be the prime
programme contracting partner, more so when contributing or matching
programme resources would be required.
1.5.2 The Bureaux of Energy would seem the best placed coordinating, supervising
and integrating agencies at regional level:
 The Bureaux of Energy are mandated to support implementation of a large scale
biogas programme. Most BoEs have experience in smaller biogas projects and in
larger improved cooking stove and metad dissemination projects.
 The Bureaux of Energy showed a good and broad understanding of the local
domestic energy issues.
 The Bureaux of Energy do not have their own extension network. In a sectoral
approach this may actually be to their advantage; the Bureaux will be “forced” to
work together with other actors in the rural domestic energy arena. Important
actors include the Bureaux of Agriculture and their extension network at Woreda
and Kebele level and (non-) government organizations in the fields of water,
health and sanitation.
1.5.3 To ensure effective participation of the national EREDPC and the regional BoEs,
a significant organizational / institutional support component should be considered:
Although the organizations are mandated and experienced, both national as well as
regional bodies are chronically short of resources of all sorts.
1.5.4 The extension network of the Bureaux of Agriculture would be an asset for a
large scale dissemination programme:
The agricultural extension network is rather dense, and under further development. The
objective is to have one or two extension workers in each Kebele. This apparatus would
offer good opportunities for biogas extension and programme monitoring.
1.5.5 The regional micro-finance institutions can play an important role in a large scale
domestic biogas programme:
 The regional micro-finance institutions are developing strongly both in reach and
product variety.
 Lending conditions are broadened in such a way that currently biogas financing
could (to a large extent) be accommodated.
 Already an important task of the MFIs is the channelling of pensions, money

transfers and insurance schemes. Management, administration and channelling
of subsidy funds would definitely be within their capabilities.
 In view of their large and increasing network, MFI‟s can be an important biogas
promotion partner.
2 Recommendations.
From the study findings and lessons learnt, the team suggests the following
recommendations:
2.1 Sectoral, market oriented approach.

For domestic biogas technology to make a difference in the national energy scenario,
dissemination has to be on a large scale (provided, of course, the technology proves
appropriate). Such approach has a long-term perspective, in which broad sectoral
cooperation is critical (Public Private Partnership). Hence:
 EREDPC and the BoEs as coordinating and supervising organizations;
 Financing activities, both credit as well as subsidy channelling, by participating
micro-finance institutions.
 Developing good federal, regional and local networks for promotion and
extension;
 Construction, after sales service and manufacturing services by the local private
sector;
 ID/OS and capacity building support of all actors, at all levels when and where
required.
2.2 Pilot of reasonable size.

In the perspective of a truly large scale programme, a pilot of sufficient size should be
considered. For this:
 The pilot areas could include all four visited regions: Amhara, Oromia, SNNPRS
and Tigray, as they all give sign of sufficient potential.
 A reasonable pilot size, in view of experience in other countries, could be 10,000
installations over a period of 5 years. This would imply tentatively 2500
installations per region.
 A domestic energy survey should provide detailed information on the (rural)
domestic energy situation. Therefore, the programme shouldould start with a
domestic energy study in confined areas (Woreda level) to:
 Identify energy demand and supply characteristics
 Livestock keeping characteristics and modalities
 Water availability (and other secondary parameters)
 Enable a correct assessment and screening for potential biogas clients.
The National Biogas Programme Office (within the EREDPC) would formulate
the Terms of Reference. The regional Bureaux of Energy will implement the
survey, with –where necessary- assistance of the national office.
 To allow efficient and effective implementation and supervision, construction
should take place in a limited number (say 5) of Woredas per region (resulting in
~ 500 plants per Woreda). Selection of the initial programme areas should follow
the finding surveys as mentioned under 2.1.
 Construction should take place in batches of 10 to 20 installations within one
smaller area (Kebele, village) to create a good environment for
commercialization, financing and extension.
 As a result, the pilot would establish between 500 and 1000 domestic biogas
cores.
 The pilot shall provide detailed information and justification for the potential and
opportunity for succession.
2.3 Investment costs.

Reduction of plant investment costs seems possible by:
 Proper (smaller) sizing of installations.
 Application of locally available materials (fixed dome constructed in stone instead
of bricks).
 Development and introduction of a biogas financing facility.
 Partial investment subsidy.
2.4 Technical aspects.

Quality management will prove a critical success factor in the programme. Therefore:
 Standardize design, construction and manufacturing services for domestic biogas
 Stimulate / support local manufacturing of appliances (taps, stoves, lamps).
 Introduce a quality management system embedded on the sector standards.
 Certify (training of) biogas constructors and technicians.
2.5 Specific recommendations for SNV-Ethiopia.

For SNV-Ethiopia, as initiator of the study, to guide their initiative towards
implementation of a biogas programme, the following specific recommendations are
suggested:
2.5.1 Decision of SNV-Ethiopia.

Based on the feasibility study, SNV-Ethiopia will have to decide to further pursue (or
not) the development of a national biogas programme. In case of a positive decision
SNV-Ethiopia may consider allocating one of its staff to properly guide the early
preparatory phase.
Outcome step 1 by July 2006.

 SNV formally decides to pursue the development of a biogas programme in
Ethiopia. This is reflected in SNV-Ethiopia‟s trimester and annual planning.
 SNV allocates the responsibility for the early preparation to one of its staff.
2.5.2 Selection programme partner(s).

Main implementation partner: The report suggests the EREPDC as the most suitable
partner at national (federal) level, with the Bureaus of Energy as regional partners. It is
recommended that SNV-Ethiopia enters an exploratory trajectory with EREPDC to map
mutual interest, opportunities and, when mutually satisfactory, enter into a
Memorandum of Understanding or Letter of Intend regarding the joint development of

an Implementation Document for the programme.
Other key partners: In addition, it seems advisable for SNV-Ethiopia to approach other
potential key programme partners in an early programme development stage. Most
prominently on the list would be:
 The Royal Netherlands Embassy: The impression is that the Embassy may
support a biogas programme. Such programme fits well in the current policy
framework of the ministry. Early involvement of the embassy may properly
prepare the system.
 UNDP-GEF: UNDP indicated that a biogas programme would fit well within their
GEF policy framework. GEF co-financing, hence, is an opportunity.
 UNICEF-WASH: Not tested during the survey, but it seems that cooperation
between the UNICEF-WASH programme and a biogas programme could be an
opportunity. SNV-Ethiopia could further explore this option.
Outcome step 2 by August 2006:

 MoU / LoI signed with main implementing partner (probably EREDPC) on the
joint development of the implementation plant for the programme.
 Possibly LoIs signed with other key partners on their involvement in the future
programme.
2.5.3 Recruitment and selection SNV Senior Technical Advisor.

It will be important for SNV-Ethiopia to timely have in-house expertise available to
initiate, stimulate and guide the preparation and implementation process proper. A draft
profile sketch is attached to this report for this purpose (annex 6).
Outcome step 3 by September 2006:

 Formal profile sketch, core competencies and terms of reference (first 6 months)
for the Senior Technical Advisor developed by SNV-Ethiopia.
 Recruitment and selection procedure started.
 Senior Technical Consultant contracted.
2.5.4 Development of the Programme Implementation Document.

Jointly with the main programme partner, (the Senior Technical Advisor of) SNV-
Ethiopia will develop the implementation plan. In addition to the detailed description of
the planned implementation, the following issues will be dealt with during this period:
 Development of PDF-A application for the GEF
 Further stake-holder analysis.
 In depth institutional / organizational assessment of main (potential) programme
partners.
 More detailed information on “disposable income” of farmers
 Mapping of opportunities for investment-credit facilities
 Mapping of opportunities for financial management and fund channelling.
Outcome step 4 by January 2007:

 Programme Implementation Document (PID) developed.
 Brief reports on “issues” submitted and duly integrated in the PID.

 PID submitted to (potential) donors.
 Memorandum of Agreement signed between the main implementation partner
and SNV in the implementation (5year) of the programme.
2.5.5 Assistance from SNV HQ / Biogas Practice Team.

SNV Head quarters, more in particular the Biogas Proactice Team will assist SNV-
Ethiopia where necessary, but more in particular with:
 Drafting the profile sketch (see annex 6) and competency table for the Senior
Technical Advisor.
 Selection and recruitment of the advisors
 Technical consultancy and backstopping in the preparation and formulation of the
implementation plan.
3 Some particular considerations.
3.1 Installation design

Also in view of the study findings, the main criteria for domestic biogas plant designs for
rural Ethiopia would include:
 robustness in construction and operation;
 opportunity to accommodate a high share of local materials, and-to a lesser
extent;
 correct sizing and;
 low cost.
The construction of a floating drum installation is straight forward, with little chance of
error. And for the owner, with the drum clearly indicating the amount of gas available,
the set-up is understandable. However, although some of the visited floating drum
installation showed admirable endurance, its intrinsic setbacks like: low gas pressure
(especially for lamps and longer pipelines but also for discharge of more viscose –more
dry- slurry); cumbersome connection of dome with the gas pipe, with hoses getting
brittle easily; the expensive construction and
transport of the steel dome, would not make it
the design of choice for Ethiopia.
The fixed dome design would be able of a

significantly higher gas pressure and would by
its nature not have the costs for a steel drum
or its connection problem. On the other hand,
fixed dome plants would need a higher level of
on-site workmanship, and are less forgiving for
construction mistakes. Especially gas-
tightening the dome has, depending on the
design, proven to be critical. Moreover, where
fixed dome installations are constructed in
bricks and these bricks have to be trucked–in, a large part of the investment advantage
will be lost.
As the experience with domestic biogas did not establish a vested construction custom
in Ethiopia yet, the study team proposes to introduce the (modified) fixed dome design
that has been used in Nepal successfully for many years 22.
Its design is extremely robust, both in construction as well as operation, allows using
stones as well as bricks for the construction of the round wall, and requires of all fixed
dome designs probably the lowest level of craftsmanship. In addition, as the design has
been used intensively over a long period of time, construction and after sales service
standards and a variety of training material will be readily available.
3.2 Appliances.
Based on the appliances observed during the household visits, significant improvement
can be made:
 Selam is developing (currently pilot stage) a promising biogas lamp. If the
expectations are met, this would be an excellent alternative for the current
(copies of) Indian biogas lamps. Alternatively, the Biogas Partnership Nepal
developed a reliable biogas lamp that
could be manufactured in Ethiopia as
well
 Many of the observed biogas stoves
would leave room for improvement.
SNV has experience with locally
manufactured stoves (Nepal, Cambodia
and to a lesser extent Vietnam) that
seem appropriate for the Ethiopian
market, and could be manufactured
locally in small batches. Demonstrating the Selam lamp
 The quality of the observed gas taps
was not always convincing. SNV has Cambodian biogas stove
experience with simple, robust designs
that can be manufactured locally in
small batches
22
A brief version of the construction manual for this model installation is provided as annex 3
3.3 Plant size.

In general, the installations visited during the study seemed over-sized in relation with
the amount of manure available. With most livestock roaming on (common) grazing
lands during the day and many of the cattle being “at the skinny side of healthy”, the
amount of available dung of one head of cattle will likely be in the range of 5 to 6 kilo
per day.
For a biogas installation to become interesting for the family, it would have to be able to
produce at least around 1 m3 biogas per day. This would require –say- 20 to 30 kg
manure being fed to the installation every day. Hence, a family would need at least the
manure of a herd of 4 to 5 cattle. For such “typical” biogas household, a correctly sized
installation would have a digester volume of 4m3.
The table below provides the relation between digester-size, feeding, water
requirement, cattle holding and gas production, where it should be noted that actual
sizing shall depend on weighing the actual amount of available dung over a longer
period (one week) rather than on the number of cattle. The impression of the mission is
that for typical households, digester sizes of 4 or 6 m3 will suffice.
4 m3 digester 6 m3 digester 8 m3 digester 10 m3 digester
min max min max min max min max
Feeding [kg dung/day] 24 36 36 48 48 60 60 90

Water requirement [ltr water/day] 24 36 36 48 48 60 60 90
Cattle (night stabling only) [heads] 4 6 6 8 8 10 10 15
Gas production [m3/day] 0.84 1.26 1.26 1.68 1.68 2.1 2.1 3.15
3.4 Investment costs

Based on the considerations of 3.1 to 3.3, investment costs of domestic biogas
installations –particularly when constructed in stone, could be reduced. Although a small
“zero-series” in rural areas shall prove the point, it seems that construction 4 and 6 m3
installations in rural areas under ETB 5,000 would be possible.
Below the Bill of Quantities for the GGC 2047 model biogas plant constructed in stone.
The similar design in bricks would be approximately 50% more expensive.
Investment costs GGC 2047 biogas plant for Ethiopia for construction in stone [ETB]
3 3 3 3
4 m digester 6 m digester 8 m digester 10 m digester
unit qty costs total qty costs total qty costs total qty costs total
1 Contribution farmer in kind

1.1 Unskilled labour [person days] 20 300.00 25 375.00 30 450.00 35 525.00
1.2 Sand [bags] 60 300.00 70 350.00 80 400.00 90 450.00
1.3 Gravel [bags] 30 120.00 35 140.00 40 160.00 50 200.00
1 Total farmer contribiution 720.00 865.00 1,010.00 1,175.00
2 Supplied materials
2.1 Cement [bags] 12 720.00 14 840.00 18 1,080.00 21 1,260.00
2.2 Stone, cut [m3] 4 200.00 5 250.00 6 300.00 7 350.00
2.3 Reinforcement rod [kg] 11 110.00 11 110.00 14 140.00 14 140.00
2.4 Fitting material [set price] 605.00 605.00 753.00 753.00
2.5 Appliances [set price] 600.00 600.00 900.00 1,200.00
2 Total materials 2,235.00 2,405.00 3,173.00 3,703.00
3 Technical services
3.1 Skilled labour [person days] 2 90.00 2 90.00 2 90.00 2 90.00
3.2 Semi skilled labour [person days] 8 360.00 8 360.00 11 495.00 11 495.00
3.3 Annual maintenance fee [fee per visit] 4 180.00 4 180.00 4 180.00 4 180.00
3 Total services 630.00 630.00 765.00 765.00
4 Company fee
4.1 Overhead [person days] 1 45.00 1 45.00 1 45.00 1 45.00
4.2 Risk coverage [share of 2] 5% 111.75 5% 120.25 5% 158.65 5% 185.15
4.3 Company profit [share of 2+3] 20% 573.00 20% 607.00 20% 787.60 20% 893.60
4 Total company fee 729.75 772.25 991.25 1,123.75
5 Programme fee
5.1 QC contribution fee [fee per visit] 2 50.00 2 50.00 2 50.00 2 50.00
5.2 Participation fee [lump sum] 50.00 50.00 50.00 50.00
5 Total programme fee 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Total investment 4,414.75 4,772.25 6,039.25 6,866.75
3.5 Costs & benefits of domestic biogas. Investment costs & GDPppp
Despite –possibly- the opportunity to reduce the Investment costs GDPppp capita
investment costs for a domestic installation, the 3500
initial costs are still (very) high, both in relative 3000
as well as absolute terms. 2500
2000
[Euro]
The high investment costs of biogas plants in 1500
Ethiopia seem to be (at least partially) off-set by 1000
the high biogas substitution value (see Section 500
0
3, chapter 1.2.5) Vietnam Nepal Ethiopia
3.5.1 The tangibility of benefits.

The benefits of domestic biogas are divided over multiple levels (micro, meso and
macro) of society and are differing in the extent to which they can be translated in direct
economic gain (formal versus informal 23). As indicated in the tangibility matrix, although
the farmer is expected to pay for the (lion share of) the installation, the household will
only reap a small part of its benefits, and an even smaller part that could actually assist
in repaying the investment (micro, formal).
Biogas benefit-tangibility matrix

Informal Formal
 Reduced indoor smoke-induced illnesses.  Increased efficient productivity.
 Reduced poor-sanitation induced illnesses.  Reduced direct medical costs.
 Reduced drudgery from fuelwood collection.  Reduced expenses on conventional energy sources.
Micro
 Reduced pressure for illegal forest encroachment.  Reduced chemical fertilizer expenditures.
 Reduction drudgery from weeding fields.  Increased opportunity for (small-scale) organic
 Reduced workload for food-preparation. agriculture.
 Reduced soil erosion / degradation.  Improved agricultural yields.
 Improved opportunity for education.  Increased family income.
 Reduced risk of erosion and landslides in mountainous  Increased employment and income generating
areas. opportunities.
Meso
 Improved forest quality and quantity.  Opportunity to develop markets for (organic) agricultural
 Reduced pollution of the environment as a result of produce.
uncontrolled dumping of animal waste.
 Reduction of illness-induced production losses.  Reduced (forex) cost on medication.

 Improved biodiversity.  Reduced health system expenses.
 Increased non-marketable (NT)FP availability.  Reduced (forex) costs on chemical fertilizer.
Macro
 Increased efficient productivity.  Reduced (forex) costs on fossil fuels.

 Reduced mortality.  Increased availability marketable (NT)FP.
 Improved human resource base.  Increased agricultural production.
 Reduced risks as result of global warming.  Increased tax revenues.
 Generating CDM revenues.
Clearly, cost – benefit considerations depend heavily on the perspective taken.
23
As mentioned, “formal benefits” can be translated directly in economic gain; one can attribute a price to it. For “Informal b enefits”
this tends to be more complicated and indirect, and they tend to refer more to benefits in the social and environmental domain. This
is not to say that formal benefits should be valued higher, rather that the economic system often poorly allows to value social and
environmental benefits properly.
Fixed dome biogas plant: financial in and outflow
3.5.2 Cost - benefits, the micro view. 1400

At micro level and particularly at the shorter
term, the main –if not the only- benefit of a 900
biogas plant that assists the farmer to repay its
investment is the direct savings in conventional 400
domestic fuel. Assuming:
 the average biogas production at 1 m3 -100 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
per plant per day;
 the biogas substitution value at € 0.35 -600 Outflow Inflow Inflow minus outflow cummulative
per m3 (financial value, see Section 3,

chapter 1.2.5) Fixed dome biogas plant, IRR development
 the investment at € 500 per plant, while
40%
including maintenance costs, 30%
a household would look at a simple pay-back 20%
period of about 2.5 years. 10%
0%
-10% 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
The (financial) return on their investment would -20%
be 18% in a 5 year perspective and 31% in a 10 -30%
-40%
year perspective.
-50%
-60%
3.5.3 Cost – benefits, the macro view. -70%
For a cost-benefit calculation at macro level, -80%
revenue as a result of reducing greenhouse gas

emissions, higher profits in the agricultural sector (reduction of chemical fertilizer,
increasing yield) and improvement of health and sanitation conditions can be included.
For most of these items, the study team IRR10 programme-wide

45%
does not have a detailed quantification of 40%
those benefits for the rural situation in 35%
Ethiopia. The graph, hence, is based on very 30%
rough estimates, and is only presented to 25%

20%
underline that at macro level large scale 15%
dissemination programmes have significant 10%
economic merit. 5%
0%
Fuel plus CER plus Agriculture plus health &
w orkload
3.6 Subsidy IRR sensitivity to biogas substitution value

Although investment in a domestic biogas
IRR
50%
installation appears to be modestly economically IRR5 IRR10
feasible, in practice the return is highly sensitive 40%
to the actual replacement value. This value 30%
depends to a large extend to how the household 20%
acquires domestic energy. In the five year 10%
perspective, a drop in the real value of only € 0%
0.10 would bring the IRR already under the -10%

0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50
lending rate. -20%
-30%
Because the investment is so sensitive to the -40%
biogas substitution value, and in view of: -50%
 the high investment costs in relation with Biogas substitution value [Euro / m 3 biogas]
the per capita GDPppp of the country;
 the significant gap between financial and
economic biogas substitution values; IRR sensitivity to subsidy
 the significant gap between the internal
IRR
rate of return at micro and macro level, 60%
IRR5 IRR10
an investment subsidy component seems

50%
justified.
40%
Based on earlier investment assumptions, an
investment subsidy of € 150 would improve the 30%
IRR in a 5 year perspective with 17%.

