How Systems Work Farming Systems Researc

Download as pdf or txt
Download as pdf or txt
You are on page 1of 201

Farming Systems

Research Symposium
1987: Abstracts
How Systems Work
Farming Systems
Research Symposium
1987: Abstracts

Farming Systems Research Paper Series


Paper No. 14

1987

University Of Arkansas
Winrock International Institute for Agricultural Development

2009 Digital Edition


Kansas State University Digital Library Department
Blank Page in Original
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Acknowledgments............................................. v
Introduction................................................ vii
Farming Systems Research Paper Series....................... ix
Crop Systems................................................ 1
Macro Systems............................................... 43
Crop/Livestock Systems...................................... 67
Agroforestry Systems........................................ 101
Information and Communication Systems....................... 125
Special Topics.............................................. 155

iii
Blank Page in Original
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Special thanks to Robert D. Hart, who was a member of the initial


Planning Committee, each 1987 Subtheme Committee member, Kansas State
University, and the Farming Systems Support Project.
Please address any questions and comments to FSR/E Symposium, P.O. Box
2100, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72702, U.S.A., telex
314000.

Program Committee

University of Arkansas: Winrock International Institute


for Agricultural Development:

Donald E. Voth Hendrik C. Knipscheer


DeDe Long Gretchen A. Graham

v
Blank Page in Original
INTRODUCTION

Over the past 7 years, many components that affect the farm family
have been researched, identified, and reported. Our knowledge base
has been built upon several foundation blocks: the small farm (1981),
the field (1982), animals (1983), project implementation and
monitoring (1984), methodology and management (1985), and food for
humans and feed for animals (1986).
This year's program is a benchmark in the evolution of the Farming
Systems Research Symposium. Therefore, now is an appropriate time to
review the current body of knowledge that has been generated since the
first symposium was held at Kansas State University in 1981. The
generation and application of that knowledge has been accomplished by
means of the systems approach, which allows characteristics and
operations of farming systems research (FSR) to be presented this
October at the University of Arkansas at Fayetteville.
This year's program continues to address two traditional areas — crop
systems and crop/livestock systems — while recognizing three areas
that have been identified by FSR researchers and practitioners as key
components of the farming system — agroforestry systems, information
and communication systems, and macro systems.

As we look forward to next year's symposium and beyond, the 1988


program will focus on the knowledge base of information and
communication systems in agricultural development, while the 1989
symposium will assess the impact of FSR in comparison with other
agricultural and rural development strategies.

Abstract Volume

For ease of use by symposium attendees, each abstract of the paper and
poster sessions in this volume is arranged by subtheme area according
to the day of its presentation, and then arranged alphabetically by
authors. Those papers and poster sessions listed under Special Topics
will be presented throughout the symposium, according to room
availability. All authors' institutional affiliations (at time of
research, as well as currently) and addresses are as accurate as
possible. There have been minor changes in authorship, and paper and
poster titles, between the publication date of this volume, and this
week's symposium.

vii
Blank Page in Original
FARMING SYSTEMS RESEARCH PAPER SERIES

Both the abstract and proceedings volumes are part of the Farming
Systems Research Paper Series, and are distributed through Kansas
State University. The Farming Systems Research (FSR) Paper Series was
started at Kansas State University (KSU), with support by the U.S.
Agency for International Development Title XII Program Support Grant.
The goal of the grant was to increase the university's ability to
implement Title XII programs for agricultural and nutritional
development assistance in less-developed countries. The series is
maintained by the FSR Program Associates — a multidisciplinary team of
professors who are aiming their activities at applied research on
farming from a system’s perspective.

The purpose of the FSR Paper Series is to disseminate information on


FSR. Publication categories include updated bibliographies from KSU's
FSR database, proceedings from KSU, and the University of Arkansas'
annual farming systems symposia, selected papers presented in KSU's
FSR Seminar Series, and selected papers prepared by Kansas State
University's Program Associates.

Copies of papers in the series may be obtained from the Distribution


Center, Umberger Hall, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas
66506, U.S.A. There is a charge for selected papers and multiple
copies to help defray printing costs.

ix
Blank Page in Original
INSECT POLLINATOR AND PEST MANAGEMENT OF
RAPE AND MUSTARD CROPS IN PAKISTAN
1
Rafiq Ahmad and Nasreen Muzaffar

Some 28 species of insect pollinators and 62 species of insect pests


have been recorded from rape and mustard crops (Brassica spp.) in
Pakistan. Populations of insect pollinators are very low throughout
most of the country. Among the pests and diseases, aphids are very
serious. Crops have been reported to suffer 23% to 40% losses in seed
yield because of the action of insect pests and diseases, mainly
aphids. In spite of such heavy losses, control of aphids in rape and
mustard crops could not be popularized among the farmers because
pesticides used for aphid control destroy insects that are essential
for cross-pollination of these crops. Thus, a crash in the population
of insect pollinators results in checking the pollination process to a
great extent, adversely affecting their seed yield and annulling the
benefits of controlling these pests.
Studies were conducted to determine the effects of insect pollinators
on seed yield of sarson (Brassica campestris var. sarson). Eight
honeybee colonies were provided in a 4-ha area of this crop. The
effect of optimum doses of Pirimicarb (a somewhat specific insecticide
with short duration of residual effect) 250 g/ha, Permethrin (medium
spectrum for insect control with medium duration of residual effect)
50 and 100 g/ha, and Azodrin (broad spectrum for insect control with
long residual effect) 500 g/ha, was determined on insect pests,
parasites, predators, and pollinators in sarson crop. Only infested
patches of the crops were sprayed. A dose determined for 1 ha proved
sufficient for spraying only infested patches of that cropped area
three times. The economics of insect pest and pollinator management
were worked out.

In the experimental areas, open plants visited by bees and other


insect pollinators produced an average of 6.8% more developed pods and
94.8% more seed than covered plants not visited by bees and other
insects — a fairly high increase in seed yield. Spraying with
Pirimicarb 250 g/ha, Permethrin 100 g/ha, and Azodrin 500 g/ha caused
higher mortality of the pests (95% to 98%), but their effects on
parasites and predators of aphids and insect pollinators were quite
different. Azodrin 500 g and Permethrin 100 g caused a crash in the
population of beneficial insects whereas Pirimicarb 250 g proved to be
somewhat specific for aphid control and affected beneficial insects
less, enhancing their proportionate survival in relation to the pest
population. To spray all the area under these crops would cost Rs.
51,271,500 and would result in a net savings of Rs. 202,108,500 per
year.

1
Pakistan Agricultural Research Council (PARC), National Agricultural
Research Center, P.O. National Institute of Health, D.0. No. 10-
1/83/HRP/NARC, Islamabad, Pakistan.

3
KEYLINE SOIL-FERTILITY DEVELOPMENT THROUGH WATER MANAGEMENT
1
Beth and Eric Ardapple-Kindberg
Fertile soil was built originally by the processes of absorption,
growth, and decay, and such soil resists erosion. A change of methods
from those that extract fertility from the soil to others that absorb
fertility into the soil is the only way to overcome the erosion
problem. Crop production is properly a part of the method for de-
veloping better soil. The continuous processes of progressive soil
development are profitable both from the increase in quality and
quantity of production and in the capital value of improving the land.
Use of the keyline system also reduces production expenses substan-
tially. There now exists a body of principles, techniques, and systems
that can be coordinated in any level of farm production to increase
soil fertility, develop a better soil structure, and increase the
depth of fertile soil within 3 years with no off-farm inputs but lime.
Consistent sustained yields will follow.
The techniques as identified by P. A. Yeomans: 1) Basing management
decisions on a Scale of Permanence. To plan the development and man-
agement of land, the many factors that are involved should be related
in logical order. The planning of one aspect cuts across the others,
so some must have priority. Decisions have to be made on all sorts of
apparently conflicting items of land planning. We need to have an aim
or objective: planning, developing, and managing agricultural lands to
influence and redirect the water runoff patterns. This is "water har-
vesting," the single most important factor in soil fertility and one
that directly affects overall water use and conservation on the
planet. Good water harvesting can eliminate erosion. Planning, devel-
opment, and management decisions are all made according to a scale of
permanence of agricultural factors. The permanence of the effects of
each decision indicates the relative importance of the decision in
planning. This scale is in order of consideration as follows:
climate, land, water, roads, trees, permanent buildings, subdivision,
soil. 2) Seeding legumes, which draw nitrogen from the air into the
soil and draw nutrients up from the subsoil, storing up nutrition for
future cropping. 3) Rotating crops. Those fields having the greatest
fertility are selected for grain or row cropping. Less fertile fields
continue under pasture cultivation and managed mowing and grazing. 4)
Locating rainwater storage ponds above fields for which they can
provide irrigation water. 5) Properly siting narrow strips of tree
plantations to catch the rain and irrigation runoff, bring deep
minerals to the surface, moderate weather's effect on the soil, and
attract cattle away from soft pasture soil during wet weather. 6)
Cultivating pasture parallel to the keyline (a selected contour line).
7) Managing, mowing, and grazing for maximum root growth.

1
Ozark Regional Land Trust, Keyline Project, Bass, Arkansas 72612,
U.S.A.

4
CROSS-SECTIONAL ANALYSIS OF BEAN PRODUCTION FOR SUBSISTENCE
FARMERS IN THE FSIP ZONE OF ACTION IN RWANDA
1
Marcie L. Brewster and Lucas D. Parsch

The Farming Systems Improvement Project funded a special budget study


on bean production in its four-commune area of northern Rwanda. The
study followed one season of bean production on a cross-section of
farmers from the four different communes and from various farm-size
categories. This paper presents the major results and findings of this
bean-production study.

Objectives of the study were to look at bean production in the context


of the total farming system of the area. Statistical analysis for
farmer classification was performed on secondary survey data of
farmers in the area. Using some of the indications of the
classification farmers were selected for primary survey data
collection and participation in the study. Input and yield data were
collected for analysis through twice-weekly farmer interviews on 81
bean fields.

Results include a descriptive classification of farmers in the area


according to several variables, including farm size, family size, and
use of outside labor. Enterprise budgets were developed for dwarf and
climbing beans and their major associations. Both economic- and
technical-performance measures were analyzed to determine the case for
separate budgets for different categories of farmers according to
their resource differences, e.g., family and outside labor
productivity, labor constraints, and use of composts.

Labor was the largest production input for both types of beans.
Climbing beans showed increases in labor inputs, yields, and profit
over dwarf beans. Neither type of bean enterprise proved to be
profitable for most of the farmers in this study. Beans, however, are
a major food source for these farmers. Efforts to encourage these
farmers to switch to more promising crops for their region should
consider the major role beans play in the local diet.

1
Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology, Agriculture
Building, Room 221, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701,
U.S.A.

5
CROPPING-SYSTEM SELECTION AND SOIL-DEPLETION IMPACTS
1
Leonard L. Bull

Results from a soil-depletion model (Soil Depletion Estimates: Version


2) allow comparison for short- and long-run impacts on erosion and
economic returns of alternative cropping systems. For each soil- and
resource-management system specified, the model generates long-term
on-site depletion effects and displays the impacts on erosion and
economic returns over incremental time periods. The model requires
soil-property inputs for each specified soil and inputs of the soil-
loss rate and crop-production budget data for each resource-management
system. The paper presents a brief summary of the model's contents and
(using selected Michigan soils) illustrates how the results can be
used to select resource-management systems based on economic
profitability under alternative erosion-control objectives.

__________
1
USDA, Economic Research Service, Natural Resources Economic Division,
1301 New York Ave., N.W., Room 532, Washington, D.C. 20005, U.S.A.

6
TILLAGE AND WEED-CONTROL EFFECTS ON WHEAT
FOLLOWING COTTON, GROUNDNUT, AND MAIZE:
WHEAT-BASED SYSTEM
1
S. S. Cheema and N. K. Misra

Field studies to find out the effect of zero-tillage and weed-control


methods on three cropping systems of cotton-wheat, groundnut-wheat,
and maize-wheat were carried out for 2 years on sandy loam soil that
was medium in available N, P, and K. Wheat after maize produced
significantly more grain yield than after cotton and groundnut. Maize
also increased amount of available N in surface 15 cm, N uptake in
wheat by 11.0 kg/ha and 11.8 kg/ha, and K uptake by 15.5 kg/ha and
13.4 kg/ha over groundnut and cotton respectively. Maize slightly
improved soil-moisture content and increased bulk density,
infiltration rate in first hour, and cumulative intake.

Zero tillage produced yields of groundnut, cotton, and wheat similar


to normal tillage but proved superior in maize yield. Zero tillage
increased organic carbon percent; available N, P, and K in soil; N and
K uptake; soil-moisture content; bulk density; infiltration rate; and
cumulative intake of water. Mechanical and chemical methods of weed
control significantly increased the yield of wheat and N, P, and K
uptake over control. The mechanical method was superior to the
chemical method in yield of groundnut and maize. Both methods were
equally effective in cotton. The results suggest that all crops in
these three systems can be grown without tillage on sandy loam soil
with chemical weed-control measures in wheat and mechanical/chemical
weed control in kharif crops, saving a lot of energy on tillage.

1
Department of Agronomy, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana,
Punjab 141004, India.

7
EXPERT SYSTEMS AND THE SOIL-PEOPLE INTERFACE
1 2
Carol J. Pierce Colter and Russell Yost
Over the past 4 years, the Tropsoils-Indonesia Project has been
conducting soil-management research using a farming systems approach.
Considerable quantities of social science data have been collected in
the attempt to match people and appropriate soil-management technolo-
gies, We are now trying to capture this information in a rule-based
"expert system" (exsys). The goal is to reflect those aspects of human
life that are relevant to soil management in a way that is more
accessible to policy-makers and researchers in other fields.
The expert system provides the user with choices derived from the
rules and provided by the authors. In our system the choices are
crops that would be appropriate to encourage and other development
activities that seem desirable. A preliminary set of rules (in need
of considerable further refinement) has been developed, building on a
variety of data sets for different Indonesian ethnic groups. Linking
these rules to four observational time-allocation-study data sets is a
next step.

We hope that this may be a way to incorporate human complexity and


judgment and village realities more effectively into centralized
decision-making for policy and research. It also may enable us to
identify principles related to people and soil.

1
c/o Ministry of Agriculture, DG Fisheries, MSFC, P.O. Box 467, Muscat,
Oman; or Agronomy and Soils Department, University of Hawaii,
Honolulu,
2
HI, 96822. U.S.A.
Agronomy and Soils Department, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI,
96822, U.S.A.

8
ILLUSTRATION OF A METHODOLOGY FOR GRADING LIMITING FACTORS AND
IMPROVING A CROP SYSTEM'S FUNCTIONING
1
Yves Crozat

In farming systems research, constraints and potentialities of crop


systems are often identified separately during diagnosis by collecting
biophysical and socioeconomical data and interviewing. Despite their
undoubted practicability, these approaches are based on an abusive
relationship between some techniques (or factors) and the yield.
Surprisingly, little is known on how the existing crop system
functions. Using results issued from an FSR project carried out in
Thailand, we present a methodology for understanding how a rice system
functions, based on an "on-field" survey. This survey aims at grading
the factors (and as a consequence the techniques) that explain the
differentiation of the yields between farmers' plots in a given
agroecological unit. The existing variability is used as an
experimental design.

The study showed that factors that could have been identified as key
constraints from farmers' interviews and data collection did not
really limit yields. Some interactions among the environment, the
techniques, and the plant stand were limiting during certain periods
of the yield elaboration. In addition, it was possible to identify
some optimum states of the plant stand, although a large diversity of
technical itineraries existed.

These data lead to the construction of models used for the design of
new technical itineraries to be tested. During the testing phase, an
analysis of the differences between the results and predictions from
the model is used to improve the design of technologies and the
models.

1
GRET, Groupe de Recherche et D'Echanges Technologiques 213, rue La
Fayette 75010, Paris, France.

9
SOIL-NUTRIENT RELATIONS IN TWO SOIL-TILLAGE SYSTEMS
1
D. R. Duseja and Sam O. Osawaru

Two soil-tillage systems were used as main plots in a field experiment


with three residual herbicides as subplots. Soybean (Glycine max (L.)
Merrill) was double-cropped with wheat (Triticum aestivum (L.)) from
1980 to 1983, on a Byler silt loam soil (Typic fragiudalf) by conven-
tional (CT) (plow+disc) and no-tillage (NT) (glyphosate or paraquat
was used) methods. In addition to soybean and wheat yields, some soil
properties, herbicide residues, and nutrient cycling were studied.

Data indicate that soybean plant populations and general plant-growth


characteristics in NT compared very favorably with CT. Soybean (4-
year) and wheat (2-year) grain yields also did not significantly
differ in the two systems, except in one dry year.

Soil analyses show that, relative to areas left in sod for 4 years,
the NT plots contained slightly less N and P, had lower pH, and about
the same K levels. However, the N, P, and organic-matter levels were
still lower in CT compared to NT areas; the K levels did not change.
Herbicide soil-persistence was in the order
linuron>alachlor>metribuzin. Soil herbicide residues tended to be
higher in CT.
Of the nutrients in soybean seed, only nitrogen uptake was enhanced by
NT, reflecting the influence of NT on soil organic matter. In a
related experiment, no fertilizer*tillage interaction was evident as
the K-rate increased from 0 to 4X; increasing K-rates generally
increased the plant uptake of K, Ca, and Mg but not of P. Soybean
response to K above 45 kg/ha was insignificant.

___________
1
Department of Plant Science, Tennessee State University, Nashville, TN
37209, U.S.A.

10
MACRO IMPACT OF SOME EGYPTIAN DESERT-FARMING SYSTEMS
1
Kamal S. El-Kheshen and Mamdouh M. Nasr

Several farming systems exist in the desert lands reclaimed for


agriculture in Egypt during the last 40 years. Some of the existing
systems in the main desert agricultural area are examined and analyzed
economically and financially. An assessment of their contribution to
the local and national economies is made, together with an attempt to
measure whether these farming systems result in cropping patterns that
agree with the area-wide optimal cropping pattern (postulated by the
authors) using a linear programming formulation. If the divergence is
found to be too large, then the macro impacts will be assessed under
the status quo situation.

_________
1
Faculty of Agriculture, Ain Shams University, Shoubra El-Kheima,
Cairo, Egypt.

11
SYSTEMS APPROACH TO CEREAL-MANAGEMENT CONSTRAINTS ASSESSMENT: A CASE
STUDY IN TWO REGIONS OF NORTHERN MOROCCO
1
Abdelfatah Elbehri

The main objective of this study was to make an assessment of major


technical constraints to farmers' adoption of improved cereal cultural
techniques. This study was conducted in two regions of North Morocco:
Gharb plain and Zaer plateau. The approach combined an open-ended
farmer survey and cereal fields monitoring. The main focus was on
farmers' current techniques, the logic behind them, and their effects
on yields. Results are discussed at three levels:

At regional level, the focus was on describing cereal-based crop


systems and identifying farmers' cropping strategies (as related to
local ecological setting and farmers' resources).

At farm level, cereal management was analyzed with the aim of


identifying technical factors underlying current practices such as 1)
cereal variety choice seems to be dictated by climatic conditions and
the use of the crop; 2) tillage methods are related to soil nature,
farm equipment level, and crop sequences; 3) fertilization is
associated with rainfall pattern, soil types, and crop rotations; 4)
chemical weed control is influenced by either competing needs for
livestock feeding (Zaer region) or by climatic conditions (Gharb
region).

At field level, a diagnostic study was conducted in a sample of cereal


fields during the 1985/86 growing season, with the objective of
evaluating how farmers' techniques affect yields.

The comparison between the two regions and the sampled farmers of each
region have allowed the identification of relationships between
ecological factors (rainfall pattern, soil type, topography) and farm
resources (size, equipment) with types of cultural techniques adopted.

_________
1
Direction de Developpement, Institute Agronomique et Veterinaire
Hassan II, BP 6202, Rabat, Maroc (Morocco).

12
EFFECTS OF MULTIPLE CROPPING, FERTILIZATION, AND SOIL COVER ON THE
PLANTAIN VARIETY, TINGO MARIA ISLAND
1
Manuel Flores L.

Two Latin-square experimental designs were arranged, with four blocks


and four treatments each, on a new alluvial soil that was low in
potassium (80 kg/ha), and had a pH of 5.6 to 6.8 and a clayey texture.
To evaluate the effect of multiple cropping and fertilization, the
following K2O levels were used: 0, 26, and 79. Cattle manure was also
used (3 ton/ha). The plantains were planted on 4 m x 4 m plots, and a
sequence of intensive annual crops — plantains/cassava/maize-soybeans-
rice-soybeans — were planted. Highly significant differences were
found in the number of fruits and length of the cluster, length of the
fruit, and plant yields. The 80-40-79 treatment with 5.87 ton/ha is
notable and overall the high potassium treatment contributed to 13
ton/ha of product in 420 days of the experiment.

To evaluate the effect of soil cover, Centrosema pubescens, Desmodium


ovalifolium, and Desmodium heterophyllum were evaluated with and
without cover. No significant differences were found between the
treatments. However, D. ovalifolium with 5.19 ton/ha and the block
with bimonthly weedings and 5.31 ton/ha are noteworthy.

Economic analysis of the alternatives proposed to the planting of


plantain as a single crop indicates that multiple cropping with low
doses of potassium (80-40-25) yields a rate of return of 36.66%,
compared to 0.96% for plantain as a monoculture.

Dominance and marginal analyses lead to the following recommendations:


- Use a legume-cover system with Desmodium ovalifolium and Tingo
Maria Island plantain when capital is restricted (marginal rate
of return = 220%).
- Use a multiple-crop system and 80-40-26 treatment when capital
is available (marginal rate of return = 337%).

________________

1
Estacion Experimental Agropecuaria de Tulumayo, Apartado No. 78, Tingo
Maria, Peru 2231.

13
EFECTOS DEL CULTIVO MULTIPLE, FERTILIZACION Y COBERTURAS EN PLATANO
VARIEDAD ISLA TINGO MARIA
1
Manuel Flores L.

Se realizaron dos ensayos en el Diseño Cuadrado Latino, con 4


repeticiones y 4 tratamientos cada uno; en un suelo aluvial moderno,
bajo en potásio (80 kg/ha), pH entre 5.6-6.8, de textura franco
arcillosa.
Para estimar el efecto del cultivo múltiple y fertilización, se evaluó
los niveles de K2O siguientes: 0, 26 y 79. Otra fuente empleada fué
estiércol de ganado vacuno (3 ton/ha); el plátano se sembró a 4x4 m y
se sometió a una secuencia intensiva de cultivos anuales:
Plátano/yuca/ maíz-soya-arroz-soya. Se encontraron diferencias
altamente significativas en número de dedos y diferencias
significativas en longitud de racimo, de dedo y rendimiento/planta.
Destaca la dósis 80-40-79 con 5.87 ton/ha y en conjunto, la dósis alta
de potasio aportó un total de 13 ton/ha de productos alimenticios en
420 días que duró el sistema propuesto.

Para estimar el efecto de las coberturas, se evaluó: Centrocema


pubescens, Desmodium ovalifolium, Desmodium heterophyllum y testigo
sin cobertura, no encontrándose diferencias entre los tratamientos.
Sin embargo, destaca D. ovalifolium con 5.19 ton/ha y el testigo con
deshierbos bimensuales con 5.31 ton/ha.

En el análisis de rentabilidad de las alternativas propuestas al


monocultivo se muestra que el cultivo múltiple y dósis baja de potásio
en plátano (80-40-26) proporcionada 36.66% de rentabilidad comparado
con el testigo que sólo brinda 0.96%.

El análisis de Dominancia y marginal permiten recomendar:


- Sistema de cobertura leguminosa con Desmodium ovalifolium y
plátano Isla Tingo Mariá, cuando el capital es restrictivo (TMR
= 220%)
- Sistema de cultivo múltiple y dósis de (80-40-26), cuando hay
disponibilidad de capital (TMR = 337%).

_______________

1
Estación Experimental Agropecuaria de Tulumayo, Apartado No. 78, Tingo
María, Perú 2231.

14
BIOLOGICAL NITROGEN FIXATION IN FARMING SYSTEMS IN NORTHEAST THAILAND
1
Keith O. Fuglie
This paper reviews recent research activities in the northeastern
region of Thailand that involve biological nitrogen fixation in
farming systems. FSR methods are employed to evaluate some current
research thrusts, namely the development of inoculation technologies
and the development of rice-legume cropping patterns. Prospects of
these technologies are identified for the research policy community.

1
217h C.O.B., Department of Agricultural Economics, University of
Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, U.S.A.

15
ROTATION EFFECTS OF MEDICS ON WHEAT YIELDS AND WHEAT
INTERFERENCE WITH WEED GROWTH
1
W. A. Goldstein

Dryland cereal farmers in the Pacific Northwest need to find viable


low-input cropping systems. Research over 4 sites/years in eastern
Washington showed that yields of unfertilized winter wheat grown after
black or barrel medic averaged 63 bushels/acre while fertilized wheat
grown after cereals averaged 60 bushels/acre. Wheat stands after
medics had 1.5 to 4.1 times more emerged broadleaf plants in the
spring than wheat grown after cereals without differences in species
composition. However, wheat after medics interfered more with
subsequent weed growth; on 3 sites/years without herbicides, wheat
after cereals had 2.5 to 27 times more weed biomass at harvest than
wheat after medics. Wheat following medics had approximately double
the root-length density in the top 6 inches of soil as wheat following
cereals and thus enhanced wheat interference with weeds. Medics
strongly reduced take-all and pythium-root-rot disease symptoms in
wheat. Soil fumigation had little effect on wheat following medic but
strongly increased root growth and yields where wheat followed
cereals. Rotation effects of medics were not only due to N effects but
also to improved root health. Results indicate N-fertilizer and
herbicide use in winter wheat can be reduced or eliminated where medic
rotations are combined with early seeding and post-emergence harrowing
of wheat. A low-input 3-year rotation (peas + black medic-black medic-
winter wheat) is proposed with biennial black medic going to seed and
volunteering in subsequent pea crops.

1
Michael Fields Agricultural Institute, 3293 Main St., East Troy, WI
53120, U.S.A.

16
HOW SYSTEMS WORK:
THE "GICCI" SYSTEM OF FARMING IN NORTHERN NIGERIA
1
N. A. Gworgwor

The "Gicci" system of farming is an indigenous form of mixed cropping


among the peasant farmers of northern Nigeria. The system predominates
because of its climatic and socioeconomic benefits. It is labor
saving, uses scarce moisture efficiently (resulting in early grain
harvest), minimizes risk of complete crop failure (resulting in up to
200% gain in yield), and returns more than the sole crop with the
right crop combination. The system also provides the household with a
balanced diet of carbohydrates and protein and is a source of cash
income.
One common mixture in this system is cereals and groundnuts; other
forms are cereals-cereals, maize-groundnuts-cowpeas, and maize-cotton.
In this paper, therefore, the importance of the system, how it works,
improvement through research, and problems and solutions are high-
lighted.

1
Department of Crop Science, University of Maiduguri, P.M.B. 1069,
Maiduguri, Borno State, Nigeria.

17
PATHOGENIC MYCORRHIZAL FUNGI AS THE BASIS FOR THE DECLINE
IN PRODUCTIVITY OF LAND WITH MONOCROPPING
1
James W. Hendrix

Productivity of land declines for crops grown continuously. Crop


rotation has been used for centuries as a means of maintaining produc-
tivity. Investigators isolating a soil-borne necrogenic pathogen
cease looking for other causes of yield decline, and pathogens
reducing yield but not producing distinctive symptoms are overlooked.
This paper summarizes 10 years' work on tobacco stunt disease, caused
by the mycorrhizal fungus Glomus macrocarpum.

Plants affected by stunt grow more slowly, mature later, yield as


little as half, and produce lower-quality leaf than uninfected plants,
but roots are symptomless. Isolates of G. macrocarpum from soils
infested naturally with the stunt pathogen cause identical symptoms.
Population dynamics of spores in the field implicate G. macrocarpum as
the cause. The mechanism appears to be severe inhibition of root
development.

Tobacco is commonly rotated with sod to maintain productivity.


Rotation with fescue controlled stunt disease, prevented reproduction
of G. macrocarpum on tobacco, greatly reduced mycorrhizal colonization
of roots, and prevented inhibition of root development. Rotation with
sudangrass-sorghum hybrid, a host of G. macrocarpum, caused stunt to
be more severe than with continuous tobacco.

Present cropping practices such as monocropping and extreme fertiliza-


tion are discussed in relation to the evolution of the symbiosis
between plants and mycorrhizal fungi. Potentially, productivity of
land for most crops can be improved by low-cost cultural practices
designed to manage pathogenic and beneficial mycorrhizal fungi.

_______________

1
Plant Pathology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40546, U.S.A.

18
EFFECT OF SURFACE DISTURBANCE BY CHISELING AND DISC PLOWING
WITH MULCHING ON A CRUSTED SANDY SOIL
1
B. A. Ibrahim and H. Don Scott

Surface crust is a major problem facing the farmers of the North


Kordofan district of Sudan. Patchy fields are common in such a
marginal area (rainfall averages 300 mm).
Chiseling resulted in higher water content under mulching as compared
to disking and no mulch; under no mulch this was reversed. Both
mulching and mulching with chiseling were effective in decreasing the
soil surface temperature before and after the onset of rains as
compared to no mulch with no tillage. Chiseling resulted in a slight
decrease in bulk density. There was no significant difference in
millet (Pennisetum typhodum) grain yield due to either mulching or
surface-disturbance treatments. Farmers' adoption of this technique
was low for social and physical reasons.

1
Department of Agronomy, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR
72701, U.S.A

19
NUTRIENT CYCLING IN WHEAT-MUNGBEAN-RICE CROPPING PATTERN

M. F. Islam, M. M. Haque, S. M.1 Asaduzzaman,


and R. N. Mallick

Fertilizers tend to be recommended for each crop in a cropping pattern


without considering their residual effects. The field experiments were
conducted at the farming systems research site, Kalikapur, Bangladesh,
with wheat-mungbean-rice cropping patterns in 1985-86 to observe
residual effects. Wheat was fertilized with recommended doses of N, P,
K, Zn, and S. Reduced rates of P and K were given in mungbean and
rice. There was no significant difference in grain yield of mungbean
and transplanted aman rice with application of P and K fertilizers.
The yield of mungbean was 710 kg/ha and rice 3.88 t/ha with nitrogen
alone. When optimum doses of P and K fertilizers were not used with
wheat, the yields of mungbean and rice were significantly lower. These
results confirmed on-station research findings that if optimum doses
of fertilizers are applied to wheat, two subsequent crops can be grown
with nitrogen only — that is, without using phosphate and potash
fertilizers. These results will be verified at multilocation testing
sites before final recommendations are made to farmers.

1
On-Farm Research Division (OFRD), Bangladesh Agricultural Research
Institute (BARI), Regional Agricultural Research Station (RARS),
Ishurdi, Pabna, Bangladesh.

20
PERFORMANCE OF PROMISING CROPPING PATTERNS FOR MEETING
FOOD, FODDER, AND FIREWOOD REQUIREMENT UNDER RAINFED CONDITIONS

M. F. Islam, M. M. Haque, N. C. Basak,1


S. M. Asaduzzaman, and R. N. Mallick

In Bangladesh, 80% of the total area is rainfed. Farmers follow 30-60


cropping patterns. The objective of the study was to test three
alternative cropping patterns and compare their performances with
cropping patterns at the farming systems research site, Kalikapur,
Bangladesh, from 1983 to 1986. Maize+mungbean-fallow-wheat cropping
pattern resulted in a 132% higher gross return with a marginal
benefit: cost ratio of 6. Maize grain yield was double that for rice,
and green fodder was available for cattle. The maize stems were used
as fuel for cooking. Mungbean grain was used as pulse and the plants
were used as fodder. Broadcast B. Aus rice-fallow-lentil+mustard gave
a 72% higher gross return with a marginal benefits:cost ratio of 5.3.
B. Aus rice-fallow-mustard produced higher yields but was not as
promising as two other cropping patterns. Marginal benefit:cost ratio
was 2.3 with mustard. Change of crop, variety, and fertilizer played
major roles for higher profits in cropping-patterns testing. These
three patterns are under multilocation testing for verification as
alternate patterns in similar environments for final recommendation.

1
On-Farm Research Division (OFRD), Bangladesh Agricultural Research
Institute (BARI), Regional Agricultural Research Station (RARS),
Ishurdi, Pabna, Bangladesh.

21
INTERVARIETAL SELECTION METHODS IN INTERCROPPING SYSTEMS IN HAITI
1
Sorel Jacques and Robert Bacon

Intercropping is a well-known practice among small farmers in tropical


and subtropical regions. A method was designed on the basis of yam+
corn+bean and corn+bean associations, which are common in the
southeastern region of Haiti, to determine the selection of varieties
in intercropping systems. This intervarietal selection method, which
aims at identifying a better type of association in a given ecosystem,
requires three sowing periods, implying that the scheme should last
for a year and a half since there are two sowing seasons a year in
south-eastern Haiti.

The method has four basic steps. At each stage, the selected
alternatives are compared with the local association.

1. Identify the ecological and socioeconomic environment where the


associated crop system develops and search the germplasm bank to
determine the appropriate material.
2. Conduct one-factor tests with variety as the experimental
variable under the same conditions the farmer is currently
experiencing.
3. During and at the end of the one-factor tests, select one or two
species deemed to be desirable, which will bring about
interaction tests among the different components of the
association. The management conditions and the farmer's
traditional practices remain unchanged. The interaction tests
identify different types and the association valid in the
ecosystem.
4. Compare the selected associations from the interaction tests to
one another and to the sample association in a comparison test
to identify the desired association.

1
Agronomy Department, Plant Science Building, University of Arkansas,
Fayetteville, AR 72701, U.S.A.

22
INCREASING FARM FAMILY PARTICIPATION IN ON-FARM TESTING
1
Thomas J. Kalb II and John S. Caldwell

The participation of farm families in on-farm testing is essential to


properly evaluate experimental treatments and to increase the re-
searchers' understanding of the dynamic needs of the farm families.
The Virginia FSR/E Project began on-farm vegetable testing in 1985,
introducing scientifically proven, yet costly, crop-production prac-
tices to area farms. Although this technology led to higher yields and
net economic returns, the farm families (particularly the farm wives)
were concerned about their high input costs. This valuable interaction
among the farm families and researchers led the project to reassess
its strategies, which now emphasize minimizing both input costs and
risks to growers.