20%
The FIRR and EIRR would be important 10%

parameters to establish / justify the subsidy
level. In addition, the extent to which households 0%
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
can be offered a biogas loan under appropriate Subsidy level [Euro / installation]
conditions (maturity, grace period, interest rate),
as well as other dissemination barriers, would
be an important consideration.
These barriers include:

 limited rural awareness on biogas benefits, in particular in relation with
environment and agriculture;
 limited rural availability of technical services in general and biogas / energy
services in particular;
 limited concentration of farm(er)s in villages and the related high costs for
promotion and dissemination of innovative technologies
 the large extent to which the rural economy in general and domestic energy in
particular is still in the informal domain.
The subsidy is proposed to be independent from the installation size. Larger installations
typically would belong to farmers with more cattle. These farmers can be expected to
contribute more to the investment than smaller farmers. Besides the equity perspective,
also from a technical and economic perspective a flat-rate subsidy would be preferable:
a flat-rate subsidy amount will stimulate plants being properly sized (not too large in
relation to the amount of dung available); this will improve the economics of the plant as
well as the technical functioning.
A flat-rate subsidy of ETB 1,500 seems justified. In absence of a transparent poverty

stratification system at household or kebele level, properly administrating a poverty
targeted subsidy will get too complicated.
3.7 Credit.
Credit and savings organizations in Ethiopia seem to develop rapidly; the Association of
Ethiopian Micro Finance Institutions (AEMFI) counted 26 member organizations.
MFIs are regulated by the Ethiopian Development Bank; out of 26 organizations, 16

received a loan at least twice. Funding is sourced by donor grants, equity, savings-
mobilization and borrowing from commercial banks. Fund–availability at the banks may
not be a first issue.
Over the 3 ½ year period between Decembers 2001and June 2005, their number of
clients tripled and the outstanding loan quadrupled. By June 2005, the MFI‟s had over
1.2 million loan clients among them (ranging from ~ 1600 to 126000 clients), with a total
outstanding loan portfolio of nearly ETB 1.5 billion. The average outstanding loan per
client then reached ETB 1,220.
MF development Ethiopia
1,400,000 1,400
According to AEMFI, their typical clients would 1,200,000
# of clients Avg loan / client
1,200
be poor rural households, taking on average a
Average outstanding loan

1,000,000 1,000
loan of ETB 2000, with 80% of the loans under
# of MF-clients
[ETB/client]
800,000 800
ETB 5,000. Loans are taken to finance
600,000 600
agricultural input, establishment of small
businesses and consumption. 400,000 400
200,000 200
Loan repayment is good, member organizations - -

31-12-2001 31-12-2003 31-12-2004 30-06-2005
calculate with 6% non-repayment risk.
Repayment schedules can vary between every two weeks to monthly, or even annual.
Loans are provided as group loans, repayment is arranged by “peer-pressure”. Collateral
will be required for loans larger than ETB 5,000.
Interest rates are established by the member – MFI‟s themselves, and range from 9 to
24% per annum. Maturity of loans varies from under one year for smaller loans up to 5
years for loans over ETB 5,000. About 40% of the loan is covered by savings, down from
75% in 2001.
The visited regional credit organizations (Amhara, Tigray, Oromia) acted “carefully
positive” on the prospect of extending biogas loans. As biogas is relatively unknown, and
does not provide direct income (rather savings that are not always easily monetized)
they indicated they may want some sort of an additional guarantee.
Against this institutional back-drop, biogas credit seems a realistic option, although
participating Saving and Credit organizations may need safeguards to protect their
loans. To provide a first indication the effect of a loan on a biogas investment was
calculated with:
 a subsidy amount of ETB 1,500;
 an interest rate of 12% per annum;
Financing scheme for biogas plant type GGC 2047 built in stone
 a loan maturity of 5 years. 4m
3
6m
3
Farmer contribution 720.00 865.00

The table provides the result for a 4 and 6 m3 Supplied materials 2,235.00 2,405.00
Technical services 630.00 630.00
installation built in stone. Monthly costs of a Company fee 729.75 772.25
24
biogas plant would be ETB 51 to 56 . Programme fee 100.00 100.00
Assuming that the installation would replace Total investment 4,414.75 4,772.25
fuelwood only, and further assuming:

 an average installation producing 1 m3 Own contribution
Subsidy
720.00
1,500.00
865.00
1,500.00
biogas per day;
 a substitution ration of 5 kg fuelwood Remaining investment 2,194.75 2,407.25
per cubic meter biogas, and; Annual repayment 608.85 [ETB/annum] 667.79 [ETB/annum]
Monthly repayment 50.74 [ETB/month] 55.65 [ETB/month]
 a fuel price of ETB 0.75 per kg of
Financing costs 849.48 [ETB] 931.72 [ETB]
fuelwood,
the monthly savings of ETB 112.50 would easily repay the loan.
According to the experts of the EREPDC, a biogas credit scheme with repayments up to
ETB 1,000 per year would be feasible for farmers with cash crops.
3.8 Biogas and the Clean Development Mechanism.

The fermentation of animal dung in domestic biogas digesters, and the subsequent
application of biogas and bio-slurry, contributes to the global reduction of greenhouse
gasses (GHG). As such, the programme will
qualify for the Clean Development Mechanism Bioga s & Gr e e nh ouse Ga s Re duct ion
(CDM) of the UNFCCC. Bioga s su bst it u t e s

con ve n t ion a l dom e st ic
Bioga s pla n t s ch a n ge
e n e r gy sou r ce s
t r a dit ion a l m a nu r e
In principle, applying domestic biogas could m a n a ge m e n t
reduce GHG emissions in three ways:
 Substitution of conventional domestic
energy sources,
 Modification of the traditional manure Bio- slu r r y
management practice; and; ca n
su bst it u t e
 Substitution of chemical fertilizer. ch e m ica l
fe r t ilize r
24
“Financing costs” represent the total of the interest costs over the repayment period,
In Ethiopia, however:
 cattle is largely free grazing and storage of dung under (semi) anaerobic
conditions is not customary, and;
kgCO2eq/pl/yr
Domestic biogas plant GHG reduction
 application of chemical fertilizer is hardly 3000
2500
practiced, and in addition substitution of 2000
baseline project
chemical fertilizer by bio-slurry will be 1500

complicated to monitor. 1000
500
0
Hence, the main feasible source of GHG -500 Manure Fuel substitution Plant construction
reduction would be the substitution of -1000
management
conventional energy sources. In the case of -1500

-2000
most households, this thus would mean
-2500
substitution of the non-renewable share of
fuelwood would be the main source of greenhouse gas reduction.
The graph provides the preliminary calculated results of GHG reduction for a typical
Ethiopian biogas household. GHG reduction would tentatively be in the range of 2 tons
CO2 equivalents per installation per year.
Regarding these preliminary calculations of greenhouse gas emission reduction, little

additional explanation is due. Plant construction and GHG reduction
 The GHG reduction is based on 12,000 Cumulative GHG 250
Thousands
substitution of fuelwood, assuming a 11,000
reduction
non-renewable biomass share of 50%. 10,000

9,000
200
GHG reduction [tCO2eq]

The presented reduction only takes into 8,000
150
# of plants
account the 5 year project period. In 7,000

6,000
reality a first crediting period would be 7 5,000 100
or 10 years, potentially increasing the 4,000

3,000
GHG reduction to over 200,000 tCO2 2,000
50
Biogas plants
equivalents. 1,000
-
in operation
-
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
The potential value of the GHG reduction in a Clean Development Mechanism is

significant. However:
 The substitution of non-renewable biomass is allowed for in small scale
methodology, but seems not yet fully undisputed;
 Carbon credits are awarded only after verification of proper performance. On a
smaller scale, financial benefits may not live up to expectations.
 Preparation and monitoring costs and efforts are considerable
Therefore, one would be well advised to carefully weigh costs and benefits of
developing the programme into a CDM project. Rather, the programme shall from the
start ensure CDM compatibility, especially regarding quality management and
monitoring and evaluation but embark up on CDM registration only once the programme
itself is properly established.
Report on
Section 5
Outline of the Ethiopia Biogas Programme.
5 Programme outline Page 76
1 Main features.
The Ethiopia Biogas Programme as proposed hereunder intends to lay out a robust
foundation for the establishment of a commercially viable domestic biogas sector.
Salient features of the programme would include:
Standardization of domestic biogas design, construction and after sales service.

The programme will produce concise manuals for appropriate installations and
appliances, including manuals for construction, manufacturing and after sales service
and the formulation of the related quality standards.
Introduction of a quality management system.

Precise control of the quality of construction, after sales and extension services will not
only safeguard the investment of the farmer and enable the farmer to maximize the
benefits of the investment. I will also level the playing field for aspiring biogas
companies to operate on the emerging market. The quality management system will be
compatible with quality assurance certification and CDM registration in a later stage.
Financing.
The programme proposes a flat rate subsidy scheme for participating farmers, reducing
the initial investment with ~ 25%. In addition, and key to the long term success, the
programme will support an investment credit facility in cooperation with existing micro-
finance institutions.
Training
The programme will invest significantly in training. On the supply side of the market, to
ensure that necessary dissemination skills are as much as possible available locally.
And on the demand side, to make sure households understand the operation and
maintenance of their plants sufficiently and families apply biogas and bio-slurry to their
maximum advantage.
Study
The programme aims to study and document rural domestic energy practices in general
and biogas user experiences in particular. The study results will be used to direct the
programme and -on the medium term- to justify and direct continuation of a domestic
biogas programme in Ethiopia.
Sectoral approach.
The programme will strongly promote an approach in which Government, non-
government and private sector organizations, in a complementary fashion assume
those programme functions that intrinsically fit to the character of their organization.
Institutional / organizational strengthening.

The programme intnds to invest heavily on developing the necessary indigenous
organizational and institutional capacity within the biogas (sub) sector.
2 Goal and purpose.

The goal of the project is to improve the livelihoods and quality of life of rural
farmers in Ethiopia through exploiting the market and non-market benefits of
domestic biogas. By the end of the project:
 10,000 new biogas plants will be built nationwide;
 95% of all new biogas plants will be connected to indoor cooking facilities;
 80% of all new biogas plants have a double slurry pit25 and;
 50% of all new biogas plants will have toilets attached26;
The purpose of the project is to develop a commercially viable domestic biogas

sector. Therefore:
 At least 1 Biogas Construction Team is established in each Kebele in which the
programme supports activities;
 New biogas plants are constructed in clusters of 50 to 100 installations per
Kebele of 5 Woredas in 4 regions. As a result, communities in at least 150
Kebeles have access to the services of Biogas Construction Team;
 All plant owners have access to credit for biogas construction and 60% of biogas
owners utilise it by the end of the project27;
 A national vocational training institute will be identified that will act and biogas
training and reference institute.
3 Programme components.
The focus of the programme shall be the biogas sector as a whole. Sector development
implies the close cooperation of all relevant stakeholders (Government, Non-
Government and private sector) in the sector at all levels (micro and macro). The chart
indicates the main functions in a large-scale domestic biogas programme and its
relations.
25
For the proper application of bio-slurry as organic fertilizer, collection of the slurry would be a prime requirement. Double slurry
pits enable to collect slurry, mix it with other organic material, and leave it for curing for a short period.
26
It is acknowledged that 50% toilet connection in Ethiopia‟s context is a tall order. However, in view of the poor state of sanitation in
rural areas in its health consequences, the programme should be committed to invest significantly in proper promotion. Technically,
the programme will assure that all installations are equipped with a second inlet pipe to ensure attachment of a toilet at a later stage.
27
The assumption is that at the end of the programme 60% of the installations (6000 plants) are constructed with credit assistance.
This credit share will increase from 30% during the first year to 70% in the last programme year.
To support the project‟s purpose, objectives for each of the programme components
have been formulated.
CN Component Objective
1 Promotion & marketing To stimulate demand, informing beneficiaries and stakeholders on the benefits
and costs of domestic biogas.
2 Financing To lower the financial threshold and improve access to credit and repayment
assistance, to facilitate easier access to domestic biogas for all potential
clients, with particular emphasis on the poor, women and other disadvantaged
groups.
3 Construction and After To facilitate the construction of 10000 domestic biogas plants and ensure their
Sales Service continued operation.
4 Quality Management To maximise the effectiveness of the investment made by the biogas owners
and to maintain consumer confidence in domestic biogas technology.
5 Training To provide the skills for business people to run biogas SMEs and for biogas
users to be able to operate their plants effectively
6 Extension To provide the information to allow biogas users to effectively exploit all the
benefits of biogas
7 Institutional Support To maximise the ability of key biogas related institutions to provide the
services and support required by the biogas sector to facilitate access to
domestic biogas and the development of quality biogas products.
8 Monitoring and To identify project progress and impact on stakeholders/other aspects in order
Evaluation to facilitate knowledge transfer.
9 Research and To increase knowledge about domestic biogas issues to maximise
Development effectiveness, quality and service delivery of the biogas programme.
10 Programme management To support, coordinate and supervise the activities driving the development of
(National / Regional) a commercially viable biogas sector.
4 Expected results.
The table shows some of the main expected EBP expected results
results. The detailed overview is provided in
annex 5. Clearly, besides the environmental Biogas plant construction 10,000 [plants]
and energy aspects of domestic biogas,
Energy
significant results can be expected in the Energy production 197,960 [GJ]
socio-economic field and in training. Power installed 33,330 [kW]
Environment
GHG emission reduction 40,400 [t CO2eq]
Fuel substitution
Biomass 59,166 [t biomass]
Kerosene 61 [t]
Socio-economic
Persons reached 60,000 [persons]
Workload reduction (women & children) 2,020 [pers years]
Exposure to indoor air pollution reduced 30,000 [women & children]
Toilets attached 5,000 [toilets]
Productive slurry use 8,000 [households]
Employment generation (direct) 700 [person years]
Training
User training 14,000 [person days]
Professional training 2,741 [person days]
5 Actors & activities.

The contracting partners for the potential programme at the highest level would be the
Ministry of Finance and Economic Development (MoFED) and the donor organizations.
At regional level, contracting would be done with the Bureaux of Finance and Economic
Development (BoFED).
Actor - activity
& Evaluation
Promotion &
Developmen
Managemen
Managemen
Institutional
Constructio
n and A.S.S
Programme
Research &
Investment
Monitoring
marketing
Extension
financing
Training
Support
Quality
t
EREPDC
NBPO
Bureaux of
Energy
RBPO
Bureaux of
Agriculture
Kebele ext
workers
Regional MFIs
Biogas constr.
teams
Selam VTC
Initiating, primary responsible

Executing
Assisting, supporting
The Biogas Advisory Board will

accommodate representatives of all major
programme stakeholders. The Board ensures
the programme strategy matches relevant
governmental policy (environment, rural
development, energy) and facilitates a
conducive and cooperative programme
environment.
The Board advises / comments on (draft)

programme guidelines, annual plans and
reports and management response to
programme audits and external evaluations.
The Ethiopian Rural Energy Promotion and Development Centre will take overall
coordination and supervision responsibility. The Centre will be responsible to develop a
productive rural energy network at national and regional level. The EREPDC ensures
proper cooperation with regional level partners and tunes the (national) programme
strategy with its other rural energy activities and similar activities of other actors.
The National Biogas Programme Office established within the EREPDC (possibly
within the biomass department), will take operational responsibility. The NBPO will
develop construction and after sales service manuals; develop corresponding quality
standards and quality control procedures and training courses; implement quality control
and conduct training. The NBPO will prepare annual and semi annual plans and reports.
Selam Technical and Vocational Centre will, together with the NBPO, implement the
main training components of the programme. To that extent, STVC will provide training
at “Technician” level, for staff of the BoEs and the RBPOs and training at “Construction”
level, for the rural Biogas Construction Teams.
The Bureaux of Energy will have regional coordination and supervision responsibility.
The Bureaux will develop a productive rural energy network at regional, woreda and
kebele level. The BoE ensures proper cooperation with woreda and kebele level
programme partners (Bureaux of Agriculture network, NGOs) and tunes the (regional)
programme with its other rural energy activities and similar activities of other actors.
The Regional Biogas Programme Offices, established within the Bureaux of Energy,
will take operational responsibility at regional level. The RBPOs will implement quality
control, extension and training activities. The Offices will prepare regional annual plans
and reports.
Biogas Construction Teams, “proto-” private biogas construction companies will be

established under the programme, initially in each woreda of operation 5 to 10 teams.
The BCTs, after training and certification, will be responsible for marketing, construction
and after sales service of domestic biogas installations.
6 Activity schedule and budget outline.