Using this new strategy in 1986, the testing of varieties, affordable


mulches, and economical plant spacings led to significant increases in
production efficiency for bell pepper and cherry tomato. Hoping to
further increase the involvement of the farm families in testing, the
project in 1987 developed a menu approach for farmer-initiated de-
signs. These designs were used for a new set of exploratory trials
that were initiated in response to farm-family requests for research
on vegetables previously not evaluated. In these trials, cooperators
first indicated the crop they wanted to work with. They then chose
from a menu of selected cultural practices and varieties prepared by
the researchers. Replication was within and across farms, based on the
amount of land at each farm and the number of treatments chosen by the
cooperator.

1
Department of Horticulture, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, U.S.A.

23
CASE FOR BALANCING AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION
IN FARMING SYSTEMS RESEARCH
1
R. N. Kaul

Farm mechanization involves some mechanical device (manual, animal, or


motorized) to carry on a specific operation. The device is, in
essence, an "input" to all other inputs like seed, fertilizer, and
water. Though it may be noted as a constraint, it is seldom built in
as a component in the overall farming system research and extension
project. Isolated cases of introducing machines and power, especially
animal and tractor, for a particular operation only (instead of for
the system) has generally tended to imbalance the existing system with
new problems. Similarly, the roles of women and agricultural
technology, especially in developing countries, are not fully
integrated, though women constitute nearly 50% of the labor force.

This paper discusses the above situations using the information


available and pleads for more vigorous incorporation of farm
mechanization because of its crucial role in all improved farming
systems approaches.

1
Agricultural Mechanization Research Programme, Institute for
Agricultural Research, P.M.B. 1044, Zaria, Nigeria.

24
LABOR MANAGEMENT EFFECTS ON THE RELATIVE PROFITABILITY
OF ALTERNATIVE MILLET-COWPEA INTERCROP SYSTEMS IN NIGER
1 2 3
M. A. Krause, K. Maliki,
4
C. K.5 Reddy,
R. Deuson, and M. Issa

The Institut National de Recherches Agronomiques du Niger (INRAN)


installed a set of on-farm trials in 1985 and 1986 to evaluate the
potential for adoption of alternative millet-cowpea intercrop systems
by Nigerian farmers. Treatments included 1) traditional practices and
millet varieties with an improved cowpea variety; 2) traditional
practices with improved millet and cowpea varieties; 3) improved
varieties with increased plant densities; and 4) improved varieties
with increased plant densities and applications of fertilizer. Results
from the 1985 and 1986 on-farm trials show a significant agronomic
response and high economic potential for the second and fourth
treatments. Budget analyses also indicate that the cost of labor has a
critical effect on the relative profitability of the crop systems with
high plant densities. However, participating farmers rarely hired
labor and had few opportunities to earn nonfarm income, so budget
analyses that include labor costs based on wage rates may not be
appropriate. Therefore, a linear programming model of the four millet-
cowpea intercrop systems on a representative farm was used to analyze
the effect of labor requirements and labor availability on the
relative profitability of the alternative systems. The model
incorporates regression results on the relationship of crop yields to
crop operation dates.

Results of the linear programming analyses indicate that increased


labor requirements and delays in completing crop operations have
little effect on the relative profitability of the fourth, most
intensive treatment, though farmers could increase profits by hiring
labor in some periods. However, cash and accessibility constraints
tend to limit the adoption of the fourth treatment and favor the
adoption of the second treatment, for which improved millet seed is
the only purchased input.

1
Institut National de Recherches Agronomiques du Niger (INRAN),
Départment de Recherches en Economie Rurale (DECOR), B.P. 429, Niamey,
Niger.
2
Institut National de Recherches Agronomiques du Niger (INRAN), Centre
National de Recherches Agronomiques (CNRA), Head of Département de
Recherches en Economie Rurale (DECOR), Maradi, Niger.
3
Niger Cereals Research Project, Institut National de Recherches
Agronomiques du Niger (INRAN), Département de Recherches en Economie
Rurale (DECOR), B.P. 429, Niamey, Niger; Alabama A&M University, Plant
Soil
4
Science Department, Normal, AL 35762, U.S.A.
Department of Agricultural Economics, Krannert Building, West
Lafayette, IN 47907.
5
Institut National de Recherches Agronomiques du Niger (INRAN),
Département de Recherches en Economie Rurale (DECOR), B.P. 429,
Niamey, Niger.

25
ANALYZING THE ADOPTION OF CONSERVATION CROPPING SYSTEMS
IN THE UNITED STATES
1
C. Tim Osborn and Parveen Setia

As a provision in the Highly Erodible Land subtitle of the 1985 Food


Security Act, conservation compliance will require U.S. farmers to
implement approved soil-conservation plans on their highly erodible
cropland as a prerequisite for participation in federal commodity
programs. As a result, conservation compliance may significantly
alter farming systems that farmers apply on highly erodible acreage.
Alterations may be required in the use of tillage practices,
mechanical control practices, crop rotations, or combinations of any
or all of these elements. Principle factors that will influence
resulting cropping systems include the ability of alternative systems
to reduce erosion to established tolerance levels and associated
economic net returns.

To identify some potential cost and cropping-system impacts of


conservation compliance, this paper uses the recently developed
Erosion Productivity Economics Model to compare various cropping
systems to achieve established levels of soil loss in several Major
Land Resource Areas in the United States. The model, which estimates
the economic consequences of agricultural erosion and its control for
selected cropping systems, integrates production-cost information
supplied by Iowa's Center for Agricultural and Rural Development with
a sophisticated production-function model that simulates the
interaction of the soil-climate-plant-management process in
agricultural production.

Results of the analysis indicate that, in many instances, the best


strategy for meeting conservation compliance is to adopt conservation
tillage (either reduced-till or no-till). Such tillage practices
often meet tolerance levels while increasing economic net returns.
However, certain social and economic factors hinder the conversion to
new systems, such as lack of experience with new methods, lack of
information about government programs, and purchases of new equipment.
Consequently, this paper examines the role these and similar factors
play in the implementation of recommended methods to achieve soil-
conservation goals and to meet program requirements.

l
U.S.D.A, Economic Research Service, Resources and Technology Division,
1301 New York Ave. N.W., Washington, D.C. 20005-4788, U.S.A.

26
FERTILIZER AND HERBICIDE EFFECTS ON FARMERS'
WHEAT PRODUCTION IN NORTHWEST SYRIA

Mustafa Pala, Dennis Tully, Andree 1Rassam,


Ahmed Mazid, and Peter Cooper

In Syria and in other countries of the ICARDA region, wheat is the


most important source of calories and protein in the national diet.
Syrian national average wheat yield and mean rainfall in wheat-growing
areas have shown great variability, but the national water-use
efficiency of wheat production (kg/ha/mm) has increased substantially
because of the improvement in cultural practices from 1966 to 1984.
Wheat is grown in wetter areas of Syria (over 325 mm annual rainfall)
where fairly complex mixes of crops and rotation prevail. Results of
a 1984/85 survey indicated that farmers would be interested in more
experimental work on the interactions of fertilizer use and weed
control. Therefore, in 1985/86 unreplicated factorial trials were
sown in 14 farmers' fields in four provinces of northwestern Syria and
at ICARDA research stations to assess the effects of crop rotation and
rainfall on nitrogen and phosphate response surfaces of wheat and
their interactions with herbicide use. Mean yield of grain and straw
for the contrasting rotations (wheat/chickpea, wheat/rainfed summer
crop, wheat/irrigated summer crop) were significantly different from
each other and varied from location to location within each rotation
system. Both grain and straw yields were significantly increased by N
application on wheat following chickpea. There were no responses to P
application in any of the three groups of crop rotations. Herbicide
application gave large and significant responses of grain and straw
yields in wheat following chickpea and rainfed summer crop. In both
wheat/chickpea and wheat/rainfed summer crop rotations, herbicide plus
N application to wheat were economically very attractive.

1
International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas
(ICARDA), P.O. Box 5466, Aleppo, Syria.

27
RICE-BASED CROPPING SYSTEMS IN INLAND VALLEY SWAMPS:
ANALYSIS OF AGRONOMIC DETERMINANTS TO RICE YIELDS
IN FARMER-MANAGED TRIALS
Manuel C. Palada, T. Wakatsuki, N. C. Navasero,
1
Y. S. Chen, and R. Fashola

Inland valley swamps (IVS) are widespread and constitute one of the
largest wetlands in tropical sub-Saharan Africa. In West and Central
Africa, farmers use these valley swamps for rice cultivation in the
wet season and for intensive food-crop production in the dry season.
Rice yields in IVS are largely determined by a complex set of
interrelated physical, biological, and socioeconomic factors. These
factors operate in each agroecological zone and interact with farmers'
traditional rice-cropping systems. One of the reasons for the slow
rate of increase in rice production in West and Central Africa is the
lack of improved technologies suitable for rice-based systems in IVS.
Most improved technologies have been developed for irrigated rice
where water is not limiting and land systems are well developed.
Before improved rice technology can be developed it is important to
understand the con- straints and factors affecting rice yields in IVS.
In 1983 IITA initiated the Wetland Utilization Research Project to
develop low-input soil, water, and crop-management technologies
suitable to existing cropping systems of local farmers in IVS. On-
farm research in agronomy and cropping systems is one of the
components of this project whose objective is to develop and test
improved cropping-system technologies for rice and crops following
rice in IVS. Farmer-managed trials on improved rice varieties were
conducted in 1985 and 1986 to study and describe some agronomic
factors determining rice yields in rainfed rice- based cropping
systems. Variance and simple linear regression analyses of yield data
from 19 farms indicate that factors such as variety, seedling age,
toposequence, water duration, soil fertility, weed control, and simple
paddy improvement are, to varying degrees, associated with rice
yields. Significant contributions of each factor and their
interactions in determining rice yields are discussed. Results of this
study will be useful in designing and developing improved component
and package technologies for rice-based cropping systems suitable for
farmers in IVS.

1
Resource and Crop Management Program, International Institute of
Tropical Agriculture (UTA), Oyo Road, PMB 5320, Ibadan, Nigeria.

28
EFFECT OF WHEAT-HARVEST TIMELINESS ON YIELD AND RETURNS
OF DOUBLE-CROPPED SOYBEANS UNDER WEATHER UNCERTAINTY
1 1
Lucas D. Parsch,1 Kalven L. Trice,2
Mark J. Cochran, and H. Don Scott

Two biophysical crop-growth models (CERES-Wheat and ASICM-Arkansas


Soybean Integrated Crop Management model) are linked to simulate the
performance of double-cropped wheat and soybeans under Arkansas (USA)
conditions. Seven alternative wheat harvest dates ranging from early
to late are analyzed based on whether harvest is initiated at a
relatively high grain-moisture content (early) as opposed to
harvesting after field drydown has occurred (late). Economic
tradeoffs are evaluated to determine if the reduced drying costs for
late-harvested, field-dried wheat are more than offset by reduced
returns from decreased soybean yields due to delayed planting. Using
Arkansas weather data, each harvest scenario is simulated over 20
years to determine its sensitivity to weather variability. Results
indicate that 1) expected net returns for the double-cropping system
are greatest when wheat harvest is initiated at intermediate moisture
levels, but 2) the risk of low returns is minimized with a high-
moisture, early-harvest production system.

1
Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology (AERS),
University of Arkansas, Agriculture Building, Room 221, Fayetteville,
AR
2
72701, U.S.A.
Department of Agronomy, University of Arkansas, Plant Science 115,
Fayetteville, AR 72701, U.S.A.

29
ADOPTION OF IMPROVED COWPEA VARIETIES
IN TRADITIONAL AFRICAN FARMING SYSTEMS
1
Karen E. Parker and Malik Ashraf

Fifty percent of the world's cowpeas are produced in West Africa,


where they are widely traded and are an important source of protein
for poorer consumers. More than 95% of cowpeas currently are grown in
intercrops without the use of insecticides. The improved cowpea
"package" of high yield, erect varieties of short duration that
require insecticide spraying has been only partially adopted by
African farmers. The transition from traditional cowpea farming to
commercial sole-crop production systems has been impeded by the
unavailability and high cash costs of insecticide and the opportunity
cost associated with the loss of traditional cowpea haulms as animal
fodder. Farmers continue to prefer intercropping of cowpeas because
of the lower risk of crop failure and the substantial income from
other cereals and fodder.

This paper examines traditional Nigerian farming systems involving


cowpeas and assesses the economic costs and returns to various crop
complements according to the use of insecticide and to plant variety.
The inclusion of dry-fodder value in the economic evaluation yields
some surprising results. The adoption of the improved package (seeds,
insecticide, and sole cropping) in two agroecological zones in Nigeria
is examined. Finally, the paper investigates the effect of exchange-
rate depreciation on the profitability of the improved technology and
its potential for future adoption.

1
Food Research Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305,
U.S.A.

30
HOW CAN SMALL FARMERS INCREASE THEIR MAIZE YIELD IN HAITI?
1
J. Pierre
Many surveys have revealed that Indian corn or maize (Zea mays)
constitutes the most popular crop in Haiti. Various populations of
maize are cultivated at different times of the year at different
altitudes in irrigated and non-irrigated associations. At any time of
development, maize grain constitutes the staple food of the urban and
rural poor. Maize also plays an important role in small-farm animal
production. The maize stalks are used to improve soil structure and
nutrients.
Because of the great importance of maize, many trials have been
conducted to increase its yield; but experience has shown that
attempts to introduce new varieties of maize in areas populated by
small and poor farmers might be very difficult if not impossible. How
then can small peasant farmers manage to increase their corn yields
under Haitian socioeconomic conditions? This study presents partial
results of some methods currently under trial in a small rural
community in Haiti.

1
Agricultural Development Support II Project (ADS-II), USAID, B.P.
1634, Port-au-Prince, Haiti.

31
SELECTION OF VARIETIES FOR DIFFERENT CROP SYSTEMS
1 2
M. M. Rahman and R. N. Mallick

Bangladesh has more than 100 cropping patterns. The major ones, which
involve rice, wheat, jute, sugarcane, pulses, mustard, and potatoes,
are very important for increasing total food production. Selecting an
appropriate crop variety within a cropping system is also very
important to increasing cropping intensity. Experiments were conducted
as superimposed component trials and cropping-pattern trials, changing
varieties at different research sites. In the local-aus-rice/local-
aman-rice cropping pattern, changing local aus rice with the BR1
variety and changing local aman rice with BR11 variety gave 46% higher
yield and 84% higher net return. Similarly, grain yield increased 67%
and net return increased 51% in the aman-rice/boro-rice cropping
pattern. In sugarcane+potato intercropping, replacing the traditional
potato variety with cardinal increased the yield of potatoes by 100%.
The yield of mustard SS-75 was double the yield of the traditional
variety in sugarcane+mustard intercropping. In the B.aus-rice/mustard
and lentil+mustard patterns, SS-75 also gave double yield. In the
B.aus-rice/T.aman-rice/chickpea cropping pattern, replacing the local
variety of chickpea with S1 increased yield by 20%. Kanchan variety
produced 15% to 20% higher yields than Sonalika when used in
wheat/rice, wheat/rice/rice, and wheat/mungbean/rice cropping
patterns. In the B.aus-rice or jute/fallow/lentil+mustard or wheat
cropping pattern, introducing one short-duration mungbean variety,
Kanti, raises the cropping intensity from 200% to 300%. Messages about
these findings are gradually being extended to farmers.

_______________

1
Regional Agricultural Research Station - Bangladesh Agricultural
Research
2
Institute (RARS-BARI), Ishurdi, Pabna, Bangladesh.
Regional Agricultural Research Station (RARS), Ishurdi, Pabna,
Bangladesh.

32
IMPROVED CROPPING SYSTEMS TESTED AT THE JAMALPUR, BANGLADESH
FARMING SYSTEMS RESEARCH SITE
1 1
M. Rahman Khan, H. Rhaman,
2
and N. Vignarajah

The irrigated medium highland is the largest land class and the area
of greatest potential for crop production at the Jamalpur FSR site.
The primary strategy is to bring about improvements within existing
cropping patterns without any drastic changes. The three dominant
cropping patterns in this land class are fallow/transplanted-
aman/boro, transplanted-aus/transplanted-aman/wheat, and transplanted-
aus/transplanted-aman/potato. These cropping patterns cover 65%, 15%,
and 10% of the land class, respectively. Aman is the traditional major
rice crop, usually rainfed and cultivated between August and November.
Boro is timed for January to May, irrigated, always transplanted, and
now becoming the major rice crop with the rapid increase of irrigation
facilities. Aus is also rice, usually rainfed and timed for April to
July.

Generally, in investigations to improve returns from cropping


patterns, management practices (mainly relating to varieties, timing
of growth, fertilizer application, and plant population) were
improved. Results of studies conducted through three complete cycles
up to 1986 indicate that the improved transplanted aus/transplanted
aman/potato pattern gave the maximum cash return, but its cost of
cultivation is so high that it is beyond the reach of the resource-
poor farmer.

The improved three-cereal pattern gave a net return of Tk.42,416/ha.