Detailed activity schedules and budgets will be prepared on an annual basis by the
NBPO, and proposed for advice to the Biogas Advisory Board. This outline suggests the
boundaries of activities, scheduling and available budget. The full detail of the
programme budget is provided in Annex 6.
General remarks to the activity schedule and budget:

 The direct investment costs, as covered by the farmers, are corrected for
inflation, assuming an inflation rate of 5% per annum.
 The regional and national programme support costs are not corrected for
inflation, as it is assumed that these cost will, to a large extend, be covered by
(foreign) development aid funds. Experience learns that exchange rate
development tends to correct inflation.
 The Biogas Support Offices, national and regional, are assumed to be integrated
n the government structure. Budget rates are calculated accordingly.
 This schedule and budget merely serve to establish the “order of magnitude”.
Fine tuning should happen during the preparatory phase, together with the main
implementing partner, in particularly while developing the Programme
Implementation Document.
Foundation for this outline is the production forecast. The programme proposes to
support the construction of 10,000 biogas plants over a period of 5 years. Production is
planned in 4 regions: Amhara, Oromia, SNNPRS and Tigray. Tentatively, the production
is evenly divided over the 4 regions. A survey at the start of the programme may
indicate a shift in this division, depending on actual demand and marketing
opportunities.
Initial production will be modest, but is expected to pick up as skills and awareness at
both demand as well as supply side increase. To facilitate effective supervision, it will be
crucial to construct in batches. Hence, for the first year the programme will stimulate to
construct in one Kebele of one Woreda in each
Distribution by years
region in the first year. Regionally, the Region Total 1 2 3 4 5
programme will thereafter gradually develop Amhara 2500 50 200 500 750 1000
activities in maximally 5 Woredas, while Oromia

SNNPRS
2500
2500
50
50
200
200
500
500
750
750
1000
1000
continuing batch-wise construction. Tigray 2500 50 200 500 750 1000
Total project (allocated) 10000 200 800 2000 3000 4000

Production share/year 100% 2% 8% 20% 30% 40%
6.1 Subsidy.
As argued earlier, the Ethiopian circumstances would justify an investment subsidy
component. Tentatively, a flat rate subsidy amount of ETB 1,500 (€ 144) is proposed.
Further study should reveal the possibility of a two tier subsidy scheme, with a higher
subsidy level (ETB 2,000) for poorer and/or more remote areas. The subsidy fund
requirement of the programme will thus amount into € 1,441 million.
Annual subs requirement [Euro]
1 2 3 4 5 Total
# of plants 200 800 2000 3000 4000 10000
Subsidy requirement 28,818 115,274 288,184 432,277 576,369 1,440,922
The expectation is that the investment for the Average subsidy

25%
(modified) GGC 2047 fixed-dome biogas
installation with a digester volume of 4 and 6 Flat-rate subsidy
ETB 1500
m3, built in stone, will be under € 500 at 2006
price level. With the proposed subsidy of ETB Avg investment
1500, the average investment for the farmer – ETB 4500 EBP plant investment development
800
corrected for inflation- will be € 435. The 700
average subsidy amounts to 25% of the total 600
investment 500
[Euro]
400
300
6.2 Direct investment. 200
For the programme, the total direct investment 100
(10,000 biogas installations) will amount to € 0

1 2 3 4 5
5.788 million.
Direct investment EBP (inflation correction in farmer investment) [Euro]
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 total

Annual production biogas plants 200 800 2000 3000 4000 10000
Farmer investment (avg) 71,182 304,726 814,316 1,304,161 1,854,644 4,349,028

Investment subsidy (avg) 28,818 115,274 288,184 432,277 576,369 1,440,922
Total direct investment 100,000 420,000 1,102,500 1,736,438 2,431,013 5,789,950
Avg farmer investment / plant 435

Avg investment subsidy / plant 144
Total direct investment / plant 579
Cash / credit construction forecast
# of plants
6.3 Credit. 4500
The remaining investment will -despite the 4000 Credit Cash
subsidy- still be prohibitive for most rural 3500
3000
farmers. Hence, a proper credit facility will
2500
prove crucial for the success of the programme. 2000 `
1500
In these preliminary calculations it is assumed 1000
that in the first year 30% of the households get 500
0
a loan for the biogas investment. Subsequently,
th 1 2 3 4 5
the credit share shall increase to 70% in the 5
programme year. As a result, at the end of the programme 60% of the participating
households will have constructed their plant with credit assistance.
A “proper credit facility” has for these preliminary calculations been translated in a loan
maturity of 5 years, interest rate of 12% per annum and a one year grace period. Of the
total programme investment principal amount of € 2.631 million, the financing costs 28
will thus result in € 1.149 million.
Investment financing [Euro]
1 2 3 4 5 Total
Total prinicpal 21,354 121,890 407,158 782,497 1,298,251 2,631,150

Financing costs 9,331 53,259 177,903 341,902 567,255 1,149,649
Loan repayment loan will cover the sanctioned EBP investment credit
Euro
1500000
amount after the 6th year.
1000000
500000
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-500000 year
-1000000
-1500000
-2000000 Sancioned Repayment Flow
28
Financing costs: accumulated interest cost over the entire maturity period.
6.4 The regional support budget.

The Regional Bureaux of Energy will play a fairly autonomous and pivotal role in the
implementation of the programme in their respective regions. While being responsible
for the implementation of the programme, they will depend heavily on networking /
cooperation of other government (e.g. Bureaux of Agriculture) and non-government
organizations (e.g. in the field of water and sanitation).
For that purpose, the government will employ at least two dedicated staff at regional
level and make available proper accommodation. Together with other (part-time) BoE
staff this unit will form the Regional Biogas Programme Office.
Summary Regional Support Budget (total programme, not corrected for inflation) [Euro]
Budget
# of regions: 4 1 2 3 4 5 total
1 Promotion & marketing 5,800 19,200 38,000 47,000 56,000 166,000

2 Quality management 1,635 6,840 17,850 29,025 41,700 97,050
3 Training 2,400 10,400 27,200 50,400 64,000 154,400
4 Extension 1,200 5,200 31,200 21,600 25,600 84,800
5 Operational expenses 45,600 37,600 37,600 19,200 19,200 159,200
Provincial Support Budget 56,635 79,240 151,850 167,225 206,500 661,450

Contingencies 5% 2,832 3,962 7,593 8,361 10,325 33,073
Total Provincial Support Budget 59,467 83,202 159,443 175,586 216,825 694,523
Reg Sup / plant 69.45
Regional programme activities include promotion and marketing, quality management,

training, and extension. The total regional budget amounts to € 695 thousand for the
programme period.
6.5 The national support budget.

The Ethiopian Renewable Energy Development and Promotion Centre will, at federal
level, take overall responsibility for the implementation of the biogas programme. The
total programme budget for national support amounts to € 1.501 million.
Summary National Support Budget (not corrected for inflation) [Euro]

Budget
1 2 3 4 5 total

2 Finance 7,400 8,600 11,000 13,000 15,000 55,000
3 Construction & a.s.s - 22,000 20,000 20,000 4,000 66,000
4 Quality assurance 13,342 6,018 5,572 11,658 10,944 47,534
5 Training 35,100 27,750 27,750 28,750 31,150 150,500
6 Extension 5,000 1,500 7,250 4,250 9,000 27,000
7 Institutional support 32,250 29,250 29,250 29,250 32,250 152,250
8 Monitoring & evaluation 14,000 24,000 26,000 24,000 26,000 114,000
9 Research & development 23,965 9,360 11,025 12,100 9,800 66,250
10 Project management 109,909 96,616 106,866 105,704 105,704 524,800
National Support Budget 260,466 251,594 291,213 308,212 318,348 1,429,834

Contingencies 5% 13,023 12,580 14,561 15,411 15,917 71,492
Total National Support Budget 273,489 264,174 305,774 323,623 334,266 1,501,326
National support bgt / plant 150.13
National support activities include promotion and marketing, (administration and

channelling of) finance, (support of) construction and after sales service, quality
assurance, training, extension, institutional support, monitoring & evaluation and
research & development.
Within the national programme budget, a separate reservation has been made to
refurbish existing biogas installations in the programme‟s area op operation. Non- or
poorly functioning biogas plants are detrimental to promotion of the technology. Hence,
the programme will provide support to those households that need assistance in
updating their installation.
6.6 Technical assistance.

SNV may offer to provide technical assistance, foremost at national level, but –through
the EREDPC- also on regional level. In this way, SNV would make available the
experience of SNV‟s Biogas Practice Area to Ethiopia regarding large scale
dissemination of domestic biogas.
Summary Technical Assistance (not corrected for inflation) [Euro]
Budget
Description 1 2 3 4 5 total
1.01 Senior Technical Advisor (EUN) 115,200 96,000 76,800 57,600 38,400 384,000
1.02 Junior Technical Advisor (EUN) - 84,000 70,000 56,000 28,000 238,000
1.11 Senior Technical Advisor (HCN) 16,800 16,800 16,800 16,800 16,800 84,000
1.12 Junior Technical Advisor (HCN) 12,000 12,000 12,000 12,000 12,000 60,000
1.21 Additional advisory services 6,000 6,000 6,000 6,000 6,000 30,000
1.22 Other support expenses 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 25,000
Total Technical Assistance 155,000 219,800 186,600 153,400 106,200 821,000
National Support Budget / plant 82.10
6.7 Budget summary.

A more detailed activity schedule and programme budget is provided in annex 6.
The total budget amounts to nearly € 10 million for 5 programme years.
Summary project budget (corrected for inflation) [Euro]
BP II summary project budget

2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 total
1a Farmer investment 71,182 304,726 814,316 1,304,161 1,854,644 4,349,028

1b Credit financing costs 9,331 53,259 177,903 341,902 567,255 1,149,649
1c Investment subsidy 28,818 115,274 288,184 432,277 576,369 1,440,922
2a Regional support (RBPO) 59,467 83,202 159,443 175,586 216,825 694,523

2b National support (NBPO) 273,489 264,174 305,774 323,623 334,266 1,501,326
2c Technical assistance 155,000 219,800 186,600 153,400 106,200 821,000
Total project 597,287 1,040,434 1,932,219 2,730,949 3,655,558 9,956,447
Application of funds [Euro] [%]
1 Investment
6.7.1 Application of funds. 1a Farmer investment 4,349,028 63%
1b Credit fiancing costs 1,149,649 17%
Investment, for the construction of 10000 1c Investment subsidy 1,440,922 21%
installations, takes 70% (€ 6.9 million) of the

total programme costs. Total investment 6,939,599 70%
2 Programme support
2a Regional support RBPO 694,523 23%
The remaining 30% (€ 3 million) will be applied 2b National support NBPO 1,501,326 50%
2c Technical assistance 821,000 27%
for programme support. Divided over the 4
participating regions, € 695 thousand will be Total project support 3,016,848 30%
applied for programme support at regional Total application 9,956,447
level and € 1.5 million is budgeted for national

support costs. Summary application of funds
Technical
Project assistance
SNV-Ethiopia‟s contribution for technical support 8%
assistance will amount to € 821 thousand. 22%
Investment
70%
Source of funds [Euro] [%]

6.7.2 Source of funds.
The lion share of the funds, 55% or € 5.5 a
a1
Farmers
Farmer investment 4,349,028 79%
million, is sourced by the participating farmers a2 Credit financing costs 1,149,649 21%
either directly but more likely indirectly, through Total participating farmers 5,498,676 55%
the repayment of biogas loans. The farmers‟ b Donor / host government

b1 Investment subsidy 1,440,922 40%
share covers investment and investment b2 Regional support 694,523 19%
c1 National support 1,501,326 41%
financing costs, minus the subsidy component.
Total donor / host gvt 3,636,770 37%
Donor(s) and the Ethiopian Government are c

d1
SNV
Technical assistance 821,000
proposed to provide funds for the subsidy Total SNV 821,000 8%
component (€ 1.4 million) and programme
support costs (€ 2.2 million). Total source 9,956,447
A proposal for a division of the contributions by Summary source of funds

the partners will be subject to further SNV
negotiations during the development of the 8%
Programme Implementation Document.
Donor / host Farmers

gvt 55%
37%
7 Opportunities and risks.

Conditions in Ethiopia pose particular opportunities and threats for a large scale biogas
programme.
In general a biogas programme fits well into the latest insights regarding sustainable
development. Opportunities include access to funding and cooperation with similar
initiatives.
Threats can be defined in the climatic conditions, poverty and agricultural customs and
the political situation in the region.
.
7.1 Opportunities.
7.1.1 UNDP-GEF co-funding:

The UNDP administered Global Environment Facility in Ethiopia would consider co-
financing of a national biogas programme. The programme so far has little activities
related to energy, both in its core programme or the GEF. Recent policy expresses
increased interest in focussing on renewable energy, including:
 RE policy issues,
 Institutional capacity strengthening
 Community level solutions.
The GEF operates in a one-on-one co-financing facility in three steps. Submission for
co-funding of programme identification (PDF A) and formulation (PDF B) and possibly
implementation (PDF C) should be considered.
7.1.2 Financial support of the Netherlands Government:

A domestic biogas programme for Ethiopia would fit into the Netherlands‟ policy to:
 provide 10 million people in developing countries with safe, reliable and
affordable sources of domestic energy by 2015. Domestic energy is a mainstay
for social and economic development.
 provide 50 million people in developing countries with clean drinking water and
proper sanitary facilities by the year 2015. Clean drinking water and proper
sanitary facilities are a pre-condition for a healthy and productive society.
7.1.3 Integration with the SNV BOAM programme.

SNV‟s “Support to Business Organizations and Access to their Markets” (BOAM) aims
to strengthen the capacity of service providers in specified agricultural value chains
(honey and beeswax; milk and dairy products; edible oils and oilseeds; and pineapple).
The biogas programme will benefit from the experiences and relations gained from
SNV‟s activities, particularly in the milk and milk products chain. In the medium turn,
experiences in e.g. Nepal show considerable mutual benefits may be derives from
cooperation within the dairy sector.
7.2 Risks.
7.2.1 Recurring droughts will hamper the implementation of any programme:

This is a considerable risk in particular for a biogas programme, where steady water
supply is a crucial requirement. The risk can be (partially) mitigated by including post
draught programme component to reactivate dried-up biogas installations
7.2.2 The feed basis for livestock is declining:

Partially –but not uniquely- in relation with the point above, the natural resource base is
increasingly unable to provide sufficient feedstock for large (in and output extensive)
cattle herds. Continuation of this practice will
Livestock keeping practices
result in further degradation of the It should be noted that environmental management in rural
environment and eventually “pull the plug” of Ethiopia is gradually including more “cut and carry” and “area
closure” approaches. In tandem, extension services promote less,
small scale integrated agriculture on the better fed and improved breed cattle which is more productive and
highlands. less threatening for the environment. This development will
actually be an opportunity for small scale integrated agriculture
and, thus, for domestic biogas.
7.2.3 Political instability:
As argued earlier, Ethiopia after the last elections has lost some of its political stability.
Furthermore, placed in the politically volatile Horn of Africa, Ethiopia‟s situation cannot
be taken in isolation. Although the situation currently seems normalized, unfavourable
developments may result in reluctance of donors to (co-) finance a larger programme,
and may complicate implementation later on.
7.2.4 Gender inequality:

A significant share of (in particular the non-formal) advantages of domestic biogas will
benefit women in particular. Women seem, however, to have a minor role in investment
decisions of the farming household. Men, hence, may decline to invest in biogas as they
do not take the full scope of benefits in consideration.
Annex 1
Terms of Reference for the feasibility study
Terms of Reference (final) for
Study on the feasibility of a national programme for domestic biogas in Ethiopia
1. Introduction and background

The Deputy Director of DGIS/DMW, Mr. Paul Hassing, requested the Coordinator of the Biogas Practice
Team (BPT) of SNV, Mr. Wim van Nes, to look into the possibilities for a biogas programme in Ethiopia.
This request builds on a study made by SNV/Ethiopia in 2004 in the field of renewable energy which
included the potential use of biogas. Also the First Secretary of the Royal Netherlands Embassy (RNE) in
Addis Ababa, Mrs. Janny Poley, showed interest in this direction. This document presents the Terms of
Reference (ToR) for such study.
2. Objective of the study

The objective of the study is to thoroughly assess the feasibility to set-up and implement a national biogas
programme in Ethiopia.
More specifically, the study will address the following areas:
- Country background including agricultural & livestock sector, energy demand and supply, energy
policy and plans;
- History of domestic biogas;
- Potential demand for domestic biogas;
- Possible institutional set-up for a national biogas programme; and
- Outline for a national programme on domestic biogas.
See Annex I for a tentative table of contents of the study report.
3. Activities and methodologies

The following activities and methodologies are proposed:
E. Preparation of a mission to Ethiopia by collecting secondary information, contacting key
respondents and informants in Ethiopia and abroad, and drafting checklists for biogas plant visits
and interviews;
F. Mission to Ethiopia to visit domestic biogas plants constructed in the past, to meet with key
respondents and informants for interview and discussion. The mission shall include a workshop to
discuss with the main stakeholders the roles of the different actors in Ethiopia and the outline of a
possible national biogas programme;
G. Formulation of the draft study report and submission for comment to SNV/Ethiopia, members of
the Biogas Practice Team (BPT) of SNV, RNE in Addis Ababa and DGIS/DMW.
H. Submission of the final study report by incorporating the comment from SNV/Ethiopia, members
of the BPT, RNE/Addis Ababa and DGIS/DMW.
4. Time schedule
The mission to Ethiopia shall be completed within a period of three weeks starting mid-March 2006. The
draft report shall be submitted before 30 April 2006. SNV/Ethiopia, members of BPT, RNE/Addis Ababa
and DGIS/DMW will provide within 10 working days comment on the draft report. After that, the final study
report will be presented within five working days.
5. Required budget and proposed financing

The costs of this study will mainly consist of expenses for travelling and DSA of the team members, a
consultancy fee for a local expert and some other local expenses if deemed required for example for
additionally required local consultancies. All these costs will be borne by SNV/Ethiopia. Once the
composition of the team is known (see 7), a budget proposal will be prepared by the team leader and
presented to SNV/Ethiopia for approval.
6. Expected output
Annex 1
The report on the feasibility study shall be well-structured and clearly written in English not exceeding 50
pages excluding annexes and provide informed recommendations on the possibilities to set-up a national
programme on domestic biogas in Ethiopia. Annex I provides a tentative table of contents for the report.
7. Composition of the team

The mission team shall consist of three members:
- Team leader to be appointed from the BPT of SNV;
- Advisor from SNV/Ethiopia; and
- Local Expert in the field of renewable energy.
8. Further arrangements
Prior to departure to Ethiopia, the team leader will after consultation with SNV/Ethiopia and RNE/Addis
Ababa come up with an itinerary for the mission. The mission team is free to discuss any matter
concerning the assignment with any institution or individual, but is not authorised to make any official
commitments on behalf of SNV, RNE/Addis Ababa or DGIS/RNE.
9. References
 Ethiopia: Building on Progress: A Plan for Accelerated and Sustained Development to End Poverty
(PASDEP). Ministry of Finance and Economic Development. October 2005.
 Identification Study on Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency in SNNPRS and Ethiopia. Dr.
Getachew Eshete et al. May 2004.
 Email correspondence with
 Mrs Janny C. Poley, First Secretary RNE Horn of Africa Programme
 Mr. Rem Neefjes, PC SNV Ethiopia
 Mr. Christopher Kellner, Senior Advisor Biogas, SNV Nepal.
Wim J. van Nes

Leiden, 27 January 2006
Annex 1
Tentative table of contents for the report on the feasibility study
Title page
Acknowledgement
Summary
Table of Contents
Abbreviations
1. Introduction and background
- Country background
- Agricultural & livestock sector
- Energy demand and supply, policy and plans
- Safety situation
2. Objective, methodology and limitations
3. History and analysis of domestic biogas
- Link between domestic biogas and the MDGs, national and regional policies of the Government
of Ethiopia
4. Potential demand for domestic biogas
- Current consumption of energy in the rural areas
- Current application of manure
- Climatic conditions
- Availability of water at livestock farms
- Role of women in decision making and livestock keeping
- Most potential areas for domestic biogas in Ethiopia
- Technical potential and benefits of domestic biogas
- Financial and economic potential for domestic biogas
5. Possible institutional set-up for a national biogas programme
- Required functions/services (promotion, operation & maintenance, construction & after sales
service, provision of micro-credit, training, R&D, quality control, extension (use of bio-slurry),
monitoring & evaluation (external), coordination at implementing level, coordination at policy
level)
- Possible providers of the required functions/services and their capacity needs
- Possible role of SNV and supply of advisory services (technical, ID/OD)
- Availability and possible role of other development agencies
6. Outline for a national programme on domestic biogas
- Objectives, output targets and programme duration
- Required tentative budget and possible financing
- Proposed programme management structure
- Required TA
- Assumptions and risks
7. Conclusions and recommendations
8. References
Annexes: - ToR
- Itinerary of the mission
- Contact details of visited organisations and individuals
-
Annex 2
Short description of the regions in the study area
The information provided in this annex is largely sourced from:

Environmental and social analysis food security project No. ENIBER 2001 by Metaferia
Consulting engineers, Addis Abeba for the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Ministry of
Economic Development and Cooperation.
Unfortunately, the team did only managed to lay hands on part of the full report. As a result, the
information hereunder provided does not have the same level of detail for all four regions
1 Amhara Regional State.
1.1 Location and Topography.