The two-cereal pattern with improved systems gave a net return of only
Tk.35,012/ha; however, it is the most popular pattern among farmers
because, under their management practices, it gives a better economic
return than the three-cereal pattern and leaves ample turnover time
between crops. Attempts are now being made to improve this pattern
further by growing short-duration crops between. One important
feature that determines farmers' preference for rice varieties is the
yield and palatability of rice straw.

1
Regional Agricultural Research Station (RARS), Jamalpur, Bangladesh.
2
Formerly, Regional Agricultural Research Station (RARS), Jamalpur,
Bangladesh; currently, 27 Rhaasingha Road, Colombo 6, Sri Lanka.

33
LAND-USE INTENSIFICATION BY CROP-BASED FARMING SYSTEMS
IN THE SMALLHOLDER UNITS OF THE DRY ZONE OF SRI LANKA
1
Upatissa Ravindranath Sangakkara

The smallholder farming systems of the dry zone of Sri Lanka are
characterized by highland and lowland allotments of 1.5 ha to 2.0 ha.
While rice is cultivated in the lowlands under rainfed or irrigated
systems, the uplands are generally planted with monoculture plots of
coarse grains, legume root crops, or vegetables to supplement dietary
requirements and incomes. Studies have shown that such monocultures
with low inputs produce low economic returns. This paper presents the
results of a study carried out on farmers' fields to evaluate the
possibility of developing multiple-cropping systems with short-term
crops to suit both rainfed and irrigated or dry-season conditions of the
region. The crop combinations were evaluated on their abilities to
increase production per unit land area when compared to the monocultures,
generate income, and supplement dietary requirements and incomes
during the rainy and dry seasons. The yields of cassava, corn, and
beans planted in the rainy season in mixtures and mono-cultures
indicated greater productivity per unit land area for mixtures (RYT 1).
Income-generating potential was increased because of increased
productivity and costs were reduced because of the reduction in crop
maintenance, especially weed control. Growth of sesame and mungbeans
during the dry season yielded similar results. Thus, the data is
presented in terms of viable cropping systems for smallholder farming
systems in the dry zone of Sri Lanka, the relationships between crops'
resource use and compatibility, and the effect of the environment on
the selected system. Land-use systems are presented in terms of RYT
and LER and the advantages in terms of reduced problems in crop
husbandry and risk aversion.

1
Faculty of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri
Lanka.

34
CROPPING SYSTEMS OF HOMESTEADS IN KERALA
1
V. K. Sasidhar

Every house in Kerala, including the huts of poor families, has a bit
of land around it in which a variety of crops are raised. Coconut is
the base crop of these homesteads. A review of research findings on
increasing benefits from physical resources and increasing
productivity in coconut-based cropping systems has been attempted.
Tapioca, elephant-foot yams, bananas (varieties like Robusta, Nendran,
Dwarf Cavendish, Palayamkodan, and Monthan), and pepper (varieties
like Panniyoor-1, Karimunda, and Balankottah) are ideal intercrops.
Planting rice in trenches and tapioca, greengram, sesamum, and sweet
potato in beds between coconut rows can also be practiced profitably
with moisture conservation in the rootzone. Cowpeas and hybrid napier
are successful fodder intercrops. Double-row-planted cocoa is the
ideal tree/spice intercrop in coconut gardens.

1
Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, Trivandrum,
Kerala 695522, S. India.

35
AGRONOMISTS' APPROACHES TO FARMERS' SITUATIONS
1
Michel Sebillotte

The multiplication of on-farm trials during the last 10 years has not
produced all the expected results, partly because agronomical problems
are usually determined by the development agents rather than by the
farmers themselves. Therefore, farming systems research methodology
has been largely overlooked. But more basically, this observation
raises questions about the role of theory in the practice of agronomy
in regional development programs. In work at the regional level, the
agronomist must produce four types of technical references either in
relation to the stability of the results obtained according to the
circum-stances or to the different levels of organization of the
systems "cultivated field" and "farm." The methodology of the regional
diagnosis and of the building-up of technical references is presented
using one example and one crop (wheat). The central role of theory in
agronomy and of modeling is developed, and the role of statistics is
discussed.

1
GRET, Groupe de Recherche et D'Echanges Technologiques 213, rue La
Fayette 75010, Paris, France.

36
PHOSPHORUS ECONOMY IN CROP SYSTEMS
1
Karampal Singh

Phosphorus, next to nitrogen, is the most important nutrient for


realizing the potential yield of crops. Different rates of phosphorus
have been recommended for the crops grown in Punjab, northern India.
Research in Punjab has shown that phosphorus application to rice,
maize, cotton, groundnuts, cowpeas, and potatoes can be skipped if the
recommended dose has been applied to the preceding wheat crop,
resulting in savings of 12, 24, 12, 8, 20, and 25 kg/ha P2O5
respectively for rice/wheat, maize/wheat, cotton/wheat,
groundnuts/wheat, cowpeas/wheat, and potatoes/wheat systems.

Phosphorus application to wheat can be reduced by 1 kg per ton of


farmyard manure. It can be reduced to half if the preceding maize
crop received the recommended dose of phosphorus for 2 to 3 years.
When good-quality farmyard manure has been applied at rates equal to
or greater than 15 tons/ha to maize (grain and fodder crops) for 2 to
3 years, phosphorus application can be omitted. In maize/wheat/
greengram systems, a good crop of greengram can be raised without
phosphorus application if the preceding maize and wheat crops received
the recommended rates of phosphorus. The phosphorus dose for lentils
can be reduced from 16 kg/ha P2O5 to 8 kg/ha P2O5 by inoculation of
seeds with rhizobium.

1
8/33, PAU Campus, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141004,
Punjab, India,

37
ENERGY USE PATTERNS UNDER VARIOUS FARMING SYSTEMS OF PUNJAB:
A CASE STUDY
1 2
Surendra Singh,
3
J. P. Mittal,4
M. P. Singh, and R. Bakhshi

In the State of Punjab, wheat is grown under four farming systems:


traditional (rainfed), improved traditional (partially irrigated),
semi-intensive (irrigated), and intensive (irrigated using improved
farm implements), A multistage, stratified technique was applied in
conducting surveys of the energy-use patterns of various farming
systems for cultivating wheat. Grain yield was minimum for the
traditional farming system (612 kg/ha) and was maximum for the
intensive farming system (4,677 kg/ha). However, the specific energy
requirements decreased from 8.84 MJ/kg for the traditional farming
system to 4.14 MJ/kg for the intensive farming system, the energy
output-input ratio (energy efficiency) also increased from 2.8 for the
traditional farming system to 6.1 for the intensive farming system.
The semi-intensive farming system consumed more energy than the
intensive system yet its grain yield and energy efficiency were low.

It may therefore be concluded that the increased energy consumption in


the form of agro-inputs increases energy efficiency arid grain yield,
but the management and proper use of various energy sources and
machinery plays an equally important role.

_______________

1
College of Agricultural Engineering, Punjab Agricultural University,
Ludhiana
2
(Punjab) 141004, India.
All India Coordinated Research Project on Energy Requirements in
Agricultural Sector, College of Agricultural Engineering, Punjab
Agricultural
3
University, Ludhiana (Punjab), 141004 India.
Dow Chemical International, Ltd., c/o 93 National Park, Lajpat Nagar
- IV, New Delhi, 110024 India.
4
Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana (Punjab), 141004 India.

38
FSR/E, DEVELOPMENT INDICATORS, AND FOOD SELF-SUFFICIENCY
AT THE HOUSEHOLD LEVEL IN MALAWI
1
Anita Spring

This paper describes and contrasts the farming systems of male and
female household heads in the country's oldest development project to
discern the technologies that have been offered by the project and
farmers' responses to them. Exogenous and endogenous factors in the
farming system are examined for their impacts on farmers. Although 22
discrete cropping patterns are identified, they can he grouped into
innovative and noninnovative strategies. Male and female household
heads are distinguished by cropping system, labor and consumption
units, stored grain, hectarage, yield, and access to extension
services to determine the factors that contribute to producing and
selling food. The results show that all farmers have similar
agricultural skills and have been influenced by the project in terms
of infrastructure and services, but that discrepancies between male
and female farmers persist in cropping patterns, acceptance of new
technologies, and project benefits (training, inputs, credit). More
female heads are low-resource farmers and more male heads are high-
resource farmers, although both household types are found in all
production categories. The results of two sets of on-farm, farmer-
managed trials (with maize varieties and fertilizers and with soybeans
and inoculant) argue for diverse strategies for low- and high-resource
farmers in a region that is usually described as having a single
farming system.

1
2121 Turlington Hall, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611,
U.S.A.

39
A CEMENT KILN FLUE DUST AS A POTASSIUM FERTILIZER
1
Lyell F. Thompson and Frank Lee Haynes

A cement kiln flue dust (FD), from the Arkansas Cement Corporation's
plant in Little River County, Arkansas, was used in three greenhouse
and three field experiments as a K fertilizer at the University of
Arkansas campus at Fayetteville. This waste by-product contained 24.5%
K, 13.5% Ca, 1% Na, lesser quantities of other elements, and had a
CaCO3 equivalent of 35. The experimental field soil was a Captina silt
loam, a fine silty mesic Typic Fragiudalf, with a -1
surface pH of 5.2
and exchangeable Ca and K values of 687 and 75µg g , respectively.
Surface (Ap horizon) soil from this field was used in the greenhouse
pot tests where rates of K, -1
from either the FD or KC1 fertilizer, were
increased from 0 to 240/µg g and successive crops of Swiss chard
(Beta vulgaris L.), oat (Avena sativa L.), and German millet (Setaria
italica L.) were grown. One harvest was taken from the chard and
three each from the oats and millet. Soybean (Glycine max L.), and a
sorghum-sudan hybrid (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench), with two harvests,
followed by a wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)-rye (Secale cereale L.)
mixture, harvested for forage twice, were grown in the field-1
experiments. Rates of K from KC1 and the FD up to 137 kg ha were
compared in the field investigations. The K in the KC1 and FD were
generally equal in value in influencing plant growth, percentage plant
K, and total K uptake from the soil. The K significantly increased
plant growth in about half of the tests and increased percentage plant
P in every test. Total plant uptake of K was doubled to quadrupled by
the high K rates.

1
Department of Agronomy, 113 Plant Sciences Building, University of
Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, U.S.A.

40
TESTING IMPROVED CROPPING SYSTEMS FOR SMALL FARMERS
IN NORTHEASTERN BRAZIL
1
Eduardo Zaffaroni and H. H. A. Barros

The farming systems approach is a new way to develop agricultural


research in northeastern Brazil. The Federal University of Paraiba
started a research project to develop new, improved cropping systems
for small farmers in Paraiba State. The project is coordinated by the
University but includes cooperative work with the Cotton Research
Center (CNPA) of EMBRAPA, the State Agricultural Research Enterprise
(EMEPA), and the State Agricultural Research Enterprise (EMATER).

The research program was supported by Finance Office of Studies and


Projects (FINEP) of the federal government. The project has three
major phases; 1) descriptive — a complete diagnosis of existing
cropping systems is carried out; 2) design — information obtained in
the previous phase is used to design improved cropping systems; and 3)
test — the new cropping systems are tested with the traditional
systems. Results of the descriptive phase were published in the 1985
Farming Systems Symposium Proceedings. This paper presents field
experiments and results of the testing phase. Experiments involve
cassava/corn/beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), and corn/beans intercropping
systems. Evaluations include agronomic as well as economic
considerations.

1
Agronomy Department, Federal University of Paraiba, 58397 Areia, PB,
Brazil.

41
CASSAVA-COWPEA: A CROP SYSTEM FOR ACID AND LOW-FERTILITY
SOILS IN TABASCO, MEXICO
1
J. L. Zuñiga and V. H. Gonzalez

This research was carried out from 1979 to 1986, with the objective of
finding a crop system for farmers who own small land areas with acid
and low-fertility soils in the State of Tabasco, Mexico. Trials of
the cassava-cowpea crop system were carried out to determine planting
date, topological distribution, varieties, and fertilizer rates. The
results helped us determine the following formula for production:
Cassava is planted 1.20 meters within rows, and 0.80 meters with
plants. Between every two rows of cassava two rows of cowpea are
planted at distances of 0.40 meters and 0.20 meters between plants.
Both crops are planted simultaneously during November and December.
Cassava "sabanera" variety and cowpea "carita" variety must be used.
Fertilization is carried out by applying 60-120-60 kg in "espeque" to
cassava and 30-90-00 in band to cowpea, respectively, 30 and 10 days
after planting. Cowpea is harvested 3 months after planting and two
cuttings are required. Cassava might be harvested 8 months after
planting. Once cowpea has been harvested, the cowpea plants must be
uprooted, otherwise they compete with the cassava. This crop system
has several benefits for the farmers the soil is intensively
exploited, farming labor and economical risk are diminished, soils are
protected from erosion, food production is diversified, monetary
incomes are increased, and cowpea commercialization allows the farmer
to refund production expenses of both crops partially or totally.

1
Centro de Edafología, Colegio de Postgraduados, Chapingo, Mexico.

42
43
Blank Page in Original
FACTORS AFFECTING THE STABILITY OF SHIFTING
FARMING SYSTEMS IN SRI LANKA
1
Fredrick A. Abeyratne and Daniel B. Taylor

Shifting cultivation is a system of farming widely practiced in Sri


Lanka. Its successful sustenance, however, depends on the maintenance
of soil fertility and control of weeds. The above conditions are met
when fallow periods between cultivations are long enough. Over time,
due to population pressure on land, the length of fallow has
shortened, resulting in a drop in productivity and indiscriminate
clearing of forests.

In light of these circumstances, a study was conducted during


1982/1983 in four locations in Sri Lanka with different farming
systems consisting of various fallow periods and types of cropping
patterns with the following objectives: 1) to understand the role of
shifting cultivation in the context of a farming system, 2) to study
shifting systems in a dynamic sense, considering their transformation
in terms of fallow period and dependence on the shifting component of
the total farming system, and 3) to assess the effect of changes in
external and internal conditions such as population increase,
migration, markets, credit, transport facilities, and national pricing
and land-tenure policies.

The study revealed that internal and external factors such as


population pressure on land, choice of crops, and prohibition of
forest clearing prompt transformations in the shifting modes of
cultivation toward more stable cultivation systems. It also determined
that better credit and extension facilities, improvement in transport
facilities, and secure land rights are important in sustaining high
levels of productivity under very short fallows.

1
Department of Agricultural Economics, Virginia Polytechnic Institute
and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, U.S.A.

45
MARKETING ASSESSMENT OF COFFEE
1
Buenaventura C. Adriano and Arnulfo Mateum Mascarinas

Marketing assessment is a very important activity of the Farming


Systems Research and Development Project (FSR&DP). It was designed
primarily to direct our efforts in the production of certain crops or
commodities.
For 1986, coffee was selected for the marketing assessment in Bicol
due to its presence in the existing farming system of the majority of
farmers, low level of cash costs of production, and minimal
vulnerability to typhoon damage.

Findings of the assessment revealed the following:

1. Inappropriate and untimely harvesting of berries by Bicolano


farmers resulted in the production of inferior-quality beans.
Lower prices for the commodity follow.

2. Coffee is regarded by Bicolano farmers as a secondary, "pocket


money" crop. This resulted in less efficient care and
management of the crop. Lower production follows.

3. The traditional cropping scheme (i.e., coffee grown under the


coconut) also becomes a problem whenever uncertainties like
typhoons, pest infestation, or market glut occur, sometimes
depriving farmers of their livelihood.

4. The lack of large-scale and high-technology roasters in Bicol


compel traders to purchase roasted beans outside Bicol or take
fresh beans to other regions for roasting. When the commodity
is brought back to Bicol, the price is raised to offset the
costs incurred.

As a means of addressing these problems, two major activities are


proposed: 1) studying the feasibility of strategically positioning a
high-tech roaster in a major production/trading area and 2) growing
selected crops with coffee.

1
FSR&DP, Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, San Agustin, Pili,
Cams. Sur, Philippines.

46
A FARMING SYSTEMS ANALYSIS OF COTTON PRODUCTION IN THE HAUT-ZAIRE
REGION OF ZAIRE; THE IMPACT OF NEGATIVE PRICE POLICIES
1
Glenn C. W. Ames and Tonyemba Ossamba

In 1959, on the eve of independence, Zaire produced 59,280 metric tons


of cotton lint, exporting 89% of production, accounting for 12.5% of
the value of all agricultural exports. By 1985, cotton production had
steadily fallen to 7,819 tons or 13.7% of pre-independence output. The
decline of cotton production can partially be explained by a decline
in extension service support, technology, variability in yield,
artificially low purchase prices, and a government-imposed minimum
quota of 0.50 ha of cotton acreage. The price policies and quota
system ignore the local farming system. A survey of cotton-farmer
households was conducted in eight zones of the Haut-Zaire Region in
1986. Analysis of the survey data indicates that cotton production
interferes with labor requirements for food crops such as maize,
cassava, rice, and peanuts. Cotton yields are low. Returns per worker-
day of labor in cotton production were only 6% of the average returns
to maize and cassava cultivation, and this has created severe
disincentives among present and former cotton farmers. Clearly,
cotton production will continue to decline until cotton prices are
liberalized relative to food crops, confidence is reestablished in
agricultural extension agents, and the quota system is abolished. This
study illustrates ways in which FSR can be used to more generally
analyze the impact of government policies on farming systems in
developing countries.