The Amhara National regional state extends from 9 to 130 45'N and 36 to 40°3'E. It is bounded by
Benshangul and the Sudan in the West, Oromia in the South, Afar in the East and Tigrai in the North. The
region covers a surface area of 170,152 km 2 and occupies 1/6th of the country's total landmass.
The Amhara Region constitutes ten administrative zones (North Shewa, East Gojam, West Gojam, North
Gonder, South Gonder, North Wollo, South Wollo, Oromia (Kemissie), Awi and Wag Hamra Zones) and
105 Woredas. 48 Woredas are earmarked as food deficit Woredas.
The region is affected by severe land and soil degradation, recurring drought, fragmented farm plots, (0.7
ha/HH,) high population, low literacy, and with poor delivery of research technology and extension
support.
The central highlands of Ethiopia, of which Amhara Region is the major part, under went several crucial
deformations during the tertiary period. This resulted in the appearance of large openings e.g. fissures,
rents and the production of prominent plateau, hills and mountains. Those diversified geological
formations produced complex and mosaic landscapes which made the region a center of diversity and
variability for various biological life and physical structures. The highlands, between the two major
massifs, Tekeze Gorge in the north and Abay Gorge to the south and the Rift valley escarpment in the
east, are an important watershed and source of major national and international rivers.
1.2 Population and Settlement.

According to the 1994 census the population of the region is estimated at 14.4 million people (7.4 million
male and 7 million female). About 88% of the population lives in rural areas. Regional population density
ranges from 136.4 persons (East Gojam) to 41.5 persons /km 2 (North Gondar). The average is about
82.5 persons/km2. The census has also indicated that the proportion of the population under the age of 15
is 49.3%, which is attributed to high fertility rate and declining infant under 5 mortality rate.
The high proportion of the younger population combined with the aged (4.8%) poses a very high degree
of dependency. More than 85% of the total population live in the highlands where the climate is mild, the
soils are productive and human and livestock pests and diseases are relatively absent. The majority is
rural with only 12% of the population residing in urban areas.
1.3 Climate and Agro-ecology.

The Region exhibits wide altitudinal ranges, from 600m at Metema (Sudan border) to 4620 masl, the peak
of Ras Dashen. The amount of rainfall per annum varies from 200mm at Qobbo to 2,000mm at Awi
(Banja, and Guang Woredas). The single growing period in the eastern and southern parts of the Region
is respectively 45-90 and 60-120 days long. The Belg growing highlands' length of growing period (LGP)
is 120 days at Wag Hamera and 200 days at Awi (Banja).
The Amhara Region has ten major and fairly homogenous agro-ecological zones (AEZs). The major part
of the region (37%) lies within the tepid to moist zone. This agro-ecological zone is predominantly located
in the central part, where there is high potential for crop production. Moisture deficit areas are found in the
hot to warm arid or hot to warm sub-moist agro-ecological zones (Wollo and Gondar zones).
Annex 2
1.4 Soils and Soil Erosion.
There are about twelve distinct soil types in the region. Depressions and flat plains are mainly covered by
black clay soils (Vertisoils). Undulating to gently rolling areas are characterized by dark reddish to brown
colored deep soils (Luvisoils, Nitosoils and Acrisoils). The mountainous and degraded landscapes of most
parts of Wollo and North Gondar are dominated by shallow and stony soils. The major alluvial plains in
the east are predominantly Fluvisoils and Vertisoils with some saline and sodic traces. The highlands of
Amhara suffer from severe soil erosion and degradation.
1.5 Land Use and Cover.

There is no updated data on land use/cover of the region. Climate, topography and population are the
main influencing factors both for land use and cover types of the region. There are twenty-four mapped
land use/land cover types derived from eleven major classes. From the available data, about 53.5% of the
total regional area is under cultivation, 40% is covered by bushes/shrubs and open grass lands, 0.8% is
open woodlands; 0.4% swamps; 0.8% Afro-alpine vegetation; 2.2 % rocky and shrubs & grasses; the
riparian vegetation occupies 0.2% and the remaining are water bodies and bare lands.
1.6 Water Resources.

About 70% of the Region suffers from high water erosion. Most of the rivers cut deep gorges and many of
them are seasonal. Abay, Tekeze and Awash tributaries are mainly from the Amhara highlands. Of all the
rivers, only Abay is used to generate hydropower at several natural falls.
The regional survey indicated that about 250,800ha is suitable for irrigation and 120,000ha can be
developed by micro-dams and river diversions. At present 15.5% (40,000 ha) has been brought under
irrigation, 97% of these by traditional means.
Prominent friable red and brown clay soils on relatively flat land in Gojam and Awi are potential crop
farming zones and are considered as food self-sufficient areas. The bottom wet lands like Woreta/ Fogera
plains, Chefa-Borkena and Qobbo Valley are crossed by several rivers and are considered as potential
irrigable and rice production areas.
Potable safe water distribution is an unresolved development problem and closely related to gender
issues. Only 10.3% of the population receives clean water and substantial numbers of people walk 5-7
km to fetch water.
1.7 Forest Resources.

There are four major types of forests including natural forests, plantations, farm forests and Acacia
woodlands. The Region has an estimated 80,000ha of natural forest, 73,000ha-plantation forest; 25,000
ha farm forest and more than 600,000ha of Acacia woodland (mostly incense, gums and A. Abyssinica,
A.Nilotica, etc.). A report on forest ownership in the region indicates that 94%, 3% and 3% is owned by
state, community and private farms, respectively.
1.8 Energy.
Biomass from wood, coal, cow dung and crop residues are the main energy sources, accounting for 99%
of the total fuel needed for domestic use. Alternative energy sources like wind, solar, earth-coal and
methane (bio-gas) gas are under study.
1.9 Wildlife.
There are many endemic mammals and birds in the Region. The Semen Mountain National park is known
for a number of rare wild life including Walya Ibex, Abyssinian Wolf, Chelada Baboon, Minelik bush buck,
Serine birds, etc. Low land animals are widely distributed at Metema and Quara areas and some in Bati
and Woredas bordering the Afar Region. Lake Tana, L.Hayik, Ardibo, May Bara and Gulbo are some of
the lakes (water bodies) that inhabit fish and other aquatic life.
1.10 Farming System and Crop Production.

The dominant farming system in the region includes cereal growing, oxen cultivation and mixed farming
where livestock production is undertaken complimentary to crop production. Crop production is mainly
Annex 2
rain-fed, which in some places entails uncertainty due to the erratic nature of the rainfall. The major crop
types include cereals, pulses, oil-crops and tubers. Barley, wheat, teff, maize, sorghum, millet, faba bean,
peas, chickpeas, vetch, lentils, linseed, noug, sesame and oats (wild type) are widely grown in the
different agro-ecological zones of the region.
Cattle constitute 70% of the livestock population, and many of them are highland and 'senga' types. The
Fogera types, around Lake Tana, are potential milk yielder breeds. Sheep (highland sheep with fur) at
Debre Birhan; Amhed Guya and the Menz and Awassi types are potential wool type breeds in the Region.
Equines (horses, mules, sinar donkeys from Metema and camels) are commonly found in the Region.
Hides and skins are mostly used at home, with only small amounts reaching the market. Moreover, there
is no processing plant in the region. Veterinary service is poor in the highlands. Due to limitations in
accessibility, periodic vaccination for epidemics and sporadic diseases is greatly hampered.
1.11 Health Services.

Health service in the region is very low, especially in the rural areas. Facilities are inadequate and there is
an acute shortage of health personnel as related to the large population of the region. Currently, there are
10 hospitals, 41 health centers and 446 clinics covering about 30% of the population needs. The
population suffers from various diseases such as malaria, tuberculosis, intestinal parasites, skin and eye
diseases, diarrhea, etc. In recent years, malaria has become a major cause of morbidity and socio-
economic problems. It is estimated that about 75% of the region is prone to malaria, affecting more than
64% of the region's population. Women and children are among the most vulnerable groups of the
population.
1.12 Water supply.

Only 10.3% of the total population of the region has access to safe water from properly constructed
facilities. Safe water coverage in rural areas is in much worse condition. Over 97% of the rural population
has no access to potable water.
Women are responsible for fetching water to the household. In many cases they travel long distances (5-
7km) in search of water.
1.13 Education.
Regional reports indicate that between 40 and 50% of the total population can not read and write. Only
13% of the estimated school age children attend schools. There are 2,506 primary schools, 228 junior
and 76 senior secondary schools.
The primary schools enroll about half a million students, which account for about 18% of the total primary
school age children. The junior and senior secondary schools enroll only 8.3% and 5.4% of the total
population (between 15 and 18 years of age), respectively.
Technical and vocational schools are few, three in number, with a capacity of 700 students at a time.
These institutions train middle level manpower in the fields of mechanics, electricity and commerce.
Community skill training is also given in 114 centers although many of these centers were ruined and
looted during the transition period to the new Government, ten years ago.
There are also three teacher training and three higher training institutes in the region. However, all the
schools and institutes lack adequate facilities, tools, equipment and qualified instructors.
1.14 Access Roads.

Road access within the region is limited. In most cases pack animals and human porterage are the major
forms of transport. The total length of all-weather road is about 4,339km. Of this total, only 590km
(13.6%) is asphalt and the remaining is surfaced with gravel. There are also feeder roads constructed by
the community and NGOs. In general, current data indicate that road/access density is about
8km/1,000km2. Many of the roads lack periodic maintenance and upgrading.
Annex 2
1.15 Cultural Heritage.
There are many historical and cultural sites in the Region that are tourist attractions. The Lalibela rock
hewn churches, Gonder Castles, Mesela Mariam and Ankober Palaces, Tisesat Fals and the islands in
Lake Tana are the major cultural heritage sites. Limalimo and Tekeze gorges, Ras Dashen and Semien
Park, Wofwasha (birds), Gussa-ecology (Menez) and Dessie-Bati areas are also tourist attractions.
1.16 Income.
Average annual income per household is Birr 1,500 (for a household of 4.3 persons) and per capita
income is Birr 350. About 32% of the households are without oxen. The average land holding in the
highlands and the lowlands is 0.70 ha and 1.75 ha, respectively.
2. Tigray Regional State

The Regional State of Tigray is situated in the northern part of the country with a total area of 50,230
km2. It has a common boundary with Eritreya in the north, with the Sudan in the west, with Amhara
Region in the south and with the Afar Region in the east. It extends from 120 15' to 140 50' North Latitude
and from 360 27' to 390 59' East Longitude (TFAP, 1996).
The region is divided into five administrative zones (Western, Central, Eastern, Mekele and Southern
Zones). It has 35 Woredas, 603 development centers (Tabias) and 2,272 kushets. Tabias are the main
development centers, which are the basic units of the administrative structure.
Tigrai exhibits three distinct topographical zones; the central highlands, the northwestern lowlands and
the eastern lowlands. The central highlands are an extension of the central highlands of the country with
an elevation of between 1,500 and 3,200masl, the highest peak being 3,900masl. As this ecological zone
is safe from malaria and most other diseases, population density is very high, which through time led to
degradation of the natural resources. The northwestern lowlands are sparsely populated and have soils
that are less eroded and exploited. Close to the Sudanese border, elevation is as low as 500masl.
Malaria and livestock diseases are more prevalent in this zone. The eastern escarpment falls steeply from
the plateau of 2,900masl to the depressions in the Afar Region.

The total population of the region in 1994 was 3.13 million (about 3.85 million in 2001), of which 1.54
million were males and 1.59 million females. The urban population was 468,478. The average household
size was 4.3 persons. The proportion of children under the age of 15 was about 44.8%, the age group of
15-64 51.2%, and the population aged 65 years and over about 4%. The literacy rates for urban and rural
areas were 57% and 14%, respectively (TGSA, 1996/97).
Seventy eight percent of the population of the 15-64 age groups is economically active and 1,226,970
persons are employed in various sectors of the economy. The rate of unemployment for the total
population of the region, by sex, is 1.5% and 1.7% for males and females, respectively. Fertility rate is
5.4% for the region. Estimated infant mortality rate is 123/ 1000 births and life expectancy is 49 years.
The larger proportion of the population is concentrated in the highlands, mainly in the eastern part. The
western lowlands are sparsely populated. The settlement pattern is in scattered villages with a limited
number of houses in each village. The pattern poses problems to provide services like health, schools,
water supply, electricity and communications. There is also lack of well-developed rural centers, small
and middle sized towns, which can perform necessary functions for the rural hinterland.

There is a marked variation in rainfall distribution from east to west. The mean annual rainfall in the region
varies from less than 200mm in the extreme east, bordering the Danakil Depression, to over 1,900mm in
the southwestern part of the region. The rainy season is mainly between June and September. However,
Annex 2
just south of Mekele and southward along the eastern part of Tigrai highlands, the short rains prevail,
which last 45 to 65 days.
The mean annual rainfall and the length of the growing period increases considerably when one moves
from lower to higher altitudes and from east to west. The length of the growing period varies from 120
days in the western part to 90 days along the Eastern Escarpments and eastern low lands (TRBIMPP,
1997/98).
The mean temperature in the lowlands of Tigrai is 250c. In the eastern part, along the foot slopes of the
great escarpment, separating the lowlands from the highlands, the temperature ranges from 25 to 280c.
Also, in the extreme western part of theregion, where altitude falls below 1000masl and along the Tekeze
0 0
River, mean temperature is about 25 c. Temperature of 15 to 18 c is restricted to the ridges of the
highlands, which run west east from Inda Silassie to Adigrat, and the upper slopes of the escarpment.
According to TAFP's 1996 survey, there are four main agro-ecological zones identified in the region.
These include:
 hot to warm arid lowlands (found mainly in the eastern part of the region below 1,400 masl);
 hot to warm semi-arid lowlands and plateau remnants (found on the extreme western of the region
between 500-1600 masl);
 hot-to warm sub-moist lowland and plateau remnants (found in the south-western part of the region
and along the western part of the eastern escarpment); and
 tepid to cool sub-moist low to high altitude, which occupies the central and north western part of the
region with altitude varying from 1000 to 3000masl.
2.4 Soil and Water Conservation.

Farmers in the region are aware of the environmental degradation, which takes place in their farmland
and surroundings. Farmers are participating in problem identification, planning, implementation and
evaluations of various types of soil and water conservation. They fully participate in SWC measures not
only to get food aid, but because they have understood the long-term benefits of SWC measures on their
farmland and surroundings.
Soil and water conservation activities have included planting trees around gullies to stabilize the check
dams. The most significant biological conservation measures accomplished include the establishment of
area closures. In the region, excluding the southern zone, about 143,016 hectares of uncultivated and
overgrazed hillsides are enclosed (TFAP, 1996).
2.5 Land Use.

There is no recent information on land use/land cover of the region. However, previous studies indicate
the following. Cultivated land (including commercial farms, intensively and moderately cultivated
smallholdings) accounts for 64%. Disturbed high forest, dense and open woodlands occupy about 7%.
Open bushes and grassland account for 17%. The remaining are water bodies and waste lands.
2.6 Water Resources.

Major river basins include Tekeze and Mereb, which drain a combined catchment area of over 37,037km2
within the region. The Mereb River basin alone drains most of northern part of the region. The Lailay
Adiabo, Mereb-Leha, Medabay Zana and Enticho watersheds are included in this basin. The area
coverage of this basin is about 5,899km 2. Lake Hashenge is a large water body in the Southern Zone with
2
an area of 20km , is inhabited by fish and other aquatic life.

The available information on the amount of forest resources in the region is very limited and inconclusive.
The estimate made by the regional Agricultural Bureau puts the total forest land at approximately 0.3% of
the regional area. An estimate made by SAERT (1994) indicates that about 154,000ha of land is covered
by vegetation.
Annex 2
The long history of intense human settlement has left an extremely degraded landscape. Most of the
climax vegetation, especially on the highlands, has been transformed to grass and shrubs vegetation.
However, there is an indication from the remnant vegetation that the highland areas, above 2,000m, were
covered by Podocarpus gracilior, Olea africana, Cord/a africana and highland Acacia of various types.
The lower valleys and the western lowlands were covered with deciduous woodlands and shrub-lands
mostly dominated by species like Acacia spp., Boswellia spp., etc. At present, severe fuel wood scarcity
prevails in almost all areas of the region, more in the highlands than in the lowlands, and better in
localities close to forest degraded wood lands compared to the predominantly clear agricultural
landscapes.
2.8 Farming System and Production.

The general farming system is single cropping, oxen cultivation, mixed farming where livestock husbandry
is complemented by crop production. Crop production is mainly under rain-fed conditions. The major
types of crops produced in the region are cereals, pulses and oil crops. The main crops are teff, barley,
wheat, millet, finger millet, sorghum, maize, chickpeas, broad beans, vetch, peas, linseed, lentils noog
and sesame. The average yield of crop in the region is 5.3 quintal per ha. The average yield for cereals,
pulses and oil crops is 6.9, 3.7 and 3.7 quintals/ha, respectively.
The region has a total livestock population of 2,533,047 TLU. Of the total livestock population, 3,040,712,
1,465,693 and 935,337 are cattle, goats and sheep, respectively. Equines are important pack animals in
transporting input and output to rural and urban markets. They are also important in human transport
(horses & mules). Among the equines, donkeys stand first in quantity with a total number of 303,405
followed by mules (10,417) and horses (5,110). There are also camels (13,661) and poultry (3,765,276).
The region produces significant amounts of good quality honey from 164,580 colonies of beehives (ILCA
1990).

There are two higher hospitals, four zonal hospitals, six zonal clinics, fifteen health centers, fifteen health
stations and eighty heath posts (TRBH 1999/2000). About
2,538 medical and management personnel of various levels of professions staff these establishments.
Besides these health institutions, there is a nursing school in
Mekele, with a capacity of graduating about 31 nurses each year. Other medical infrastructures such as
pharmacies, drug shops and rural drug vendors (run by both government and the private sector) are also
prevalent. The main diseases in the region are malaria, acute respiratory infections, infections of skin,
gastritis, helmintus and genito urinary system problems (TRBH 1999).
2.10 Water Supply.

Only 13.9% of the region's population has access to piped water supply. About 7.5% has access to
protected sources. The remaining population use water from unprotected wells and rivers/ponds.
2.11 Education.
According to the Bureau of Education (1999/2000), there were about 289,319 students from grade 1 to
grade 6 in governmental and 9,503 students in non- governmental schools. In addition to this, there were
about 27,131 students from grade 7 to 8 in government and 1,713 in non-governmental schools.
Similarly, the number of students from grade 9 to grade 12 in governmental and non-governmental
schools was 16,213 and 546, respectively. Moreover, there are about 7 colleges/universities in the region
enrolling 1,663 students (BETR 1999). Besides this normal educational program, there is a program of
literacy for the adult population. So far, 12 rounds of literacy campaigns have been undertaken and
136,587 males and 74,520 females have participated in these rounds (BETR 1999/2000).
2.12 Access Roads.

The region has a network of 14,739km of access road that connect zones and
Woredas. Of the total length, 741km is main road, 590km all-weather road and about 13,400 dry-weather
roads.
Annex 2
2.13 Cultural Heritage.
There are a number of cultural heritages that are very much impressive to both national and international
visitors. These include, among others, the obelisks of Axum, the churches of Debre Damo and Abrha
Woatsebha, and the historical mosque of Negash.
3. Oromia National Regional State.

The Regional State of Oromia extends from the southeastern border with Kenya across the center to the
border of the Sudan. Its estimated area is about 353,690 km 2. Oromia constitutes about 32% of the total
area of the country. It has physical contacts with all the Regional States of the country except Tigrai.
Oromia is bordered on the North by Afar, Amhara and Benishangul-Gumuz National

Regional States, on the South by Kenya, on the East by Somali Regional State and on the West by
Sudan and Benishangul-Gumuz Regional states. In the south, it borders the National Regional States of
Southern Nations and Nationalities and Gambela.
The topography of Oromia includes high and rugged mountain ranges, undulating
and rolling plateaus, panoramic gorges and deep incised river valleys and rolling plains. The altitude
ranges from about 500 masl. in the Rift Valley to about 4,200masl at Batu Mountain, the highest peak in
the region. Over three fourths (75.9%) of the region lies between 1,000 and 2,500 masl.; 17% below
1000 masl. and the remaining 7.1 % fall in altitudes above 2,500 masl.
Thirty percent of the land of the region is estimated to have a slope gradient of below 0.5%, which
includes the low plains, river and rift valley floors. Five percent of the landmass of the region, having
slope gradient of above 15%, is characterized by severe erosion risks. About 65% of the region is
potentially utilizable from the viewpoint of good surface drainage and low risks to soil erosion.

According to the 1994 census report of the Central Statistics Authority (CSA), the total population of
Oromia Regional State, in July 2000 was projected to 22.3 million. Out of this population about 89 % are
living in rural areas and the remaining 11 % in urban areas. Of the economically active population 92.2%
are engaged in agriculture, 1.3 % in manufacturing and construction, and 6.5 % in service and related
sectors. Sixty percent of the GDP is from agriculture.

As already mentioned, having varied ranges in elevation, the region is characterized by diverse climatic
conditions, ranging from hot tropical low lands to warm and cool temperate highlands. Mean annual
temperature for the region is about 19.30C, with mean annual maximum of over 300C in the lowlands to
less than 100C in the cool highlands. Areas of extreme temperature include the lowlands of Borena and
Hararghe (above 300C) and Bale massifs (less than 100C).
Highland Oromia attracts heavy precipitation particularly in the summer from moisture-laden southwest
tropical monsoon winds that cross the Atlantic Ocean. Over a quarter of the region receives 800-1200mm
of rainfall (mean annual), while its arid lowlands and wet highlands receive mean annual of less than
800mm and over 1,600mm, respectively. In these areas, especially in the arid and semi arid portion of the
region, rainfall variability is so high that it seriously affects crop production. Late onset and early cessation
of rains causes heavy damages on crop and livestock production. It is estimated that, in the highlands,
rainfall can reduce production by 50% while in the lowlands the reduction could be as high as 70 to 90%
of the normal average.
3.4 Geology and Soils.

The geology of the region is characterized by the existence of considerable crystalline basement, basalts
and sediments and sedimentary rocks. Rocks of the crystalline basement complex cover about 21.3% of
Annex 2
the region. Almost half of the regional surface cover is Cenozoic basalts and sediments, while 28.8% is of
old Mesozoic sedimentary rock cover.
Soils of volcanic origin dominate the central high plateau of the region. The soils include Cambisols,
Phaeozems, Luvisols and Vertisols. Except the Vertisols, which are constrained by poor drainage, the
others are mostly utilized for cropping. Other major soil units of significant coverage include Acrisols and
Nitosols, both characterizing the western section of the western sub region and the northern Borena area.
Soils of arid climate, gypsic soils, occur in the rift valley system and the lowlands of eastern sub region.
3.5 Land Use.

The land use/cover- of the region is 14% cultivated area; forests, bush and woodlands constitute 25%
and grazing areas occupy about 32% of the total area. The remaining areas include infrastructure and
settlements, water bodies, mountains and steep slopes and wastelands.

Oromia is endowed with vast areas of forest resources. The total forest area of the region is estimated at
29,000km2. Of this total area, about 50% is natural high forest, 2.3% plantations and the remaining are
other types (woodlands, bushes etc.).
3.7 Wildlife.
The region is home for various types of wildlife. There are a number of national parks (Awash, Bale
Mountains and Abjata Shala), sanctuaries (Babile and Yavelo), game reserves (Bale and Awash West)
and controlled hunting areas (Borena, Bale, Chercher / Arba Gugu, Segen and Awash West) covering
some 97,667km2.
3.8 Farming System and Crop Production

Agriculture is the main stay of the regional economy. It accounts for the larger portion of the regional GDP
and 92.2% of employment. Small holder producers contribute over 95 % of the total agricultural
production. Though the agricultural potential of the region is considered significant, its performance is low
because of land fragmentation, population pressure, low level of technological advancement in the sector,
poor infrastructure development, high dependence on rainfall and environmental degradation including
serious soil erosion, deforestation, desertification and loss of soil fertility.

Health coverage of Oromia region is about 46 %. This means that the majority of the population has no
access to modern health services of any kind. Infant mortality is as high as 118 per 1000 live births. The
coverage of vaccination in the region is about 66%. The health coverage of drought prone areas is even
lower because of shortage of infrastructure and other socio-economic problems.
Water born and water related diseases are the major health problems of the region. Among these,
malaria, helementhiasis and diarrhoea dominate. Malaria is the most prevalent health problem of the
region. It occurs in all the areas below 2000 masl, and was the first amongst the top ten diseases
registered in several health centers of the region, in the year 2000. The major types of malaria parasites
commonly found in Oromia regional state are Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium falciparium.
Other intestinal parasites are the ones mainly associated with poor quality of drinking water, unsanitary
living environment and poor personal hygiene, which are common in the region. The major intestinal
parasites frequently encountered are Amoebae, Ascaris, Gardia & tapeworm. Upper respiratory tract
infections, Pneumonia, Subcutaneous tissue infections and skin infections are also common in the region.
3.10 Water Supply.

In the year 2000 about 24.8% of the rural and 83% of the urban population had access to clean potable
water. This makes a total of 30.1% of the population with access to potable water in the region.
Annex 2
3.11 Education.
Though education services have been improving over the last six years, still most of the population has
no access to education facilities. Enrolment rates in primary schools (1-8) are only 52% and only 22.4%
of the population are able to read and write.
3.12 Road infrastructure.

Poor road net work and transport facilities are one of the factors for food insecurity. The average road
2
density in Oromia is estimated to be 25.8 km per 1000 km of land and 0.48 km per 1000 population
(1996), but much lower in drought prone food insecure areas. For example the road density per thousand
population for East and West Hararge, North Shewa and Arsi is 0.24, 0.23, 0.4 and 0.42 km/1000
persons respectively.
The existing road net work is mostly concentrated in the more productive zones of the central and
Western parts of the region, which are assumed to be areas of high economic importance. The poor
network in drought prone areas makes delivery of food aid extremely difficult and farmers obliged to carry
their produce to market places by pack animals or humans. This severely constrains the total farm
production that can be marketed and adds substantially to the cost of farm inputs and prices of other
consumption
4. Southern Nations and Nationalities Peoples Regional State.

The Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Regional State (SNNPRS) is located in the Southern
and South-western part of Ethiopia, bordering with Kenya in the South, Sudan in the Southwest,
Gambella Region in the Northwest and Oromia Region in the North and East. The Region lies roughly at
4027'-8030' latitude N and 34021'-390 11' longitude E. It is a region of immense ecological and cultural
diversity.
The SNNPR occupies about 113,539 km 2 and accounts for about 10% the total area of the country. There
is a wide variation of altitude in the region, which ranges from about 380masl at Lake Turkana to about
4,210masl at Mount Guge in North Omo.
Administratively, the SNNPR is divided into 12 Zones and 77 Woredas. Seven of the woredas are Special
Woredas, which directly report to the regional government.

According to the 1994 Population and Housing Census of Ethiopia, the population of the region was
10,377,028, and it is estimated to reach 12,880,801, in the year 2001. About 92% of the population lives
in rural areas and the remaining 8% in urban areas. Eighty percent of the region's population lives in the
highland areas that account only for 40% of the regional total area. The remaining 20% are pastoralists
and agro-pastoralists occupying the semi-arid and arid southern lowlands. The average population
density of the region was about 97.5 persons per kM2 in 1997.

The rainfall intensity, duration and amount increase from south to northeast and north-west. The mean
annual rainfall for the region ranges from 400mm to 2,200mm. Temperature is usually inversely related to
altitude. As a result of this, it decreases from south to northeast. The mean annual temperature of the
region, in general, ranges from 150c to 300c. Agro-climatically, the region can be classified as including
Dega, Woina Dega and Kolla agro-climatic zones.
Annex 2
4.4 Farming System and Crop Production.
The agricultural production of the region includes both food crops and cash crops. Root crops such as
cassava, yam, taro, and sweet potato are predominantly found in the Woina Dega agro-climatic zone.
Cash crops such as coffee, cotton, and spices occupy an important place of the region's economy.
The region has an estimated population of 7.7 million cattle, 2.2 million sheep, 2 million goats and 1.3
million equines, approximately 1.14 animals per person.
The Agricultural Bureau of the region has aims at increasing productivity per unit of land, while minimizing
the dependency on rainfall by shifting towards water harvesting and irrigation development. It also
focuses on the introduction of high yielding, disease and pest resistant crops.

The major health problems of the region are various types of infectious diseases. As the morbidity
statistics reported by hospitals and health centers in the region indicate, malaria is the leading cause of
morbidity, accounting for about 11.3% of all outpatients in 1999/2000 (1992 E.C).
Pneumonia, helminthiasis (intestinal parasites), upper respiratory tract infections, dysentery and infection
of skin and subcutaneous tissue are among the main causes of outpatient visits. The majority of the
health problems are water related diseases that are transmitted by drinking contaminated water, or due to
lack of safe water for personal hygiene or through aquatic insects that depend on water for their breeding.
The top five causes of deaths (as recorded in 1999/2000) are malaria (19.5%), TB (15.0%) pneumonia
(15.8%), accidents (5.2%) and tetanus (3.2%). Gastro-enteritis and colitis, meningitis, dysentery, chronic
rheumatic heart disease, malnutrition and anemia are also among the causes of deaths in the region.
Malaria is by far the most important health problem in the region. It is well recorded that areas below
2,000m altitude are malarious, and short-lived transmission occurs even above 2,000m where the
microclimate is favorable. Most parts of the 12 administrative zones and the 7 special Woredas of the
region have endemic malaria transmission. Many Woredas of the region are also annually affected by
epidemic of the disease. For example, about 146,100 people living in 101 Kebeles in 25 Woredas were
affected by a malaria epidemic in 1999/2000. The entire 32 'Chronic food deficit' Woredas of the region
are known to be endemic for malaria.
Public health infrastructure of the region includes 12 hospitals (10 governmental and
2 non-governmental), 95 health centres (91 governmental and 4 non-governmental),366 clinics (310
governmental and 56 non-governmental), and 263 health posts. In addition, there are 109 private clinics
and 91 other governmental clinics (other than the regional health bureau). Furthermore, there are 31
pharmacies, 43 drug shops and 478 rural drug vendors in the region. In 1999/2000 there were 2,814
health personnel including 215 physicians, 792 nurses, 133 sanitarians, 10 pharmacists, 30 health
officers, 1447 health assistants, 41 pharmacy technicians, 104 laboratory technicians, 6 biologists and 23
X-ray technicians.
4.6 Access Roads.

Shortage of reliable road infrastructure is one of the major bottlenecks for socio-economic development in
the region. In 1999, the total length of all weather roads in the region was about 4,949km. Of this, about
4,512 km was gravel, and the remaining 437km asphalt. All weather road density of the region is about
43.5km per 1000 km2.
The Regional Rural Road Authority has recruited a consulting firm to carry out a regional master plan
study for road networking and prioritize future road construction and maintenance programs to effectively
utilize the resources.
Of the 32 chronic food deficit Woredas considered in this study, 25 Woredas have all weather road
network while the remaining 7 Woredas (Kemba, Zala, Ubamale, Dita Deramalo, Selamago, Maenit,
Surma and Dizi) do not have reliable all weather roads. The Woredas located in Wolayita and Gamo Gofa
zones have relatively good road networks.
Annex 3
GGC 2047 construction manual
CONSTRUCTION MANUAL
FOR
GGC 2047 MODEL BIOGAS PLANT

Annex 3
Plan of Biogas Model 2047
Dimensions of Biogas plant GGC 2047 in cm

Size 4 m3 6m3 8m3 10m3 15m3 20m3
A 140 150 170 180 248 264
B 120 120 130 125 125 176
C 135 151 170 183 205 233
D 50 60 65 68 84 86
E 154 155 172 168 180 203
F 102 122 135 154 175 199
G 185 208 221 240 261 288
H 86 92 105 94 115 115
I 112 116 127 124 132 137
J 151 160 175 171 193 203
Annex 3
Introduction:
The success or failure of any biogas plant mainly depends upon the quality of
construction works. To come to a successfully constructed biogas plant, the mason
should not only respect the dimensions as indicated on the drawing but also follow the
correct construction method. Hereunder, in a step by step fashion, the right construction
method of the 2047 design GGC model bigots plant is given.
1. Different Sizes of Plant:
The table below gives some relevant data about these six different sizes of biogas
plants.
+ Size of Daily Fresh Dung Daily Water Approx. No. of

plant m3 (Kg) (litre) Cattle Required
Hill** Terai* Hill** Terai*
4 24 30 24 30 2-3
6 36 45 36 45 3-4
8 48 60 48 60 4-6
10 60 75 60 75 6-9
15 90 110 90 110 9 - 14
20 120 150 120 150 14 and more
+ Plant size is the sum of digester volume and gas storage