1
Department of Agricultural Economics, 315 Conner Hall, University of
Georgia, Athens, GA, U.S.A.

47
THE RECYCLING RATIO: A TOOL FOR FARMING SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
1
George H. Axinn and Nancy W. Axinn

The recycling ratio is based on a conceptualization of whole farms as


systems (including as major components plants, animals, and people) in
an ecological niche. The ratio can be useful both in analysis of the
individual farming system and in comparisons among farming systems.
It was derived from field analysis of farming systems in Nepal, where
estimates were made of the materials flow and energy transformations
on various sizes of farms. It has also been used with pastoralist
farming systems in eastern Africa and with dairy farms in the U.S.

Considering the farm-family ecosystem and its near environment,


estimates are made of the flow of inputs into the farming system,
outputs from the farming system, and flows within the system (where
the system consumes or recycles its outputs). The higher the
proportion of the total materials and energy output that recycle into
the system rather than being exchanged through outside marketing
channels, the higher the recycling ratio.

The ratio can be used to compare farms from place to place at the same
time or to compare the farming systems in a given place as they change
from time to time. It can illustrate the extent to which farms shift
from self-sufficient subsistence units to market-oriented commercial
units. Low-input agriculture tends to have a higher recycling ratio
than high-input agriculture. Highly specialized farming systems tend
to have lower recycling ratios than mixed farming systems. Other
potential uses of the ratio are also described in the paper.

_______________
1
Department of Resource Development, Michigan State University, East
Lansing, MI 48824-1222, U.S.A.

48
INFRASTRUCTURE UTILIZATION BY RURAL HOUSEHOLDS OF HARYANA, INDIA
1
Revathi Balakrishnan and Anne R. Coveney

A growing concern in developing countries is inequity in access to and


use of service infrastructure in rural communities. Scholars of the
social development school suggest that the service infrastructure
mostly benefits the rural elite, and the rural poor are isolated from
the mainstream of development (Korten and Alfonso, 1983; Guptha, 1983;
and Chambers, 1983). "It was customary to consider the peasant
villages as being more or less outside the market economy." This view
is misleading. The problem is not that the peasant village is outside
of the economy but rather plugged-in in a way that is disadvantageous
to the peasants. Therefore, in assessing the position of the family or
household, we must see it not only in the context of the community but
also in the context of external relations of the household and com-
munity to the market and the politico-administrative structure" (Whyte
and Boynton, 1983). In such a context of policy concern, this study
aims at identifying the availability and use of the service
infrastructure by the rural households in Haryana, India, where the
green revolution is a success. The sample is 290 rural households
selected on the criterion of landowning status from three agroclimatic
zones. The study objectives are 1) to assess the infrastructure
environment of the selected villages, 2) to identify the relationship
between the asset level of the family and the pattern of
infrastructure use, 3) to identify the relationship between the
family's openness to modern technology and pattern of infrastructure
use, and 4) to identify the relationship between family structure and
the pattern of infrastructure use. The analyses use discrete data
analysis techniques.

1
Department of Family Resource Management, Ohio State University, 1787
Neil Ave., Columbus, OH 43221, U.S.A.

49
ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONING OF CHILEAN PEASANT FARMING SYSTEMS
1
Julio A. Berdegue, I. Nazif, X. Quezada, S. Gonzalez,
M. Díaz, and R. García

The productive processes of two peasant communities located in the


same region were studied and compared according to FSR&D methodology
and techniques.
One community of 25 families is representative of peasant farms
derived from the agrarian reform program, and it includes subsistence
(wheat), national market (milk), and for-export (beans) crop and
animal production. The second community (33 families) is
representative of poor, minifundia peasant households where
subsistence agriculture (wheat, lentils) and off-farm labor are the
main contributors to family income.

The main results:

A. Technical dimension
1. Weekly detailed description of production tasks and practices
2. Identification of linking variables, i.e., those systemic
components that have direct and simultaneous effects over two
or more subsystems
3. Farm and community layouts and diagnosis of the organization
and use of land, vegetation, water, and farm infrastructure

B. Cultural dimension
1. Peasant's decision-making structure
2. Peasant's technological-demand structure

C. Economic dimension
1. Monthly and subsystem economic and financial analysis,
including monetary and nonmonetary transactions
2. Identification of targets of opportunity and bottlenecks from
the points of view of technological innovation, labor use,
family income, and food production

These results are discussed interactively at the subsystem, system,


and community levels to derive conclusions about the nature and
architecture of the technological structure of the farming systems,
i.e., the technological inventory and its allocation (temporal-
spatial) in the different production processes of the system.

________________

1
GIA, Ricardo Matte Pérez 0342, Providencia, Santiago, Chile.

50
GOVERNMENT TRACTORS, AGRICULTURAL POLICY, AND
THE FARMING SYSTEM IN SWAZILAND
1
John J. Curry

Government policy interventions in the agricultural sector often


produce a variety of consequences — both direct and indirect — for the
cropping system. In Swaziland, Rural Development Area Project Centers
offer small-scale maize farmers plowing and other tractor services at
subsidized rates. Originally conceived as a temporary intervention to
promote mechanization of rainfed agriculture, these tractor-hire pools
have become a more or less permanent service rendered to the rural
populace by the program. Such a service is consistent with policies
of both the traditional and modern govern-ments, which supply members
of the Swazi nation with essential factors of production (e.g., farm
and communal grazing land).

This paper examines the effects of the tractor-hire scheme on rainfed


cropping systems in Swaziland. Dependence upon this mode of land
preparation can affect a variety of farming decisions, in-cluding the
number and timing of plowings, the timing of weeding and other
operations, and the procurement of inputs. Such consequences have,
therefore, become important factors considered by the cropping systems
project in identifying recommendation domains and in designing on-farm
research. The Swaziland case illustrates the importance of considering
such policy interventions and their farm-level effects in the FSR/E
process.

1
Swaziland Cropping Systems Research and Extension Training Project,
Malkerns Research Station, P.O. Box 4, Malkerns, Swaziland.

51
MACRO ANALYSIS OF CROP/LIVESTOCK INTERSYSTEM
PATHWAYS TO SUPPLY PROTEIN FOR HUMAN CONSUMPTION
1
James R. Dickey

In terms of human protein supply, there has been a long-standing


controversy regarding human consumption of grain versus that fed to
livestock. Both quantity and quality of protein have been at issue.
The quantity issue is addressed here in terms of grain used directly
as human food versus indirect use through livestock (as feed). All
grain imports and exports involve international marketing; thus the
production parameters of protein-supply pathways of the
crop/livestock intersystem are derived from global statistics.
Although total world grain production is considered as the direct
plant source for human protein consumption, livestock also provide
proteins in the form of milk, meat, and eggs. Such livestock proteins
are produced from roughage and scavenger feeds that are not directly
consumable by humans. These combined animal/plant protein sources are
quantified and summed as the base human protein supply. The effects on
this supply of different options of partial usage of grain for on-farm
supplements and (or) commercial feeding of monogastrics and (or)
ruminants are estimated. These effects are discussed in relation to
food and feed-grain policy in Bangladesh.

_______________

1
Winrock International, P.O., Box 6083, Gulshan, Dhaka-12, Bangladesh.

52
FARMING SYSTEMS RESEARCH AND EXTENSION:
MACROECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF MICROECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
1
Wilmer M. Harper, Rossana C. Alvarez,
and Hilda L. Claros-Quiñonez

Farming systems research and extension (FSR/E) methodology has


developed as the most appropriate means of identifying and testing
user-oriented agricultural technology for small-farm production units,
and FSR/E has focused primarily upon the problems of individual
farmers and microenvironments. To date FSR/E methodology has not
stimulated practitioners to appreciate the relevance of including
macroeconomic analysis within their analytic framework. However,
operators of small-farm units face problems that are directly tied to
the macroeconomy. For FSR/E to remain a viable alternative for
development and technical-assistance projects, research must
demonstrate FSR/E impact upon the macroeconomy and its accompanying
benefits for the country as a whole. Using a specific example, the
research demonstrates an approach for tying FSR/E to the macroeconomy.

As in many developing countries, Honduran farmers and consumers


encounter pronounced price cycles — high preharvest and low
postharvest prices. The cyclical price movements may reduce producer
incentives for increased output and substantially impact upon consumer
food purchases. Using partial budget analysis, the research analyzes
the impact of a FSR/E identified technology upon local farmers and
analyzes changes in the macroeconomy that would accompany the new
technology. Economic literature documents the benefits to society from
increased productivity and price stability. Therefore, the analysis
estimates the impact upon the macroeconomy and society that could
accompany increased farmer income and reduced fluctuation in market
supply produced by the technology. Estimates are made for the supply-
and-demand relationships for corn. A sensitivity analysis is then
made, estimating price and quantity changes, the accompanying changes
in consumer surplus and producer surplus, and the net changes in
societal welfare under alternative quantity and price scenarios that
might result from implementation of the technology.

1
Department of Agricultural Economics, Box 3169, New Mexico State
University, Las Cruces, NM 88003, U.S.A.

53
IMPROVING AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGY: METHODOLOGY AND TEST CASE
1
Reed Hertford, Judith Snow,
Howard Elliott, and Eduardo Trigo

We offer a comprehensive methodology for donors and national leaders


seeking to improve agricultural technology management (ATM) systems
and test the methodology against data from Panama. While developed for
ATM systems in Latin America under contract with AID, the methodology
is of relevance to efforts elsewhere in the developing world and in
developed countries.
An ATM system is defined to include variables internal to technology-
generation programs (research resources and their management) as well
as all national policies and institutions interacting with technology-
generation activities and the farm production environment. Three
stages of analyses of these components are outlined, leading
ultimately to a statistical treatment of their impacts on production
that permits identifying and prioritizing ATM system constraints in a
particular setting. The methodology is conceptually simple and
inexpensive to apply.

Results from the Panama case study confirm the utility of the
methodology. Both because of the comprehensiveness of the ATM system
concept and the fact that the methodology systematically tests
hypotheses concerning system performance against production data,
findings bearing on needs for system improvement were more all-
inclusive, objectively based, and conclusive than had an assessment
been conducted of technology-generating activities using the
traditional approach of expert judgments formulated by an external
review team of consultants.

1
Cook College/Rutgers University, P.O. Box 231, New Brunswick, NJ
08903, U.S.A.

54
SUPPORT OR SUBVERSION: THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FSR/E
AND TANZANIA'S AGRICULTURAL POLICY OBJECTIVES
1
Larry S. Lev and Ann L. Shriver

Although farming systems research and extension (FSR/E) pilot programs


have been initiated in a diverse set of countries, insufficient
attention has been devoted to the examination of whether these new
programs support or undermine existing governmental attitudes and
approaches to rural development. FSR/E is based upon a profound
respect for farmers and the implicit belief that smallholder
production can best be increased in the short run if farmer problems
and opportunities are directly addressed by the research and extension
services. Within FSR/E programs, agricultural policies have generally
been treated as exogenous variables beyond the control of the
individual family. These policies, in turn, have not been formulated
to ease the production problems of the individual family but rather to
achieve specific societal goals. In recognition of this divergence in
viewpoint, three related questions arise. To what extent can/should
FSR/E teams attempt to integrate national and farmer objectives when
formulating their programs? How can FSR/E teams best provide
information that can be used in the policy-formulation process?
Finally, how responsive should national policymakers be to issues and
information that emerge from FSR/E activities at the local level?

These issues will be considered in light of a recent FSR/E project in


Tanzania. For the last two decades, the Tanzanian government has
intervened forcefully (but not very successfully) in smallholder
agriculture through production and marketing policies. The larger
goals that have been sought include providing social services,
increasing equity, feeding the cities, and earning foreign exchange.
Can the introduction of FSR/E-motivated policies improve Tanzania's
performance in these areas? This essay demonstrates that the trade-
offs and compromises that will be required have not yet been
adequately identified, much less analyzed.

________
1
Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics, Oregon State
University, Corvallis, OR 97331, U.S.A.

55
THE DIACHRONIC APPROACH TO FARMING SYSTEMS IN TANZANIA
1
J. L. Paul and G. G. Hadjivayanis

Generally, work on farming systems emphasizes dynamic aspects of the


systems approach. It allows description not only of the structure of
a given system but also of its functioning. However, even a precise
knowledge of the functioning of a system (links between components,
flows of energy and matter, etc.) is not sufficient to understand it.
A historical or diachronic approach is also necessary because it
highlights the main trends toward which the system evolves and the
reasons why it does so. Therefore, any decisions taken to transform
the system would have to recognize these trends. To reinforce them or
to encourage changes in their direction, the knowledge of historical
factors generating them is required. Furthermore the functioning of a
system and its history depends upon its relations with broader
systems. Such theoretical remarks find their application in the very
technical field of cropping systems. In Mgeta area, Tanzania, the
gaps between technology levels applied to vegetable cash crops and to
the traditional food crops are enormous. While the cropping practices
for maize, for example, have not changed for the last century and
maize yields have been dramatically dropping, the cabbage crop
receives a lot of care and uses modern technology, including mineral
and organic fertilizers and chemicals. This situation cannot be
explained without a sound knowledge of the recent history of farming
systems and without extending the study to factors external to the
farming systems themselves, such as national market prices. Technical
improvements often depend on changes that are beyond farmers' reach.

1
Sokoine University of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3094, Morogoro, Tanzania.

56
OPERATING WITHIN THE SYSTEMS
THE INSTITUTIONAL CONTEXT OF FSR/E PROJECTS
1
Susan V. Poats

As use of the farming systems research and extension (FSR/E) approach


has become more widespread, increasing attention is being paid to the
institutional organization of research and extension and its impact on
the FSR/E process. Of particular importance is the ability and
relative facility of linking researchers and extension workers
throughout the FSR/E process and the level and quality of farmer
participation that is possible within different institutional
frameworks. Some institutional settings seem ideally organized to
promote development and operation of FSR/E while others sees to
contain barriers and obstacles that appear to negate certain linkages
especially between re-search and extension that are deemed essential
to "good" FSR/E. This paper examines five types of organizational
structures for agricultural research and extension institutions. These
types are drawn from a study of FSR/E projects in Africa, Latin
America, Asia, and the United States. Analysis demonstrates which
types of institutional organization encourage or discourage effective
researcher — extension worker — farmer communication and
collaboration. Relative strengths and weaknesses of the various
institutional organizations are considered in terms of their capacity
to employ a farming systems approach to research and extension,
whether they are better-suited to do so or are able to overcome
organizational constraints to do so. Alternative strategies are
presented for planning projects using the FSR/E approach in order to
deal with institutional obstacles and inflexibility.

1
3028 McCarty Hall, University of Florida, FSSF, Gainesville, FL 32611,
U.S.A.

57
OPERATION FLOOD AS A MACRO SYSTEM
1
V. L. Prasad and V. M. Rao

The approach of farming systems research is as relevant to designing


appropriate support systems as it is to designing production systems.
Operation Flood Programme (OFP) provides a case in point. What was a
cooperative milk-procurement model four decades ago, AMUL (Anand Milk
Union Limited) has evolved into a dairy-development industry of
national scale. Targeted to involve 10 million dairy farmers, most of
whom are small-scale marginal farmers and the landless, OFP by 1990
plans to obtain 12 million liters per day from 15 million improved
milk animals located in 200 production zones of the country in order
to supply milk to about 140 urban marketing centers. The transactions
between the rural producers and the urban consumers are articulated
through a well-conceived production subsystem (animal breeding and
feeding support), protection subsystem (health care and cattle
insurance), market subsystem (procurement, processing, pricing, and
marketing), organizational subsystem, and extension subsystem.
Traditional forms of production and marketing at the village level
were skillfully interfaced with the new production and processing
technology. This facilitated active participation of the rural
producers in decision making and profit sharing and made the program a
unique experiment in the Third World.

1
National Institute of Rural Development, R'Nagar, Hyderabad, 500 030,
AP, India.

58
MARKETING STRUCTURE AND INTERRELATION
AT A CROPPING SYSTEMS SITE IN THE PHILIPPINES
1
N. F. C. Ranaweera, R. R. Gonzaga,
and N. T. Palma

Marketing studies at farming systems research sites are becoming


increasingly important with the realization that profitabilities of
new cropping patterns are price and market dependent. Low prices are
due also to lack of marketing facilities. Host cropping systems
research and extension programs have given little attention to this
aspect.
A study at an acid upland farming systems site in the Philippines has
the objectives of understanding the market structure and mechanisms
that exist and of developing a cost-effective methodology to be used
by national farming systems research teams at the sites.

The study has clearly surfaced the importance of understanding the


market structure; coordinating middlemen, canvassers, traders, and
farmers; and understanding the role national or regional (within a
country) demand for individual commodities plays. It is apparent that
decisions to change cropping patterns should not be only on the
premise of agronomic (technical) feasibility and economic viability
(using existing market prices) but also on potential market
availability and stability among the different components of the
market.

From a methodology point of view, it is clear that market information


for both inputs and outputs must be included in the initial baseline
study. The lack of market information at the beginning of the research
process leads to the inclusion or elimination of crops, which has
consequences in the marketing aspects. The procedures followed in
market research at FSR sites are different than for the usual market
studies of a single crop. Guidelines for alternative methodologies to
be followed at the research site are also being studied.