** Based on a hydraulic retention time of 70 days
* Based on a hydraulic retention time of 55 days
A biogas plant consists of five main structures or components. The required quantity
of dung and water is mixed in the inlet tank and this mix in the form of slurry is
allowed to be digested inside the digester. The gas produced in the digester is
collected in the dome, called as the gas holder. The digested slurry flows to the
outlet tank from the digester through the manhole. The slurry then flows through the
overflow opening to the compost pit where it is collected and composted. The gas is
supplied to the point of application through the pipeline.
Before deciding the size of plant, it is necessary to collect dung for several days to
determine what is the average daily dung production. The amount of dung daily
available helps in determining the capacity of the plant.
The important point to be considered is that size of plant has to be selected on

basis of the available dung not the family size.
If a plant is underfed, the gas production will be low. In this case, the pressure of the
gas might not be sufficient to displace the slurry in the outlet chamber. This means
that the amount of slurry fed into the digester is more than the amount of slurry
thrown out from the outlet. This will cause the slurry level to rise in the digester, gas
holder and it may eventually enter to the gas pipe and sometimes to the gas stove
Annex 3
and lamp while opening the main valve. Therefore, the slurry should always be fed
according tot he prescribed amount as indicated in the above table.
2. Construction Materials:
If the construction materials to be used in the plant construction such as cement,

sand, aggregate etc. are not of good quality, the quality of plant will be poor even if
design and workmanship involved are excellent. In order to select these materials of
best quality, their brief description regarding the specifications has been given
hereunder.
a) Cement: The cement to be used in the plant construction has to be of high
quality portland cement from a brand with a good reputation. It must be fresh,
without lumps and stored in a dry place. Bags of cement should never be stacked
directly on the floor or against the walls but wooden planks should be placed on
the floor to protect cement from dampness.
b) Sand: Sand for construction purpose must be clean. Dirty sand has a very
negative effect on the strength of the structure. If the sand contains 3% or more
impurities, it must be washed. The quantity of impurities specially the mud in the
sand can be determined by a simple test using a bottle. This is called the “bottle
test”. For this test, small quantity of sand is put in the bottle. After this, water is
poured in and the bottle is stirred vigorously. The bottle is then left stationary to
allow the sand to settle down. The particles of sand are heavier than that of mud
so it settles down quickly. After 20 - 25 minutes, the layer of mud verses sand
inside the bottle are measured. Coarse and granular sand can be used for
concreting work but fine sand will be better for plastering work.
c) Gravel: Gravel should not be too big or very small. It should not be bigger than
25% of the thickness of concrete product where it is used in. As the slabs and top
of the dome are not more than 3” thick, gravel should not be larger than 0.75” (2
cm) in size. Furthermore, the gravel must be clean. If it is dirty, it should be
washed with clean water.
d) Water: Water is mainly used for preparing the mortar for masonry work,
concreting work and plastering. It is also used to soak bricks/stones before using
them. Besides these, water is also used for washing sand and aggregates. It is
advised not to use water from ponds and irrigation canals for these purposes as
it is usually too dirty. Dirty water has an adverse effect on the strength of the
structure, hence water to be used must be clean.
e) Bricks: Bricks must be of the best quality locally available. When hitting two
bricks, the sound must be clear. They must be well baked and regular in shape.
Before use, bricks must be soaked for few minutes in clean water. Such bricks
will not absorb water (moisture) from the mortar afterwards.
f) Stones: If stones are to be used for masonry work, they have to be clean,
strong and of good quality. Stones should be washed if they are dirty.
3. Construction Site Selection:
Annex 3
The following points should be kept in mind when deciding on a site for biogas plant
construction:
 For proper functioning of the plant, the right temperature has to be maintained in
the digester. Therefore, a sunny site has to be selected.
 To make plant operation easy and to avoid wastage of raw materials specially
the dung, the plant must be as close as possible to the stable (cattle-shed) and
water source. If the nearest water source is at a distance of more than 20
minutes walk, the burden of fetching water becomes too much and no plant
should be installed in such places.
 If longer gas-pipe is used the cost will be increased as the pipe is expensive.
Furthermore, longer pipe increases the risk of gas leakage due to more joints in
it. The main valve has to be opened and closed before and after use. Therefore,
the plant should be as close as possible to the point of use so that the above
problems are eliminated.
 The edge of the foundation of the plant should be at least two metres away from
the house or any other building to avoid risk of damages.
 The plant should be at least 10 metres away from the well or any other under-
ground water sources to protect water from pollution.
 Sufficient space for compost pits should be available.
4. Digging and Pit Depth:
When a suitable site is selected, a small peg has to be stuck in the ground at the
centre spot of the digester. A cord has to be attached to this peg with the length
indicated on the drawing under dimension “C”. Now this cord is the radius of the
digester pit and the circumference can be decided by moving the edge of the cord
on circular fashion. The pit depth is indicated on the drawing under dimension “E”.
The excavation work should only be started after deciding the location of manhole
and outlet tank. The pit walls should be as vertical as possible and, most important,
the pit bottom must be levelled and the earth must be untouched.
While digging, excavated soil should be thrown at least one foot away from the lay-
out, so that it does not fall inside the pit when the construction work is in progress.
After digging the pit, a suitable arrangement must be made for the inlet pipe(s).
If because of hard rock or under ground water, the right depth cannot be achieved,
the pit has to be made as deep as possible, while after completion of the structure
some protective measures have to be constructed so that the walls of outlet and
dome is supported well from outside. (see chapter 10)
5. Construction of Round-wall
At the centre of the pit, a straight rod or pipe (the 0.5” GI gas-pipe) must be placed in
an exact vertical position. At ground-level, a heavy pole or pipe has to be placed
Annex 3
horizontally over the centre of the pit. The vertical pipe can now be secured to the
horizontal pipe or pole. After securing, the vertical pipe has again to be checked
whether it is still in the right position.
A string or wire can now be attached to the vertical pipe. The length of this wire can
be found on the drawing under the dimension “F”. One cm has to be added to this
length to allow space for plastering. Every brick or stone which is laid in the round-
wall has to be exactly F + 1 cm away from the vertical pipe.
After deciding the radius of digester, the round-wall is started to be constructed. The
first row of bricks must be positioned on their sides so that a 4.5” high 9” wide base
is made. It is essential that first row is placed on a firm, untouched and level soil.
The next rows of bricks can be positioned on their lengths so that the wall thickness
becomes 4.5”. It is not necessary to make pillars in the wall but the backfilling
between wall and pit-side must be compacted with great care. This backfilling has to
be done in the morning before starting the construction work. Earth should be well
compacted by adding water and gentle ramming all along the circumference of the
digester. Poor compaction will lead to cracks in round-wall and dome.
If stone is used for the construction of round-wall, the wall should rest against the pit-
side as it is difficult to have proper backfilling because of the irregular shape of the
outside of the stone wall. The cement mortar used can be 1 cement - 4 sand to 1
cement - 6 sand depending on the quality of the sand.
The height of the round-wall can be found on the drawing under dimension “H” when
measured from the finished floor. The dung inlet pipe and toilet pipe must be placed
in position when the round-wall is 35 cm high. To reduce the risk of blockage, the
inlet pipe(s) must be placed as vertical as practically possible. Exactly to the
opposite of the dung inlet pipe, a 60 cm wide opening must be left in the round-wall
which acts as manhole. The digested slurry also flows out to the outlet tank through
this opening. The inlet pipe from the toilet should be placed as close as possible with
the dung inlet pipe with a maximum distance of 45 degrees from the dung inlet on
the dung inlet-centre manhole line (hartline).
When the round-wall has reached the correct height, the inside must be plastered
with a smooth layer of cement mortar with a mix of 1 cement - 3 sand. The digester
floor can be made from bricks or small stones with plaster in cement mortar.
6. Dome Construction:
When the construction works of round-wall as described above is completed, then

the dome has to be constructed. Before filling the pit with earth to make the mould
for the dome, backside of the round-wall should be filled with proper compacted
backfilling. If this is not done, the pressure of the earth for the mould can lead to
cracks in the round wall.
Annex 3
 On the vertical centre pipe, a mark has to be made at a distance “J”, as given in
the drawing, from the finished floor. The compacted earth has to reach this level.
The vertical pipe can now be removed by pulling it upwards. It has to be replaced
by a shorter 0.5” dia. pipe, approx. 0.5 metres length in the earth exactly at the
same spot. Now the template should be used to make the shape of the dome.
The top of the round-wall must be clean when the template is in use. The
template can be checked by making sure the top is horizontal and the side
exactly vertical. Furthermore, the part of the template that touches the round-wall
must be in the same position all over the round-wall.
 It is important that the earth of the mould is well compacted. If the earth is further
compressed after casting the dome, by its own weight and that of the concrete, it
can lead to cracks in the dome. When the earth mould has the exact shape of the
template, a thin layer of find sand has to be spread on the mould-top by gently
patting it on the surface. Any excess sand or soil that falls on the round-wall has
to be removed. The earth used for the mould has to be damp to prevent dry earth
from soaking up water from freshly concrete.
 Before starting the casting work, enough manpower and construction materials
like sand, gravel, cement and water has to be collected on the site. The casting
has to be done as quickly as possible and without interruptions as this will
negatively affect the quality of the cast. A constant, adequate supply of concrete
(mix: 1 cement, 3 sand, 3 gravel) must be made for the mason. No concrete
older than 30 minutes should be used.
 A special care should be taken to maintain the thickness of dome while casting,
i.e. the thickness; in and near the edges should be more than the thickness in the
centre. for 6, 8, 10 & 15 cubic metres plants, the thickness in the edge should be
25 cm whereas thickness in the centre should be 7 cm. Similarly, for 4 and 20
cubic metres plats, the thickness in the centre should be 7 & 9 cm respectively
and the edge should be 22 and 28 cm respectively.
 The small pipe on the top of the mould must be left in place till the main gas pipe
is installed. This is to make sure that the main gas pipe is exactly in the centre.
 Already during the casting, the concrete has to be protected against strong
sunlight by covering it with jute bags or straw mats. This protection has to be left
in place for at least one week. The day after the casting, the turret must be made.
Any delays can lead to leakage between main gas pipe and dome. Also from the day
after the casting onwards, the dome has to be sprinkled with water 3 to 4 times a
day which is known as „curing‟. After approximately one week, depending on the
temperature, the earth of the mould can be removed through the manhole. When all
earth is removed, the inside of the dome, has to be thoroughly cleaned with a brush
and clean water.
On the clean surface the following plaster coats have to be applied to make the
dome gas-tight.
a) Cement - water flush.
Annex 3
b) 10 mm layer, 1 cement - 2 sand, plaster.
c) 5 mm layer, 1 cement - 1 sand, punning.
d) Cement/acrylic emulsion paint coating, 1.5 paint - 20 cement.
e) Cement/acrylic emulsion paint coating, 1 paint - 2 cement.
A plaster coat must be at least one day old before the next layer can be put on.
When a layer of plaster is applied, the work must be executed with the greatest care
and without interruptions. The well - functioning of the plant is very much depending
on the gas tightness of dome.
Construction of Outlet Chambers:
To construct the outlet tank, excavation has to be done just behind the manhole. The
level of excavation can be measured from the digester floor by taking the dimension
“I” minus the thickness of the digester floor. The earth behind the manhole and
under the outlet floor has to be very well compacted otherwise cracks will occur.
 The inside dimensions of the outlet can be found on the drawing under A, B and
D. The distance from the digester floor to the outlet floor is given by the
dimension “I”.
 It is important that these dimensions should be accurate as they determine the
useful capacity of the gas holder. For the same reason the outlet floor and the
top of the walls have to be in level. The walls have to be vertical and finished with
a smooth layer of cement plaster (mix: 1 cement - 3 sand). On the outside, the
walls have to be supported with sufficient earth body upto the overflow level. This
again is to avoid cracks.
The outlet tank should

be on a slightly higher elevation
than the surrounding so that
there are no chances of water
running into the outlet during
the rainy season.
At the same time of

dome casting, the concrete
slabs for the out let should be
constructed. It is easy to make
some additional concrete at this
time, and the slab will be well
cured before they are placed on
the outlet. The slabs must be 3”
thick with proper reinforcement
at 1” from the bottom side. The
slabs must be of such size that
they can be handled by 4 - 5
Annex 3
men without great difficulty.
The surface on which the slabs are cast, has to be flat and clean. Special care has
to be taken for the compaction of the concrete, as small holes will expose, the steel
reinforcement to corrosive vapour coming from the slurry in the outlet and will cause
the corrosion which may ultimately lead to the slab collapse. Hence, if holes are
formed in the slab these should be blocked with plaster layer. The outlet cover slabs
are essential to protect people and animals from falling inside and to avoid
excessive vaporization of the slurry in dry season.
For all slabs:
1. Thickness : 3” (7.5 cm)
2. Cover : 1” (2.5 cm)
3. C/C spacing (longitudinal) : 6” (15 cm)
4. C/C spacing (cross sectional) : 1‟ (30 cm)
5. Concrete ratio (cement:sand:gravel) : 1:2:4
6. Curing period : One week
Note: Casting should be done on a levelled surface and plastic sheets or empty cement bags should be used as bed sheets.
8. Construction of Inlet pit:
The inlet pit is constructed to mix dung and water. This can be constructed with or
without a mixing device. Installation of mixing device is preferable not only because
it makes plant operation easier for the user but also because it improves the quality
of mix. When a mixer is installed it has to be firmly attached to the structure, easy to
operate, effective in the mixing process and steel parts in contact with the dung are
to be galvanised.
The top of the structure should not be more than one metre high nor less than 50 cm
from the ground level and both inside and outside of the pit has to be covered with a
smooth layer of plaster (mix: 1 cement - 3 sand).
The bottom of the tank, must be at least 5 cm above the outlet overflow level. The
position of the inlet pipe in the floor must be such that pole or rod can enter through
it without obstructions. For the same reason the inlet pipe must be without bends.
Even though mixing devices is not installed, the inlet pit should be round in shape as
this is more economical material-wise and easier for hand mixing.
In case of toilet attachment to the plant it is better to construct without siphon or trap
as the pan with siphon needs more water which may result excess water inside the
digester. It is also not possible to de-block the pipe when the toilet has a trap. The
toilet should not be farther than 45 degree from the hartline. Additionally, the toilet
pan level should be at least 15 cm above the outlet overflow level.
9. Lay-out of Pipeline:
Annex 3
The gas pipe conveying the gas from
the plant to users point is vulnerable for
damages by people, domestic animals
and rodents. Therefore, only light quality
galvanised iron pipe should be used
which must be, where possible, buried 1
foot below ground level. Fittings in the
pipeline must be sealed with zinc putty
and Teflon tape. Any other sealing
agent, like grease, paint only, soap etc.
must not be allowed. To reduce the risk of leakage, the use of fittings, specially
unions, should be kept to a necessary minimum. No fittings should be placed

between the main gas valve and the dome gas pipe.
The biogas coming from the digester is saturated with water vapour. This water
vapour will condense at the walls of the pipeline. If this condensed water is not
removed regularly, it will ultimately clog the pipeline. Hence, a water drain has to be
placed in the pipeline. The position of the water drain should be inclined below the
lowest point of the pipeline so that water will flow by gravity to the trap. Water can be
removed by opening the drain. As
this has to be done periodically the
drain must be well accessible and
protected in a well-maintained drain
pit.
For connecting burners with gas

pipeline, use of transparent
polyethylene hose must be avoided.
Only neoprene rubber hose of the
best quality should be used.
As soon as there is gas production, all joints and taps must be checked for leakage
by applying a thick soap solution. If there is leakage the foam will either move or
break.
Annex 3
10. Compost Pits:
Compost pits are an integral of the biogas plant: no plant is complete without them. a
minimum of 2 compost pits must be dug near to the outlet overflow in such a way
that the slurry can run freely into the pits. Enough earth body must remain however,
at least 1 metre, between the pits and the outlet chamber to avoid cracking of the
chamber walls. The total volume of the compost pits must be at least equal to the
plant volume.
To make a potent and easy to use as fertiliser, the compost pits should be filled with
agricultural residues together with the slurry from the plant.
The earth coming from digging the compost pits can be used for backfilling of the
inlet and outlet chamber and for top filling over the dome.
For proper
insulation during the
cold season and as
counter-weight
against the gas
pressure inside, a
minimum top filling
40 cm compacted
earth is required on
the dome. If e.g. because of high ground water table, the plant is not positioned
deep enough, the top filling will be prone to erosion due to wind and rain. In these
cases, proper protection, i.e. with a dry stone circular wall, has to be applied.
Notes:
1. Length and width mentioned in the above table can be changed according to the
space available without changing the volume of the pits.
2. If possible Length, Width should be doubled.
3. Depth of the pit should not exceed 1 metre (100 cm) due to safety reason.
Annex 3
If the concerned mason and plumber strictly follow the above described instructions
during the construction phase, the complete plant will be of high quality. Hence, the
plant owner will be benefited ultimately from the investment and positive return will
be achieved as per the expectations. This again will persuade his relative and
neighbours to install a biogas plant as well, while a poorly constructed plant will do
harm to the reputation of biogas technology.
Annex 3
3
Dome templates 4 6 8 & 10 M
Annex 4
Expected results
Activity Rate Unit Total

1 2 3 4 5
Biogas plant construction annual [# of plants/yr] 200 800 2000 3000 4000 10000 [plants]
cumulative [# of plants] 200 1000 3000 6000 10000
Energy
Energy production 9.80 [GJ/plant/yr] 1960 9800 29400 58800 98000 197,960 [GJ]
Power installed (nett) 1.65 [kW th/plant] 330 1650 4950 9900 16500 33,330 [kW]
Environment
GHG emission reduction 2 [tons CO2 eq/plant/yr] 400 2000 6000 12000 20000 40,400 [t CO2eq]
Fuel substitution
Biomass
Agricultural residue 0.45 [tons agric res/plant/yr] 90.6 453 1359 2718 4530 9,151 [t]
Dung cake 0.63 [tons dungcake/plant/yr] 125.6 628 1884 3768 6280 12,686 [t]
Fuelwood 1.76 [tons fuelwood/plant/yr] 351.6 1758 5274 10548 17580 35,512 [t]
Charcoal 0.01 [tons charcoal/plant/yr] 1.8 9 27 54 90 1,818 [t]
Total biomass 2.93 [tons biomass/plant/yr] 585.8 2929 8787 17574 29290 59,166 [t biomass]
Fossil
Kerosene 0.003 [tons/plant/yr] 0.6 3 9 18 30 61 [t]
Socio-economic
Persons reached (female) 3 [pers/biogas hh] 600 2400 6000 9000 12000 30,000 [women]
Persons reached (male) 3 [pers/biogas hh] 600 2400 6000 9000 12000 30,000 [man]
Workload reduction (women & children) 0.1 [pers-year/plant/yr] 20 100 300 600 1000 2,020 [pers years]
Exposure to indoor air pollution reduced (women &3chidren)
[pers/biogas hh] 600 2400 6000 9000 12000 30,000 [women & children]
Toilets attached 50% [connection rate] 100 400 1000 1500 2000 5,000 [toilets]
Productive surry use 80% [inclusion rate] 160 640 1600 2400 3200 8,000 [households]
Employment generation (direct) 0.07 [pers-year/plant] 14 56 140 210 280 700 [person years]
Training
User training
Pre construction training (female) 0.2 [pers-day/plant] 40 160 400 600 800 2,000 [person days]
Pre construction training (male) 0.3 [pers-day/plant] 60 240 600 900 1200 3,000 [person days]
Post construction training (female) 0.4 [pers-day/plant] 80 320 800 1200 1600 4,000 [person days]
Post construction training (male) 0.1 [pers-day/plant] 20 80 200 300 400 1,000 [person days]
Bio-slurry extension (female) 0.2 [pers-day/plant] 40 160 400 600 800 2,000 [person days]
Bio-slurry extension (male) 0.2 [pers-day/plant] 40 160 400 600 800 2,000 [person days]
Total User Training 1.4 [pers-day/plant] 280 1120 2800 4200 5600 14,000 [person days]
Professional training
Project management & administration 0.003 [pers-day/plant] 1 3 7 10 13 33 [person days]
Biogas technology 0.054 [pers-day/plant] 11 43 108 162 216 540 [person days]
Biogas technology refresher 0.027 [pers-day/plant] 5 21 53 80 107 267 [person days]
Biogas construction 0.090 [pers-day/plant] 18 72 180 270 360 900 [person days]
Biogas construction refresher 0.053 [pers-day/plant] 11 43 107 160 213 533 [person days]
Operation check 0.040 [pers-day/plant] 8 32 80 120 160 400 [person days]
Biogas extension 0.007 [pers-day/plant] 1 5 14 20 27 68 [person days]
Total professional training 0.274 [pers-day/plant] 55 219 548 822 1096 2,741 [person days]
Annex 5
Outline activity schedule and budget
1 Production planning
Production per Region / Woreda per year
Region Woreda Total 1 2 3 4 5
Amhara 1 600 50 100 100 150 200