1
Agricultural Economics Department, IRRI, P.O. Box 933, Manila,
Philippines.

59
MARKETING AMD FARMING SYSTEMS IN COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE:
THE CASE OF POTATOES
1
Gregory J. Scott

Most research on marketing in developing countries has focused on


marketing activities in isolation from activities related to
production or vice versa. Consequently, the link between food-
distribution systems and food-production systems is poorly understood.
This paper presents the comparative results of studies on potato
production and marketing carried out in seven developing countries
over the last 8 years. The findings illustrate the extent to which
production and marketing are interdependent and how efforts to improve
farming systems both depend on and are influenced by marketing
activities.

1
International Potato Center, P.O. Box 5969, Lima, Peru.

60
CHARGING FOR PUBLIC IRRIGATION SERVICES:
IMPLICATIONS FOR FARMERS
1
Leslie E. Small

Based on a study of irrigation-financing policies in several Asian


nations, the argument that irrigation efficiency can be increased by
charging farmers for water is critically examined. Area-based
irrigation fees typically have little effect on a farmer's decisions
regarding cropping patterns and none on water-use decisions. By
contrast, a system of true water prices may encourage farmers to use
water more efficiently; however, such a system is extremely difficult
and costly to implement in the conditions commonly found in Asian
irrigation systems. But a system of irrigation charges may encourage
improved performance by the managers of public irrigation systems if
the managing agency is financially dependent on the funds it collects
from the farmers. Under these conditions, a system of irrigation
charges may-give the irrigation managers a vested interest in
operating the system in a manner satisfactory to farmers. In turn,
this improved performance is likely to affect the cropping decisions
that farmers make with respect to timing, variety, and input use.

1
Agricultural Economics, Cook College, Rutgers University, New
Brunswick, NJ 08903, U.S.A.

61
AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH AND EXTENSION LINKAGES IN HAITI:
A PRAGMATIC FSR/E APPROACH
1
R. Swanson, M. Bertelsen, and S. Hilaire

The ADS-II project in Haiti has sought to demonstrate that success in


ultimately benefiting the small farmer depends on long-term linkages
of many usually separate institutions — international centers; in-
country experimental stations and agronomist-training programs; FSR-
type on-farm testing, demonstration, and extension; and national
agricultural-information gathering services.
As an example of how these linkages function in Haiti, this paper
follows the evolution of one important research process through
various stages to the adoption of the results by Haitian farmers. The
focus of the study is one variety of the common bean (Phaseolus
vulgaris) called Tamazulapa.

________________

1
Agricultural Development Support II Project (ADS-II), Damien Offices,
MARNDR, Port-au-Prince, Haiti.

62
MECHANISMS AND EFFECTS OF AN AFRICAN FERTILIZER CRISIS:
WHEN FERTILIZER DID NOT ARRIVE IN THE GAMBIA, 1985
1
Joachim von Braun and Detlev Puetz

Small African countries depend heavily on donors to supply


agricultural inputs, especially fertilizer. When donated supplies
fluctuate, fertilizer availability also fluctuates. These countries
may depend on a small number of donor-assisted sources for fertilizer;
so if the supply channel is disrupted for just one important donor,
agriculture is affected throughout the country. Such a crisis
occurred in Gambia in 1985.

This paper focuses on the microlevel effects on production and


distribution and the costs of the fertilizer crisis. The
institutional and policy changes that triggered the crisis are
identified. The fertilizer crisis provides a unique basis for
assessing the effects on output and income of more versus less
fertilizer in this West African setting; therefore, primary farm-
survey data collected during the years around the crisis form a basis
for addressing the broader issues of potentials and effects of
increased fertilizer use in a complex production system with communal
and individual farming done separately by men and women farmers who
are both engaged in staple-food and export-crop production.

______________

1
International Food Policy Research Institute, 1776 Massachusetts
Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036, U.S.A.

63
FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE FOREST:
AGRICULTURAL POLICY ON PUBLIC LANDS IN THE PHILIPPINES
1
Eva K. Wollenberg

Agricultural policy and farming systems research have not kept pace
with the rapid spread of farming on public land in recent years. The
land shortage in the private sector of some countries has encouraged
lowland farmers to migrate to more marginal, hilly, yet unoccupied
areas such as public forest lands. There is consequently a need for
public land policy that addresses 1) the concerns of agricultural
productivity, equity, and rural development and 2) the more traditional
concerns of forest- and water-resource conservation. This paper asks
the question: To what extent does agricultural policy on private lands
apply to public lands? The nature of existing agricultural policy on
forest lands is examined in detail for the Philippines.

The evaluation shows that agricultural development on forest lands has


relied heavily on extension work in agroforestry and erosion-control
techniques, community organization, and security of land tenure.
Distinct constraints characterize forest farming; hilly terrain, high
rainfall, poor transportation and market infrastructure, high land-to-
labor ratios, and high household mobility. Existing policy has
institutionalized the marginal status of farmers on public lands and
slowed the full development of their agricultural productive
capacities. Evidence from upland community-development projects shows
that public-land policy has limited the forest farmer's opportunities
for marketing, off-farm income, and equitable distribution of project
benefits. There is consequently a need for farming systems research
and extension (FSR/E) on public forest lands. FSR/E will work most
effectively by observing these public/private land distinctions and
policy constraints.

1
Department of Forestry, 145 Mulford Hall. University of California,
Berkeley, CA 94720, U.S.A.

64
HOW GOVERNMENT FARM PROGRAMS DISCOURAGE SUSTAINABLE CROPPING
SYSTEMS: A U.S. CASE STUDY
1
Douglas L. Young and Walter G. Goldstein

Concern about resource depletion, agrichemical pollution, and recent


severe financial stress in grain-growing regions have renewed interest
in sustainable, low-input, and low-cost farming systems in the U.S.
This interest is strengthened by concern about the political
sustainability of federal farm program outlays of up to $25
billion/year in an era of record federal deficits. For example, in
repeated field trials in the eastern Palouse of Washington State,
winter wheat after black or barrel medic (nitrogen-fixing forage
legumes) grown without fertilizer or herbicides averaged 63
bushels/acre, while wheat grown in conventional grain-intensive
rotations with fertilizer and herbicides averaged 60 bushels/acre. The
medic disrupted disease and weed cycles, which flourish in cereal-
intensive rotations, thereby reducing pesticide as well as fertilizer
requirements. Variable production costs for the legume rotation were
only 44% of those for the conventional system ($56.82 versus
$129.40/acre/year). Despite substantially higher per-acre costs and no
higher grain yields for the conventional system, strong government
price and income supports for wheat and barley make the grain-
intensive rotation consistently more profitable — up to a
$30.82/acre/year advantage. U.S. commodity programs economically
favor high-cost cereal systems because government payments are
proportionate to both the historical ("base") acreage in cereals and
historical ("established") cereal yields. Neither forage nor edible
legumes in the study region have ever been supported by government
programs. A partial equilibrium analysis shows that the legume system
would be more profitable than the conventional system for an effective
wheat price below $3.50/bushel, which considerably exceeds the 1986
local market price of $2.40/bushel but is well under the 1986 and 1987
government target (support) price of $4.38/bushel. Accumulating grain
surpluses and budget deficits in the U.S. are likely to force
continued reevaluation of commodity programs. But concerns about
aggravating financial stress and further decreasing land values in
grain-growing regions will likely slow the phase-out of cereal
commodity programs. This, in turn, will slow transition to sustainable
low-input cropping systems.

1
Department of Agricultural Economics, Washington State University,
Pullman, WA 99164, U.S.A.

65
Blank Page in Original
67
Blank Page in Original
INFLUENCING SMALLHOLDER ANIMAL PRODUCTION THROUGH ON-FARM RESEARCH:
EXPERIENCE FROM INDIA AND PAKISTAN
1
P. Amir

To compare the farm-level performance of cows and buffalo, separate


surveys were conducted in the districts of Faisalabad, Pakistan, and
Karnal, India. Farm-level production functions are discussed in light
of institutional and policy environments that influence the pace of
development in the two countries. Distinct preferences for cows in
India and buffalo in Pakistan are explained by different socioeconomic
factors. Results stress the need for farm-oriented research and
development. While development of commercial dairy farms may be an
appropriate macro objective, the needs of the smallholder
crop/livestock system should not be neglected.

________
1
Winrock International, Route 3, Morrilton, AR 72110, U.S.A.

69
A STRATEGY FOR TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER TO CROP/LIVESTOCK-
PRODUCTION SYSTEMS IN SELECTED REGIONS OF MOROCCO
1 2
Roger E. Banner,
1
Paul Bartel 1
Charles W. Gay, and Dale L. Nolte

Livestock production on communal rangelands of Morocco is of central


importance to the agricultural economy of the country. Forty-five
percent of the rural poor live in the mountain and semiarid regions
where communal rangelands are a major source of forage and livestock
production is preeminent. The sustainable natural resources of these
regions are under considerable pressure due to a number of factors,
including many related to human population increase and inherent
environmental and land-productivity limitations. This, as well as the
existing level of poverty experienced by the agriculturists of these
regions, served as the justification for a project engaged in on-farm
research and extension activities to improve the situation.
We present models of the crop/livestock-production systems derived
from on-farm research that revealed a high level of integration among
diverse sets of agricultural and family enterprises. Most of these
production activities either depend on or serve to provide inputs in
one form or another to the livestock enterprises.

A strategy aimed at dealing with producers in order to create a


cooperative environment for improving large-scale range management on
communal lands was developed. Several forms of on-farm and off-farm
trials served to identify interventions of interest to producers as
well as to identify characteristics of farming units in which they may
be adopted. Further, the traditional tribal organization, cooperatives,
and producer associations served as diffusion domains for these new
approaches.

The discussion serves to suggest that the proper approach to rural


development may not be the development of a “technological package”.
Rather, perhaps a “toolbox” of technologies and methods should be
delivered that provides options to be adopted as is appropriate in a
given setting.

1
Department of Range Science, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-
5230,
2
U.S.A.
Department of Food and Resource Economics, University of Florida,
Gainesville, FL 32608, U.S.A.

70
CROP/LIVESTOCK INTERACTIONS IN BANGLADESH:
NUTRITION AND DRAFT POWER
1
David Barton and David Gibbon

Bangladesh provides a good example of the integration of crop and


livestock production. Cattle depend almost entirely on crop residues
and household wastes for their subsistence. In turn they provide
almost all the power for crop cultivation; dung for manure and fuel;
milk: and calves for meat, sale, or replacement of draft animals.
Despite the importance of cattle to crop production they have been
almost totally ignored by researchers until relatively recently,
earlier research efforts having been directed exclusively at cropping
systems.
The nutrition of draft animals in Bangladesh is today causing some
concern. As farm sizes decrease it becomes increasingly difficult for
a farmer to provide even enough rice straw for his draft animals. Cows
are also increasingly used for draft as well as milk production,
because small farms can no longer maintain bullocks exclusively for
draft. This strategy would appear to be appropriate, but on-station
research implies that lactating draft cows on traditional diets will
suffer from nutritional stress, which will reduce milk production and
extend the calving interval. If cows are used for work on a large
scale (and recent surveys from Kazirshimla FSR site suggest that more
than 50% of all draft animals are cows) the future of the national
herd and supplies of draft power may be threatened.

Any future increase in cropping intensity will improve the fodder


supply by increasing the amount of crop residues available. The fact
that more irrigation will result in fewer legumes being grown but more
rice may have a negative impact on cattle nutrition. The potential for
growing leguminous forage on waste ground is limited because of
problems of ownership and uncontrolled grazing by goats and cattle.
The best prospect for intervention in the system is treating straw
with urea to upgrade it. However, the costs to crop production of
diverting urea to livestock productions have not been calculated.

1
School of Development Studies, University of East Anglia, Norwich
NR4 7TJ, U.K.

71
SHEEP PRODUCTION FROM INTEGRATING LIMITED INTENSIVE
PASTURES WITH RANGELAND IN SOUTH AFRICA
1
David I. Bransby

In the highland regions of Natal, South Africa, sheep farming has


traditionally been extensive and oriented to wool production. Due to
extremely broken topography, very little land is cultivated and most
forage is derived from rangeland. However, good supplies of surface
water offer limited opportunity during the normally dry winter to
irrigate small top- and bottom-land sites that are arable. This study
was aimed at developing a system for producing fat lambs as an
alternative to wool sheep. Limited strategic use of irrigated ryegrass
-clover pastures for growing lambs was integrated with extensive
rangeland for maintaining ewes. A model was developed to predict
animal gain and profit from stocking rate, weaning weight, and
percentage of twins on pasture. This model was subsequently tested on
farms. Depending on stocking rate and weight of lambs at weaning, the
gross margin per ewe ranged from 64 rand/ewe to 89 rand/ewe and the
gross margin per hectare of irrigated pasture from 1254 rand to 2771
rand. This represented a large improvement on the gross margin per
animal for wooled sheep of 21 rand. When tested on farms, predictions
made with the model were slightly low. Fat-lamb production from the
system developed in this study was therefore considered to be an
extremely attractive alternative to wooled-sheep production.

1
Forage-Livestock Management, Department of Agronomy and Soils, Auburn
University, Auburn, AL 36849-4201, U.S.A.

72
QUANTIFYING AND VALUING THE JOINT PRODUCTION OF GRAIN AND
FODDER FROM MAIZE FIELDS IN NORTHERN PAKISTAN
1 2
Derek Byerlee and Muzaffar Iqbal Bhatti

Maize researchers in northern Pakistan have traditionally considered


only grain production when developing and disseminating improved maize
technology. Recent evidence, however, suggests that farmers have
rejected many of the recommended maize practices. They maintain plant
density considerably higher than "optimum" density. This paper reviews
farmers' management of plant density over the season to produce grain,
green fodder, and dry fodder.

Data were generated from a survey of a small sample of farmers visited


at 3-week intervals in four agroclimatlc zones in northern Pakistan.
Information was obtained on plant densities in maize fields and the
composition of fodder given to animals in the preceding week. Grain
and dry fodder yields and plant stand were measured in the field at
harvest time.

Livestock was found to be an important component of the farming


systems with maize thinnings contributing a high share of the fodder
requirements in some months. In particular, in Swat, maize fields
support six buffaloes or cows per hectare. At least 75,000 plants/ha
were removed for green fodder in this area.

Different methods were used to value green and dry fodder. The total
value of fodder production was found roughly equivalent to the value
of grain production. This research has not only helped change
recommendations so that they are more appropriate to farmers but have
also fed back important criteria for development of maize varieties
that meet farmers' grain and fodder needs.

1
The International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), Mexico;
Animal Science Institute, National Agricultural Research Centre,
Islamabad,
2
Pakistan.
Animal Sciences Division, Pakistan Agricultural Research Council
(PARC), P.O. 1031, Islamabad, Pakistán.

73
CROP/LIVESTOCK SYSTEMS RESEARCH IN STA. BARBARA,
PANGASINAN, PHILIPPINES
1 1
Arsenic D. Calub Domingo B. Roxas,
2
and Virgilio R. Carangal

On-farm, crop/livestock systems research is being conducted at Sta.


Barbara, Pangasinan, collaboratively with rice farmers. UPLB, DAF,
and IRRI are jointly implementing a project that seeks to improve
overall farm productivity.

Ex ante evaluation showed rice crops to yield 3 t/ha. Rice straw and
weeds, which comprise the bulk of livestock feed, could only support
the present stocking rate of one animal unit per hectare at a
productivity of less than 0.2 kg/day for growing and (or) fattening
cattle. These cattle are reared 1 to 2 years for total live-weight
gains of 60 kg/year. A year-round feed profile showed the following
average daily feed offered to cattle (kilograms as fed): rice straw
5.6, weeds 7.4, leucaena leaves 0.4, corn stover 0.1, rice bran 0.2,
and salt 0.01. Estimated daily nutrients supplied by the feeds were
3.17 kg total digestible nutrients (TDN) and 0.38 kg crude protein
(CP).

Feed supply interventions are primarily intended to provide more


protein and secondarily to increase the available energy to livestock.
More protein and feed energy will be made available by increasing the
quantity and quality of biomass and by more affectively using the
nutrients in rice straw combined with legume supplements. Rice bran
will be used as a supplement in the finishing ration to improve the
quality of the meat.

Field trials at UPLB and research-managed trials in Sta. Barbara have


shown that siratro intercropped with grain legumes like mungbean and
cowpea adds 2 t DM/ha fodder. This is from three harvests following
the main crop through the dry season without irrigation. The typical
farmer's practice is to plant 0.5 ha mungbean intercropped with
siratro to provide 1 t legume hay to supplement rice straw and weeds.
The experimental 6-month fattening period is designed for 0.5 kg ADG
or 90 kg total live-weight gain.

In addition to biological data, the project collected information on


several related disciplines. Data gathering was restructured so that
an economic evaluation could be conducted. In cooperation with
participating farmers, component trials were conducted on rice,
mungbean, and cowpea varieties; green-manure trials were also
conducted with Sesbania rostrata. Additionally, studies on the
sociological aspects of farming, including the role of women, were
also conducted.

________
1
Rice Farming Systems Program (RFSP), International Rice Research
Institute
2
(IRRI), P.O. Box 933, Manila, Philippines.
Rice Farming Systems Program (RFSP), P.O. Box 933, Manila,
Philippines.