2 500 50 100 150 200
3 500 50 100 150 200
4 450 100 150 200
5 450 100 150 200
Total region 2500 50 200 500 750 1000
Region Province Total 1 2 3 4 5
Oromia 1 600 50 100 100 150 200

2 500 50 100 150 200
3 500 50 100 150 200
4 450 100 150 200
5 450 100 150 200
Total region 2500 50 200 500 750 1000
SNNPRS 1 600 50 100 100 150 200

2 500 50 100 150 200
3 500 50 100 150 200
4 450 100 150 200
5 450 100 150 200
Total region 2500 50 200 500 750 1000
Tigray 1 600 50 100 100 150 200

2 500 50 100 150 200
3 500 50 100 150 200
4 450 100 150 200
5 450 100 150 200
Total region 2500 50 200 500 750 1000
Region Total 1 2 3 4 5
Amhara 2500 50 200 500 750 1000

Oromia 2500 50 200 500 750 1000
SNNPRS 2500 50 200 500 750 1000
Tigray 2500 50 200 500 750 1000
Total project (allocated) 10000 200 800 2000 3000 4000

Production share/year 100% 2% 8% 20% 30% 40%
1 2 3 4 5
Cum # of Wor / Reg 5 1 3 5 5 5

Cum # of Wor / project 20 4 12 20 20 20
Number of Regions 4
Avg prod / Woreda 50 67 100 150 200

Avg prod / Region 50 200 500 750 1000
Annex 5
2 Subsidy levels.
Subsidy levels EBP
rates
Subsidy level ETB Euro USD share
1 Regular 1,500 144.09 171.43 100%

2 High 2,000 192.12 228.57 0%
Avg subsidy 1,500 144.09 171.43 100%
Annual subs requirement [Euro]

1 2 3 4 5 Total
# of plants 200 800 2000 3000 4000 10000
Subsidy requirement 28,818 115,274 288,184 432,277 576,369 1,440,922
3 Direct investment.
Investment costs / plant [Euro]
1 2 3 4 5 AVG
Plant investment costs 500.00 525.00 551.25 578.81 607.75 579.00

Investment subsidy 144.09 144.09 144.09 144.09 144.09 144.09
Farmer investment 355.91 380.91 407.16 434.72 463.66 434.90

Subsidy share: 29% 27% 26% 25% 24% 25%
Direct investment EBP (inflation correction in farmer investment) [Euro]
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 total

Annual production biogas plants 200 800 2000 3000 4000 10000
Farmer investment (avg) 71,182 304,726 814,316 1,304,161 1,854,644 4,349,028

Investment subsidy (avg) 28,818 115,274 288,184 432,277 576,369 1,440,922
Total direct investment 100,000 420,000 1,102,500 1,736,438 2,431,013 5,789,950
Avg farmer investment / plant 435

Avg investment subsidy / plant 144
Total direct investment / plant 579
EBP plant investment development

800
700
600
500
[Euro]
400
300
200
100
0
1 2 3 4 5
Annex 5
4 Investment credit.
Investment costs / plant [Euro]
1 2 3 4 5
Farmer investment (avg) 355.91 380.91 407.16 434.72 463.66
Estimated # of credit plants [# of plants]

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Construction 200 800 2000 3000 4000 10000

Est investment share requested 30% 40% 50% 60% 70%
# of credit plants 60 320 1000 1800 2800 5980
Credit 60 320 1000 1800 2800 5980

Cash 140 480 1000 1200 1200 4020
Total 200 800 2000 3000 4000 10000
Proposed credit conditions
Interest rate 12% [% per year]

Maturity 5 [year]
Grace period 1 [year]
Credit costs per plant [Euro]

1 2 3 4 5
Principal - 355.91 - 380.91 - 407.16 - 434.72 - 463.66
Interest over grace period - 42.71 - 45.71 - 48.86 - 52.17 - 55.64

PMT (annual) 117.18 125.41 134.05 143.12 152.65
Total repayment (end of year 5) 511.42 547.34 585.06 624.67 666.25

Financing costs 155.51 166.43 177.90 189.95 202.59
Investment financing [Euro]

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Total prinicpal 21,354 121,890 407,158 782,497 1,298,251 2,631,150

Financing costs 9,331 53,259 177,903 341,902 567,255 1,149,649
3,780,798
Summary project credit requirement [Euro] EBP investment credit

Euro
1500000
Year Sancioned Repayment Flow

1000000
1 - 21,354 1,281 - 20,073

500000
2 - 121,890 12,110 - 109,780
3 - 407,158 58,839 - 348,319 0
4 - 782,497 185,566 - 596,931 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
5 - 1,298,251 434,869 - 863,382 -500000 year
6 726,930 726,930
7 839,169 839,169 -1000000
8 752,079 752,079
9 556,241 556,241 -1500000
10 213,714 213,714
-2000000 Sancioned Repayment Flow
Totals - 2,631,150 3,780,798 1,149,649
Annex 5
5 Regional support budget.

Provincial support budget
Planned activities Budget

1 Promotion & marketing unit rate
1 2 3 4 5 total 1 2 3 4 5 total
1.1 Region / Woreda - level prom cpgn # of cpgn 1 3 5 5 5 19 1,000 1,000 3,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 19,000
1.2 Biogas awareness wsp (25 pers) # of wsps 4 16 40 60 80 200 100 400 1,600 4,000 6,000 8,000 20,000
1.3 Hh assessment & registration # of hh 50 200 500 750 1000 2500 1 50 200 500 750 1,000 2,500
Total promotion 1,450 4,800 9,500 11,750 14,000 41,500

2 Quality management unit rate
1 2 3 4 5 total 1 2 3 4 5 total
[control %]
2.1 Annual operation check 100% 50 250 750 1500 2500 5050 1.00 50 250 750 1,500 2,500 5,050
2.2 Plant control & acceptance 100% 50 200 500 750 1000 2500 5.00 250 1,000 2,500 3,750 5,000 12,500
2.3 QC completed 10% 5 20 50 75 100 250 6.00 30 120 300 450 600 1,500
2.4 QC under construction 5% 3 10 25 38 50 125 10.00 25 100 250 375 500 1,250
2.4 Q administration # of reports 108 480 1325 2363 3650 7925 0.50 54 240 663 1,181 1,825 3,963
Total quality management 409 1,710 4,463 7,256 10,425 24,263

3 Training unit rate
1 2 3 4 5 total 1 2 3 4 5 total
3.10 Biogas Extension workers # of persons 1 5 15 30 50 101

3.11 Kebele Extension worker (10 pers) # of trg crs 1 2 3 5 11 200 200 - 400 600 1,000 2,200
3.12 KEW biogas refresher trg (10 pers) # of trg crs 1 2 3 6 200 - 200 - 400 600 1,200
3.21 Biogas mason refresher wsp (20 pers) # of trg crs 2 6 14 16 38 400 - 800 2,400 5,600 6,400 15,200
3.4 User trg pre-cons (25 pers) # of trg crs 2 8 20 30 40 100 100 200 800 2,000 3,000 4,000 10,000
3.4 User trg op & maint (25 pers) # of trg crs 2 8 20 30 40 100 100 200 800 2,000 3,000 4,000 10,000
Total training 600 2,600 6,800 12,600 16,000 38,600

4 Extension unit rate
1 2 3 4 5 total 1 2 3 4 5 total
4.1 Demo slurry plots # of plots 10 10 10 10 10 50 30 300 300 300 300 300 1,500
4.2 Slurry applicaltion wsps (10 hh) # of wsps 10 25 40 50 125 100 - 1,000 2,500 4,000 5,000 12,500
4.3 Demo 3 in 1 & 4 in 1 plants # of plants 10 10 500 - - 5,000 - - 5,000
4.4 3 in 1 & 4 in 1 plant wsp (15 pers) # of wsps 5 5 10 200 - - - 1,000 1,000 2,000
4.5 3 in 1 & 4 in 1 plant follow up visit/plant 10 10 20 10 - - - 100 100 200
Total extension 300 1,300 7,800 5,400 6,400 21,200

5 Operational expenses unit rate
1 2 3 4 5 total 1 2 3 4 5 total
5.1 IT equipment set 1 1 2,000 2,000 - - - - 2,000

5.2 PILS equipment set 2 2 2 6 300 600 600 600 - - 1,800
6.2 Transport m/cycle 2 2 2 6 2,000 4,000 4,000 4,000 - - 12,000
6.3 Salary support ls/month 12 12 12 12 12 60 200 2,400 2,400 2,400 2,400 2,400 12,000
6.4 Support operational costs ls/month 12 12 12 12 12 60 200 2,400 2,400 2,400 2,400 2,400 12,000
Total operational expenses 11,400 9,400 9,400 4,800 4,800 39,800
Summary Regional Support Budget (total programme, not corrected for inflation) [Euro]
Budget
# of regions: 4 1 2 3 4 5 total

2 Quality management 1,635 6,840 17,850 29,025 41,700 97,050
3 Training 2,400 10,400 27,200 50,400 64,000 154,400
4 Extension 1,200 5,200 31,200 21,600 25,600 84,800
5 Operational expenses 45,600 37,600 37,600 19,200 19,200 159,200
Provincial Support Budget 56,635 79,240 151,850 167,225 206,500 661,450

Contingencies 5% 2,832 3,962 7,593 8,361 10,325 33,073
Total Provincial Support Budget 59,467 83,202 159,443 175,586 216,825 694,523
Reg Sup / plant 69.45
Annex 5
6 National support budget

1 Promotion & marketing unit rate
1 2 3 4 5 total 1 2 3 4 5 total
1.01
1.02 Dev & repr prom material ls/year 1 1 1 1 1 5 4,500.00 4,500 4,500 4,500 4,500 4,500 22,500
1.03 EBP PR material ls/year 1 1 1 1 1 5 2,500.00 2,500 2,500 2,500 2,500 2,500 12,500
1.04 Promotion activities ls/year 1 1 1 1 1 5 7,500.00 7,500 7,500 7,500 7,500 7,500 37,500
- - - - - -
1.11 Assessment survey existing plants survey 4 4 8 500.00 2,000 - 2,000 - - 4,000
1.12 Refurbishment support exisitng plants ls/plant 10 40 100 150 200 500 300.00 3,000 12,000 30,000 45,000 60,000 150,000
Total promotion 19,500 26,500 46,500 59,500 74,500 226,500

2 Finance unit rate
1 2 3 4 5 total 1 2 3 4 5 total
2.01 Subsidy transfer & administration # of transfers 200 800 2000 3000 4000 10000 2.00 400 1,600 4,000 6,000 8,000 20,000
2.11 Auditing # of audits 1 1 1 1 1 5 3,000.00 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 15,000
2.12 Financial monitoring # of regions 8 8 8 8 8 40 500.00 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,000 20,000
Total finance 7,400 8,600 11,000 13,000 15,000 55,000

3 Construction & aftersales service unit rate
1 2 3 4 5 total 1 2 3 4 5 total
3.01 Biogas business development strategy survey 1 1 2 3,000.00 - 3,000 - - 3,000 6,000
3.02 Biogas business dev seminar (50pers) # of seminar 6 6 6 18 1,500.00 - 9,000 9,000 9,000 - 27,000
3.03 BCT assessment & coaching # of BCT 20 20 20 60 500.00 - 10,000 10,000 10,000 - 30,000
3.11 BCT Association support # of assoc 4 4 4 12 250.00 - - 1,000 1,000 1,000 3,000
Total construction & a.s.s. - 22,000 20,000 20,000 4,000 66,000

4 Quality assurance unit rate
1 2 3 4 5 total 1 2 3 4 5 total
[control %]
4.01 QCE completed 2% 20 30 40 60 80 230 50.00 1,000 1,500 2,000 3,000 4,000 11,500
4.02 QCE under construction 1% 10 15 20 30 40 115 75.00 750 1,125 1,500 2,250 3,000 8,625
4.03 Q administration # of reports 460 1965 5360 9540 14720 32045 0.20 92 393 1,072 1,908 2,944 6,409
4.11 QM IT-equipment ls/year 4 2 6 1,500.00 6,000 - - 3,000 - 9,000

4.12 QM IT-software & maint ls/year 1 1 1 1 1 5 500.00 3,500 500 500 500 500 5,500
4.13 PILS & GIS equipment ls/year 4 1 1 2 1 9 500.00 2,000 2,500 500 1,000 500 6,500
Total quality management 13,342 6,018 5,572 11,658 10,944 47,534

5 Training unit rate
1 2 3 4 5 total 1 2 3 4 5 total
5.11 Regional project admin trg # of wsp 1 1,000.00 1,000 - - - - 1,000

5.12 Regional project admin refresher trg # of wsp 1 1 1 1 4 500.00 - 500 500 500 500 2,000
5.13 Regional Dbase trg (5 pers) # of wsp 1 1 1,500.00 - 1,500 - - - 1,500
5.14 Regional Dbase refresher trg (5 pers) # of wsp 1 1 1 3 500.00 - - 500 500 500 1,500
5.20 Mason # of persons 8 24 56 64 96 248

5.21 Biogas mason trg courses (20 pers) # of trg crs 1 2 3 4 5 15 3,000.00 3,000 6,000 9,000 12,000 15,000 45,000
5.22 Biogas comp business dev trg (10 pers) # of trg crs 1 2 3 4 10 2,000.00 - 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 20,000
5.30 Technician # of persons 12 12 8

5.31 Biogas Technician trg (12 pers) # of wsp 1 1 1 1 4 3,500.00 3,500 3,500 3,500 3,500 - 14,000
5.32 Biogas Technician refr trg (10 pers) # of wsp 1 1 1 1 4 1,000.00 - 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 4,000
5.33 Plant loc & id sys trg (10pers) # of wsp 1 1 1 1 4 2,100.00 2,100 2,100 2,100 2,100 - 8,400
5.34 Plant loc & id sys refr trg (10 pers) # of wsp 1 1 1 1 4 1,400.00 - 1,400 1,400 1,400 1,400 5,600
5.35 ToT supp Technician trg # of trg 1 1 1 1 4 750.00 - 750 750 750 750 3,000
5.36 Technician exchange wsp # of wsp 1 2 2 2 2 9 500.00 500 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 4,500
5.31 GGC 2047 piloting ls 1 1 8,000 8,000 16,000

5.32 Consultancy trg development # of adv days 40 40 300.00 12,000 - - - - 12,000
5.33 Curricula dev technical trg ls/curr 2 2 2 6 1,000.00 2,000 - 2,000 - 2,000 6,000
5.34 Dev & distrib technical manuals ls/year 3 2 1 6 1,000.00 3,000 - 2,000 - 1,000 6,000
Total training 35,100 27,750 27,750 28,750 31,150 150,500

6 Extension unit rate
1 2 3 4 5 total 1 2 3 4 5 total
6.01 Bio-slurry application study study 1 1 1 3 4,000.00 4,000 - 4,000 - 4,000 12,000
6.02 Dev bio-slurry manual ls/year 1 1 2 500.00 - 500 - 500 - 1,000
6.03 3 in 1 and 4 in 1 prom mat dev ls/year 1 1 2 750.00 750 - 750 - - 1,500
6.04 Print & distrib ext material ls/plant 200 800 2000 3000 4000 10000 1.25 250 1,000 2,500 3,750 5,000 12,500
Total extension 5,000 1,500 7,250 4,250 9,000 27,000
Annex 5

7 Institutional support unit rate
1 2 3 4 5 total 1 2 3 4 5 total
7.01 Biogas Advisory Board establishment study 1 1 2 1,500.00 1,500 - - - 1,500 3,000
7.02 BAB support ls/yr 1 1 1 1 1 5 1,250.00 1,250 1,250 1,250 1,250 1,250 6,250
7.03 Training & staff development facility ls/region/yr 4 4 4 4 4 20 4,000.00 16,000 16,000 16,000 16,000 16,000 80,000
7.04 Infrastructure improvement facility ls/region/yr 4 4 4 4 4 20 3,000.00 12,000 12,000 12,000 12,000 12,000 60,000
7.11 Biogas sector development study 1 1 2 1,500.00 1,500 - - - 1,500 3,000
Total research & development 32,250 29,250 29,250 29,250 32,250 152,250

8 Monitoring & evaluation unit rate
1 2 3 4 5 total 1 2 3 4 5 total
8.01 Domestic energy baseline survey 4 8 8 1,000.00

8.02 Biogas user survey survey 1 1 1 1 4 8,000.00 - 8,000 8,000 8,000 8,000 32,000
8.11 Biogas & environmental impact study 1 1 2 4,000.00 - - 4,000 - 4,000 8,000
8.12 Biogas & gender study 1 1 1 3 6,000.00 6,000 - 6,000 - 6,000 18,000
8.21 External project progress evaluation evaluation 1 1 2 8,000.00 - 8,000 - 8,000 - 16,000
8.22 External final project evaluation evaluation 1 1 20,000.00
8.21 MSc / BSc study support ls/study 8 8 8 8 8 40 1,000.00 8,000 8,000 8,000 8,000 8,000 40,000
Total extension 14,000 24,000 26,000 24,000 26,000 114,000

9 R & D / Standardization unit rate
1 2 3 4 5 total 1 2 3 4 5 total
9.01 Constr std development & formulation ls 1 1 1,500.00 1,500 - - - - 1,500

9.02 A.S.S std development & fomulation ls 1 1 1,500.00 1,500 - - - - 1,500
9.03 Appliances std dev & formulation ls 1 1 1,500.00 1,500 - - - - 1,500
9.04 Standards printing & distribution booklet 50 50 100 10.00 500 - 500 - - 1,000
9.05 3 in 1 and 4 in 1 development study 1 1 3,000.00 3,000 - - - - 3,000
9.06 R&D support ls/study 1 2 1 1 1 6 1,000.00 1,000 2,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 6,000
9.07 Dev & distrib techn instruct. material ls 1 1 1 1 4 3,000.00 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 - 12,000
9.11 Technician manual development ls 1 1 1,500.00 1,500 - - - - 1,500

9.12 Technician manual distribution booklet 50 50 100 12.50 625 - 625 - - 1,250
9.21 Mason manual development ls 1 1 1,500.00 1,500 - - - - 1,500

9.22 Mason manual distribution booklet 100 100 100 300 10.00 1,000 - 1,000 - 1,000 3,000
9.31 KEW manual development ls 1 1 1,500.00 1,500 - - - - 1,500

9.32 KEW manual distribution booklet 200 200 200 600 5.00 1,000 - 1,000 - 1,000 3,000
9.41 User manual development ls 1 1 1,500.00 1,500 - - - - 1,500

9.42 User pre-construction flyer distribution booklet 200 800 2000 3000 4000 10000 0.20 40 160 400 600 800 2,000
9.43 User pre-construction flyer distribution booklet 200 800 2000 3000 4000 10000 1.50 300 1,200 3,000 4,500 6,000 15,000
9.51 R&D biogas stove ls 1 1 3,000.00 3,000 - - - - 3,000

9.52 R&D biogas taps / watertrap ls 1 1 500.00 - - 500 - - 500
9.53 R&D biogas lamp ls 1 1 3,000.00 - 3,000 - - - 3,000
9.54 R&D biogas metad ls 1 1 3,000.00 - - - 3,000 - 3,000
Total research & development 23,965 9,360 11,025 12,100 9,800 66,250

10 Project management unit rate
1 2 3 4 5 total 1 2 3 4 5 total
10.11 Coordinator pers month 12 12 12 12 12 60 750.00 9,000 9,000 9,000 9,000 9,000 45,000
10.12 Administrator pers month 12 12 12 12 12 60 600.00 7,200 7,200 7,200 7,200 7,200 36,000
10.13 IT / GIS systems officer pers month 12 12 12 12 12 60 450.00 5,400 5,400 5,400 5,400 5,400 27,000
10.14 Promotion & marketing officer pers month 6 12 12 12 12 54 300.00 1,800 3,600 3,600 3,600 3,600 16,200
10.15 Chief Biogas Engineer pers month 12 12 12 12 12 60 600.00 7,200 7,200 7,200 7,200 7,200 36,000
10.16 Biogas Engineer pers month 12 24 24 36 36 132 350.00 4,200 8,400 8,400 12,600 12,600 46,200
10.30 Avg # of national office support staff # of pers 6 7 7 8 8

10.31 TA/DA NBPO support staff days out 420 600 600 720 720 3060 10.00 4,200 6,000 6,000 7,200 7,200 30,600
10.32 Transportation trip km 27500 35000 35000 40000 40000 177500 0.30 8,250 10,500 10,500 12,000 12,000 53,250
10.33 Additional support staff costs pers month 6 7 7 8 8 36 969.01 5,330 6,783 6,783 7,752 7,752 34,400
10.34 Indirect support staff costs ls/pers month 6 7 7 8 8 36 484.51 2,665 3,392 3,392 3,876 3,876 17,200
10.35 Staff development ls/pers 6 7 7 8 8 36 484.51 2,665 3,392 3,392 3,876 3,876 17,200
10.41 Other programme expenses ls/month 12 12 12 12 12 60 1,000.00 12,000 12,000 12,000 12,000 12,000 60,000
10.42 Utilities ls/month 12 12 12 12 12 60 500.00 6,000 6,000 6,000 6,000 6,000 30,000
10.43 Office expenses ls/month 12 12 12 12 12 60 500.00 6,000 6,000 6,000 6,000 6,000 30,000
10.44 Office furniture ls 0 8,000 750 2,000 1,000 1,000 12,750
10.45 Office equipment ls 0 20,000 1,000 10,000 1,000 1,000 33,000
Total operational expenses 109,909 96,616 106,866 105,704 105,704 524,800
Annex 5
Summary National Support Budget (not corrected for inflation) [Euro]

Budget
1 2 3 4 5 total

2 Finance 7,400 8,600 11,000 13,000 15,000 55,000
3 Construction & a.s.s - 22,000 20,000 20,000 4,000 66,000
4 Quality assurance 13,342 6,018 5,572 11,658 10,944 47,534
5 Training 35,100 27,750 27,750 28,750 31,150 150,500
6 Extension 5,000 1,500 7,250 4,250 9,000 27,000
7 Institutional support 32,250 29,250 29,250 29,250 32,250 152,250
8 Monitoring & evaluation 14,000 24,000 26,000 24,000 26,000 114,000
9 Research & development 23,965 9,360 11,025 12,100 9,800 66,250
10 Project management 109,909 96,616 106,866 105,704 105,704 524,800
National Support Budget 260,466 251,594 291,213 308,212 318,348 1,429,834

Contingencies 5% 13,023 12,580 14,561 15,411 15,917 71,492
Total National Support Budget 273,489 264,174 305,774 323,623 334,266 1,501,326
National support bgt / plant 150.13
Summary National Support Budget
Promotion &
marketing
15%
Finance
4%
Construction &
a.s.s
5%
Project
management
36%
Quality assurance
3%
Training
11%
Research &
development Extension
5% 2%
Monitoring &
evaluation Institutional support
8% 11%
7 Technical assistance.

1 Technical assistance unit rate
1 2 3 4 5 total 1 2 3 4 5 total
1.01 Senior Technical Advisor (EUN) pers month 12 10 8 6 4 40 9,600.00 115,200 96,000 76,800 57,600 38,400 384,000
1.02 Junior Technical Advisor (EUN) pers month 12 10 8 4 34 7,000.00 - 84,000 70,000 56,000 28,000 238,000
1.11 Senior Technical Advisor (HCN) pers month 12 12 12 12 12 60 1,400.00 16,800 16,800 16,800 16,800 16,800 84,000
1.12 Junior Technical Advisor (HCN) pers month 12 12 12 12 12 60 1,000.00 12,000 12,000 12,000 12,000 12,000 60,000
1.21 Additonal advisory services pers month 3 3 3 3 3 15 2,000.00 6,000 6,000 6,000 6,000 6,000 30,000
1.22 Other support expenses ls/yr 1 1 1 1 1 5 5,000.00 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 25,000
Total TA 155,000 219,800 186,600 153,400 106,200 821,000
Annex 5
8 Summary
Summary project budget (corrected for inflation) [Euro] [Euro]
BP II summary project budget

2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 total / plant share
1a Farmer investment 71,182 304,726 814,316 1,304,161 1,854,644 4,349,028 434.90 44%
1b Credit financing costs 9,331 53,259 177,903 341,902 567,255 1,149,649 114.96 12%
1c Investment subsidy 28,818 115,274 288,184 432,277 576,369 1,440,922 144.09 14%
2a Regional support (RBPO) 59,467 83,202 159,443 175,586 216,825 694,523 69.45 7%
2b National support (NBPO) 273,489 264,174 305,774 323,623 334,266 1,501,326 150.13 15%
2c Technical assistance 155,000 219,800 186,600 153,400 106,200 821,000 82.10 8%
Total project 597,287 1,040,434 1,932,219 2,730,949 3,655,558 9,956,447 995.64 100%
Application of funds [Euro] [%] per plant [Euro]
1 Investment
1a Farmer investment 4,349,028 63% 434.90
1b Credit fiancing costs 1,149,649 17% 114.96
1c Investment subsidy 1,440,922 21% 144.09
Total investment 6,939,599 70% 693.96
2 Programme support
2a Regional support RBPO 694,523 23% 69.45
2b National support NBPO 1,501,326 50% 150.13
2c Technical assistance 821,000 27% 82.10
Total project support 3,016,848 30% 301.68
Total application 9,956,447 996
Source of funds [Euro] [%] per plant [Euro]
a Farmers
a1 Farmer investment 4,349,028 79% 434.90
a2 Credit financing costs 1,149,649 21% 114.96
Total participating farmers 5,498,676 55% 549.87
b Donor / host government

b1 Investment subsidy 1,440,922 40% 144.09
b2 Regional support 694,523 19% 69.45
c1 National support 1,501,326 41% 150.13
Total donor / host gvt 3,636,770 37% 363.68
c SNV
d1 Technical assistance 821,000 82.10
Total SNV 821,000 8% 82.10
Total source 9,956,447 996
Addendum
Comments on draft study report by the EREDPC
The study team, through SNV Ethiopia, requested Ethiopia Rural Energy Development
and Promotion Centre (EREDPC), a key actor in the development and promotion of
rural domestic energy technology, for comments on the draft report.
These comments, from Mr. Kitane Workneh, Biomass Technology Study &
Development Team Leader, dated 26 June 2006, unfortunately only reached the study
team after the completion and submission of the final report.
Although part of the comments have been taken care of in the final report, in this
addendum a brief reaction on the comments.
1 In the second section of the report 1.2 Limitations -

exclusion of Southwest and western part of the country is quite
not recommended if biogas can be used for intervention as a
potential technology for reducing deforestation.
Within the available time it was not possible to thoroughly visit entire Ethiopia. The
South-western / western areas of the country were excluded as the forest coverage in
these areas –in general- was believed to be such that the population would have
relatively easy access to (non-commercial) fuelwood. The team‟s assessment, hence,
was that promotion of domestic biogas would have less potential in these areas.
Nevertheless, here too deforestation looms as an environmental threat which could
indeed be mitigated by a domestic biogas programme.
2 In the study findings section of 2.2 in the last two

paragraphs it was stated that all biogas plant was not
functioning in Amhara and SNNPRS. The reason give for their not
being functional, however is not clearly stated.
Only EREDPC‟s own study clearly identifies causes of non-functioning biogas

installations. The reports obtained from Amhara and SNNPRS, unfortunately, did not
provide this detail. However, many of these installations were visited by the team. The
study report does give an indication of failure causes of the visited plants.
3 In the above mentioned section of 2.3.2 plant size are too

large in relation to dung availabilities, this has been the
result of various factors including variation in animal size or
that the digesters were constructed with the intention to serve
both lighting and cooking.
It is very well possible that at the time of construction installations were actually sized
correctly. The observations of the team, however, indicate that in relation with the
current daily available cattle manure, most of the installations are too large.
Addendum
4 Biogas Appliances: All RTPC (Rural Technology Promotion
Centers) are producing their own Cooking stove and Biogas Lamps,
which is over looked by the team.
Noted.
5 Additionally, there are miss understanding of the

difference between Mirt and Lakech. Mirt is used for Injera
baking while Lakech is used for cooking only.
Correct; in the draft report “Mirte” and “Lakech” were confused. In the final report this
has been corrected.
6 In the section of potential demand 1.4 institutional

aspects: More emphasis are given to Selam Vocational while
regional RTPC who are actively involved in appliances
manufacturing as well as construction of biogas plant are not
considered.
Perhaps not everywhere sufficiently explicit, many suggestion and recommendations

have the underlying assumption that: 1) quality assurance of construction and
maintenance services of the installation and appliances is a key success factor for large
scale dissemination programme, and; 2) longer-term sustainability is better served when
the (local) private sector is the main implementing party.
Selam Technical and Vocational Centre (STVC) is suggested as a well placed central
institution for initial R&D and training, particularly when a programme –as
recommended- would introduce uniform construction, design and quality standards.
Obviously, the outreach of STVC will be limited; with their experience, RTPCs can –and
should- play an important role in training, supervision and quality control at regional /
local level.
Guided by centrally developed training and guidelines and regionally supported by

RTPC supervision, (eventually) locally established private biogas construction
companies and workshops should become responsible for construction, maintenance
and, respectively, manufacturing of appliances.
7 In the technical part, the distance from biogas plants to

water source was mentioned as being very far. We still believe
that a distance of 20-30 minutes away is too far for women to
carry 36 liter of water every day to mix the input as
recommended in the report.
Noted and agreed. The biogas programme in Nepal actually proposes a distance limit of
20 minutes for water collection. In view of the generally large distances that Ethiopian
households have to travel for water and fuel, I thought it might be acceptable to suggest
slightly larger distances. Clearly, shorter distances are preferable.
Addendum
8 Additionally, equal distributions of biogas plant

regionally are not fair in many ways. We believe that the basic
criteria and reason for equal division of digester numbers
should be clearly stated. We also suggest that regions with
better potential should have relatively larger number of plants.
Agreed, the suggested equal distribution was solely intended as a first approach.
Factual potential and demand should be the actual key for distribution. The report
proposes regional-level studies to improve the insights in this matter.
9 In the design consideration section: 4m3 digester volume

with minimum of four cattle is recommended. It is quite good to
include all households as much as possible. But in practical
sense to get the households with four heads of cattle is very
difficult in certain region. Additionally, the amount of biogas
produced from the digester of this size is very low (.084 – 1.26
m3) and serves only cooking for the family and not sufficient for
lighting. Cost/volume ratio is very high – very costly for small
portion of energy substitution.
Based on our field observations and backed up by population and livestock data, for
most of the households the amount of daily available dung would justify installations
with a digester volume of 4 to 6 m3. As also argued in the report, this amount of manure
will not fully satisfy the domestic energy requirement. The construction cost / volume
ratio is indeed higher for smaller installations, but the construction cost / gas production
ratio for a certain amount of feeding is optimal for the smallest feasible (correct
hydraulic retention time) size. Clearly, proper sizing shall be based on the actual
available feeding, and should be established in-situ.
10 With the recommended flat rate subsidy there is a

possibility of having large gas capacity with Polyethylene
biogas plant (7 m3 digester volume that can produce 1.5 – 2 m3
gas). We suggest this option is seriously considered.
Firstly, to stimulate the ownership awereness, the suggested subsidy levels are based
on the assumption that farmers make a significant own investment in the installation. In
case the programme would support polyethene installations, subsidy levels
consequently should be lowered. More importantly however, the track record –at least in
Asia- of polyethylene plants, in terms of durability and “operationability”, is not
encouraging. Despite the lower investment, in the service-context of rural Ethiopia, this
technology would not be the preferred option.
11 In program outline section of main features: Investment in

training is emphasized without specifying target groups. Which
parts of the societies are targeted, this need to be identified
Addendum
and clearly stated as this is a core process for the success of
the biogas program.
In the final report, to which the outline budget is annexed, more detail is provided. In
brief technical training is proposed for masons –private biogas constructors- and
technicians –regional government staff. Training on operation and maintenance is
proposed for –in particular female- biogas owners. Further training is proposed in the
field of business management for small construction and manufacturing enterprises and
ToT (Training of trainers) for regional staff. A programme implantation document coud
provide further detail.
12 In section of actors and activities: We understand that

MoFED is the official organ through which such programs will be
approved.
Correct, and included in the final report.
13 On the chart of actor-activity: Training, quality

management and R&D responsibilities are given to Selam
Vocational training center. We strongly suggest that in this
activities regional rural technology promotion centers should
also be included. Part of the responsibility given to Selam
should be shared by regional RTPC.
Noted, see also reply on comment 6. I suggest working out implementation details in the
programme implementation document.
14 Finally, suppose the plant fail to work properly due to

technical failurity WHO is the risk taker for the farmer? These
issues must be addressed in detail within the document.
Correct, and the omission is regretted. The report should have proposed a guarantee
arrangement similar to the ones used in the Asian biogas programmes (Nepal, Vietnam,
Cambodia, Bangladesh). In outline, these programmes charge a guarantee fee –directly
or indirectly- from the farmer. The programme manages this fund, and finances service
visits and guarantee cases from this fund.
15 Additionally, some organization such as WCDO and others who

are involved in construction of latrine-biogas-kitchen and
vegetable garden set up for poor urban communities roles are not
considered or stated in connection with biogas dissemination
strategy. We suggest this should also be incorporated in the
program.
The mandate of the study pertained specifically to domestic biogas. Although the team
visited WCDO head office in Addis Abeba and one project site in Awassa (and
appreciated their activities), it was not felt prudent to elaborate on this beyond
Addendum
mentioning them in chapter 2.7.6 of section 2. However, during the formulation of the
programme implementation document –and later on during the actual implementation
for that matter- cooperation with WCDO can be considered.

20110530125505!2006 09 21 FINAL Ethiopia Biogas Feasibility Report

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

20110530125505!2006 09 21 FINAL Ethiopia Biogas Feasibility Report

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

20110530125505!2006 09 21 FINAL Ethiopia Biogas Feasibility Report

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

(FINAL)Report on

the feasibility study of a national programme for

For SNV – Ethiopia.

As most of the rural households are involved in (subsistence) farming, integrating

The report is divided in 5 sections.

Section 1 addresses the background of the country, Ethiopia‟s main climatic

3 Potential demand for domestic biogas 43

5 Outline of the Ethiopia Biogas Programme 75

1 ToR Feasibility study

AATPI Appropriate Agricultural Technology Promotion Initiative (World Vison

Preparation of dung cake

1 Introduction. Horn of Africa

“The Horn of Africa is known today as a land

1.1 Recent history in brief. Regions in Ethiopia

Torn by bloody coups, uprisings, wide-scale

The current government, with the EPRDF as

Region Population [# of persons] Share [%] Area Pop density

1 Tigray 3,367,000 746,000 4,113,000 5.8% 81.9% 56452 73

59,867,000 11,199,000 71,066,000 84.2% 1,132,895 63

Source: CSA Statistical abstract 2003

1.2 Current political situation.

Ethiopia‟s physical landscape is characterized GDPPPP per capita

by great topographic variations; arid and semi 2,500

arid low lands, dissected plateaus and massive 2,000

mountains often traversed by deep river gorges 1,500

Population under poverty line

mostly in small and very scattered settlements, 50%

featuring a bottom 10 ranking for its Gross

Ethiopia is a receiver of substantial bilateral and 0.100

multilateral development assistance to the tune -

10% for transport. Multi sectoral

2.1 Poverty traps. 33%

The PASDEP document identifies the following

Productive resource base: A crucial mechanism, which has perpetuated poverty in

Infrastructure: Low levels of infrastructure offer another example of perverse dynamics,

In most areas, rain falls in two distinct

% of total population affected by drought

dwindling farm size, unjust patterns of land 25

tenure, inefficient farming techniques,

As a result, not only the frequency of droughts 10

is increasing, but over the past 15 years the

The climate is broadly divided into three zones. 30

masl where temperatures range from

where most alpine and afro-alpine 10 4

where temperatures range from 27O 5

4 Agriculture and animal husbandry.

composition labour force

4.1 Agriculture. Major commodity exports 2001-2004

Traditionally, Ethiopia‟s most important 250.0

agricultural export commodity is coffee, 200.0

contributing to household food security vary 100.0 oilseeds

barley, maize, sorghum, finger millet and 0.0

Despite its immense contribution to the national

Land holding distribution

table shows the landholding distribution for

being irrigated7. Ethiopia is the water tower of 40%

the region with 110 billion m3 of surface water 30%

Currently, only 160,000 ha are under

The proportion of area under improved seeds