74
AN ECONOMIC EVALUATION OP SELECTING GRAZING SYSTEMS
FOR FORAGE-FED BEEF
1
James A. Duffield and Bill R. Miller

Unstable grain prices and increasing consumer demand for lean meat
have led researchers to study the production and marketing of beef fed
more forage and less grain. Little research has been conducted on
these topics because consumers in the past demanded grain-finished
beef with appreciable amounts of fat.

The research that we are proposing uses a systems approach to provide


information for developing new markets and to increase production
efficiency of lean beef. The objective of the research is to develop
and implement a Monte Carlo linear-programming system to evaluate
managerial decisions in beef/forage-production systems subject to
uncertain variation in beef and grain prices and forage yields. The
economic conditions required to provide dependable supplies of forage-
fed beef will be identified using data from the experimental pasture
systems developed at the Eatonton, Georgia, experiment station.

1
Department of Agricultural Economics, Room 301, Conner Hall,
University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, U.S.A.

75
PARTITIONING POULTRY-PRODUCTION SYSTEMS INTO
RECOMMENDATION DOMAINS
1 1
Thomas R, Fattori, F, B. Mather,
2
and F, E. Hildebrand

Most farming systems in the world include poultry as a subsystem.


Poultry is an important source of animal protein or income for the
farm family. As poultry production evolves from a
semiconfined/scavenger subsystem to a confined/feeding subsystem, feed
quality and environmental stresses become issues of primary concern.
A study simulating broiler/grower conditions incorporated
environmental variation into the research design. This provided a
means for partitioning growers into homogeneous production
environments (recommendation domains). Also, it enabled a more
accurate evaluation of experimental feed treatments and resulted in
feeding recommendations appropriate to specific groups of
broiler/growers. Of all the variables in the environmental matrix,
house temperature was the most important due to its effect on feed
intake and thus weight gain. The simulation study was conducted in a
broiler house with 64 pens (research domain). Each environment was a
randomized complete block of eight feed treatments. Broiler gain
response to alternate feed ingredients (milo and peanut meal) was the
production criterion used to evaluate four isocaloric protein
treatments fed in both mash and pellet form. Four "poor" environments
experienced higher ambient temperatures created by closing the window
flaps, while the flaps in the remaining four "good" environments were
open. Modified stability analysis combined with graphic frequency
distribution of confidence intervals was used to visualize the
differences in the broiler gain response to treatments in "good" and
"poor" environments and to make recommendations specific to
environment or recommendation domain. This simulation could be
representative of farms with different housing designs or farms at
different elevations and resulted in higher protein recommendations
for "poor" environments. The ability to partition a broiler research
domain was demonstrated and indicates that research conducted by
simulating a well-characterized production system can be a practical
approach to technology generation.

1
Poultry Science Department, Mehrhof Building, University of Florida,
Gainesville,
2
FL 32611. U.S.A.
Food and Resource Economics, 2126 McCarty Hall, University of
Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, U.S.A.

76
THE HOMESTEAD IN FSR:
STRATEGIES AND EXPERIENCES FROM BANGLADESH
1
Robert E. Hudgens, M. Z.2 Abedin,
and M. H. Khan

Increasing population pressures and subsequent land fragmentation have


resulted in a large and growing number of small, marginal, and
landless farmers throughout Asia. It is widely accepted that the
"homestead" production unit, consisting of the dooryard garden,
multipurpose trees (including bamboo), farm animals, and occasionally
a fish pond, contributes significantly to family nutrition and income
on these landholdings. In Bangladesh, as in other countries, initial
farming systems research tended to overlook the homestead subsystem
because of its disciplinary complexity. Numerous isolated studies
were conducted on specific components of the homestead subsystem, but
few attempted to identify system interactions.
This paper, which was written originally as an internal discussion
paper for the National Coordinated Farming Systems Research Programme
of the Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council (BARC), describes the
strategies and institutional coordination involved in a national
effort to improve homestead production. The differentiation of
homesteads within each agroclimatic zone on the basis of resource base
and urban influences is presented, along with an overview of gender
issues in decision-making and the allocation of family labor within
the homestead.

Specific attention is given to the crop (vegetables, tubers, spices,


etc.), forestry (fruit trees, timber, fuelwood, etc.), and livestock
(ruminant and nonruminant) components of homestead production, as well
as to the principal system interactions that have been identified.
Homestead outputs in terms of family nutrition and income generation
are discussed, particularly in reference to current FSR activities in
vegetable production, the treatment of rice straw with urea to
increase the digestibility and nutritive value of the fodder for
ruminants, and beekeeping. Operational constraints and the
prioritization of potential FSR interventions for future work are also
discussed.

1
Rural Route 9, Greenbriar, Apt. D-l, Carbondale, IL 62901, U.S.A.
2
National Coordinated Farming Systems Research Programme, BARC, Dhaka-
15, Bangladesh.

77
A SYSTEMS MODEL FOR SOUTHERN U.S. FARMS

Michael W. Jenkins, E. O. 1 Ospina,


and E. K. Byington

The southern United States has a highly diversified and productive


agricultural and natural resource base. The region has accounted for
over one-fourth of U.S. sales of agricultural commodities in recent
years. About one-half of the nation's beef cows are in the region, and
contribute substantially to southern agriculture. The economic
performance of the forage/livestock system has been hampered by low
growth in demand and falling output prices, inefficient use of inputs,
and other related problems common to the rest of U.S. agriculture. An
important issue is the identification of the constraints that directly
affect profitability of farming enterprises. A farming-systems linear-
programming model was developed and applied to sites in the Mid-South.
The model was designed to integrate major farm enterprises (crops,
livestock, forestry), as well as different stages within enterprises
(cow-calf, stocker and feeder cattle). It specifically addresses
issues of complementarity among enterprises for livestock production
(hay and crop production for winter feed), multispecies livestock
grazing (cattle, sheep), and efficient input use (rental versus
ownership of costly farm equipment). The results of the model indicate
that key factors affecting the economic profitability of the region's
farms include hay price, quality, and availability; low utilization of
legumes and native forages; labor availability; cost of capital; size
of holdings; and management skills for integrated use. Issues
associated with developing research strategies to enhance the economic
performance of southern U.S. farms are identified through analysis
with the model.

1
Winrock International, Route 3, Morrilton, AR 72110, U.S.A.

78
INTEGRATION OF IMPROVED PASTURES IN SMALLHOLDER
DAIRY PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
1 2 3
Doyle M. A. Kalumbi, C. C.
4
Mayo, , Thomas E.5 Gillard-Byers
C. Mhango, and A. W. Kayange

A researcher-extension/farmer-managed trial was carried out in the


Dowa West/East Rural Development Project of Kasungu Agricultural
Development Division (KADD) in Malawi, Africa, using CIMMYT OFR/FSP
methodology. The main research thrust was an integrated maize/forage-
improvement program designed to improve low-quality, inadequate dairy
feed supply during the dry season.

The initial intervention was based on three pasture enterprises. These


included pure Rhodes grass, Rhodes grass with common Centrosema, and
Rhodes grass with Silverleaf. Each forage and forage combination was
undersown in maize following the first maize weeding.
Results showed limited forage production during establishment.
However, during the second season forage yields of up to 3.8
tonnes/ha, 4 tonnes/ha, and 6 tonnes/ha were obtained for Rhodes
grass, Rhodes grass with Centrosema, and Rhodes grass with Silverleaf,
respectively. These qualities represent a hay supply lasting 5, 6, and
8 months, respectively, for the typical smallholder dairy operation in
KADD.

Farmer participation and acceptance was excellent. The links that have
been developed among the adaptive-research team, the range and
pastures commodity group, extension personnel, and the farmer have
resulted in a successful application of farming systems methodology.
Two of the major constraints facing the crop/dairy-livestock farming
system in KADD may be reduced by this cooperative research program.

1
Kasunga Agricultural Development Division, P.O. Box 92, Lilongwe,
Malawi.
2
Department of Agronomy, Throckmorton Hall, Kansas State University,
Manhattan,
3
KS 66506, U.S.A.
CID/MARE Project, Adaptive Research Coordinating Unit, Chitedze
Research Station, Box 158, Lilongwe, Malawi.
4
Pasture Commodity Group, Chitedze Research Station, Box 158, Lilongwe,
Malawi.
5
Adaptive Research Program, Dowa East/West Agriculture Development
Project, Box 11, Mpoela, Malawi.

79
A BIOECONOMIC SIMULATION MODEL OF BEEF, FORAGE, AND
GRAIN PRODUCTION IN WESTERN CANADA
1 2
K, K, Klein and B. H. Sonntag

A simulation model was developed that incorporates complex biological,


physical, and economic interrelationships in the production of beef,
forage, and grains. It is a systems model that emphasizes the
multidisciplinary nature of the production of these commodities. The
time-dependent processes of production are made explicit in the model.

The model can simulate a wide array of production and management


strategies over a 10-year planning horizon. This accommodates the
biological time lags in beef production, as well as the interyear
variation in grain and forage production.

The model includes items of a personal and nonfarm nature, which


permit analyses of the total farm system.

Each of the production alternatives is associated with specified input


requirements during the various stages of the biological
transformation process. These inputs are organized into particular
types of jobs, e.g., calving, baling, planting. The model is divided
into 26 biweekly periods for each year of operation. The jobs are
specified by period.

Six principal methods of producing beef are included in the model,


with numerous options for breeding, shelter, and feeding. The model
can also incorporate different types of pasture and growing seasons as
well as different methods and levels of pasture improvement in the
analysis. The model also permits selection from among five types of
hay and seven methods of harvesting hay.

The systems model provides many opportunities for teaching farm-


management principles in the classroom. In extension, the model can
be used to analyze a wide variety of management and investment
strategies. The model has been used as a research tool to:

1. assist in the planning and direction of applied research


2. assist in the evaluation of applied research results
3. examine farm-level effects of various policy alternatives
4. prepare computer budgets for aggregate programming models

1
Department of Economics, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge,
Alberta, Canada T1K 3M4.
2
Agriculture Canada Research Station, Swift Current, Saskatchewan,
Canada.

80
THE NEPALESE SAMUHIK BHRAMAN APPROACH TO ON-FARM RESEARCH
PRIORITIZATION, COORDINATION, AND EVALUATION
1 2
S. B. Mathema,2 M. P. Panth, 3
R. C. Hawkins, and D. L. Galt

The Cropping Systems Program (CSP) began in Nepal in early 1977 and by
1980 had spread to six sites, ranging from the Tarai to the Mid Hills.
Relatively quickly, improved technologies were identified for the
Tarai, were extended by a production program to farmers in similar
areas, and now cover 100,000 ha in the Tarai and a few Mid Hill
districts.

In the early to mid-1980s, research from the Mid Hill CS sites


revealed two important facts; 1) when tested under farmers'
conditions, suitable varieties were generally unavailable, and 2) the
cropping systems in these areas are quite complex and intimately
related to both the livestock and forestry components of the overall
farming system. For these reasons, a supporting USAID project (the
Agricultural Research and Production Project, or ARPP) has the
specific mandate to integrate crops, livestock, agroforestry, and
production into farm-level research via farming systems research
(FSR).

A dominant early part of ARPP/HMG/N field methodology involves the


change from uncoordinated FSR site visits by researchers to dependence
on a multidisciplinary group visit, the Samuhik Bhraman. This visit
combines rapid rural appraisal (RRA) with trial design and assignment
of research trial responsibilities. The Samuhik Bhraman integrates
crop, livestock, agroforestry, and extension professionals with
farmers to 1) describe existing agricultural systems and problems; 2)
develop research to address problems; 3) prioritize proposed research
activities; 4) confirm research priorities with farmers; 5) prepare a
draft of the Samuhik Bhraman report in the field; and 6) assign
responsibility for each trial proposed for the work year.

The experiences of three Samuhik Bhraman between October 1986 and


February 1987 have confirmed the flexibility of the multidisciplinary
group visits. This RRA-cum-research design and planning approach 1)
involves both male and female farmers, 2) is multidisciplinary, 3) can
be completed in 4 to 6 days in the field, and 4) does not confuse FSR
site coordinators with diverse and disjointed suggestions and
recommendations.

1
Soclo-Economic Research and Extension Division (SERED), Khumaltar,
Lalitpur, Nepal.
2
Farming Systems Research and Development Division (FSRDD), Department
of
3
Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture, Khumaltar, Lalitpur, Nepal.
Agricultural Research and Production Project (ARPP), Socio-Economic
Research and Extension Division (SERED), Khumaltar, Lalitpur, Nepal.

81
PATTERNS OF CHANGE IN A CROP/LIVESTOCK FARMING SYSTEM
1
Keith M. Moore and Kay Decker Turner

This paper examines the development of integrated crop/livestock


operations in four contiguous counties of northwestern Oklahoma. The
data for this study came from agricultural censuses and qualitative
interviews with operators and extension agents. The focus is on the
determinants of changes in the relationship between crop and livestock
production since the 1920s. The primary variables considered are
shifts in commodity prices, technological innovations in crop and
livestock production, processing and marketing, and the supply of and
demand for labor. The analysis demonstrates the importance of these
system variables in the integration of crop and livestock operations
at the farm level and indicates the patterns of system change.

1
Department of Sociology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK
74076, U.S.A.

82
LABOR AVAILABILITY AND USE IN CROP/LIVESTOCK
FARMING SYSTEMS IN WESTERN KENYA
1
Adrian W. Mukhebi, Tom W. Conelly,2
Luke A. Oyugi, and Henk Knipscheer

The Small Ruminant Collaborative Research Support Program (SR-CRSP) is


evaluating dual-purpose goat (DPG) production systems in order to
increase production of food protein through milk and meat and to
improve cash flow through marketable goats and goat products in
intensive small-scale farming systems in western Kenya. This paper
assesses household labor supply and demand by various crop and
livestock (including DPG) enterprises and off-farm activities as part
of this evaluation. Seasonal variations in labor availability and use,
the changing pattern of demand for labor that accompanies the
development of an intensive cut-and-carry management system, and the
division of household labor by sex and age are analyzed. The
implications of this information for the adoption of a DPG production
system by small-scale farmers are discussed.

1
SR-CRSP, P.O. Box 252, Maseno, Kenya.
2
Winrock International, Route 3, Morrilton, AR 72110, U.S.A.

83
RISK-RETURN TRADEOFFS OF BEEF-FORAGE PASTURING SYSTEMS
UNDER WEATHER AND PRICE UNCERTAINTY
1 1
Lucas D. Parsch, W. Michael2
Watts,
and Otto J. Loewer

The biophysical model GRAZE is used to simulate pasture growth and


animal weight gain for steers summer-pastured on common Bermudagrass
in western Arkansas (United States). Animal weight gains and economic
performance of nine rotational grazing systems are compared to the
simulated performance of a continuously grazed pasture for low,
medium, and high stocking rates. Sensitivity of the performance of
each pasture system to weather and market risk is assessed for 13
"states of nature" using historical weather and price data. Results
indicate that 1) grazing systems with the highest expected net returns
are not identical to those systems with the highest animal weight
gains, and that 2) risk considerations may influence some producers to
select a rotational system.

1
Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology, Agriculture
Building, Room 221, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701,
U.S.A.
2
Agricultural Engineering, University of Arkansas, 101 Agricultural
Engineering Building, Fayetteville, AR 72701, U.S.A.

84
ALTERNATIVE PRODUCTION SYSTEMS:
POULTRY -- A CASE STUDY
1 2
V. L. Prasad and V. M. Rao

Three alternative production systems for poultry rearing in the


context of poverty alleviation were analyzed and a dynamic model was
proposed. Poultry farming as a component of integrated rural
development was aggressively taken up by Government of India. Loan-
linked, subsidy-oriented poultry units of various sizes were given to
individuals to manage. The results, however, were highly
disappointing. Mortality of the birds was high and productivity very
low. To overcome the situation an innovative management style called
"poultry orchards" has been tried in Andhra Pradesh, a state in
southern India. To this end, groups of 30 to 40 landless laborers were
organized. Each member of the group was provided with a 500-layer
unit. The poultry sheds were all built in one complex. Technical
supervision, supplies, and marketing were arranged. The results did
show improvement over individually managed units but the model
suffered from a high degree of paternalism. Over time, the
beneficiaries developed inefficient management practices and the
initiative was lost. An alternative collective approach has recently
been tried. Groups of rural women residing in close-knit colonies were
identified, organized, and trained to raise improved strains of
poultry. These women, 30 in each group, were helped to develop 220-
layer units. Poultry sheds were built with a loan from a commercial
bank. This system of rearing showed remarkable improvement in
technical performance. The organizational aspects and the implications
are discussed.

1
Centre for Micro Planning, National Institute of Rural Development,
Rajendranagar, Hyderabad-500 030, India.
2
National Institute of Rural Development, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad-500
030, India.

85
EFFECTS OF MANURE APPLICATION HATE ON ORCHARDGRASS
ALFALFA HAY COMPOSITION
1
Jerry M. Rakes

Manure from a dairy lot was applied at 100 tons/acre and 10 tons/acre
prior to sowing Boone orchardgrass and Victoria alfalfa. Manure was
incorporated during soil preparation; Soil was predominantly Pickwick
silt loam, well drained, red subsoil, 1% to 3% slope. Captina silt
loam and Johnsbury silt loam were also present in the experimental
field. Average pH and percentage of organic matter after manure was
applied were 7.53 and 2.12 for 100-ton treatments and 7.55 and 1.95
for 10-ton treatments. Average pounds per acre after manure
application for the 100-ton treatment were phosphorous 160+, potassium
873, sodium 873, and magnesium 240. Average pounds per acre for 10-ton
treatment were phosphorous 157, potassium 348, sodium 97, and
magnesium 160. Heavy application of manure increased organic matter
by 0.17% and decreased pH by 0.02. The 10-ton treatment yielded 2.43
tons/acre; the 100-ton treatment yielded 2.85 tons/acre. Proximate
analyses of 10-ton-treatment hay were protein 10.44%, ether extract
4.87%, crude fiber 30.31%, and ash 8.43%. Analyses of 100-ton-
treatment hay were protein 12.36%, ether extract 5.15%, crude fiber
29.09%, and ash 9.03%. Yield was consistently higher with the higher
level of manure applications in all three cuttings. Unfavorable
weather lowered the average yield below that for normal years. Cattle
waste can be used to increase yields if it is balanced with limited
commercial fertilization. No adverse effects were detected in plant
growth or nutrient composition. Application at the highest
experimental rate is not recommended.

1
Department of Animal Sciences, 104 Animal Science Building, University
of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, U.S.A.

86
BROILER LITTER/MILO AS A SUPPLEMENT FOR STOCKERS GRAZING RYE:
EFFECT OF STOCKING RATE AND LITTER/FORAGE INTERACTION
1
Rich Russell and Jerry Van Dyke

Annual rye is a cover crop for peanut land in the Wiregrass region of
Alabama. The rye can be grazed for approximately 100 days a year
during the grazing season. The objective was to determine stocking
rate for this land if a 70% TDN mixture of broiler litter and milo is
offered ad libitum to stocker steers. Forty-two steers were assigned
randomly to seven treatment groups of six steers each. Stocking rates
ranged from 3.1 to 10.5 steers/ha at 1.9-steer/ha increments. Control
treatments were 3.1 steers/ha without supplement and steers in drylot
fed only supplement. Initial live weights averaged 208 kg. The trial
lasted 104 days. The average daily gain (ADG) was 0.68 kg/day for
steers in drylot, 0.79 kg/day for the 3.1 steers/ha without
supplement, and 1.47 kg/day for the steers with supplement. This
demonstrated a significant biological supplement/forage interaction
(LSD = 0.26 at P = 0.05). Supplement intake by grazing cattle was
approximately half that of cattle in drylot. For supplemented grazing
cattle, ADG response
2
to
3
stocking
2
rate(s) was ADG (kg/day) = 1.04 +
0.79S - 0.42S + 0.053 (R 0.9998 and P<0.1 for all regression
parameters). Gain
2
per3 hectare
2
(G) was described by the model G = -1209
+ 2733S - 873S + 99S (R = 0.9996 and P<0.1 for all regression
parameters). Supplement intake (7.5 + 0.6 kg/day was not affected by S
(P = 0.18). Supplement2 consumed per gain (C) increased with increasing
S (C = 2.82 + 1.40S; R = 0.92 and P<0.5 for regression parameters).
Income over feed cost per hectare was not significantly affected by S
but tended to plateau after 4.9 steers/ha. It was concluded that 5 to
6 steers/ha is the most profitable stocking rate for stockers
supplemented with litter/milo while grazing rye.

1
Department of Animal and Dairy Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL
36849-4201, U.S.A.

87
A SIMULATION MODEL OF ALTERNATIVE BEEF-PRODUCTION
SYSTEMS FOR THE SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES
1 2
Rich Russell and Jerry Crews

The extensive fescue acreage in the southeastern United States


overlaps poultry- and cotton-production regions. Models were developed
to incorporate poultry and cotton wastes into the existing fescue-
based beef-production system. All systems had initial constraints of
60 cow-calf units and 200 acres of fescue. Over 100 management
activities were available in the management model. The conventional
system grazed the 60 cow-calf units at 1 unit/acre and purchased no
additional cows. The 60 cows produced 27 steer and 15 heifer calves.
The heifers were sold at weaning (September and October) and the
steers were kept as stockers to 800 lbs at 1.3 head/acre fescue. An
additional 158 steers were purchased (September and October) as
stockers, producing 182 feeder steers for sale in May and June. Return
to land, management, and capital was $31,000 per year. Providing the
option to supplement with corn and broiler litter changed the
solution. The brood herd was expanded to 148 cow-calf units, 109 units
at 1.5 units/acre and 39 units at 2.5 units/acre. The 37 heifer
calves were kept as stockers (with supplement) at 2 head/acre,
producing fat cattle in March and April. An additional 123 stocker
steers were purchased (September and October) and stocked at 2
head/acre with supplement along with the 66 raised steer calves,
producing 186 fat steers in March and April. Return to land,
management, and capital was $68,000 per year. Including the options
of feeding broiler litter, whole cottonseed, and milo resulted in a
solution similar to the corn/litter option. The 148-cow brood herd was
stocked at 1.5 head/acre and raised calves were kept as stockers (with
supplement) at 2 head/acre, producing fat cattle in March and April.
Stocker steers were purchased for drylot; 108 in July and August, and
38 in November and December, and sold as fat cattle in March and
April, and July and August. An additional 66 stockers were purchased
(September and October) and were carried at 1.3 head/acre without
supplement to 800 lbs and fattened in drylot for sale in September and
October. Return to land, management, and capital was $78,000 per year.
Full adoption of the alternative models in Alabama would provide 4,000
farm-level jobs and quadruple the packing industry.

1
Department of Animal Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849-
4201,
2
U.S.A.
Department of Agricultural Economics, Auburn University, Auburn, AL
36849-4201, U.S.A.

88
USE OF AGRO-INDUSTRIAL BY-PRODUCTS AS RUMINANT FEED
IN SMALLHOLDER FARMING SYSTEMS
1
M. Saadullah

This paper discusses the constraints of livestock production in the


farming system of Bangladesh. The major constraint on ruminant
production is the severe scarcity of feed. Various opportunities for
improving the supply and quality of feed exist in the country. For
example, rice straw, a fibrous crop by-product, has been shown to be
nutritionally adequate when properly supplemented and (or) treated
with urea. Technologies of rice straw and molasses feeding are
identified for ruminant feeding in the farming system. Several of the
available feeding technologies need to be tested on the farm or to be
verified. A few are even ready for implementation by the extension
organization. The successful implementation and the adoption by the
farmers of the recommended technologies depend upon the
appropriateness of the technology, the production system, and the
availability of resources. Results from different experiments with
ruminants fed urea-treated straw, and also with urea/molasses blocks,
are presented.

1
Department of Animal Science, Agricultural University, Mymensingh,
Bangladesh.

89
INCORPORATION OF WATER-BALANCE LOGIC INTO
A SELECTIVE GRAZING MODEL
1 1 2
H. D. Scott, J. Costello,
1
C. J. 3West,
O. J. Loewer, and L. Parsch

The computer model GRAZE was modified to account for daily variations
in soil water and its effect on forage productivity. The soil/water-
balance logic modified the predicted yields and growth of forages such
as bermudagrass and tall fescue. Comparisons were made of the new and
old versions of the model on a 5-year data set obtained under field
conditions. Significant improvement was found in the ability of the
new version to approximate crop growth over the previous version of
the model, which contained no water-balance logic. Simulation of
forage growth using 25 years of weather in Arkansas showed that
significantly different results would be predicted by the new version
of the model. These results translated to differences in predicted
stocking rates and animal performances. Selected boundary years that
had either dry or wet growing seasons will be used to demonstrate the
predictive ability of the models.

1
Department of Agricultural Engineering, 101 Agricultural Engineering
Building,
2
University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, U.S.A.
Department of Agronomy, Plant Science 115, University of Arkansas,
Fayetteville,
3
AR 72701, U.S.A.
Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology, 221
Agriculture Building, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701,
U.S.A.

90
INTERACTION OF DUAL-PURPOSE GOATS WITH
SUBSISTENCE CROPS AND WEEDS
1
P. P. Semenye, L. Musalia, K. 2Otieno,
M. Onim, and H. Fitzhugh

The Small Ruminant Collaborative Research Support Program (SR-CRSP) has


been conducting farming systems research directed toward introducing
dual-purpose goats to enhance household nutrition and cash flow in
western Kenya.

This paper presents results on how sweet potato (Ipomea batatus), a


dual-purpose crop; maize stover (Zea mays), a crop residue; and couch
grass (Digitaria scalarum), a weed, are used to enhance goat pro-
duction for both milk and meat, on small-scale farms in western Kenya.
Leaves and vines of sweet potato (SPV) are used for creep feeding and
as a proteinaceous supplement for lactating does. SPV qualified in
these roles because of its digestibility of 68% and its crude protein
content of 20%, and because it ranked number one in palatability among
six proteinaceous fodders.

Maize stover, a crop residue of the staple crop in western Kenya, is


available in quantities of one or more tons per farm annually. Results
are presented to demonstrate how its intake and use can be enhanced
through treatment with molasses and common table salt, and by feeding
it in combination with proteinaceous forages.

Couch grass, which is a notorious weed, is used as a livestock feed.


It ranked first in palatability among common grass forages of western
Kenya. Due to its palatability and high nutritive value, it is
recommended for feeding goats and other livestock, after it is weeded
from food crops.

Finally, the results of on-farm and on-station performance of dual-


purpose goats are compared.

1
Dual-Purpose Goat Production Systems Project, P.O. Box 252, Maseno,
Kenya.
2
Winrock International, Route 3, Morrilton, AR 72110, U.S.A.

91
FARMING SYSTEMS RESEARCH AND EXTENSION:
INTRODUCING OXEN CULTIVATION IN ZAIREAN FARMING SYSTEMS
1
Lianabo Simba

Zaire was self-sufficient in food production before gaining independence


in 1960. One of the reasons cited for the subsequent decline in
production was the lack of an effective research and extension effort
during the colonial era and inappropriate research methodology during
the postcolonial period.

A review of the literature on the introduction of oxen in sub-Saharan


Africa and on farming systems research and extension in Africa
indicates that the research methodology used in the postcolonial
period is appropriate for small-scale farmers. At the present stage of
Zairian agricultural development, the hypothesis that cultivation by
oxen is the most appropriate technology for the development of the
Zairian agriculture was analyzed using budget analysis.

Comparisons of production and returns of extensive technology using


animal traction with intensive technology (high-yielding varieties of
cassava) developed by the Cassava Outreach Project were made using
budget and risk analyses. Results indicated that a higher profit was
generated by using oxen for cultivation and that the use of animal
traction was associated with a higher level of risk aversion among
small farmers in Mvuazi in Bas Zaire Province.

1
Projet National Manioc, B.P. 11635. Kinshasa 1, Zaire,

92
A FARMING SYSTEMS APPROACH TO AN INTERVENTION
IN LIVESTOCK PRODUCTIVITY:
RESULTS FROM PANAMA TRIALS
1 2
James R. Simpson and Michael Sands

Farming systems work has been concentrated almost exclusively on crops.


One exception is draft animals, due to their important role in cropping.
Yet, even there little attention has been given to testing
interventions. One reason livestock have not been dealt with to a
greater extent is their small numbers per farm. This makes experimental
design difficult and standard statistical analysis almost impossible.
The research results reported in this paper deal directly with
procedures to overcome statistical difficulties and to evaluate
methodologies for introducing interventions into livestock systems.
Trials were conducted on more than 25 small, medium, and large farms in
Panama from 1984 to 1987, involving nearly 1,000 head of cattle. Use of
anabolics (growth promoters) was the intervention tested in a classical
FSR/E approach. Results are evaluated using the modified stability-
analysis technique developed by Hildebrand.

1
Food and Resource Economics, 1113 McCarty Hall, University of Florida,
Gainesville, FL 32611, U.S.A.
2
Rodale Institute, 222 Main Street, Emmaus, PA 18049, U.S.A.

93
CROP RESIDUES AND BY-PRODUCTS IN ANIMAL FEED
1 1
Odie T. Stallcup.
2
D. W. Kellogg, 3
P. Chairatanayuth, and L. B. Daniels

The use of crop residues and by-products in animal feed has been an
important area of research at the University of Arkansas. Alkali
treatment of rice straw increased DE from 1,683 Kcal/kg (control) to
1,704 Kcal/kg (5% NaOH) to 1,963 Kcal/kg (5% NaOH + hemicellulase).
Treatment with 30% water and 3% anhydrous ammonia increased dry matter
digestibility (DMD) from 48.6% to 57% in wheat straw; 44.9% to 55% in
rice straw; 1.7% to 13.9% in rice hulls; 32.4% to 41.9% in peanut
hulls; 19.1% to 28% in cottonseed hulls; and 40.4% to 52.1% in soybean
straw. Grain sorghum stalk residues harvested when grain moisture was
30% averaged 7.2% protein (CP) and 64.8% TDN; residues from stalks
harvested when grain moisture was less than 15% averaged 4.9% CP and
50.2% DMD; weathered stover averaged 5.3% CP and 46.1% DMD. The
addition of urea to wheat straw increased TDN from 45.1% to 55.1% when
fed to steers. Soybean mill run (SMR) averaged 16.2% CP and 67.6% TDN
in digestion trials. A trial conducted with lactating cows resulted in
milk production of 15.8 kg/cow/day and 16 kg/cow/day, respectively,
when SMR made up 15% and 40% of the concentrate fed. In a wintering
trial, steers fed protein supplement plus cottonseed hulls (CH), SMR,
CH + 0.9 kg corn/day, and SMR + 0.9 kg corn/day gained 32.3 kg, 81.8
kg, 55.9 kg, and 91.4 kg in 168 days, respectively. Cotton field
refuse, rice mill feed, cottonseed hulls, and rice bran have been used
in maintenance and growing diets and perform satisfactorily when
properly supplemented. Fattening steers have performed well when
broiler-house litter made up 25% of the diet, and beef cows have
performed well when litter made up 80% of the diet. Cannery refuse,
wood by-products, corn gluten feed, grape pomace, peanut skins, cane
bagasse, and cotton-gin trash have been studied also. In this paper
the authors will summarize, in a form useful for models and systems
analysis, the available data on crop residues and by-products.

1
Department of Animal Sciences, 104 Animal Science Building, University
of
2
Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, U.S.A.
Animal Sciences Department, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand.
3
Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville,
AR 72701, U.S.A.

94
ALTERNATIVES FOR IMPROVING THE USE OF THE LABOR FORCE
IN SMALL PRODUCTION UNITS IN THE MEXICAN TROPICS
1
S. Uribe, A. Turrent, R. Camacho,
and N. Estrella

There is high seasonal variability in labor requirements on Mexican


small-scale farming units. This is because periods of intense activity
(crop planting and harvesting) are interspersed with periods of low or
no activity. The objectives of a 6-year research project prompted by
this situation were 1) to analyze the results of introducing farming
machinery on seasonal labor requirements and 2) to study the labor
force displaced by the machinery. The research focused on four
families that used the machinery for 4 years, showing that the
machinery reduced the seasonal variability of labor requirements and
increased the area under cultivation. In addition, people who lost
their jobs because of the machinery moved into animal husbandry. That
is, when the need for labor in crop production decreased, cattle
raising, which has high labor requirements, increased. Thus a more
uniform use of the labor force was achieved.

1
Centro de Edafología, Colegio de Postgraduados, Chapingo, México.

95
METHODOLOGIES AND STATISTICAL DESIGN FOR ON-FARM TRIALS WITH CATTLE
1 2
N. Vignarajah and M. Rahman Khan

Limited experience and knowledge exist in Bangladesh and elsewhere


relating to on-farm animal trials. For the first time at an FSR site
in Bangladesh, objectively organized and statistically designed
studies commenced at Jamalpur in 1986. In Bangladesh, the livestock
enterprise is on a household (only 1.6 cattle per family at the
Jamalpur site) rather than a commercial basis. This paper deals with
constraints encountered, and suggests methodologies and a statistical
design to overcome them.

The first experiment was designed to evaluate the isolated and


combined effects of urea-treated straw and anthalmentics on milk
yield. Ten animals were independently assigned to each of the two
treatments and to a control group.
Various factors confounded the experiment. Outstanding among these
were the unavailability of sufficient uniform samples at a given time
and the effect of season on animal performance. Time and season have
a strong bearing on availability of feed, disease incidence, parasite
infestation, time available to the farmer for animal care, and whether
the animal (even cows in Bangladesh) is used for draft.

The first step to overcoming such constraints is to test only one


technology at a time. Simple methods have to be adopted to record milk
yield, feed intake, and weight gain. Then, a simple and statistically
correct procedure would be to include all animals due for parturition
in one group. As parturition takes place, assign cows alternately to be
fed urea-treated straw, for example, and to the control group, thus
effectively pairing animals. Consequently, parturition and management
of each pair occurs at the same time. The statistical techniques that
will be used to compare treatments will be analysis of variance and t
tests.

1
Formerly Regional Agricultural Research Station, Jamalpur, Bangladesh;
currently
2
27 Rhaasingha Road, Colombo 6, Sri Lanka.
Regional Agricultural Research Station, Jamalpur, Bangladesh.

96
FEEDING UREA-TREATED STRAW TO LACTATING COWS
1 2
N. Vignarajah, M. Rahman
2
Khan,
and G. Moula

Seventy-seven percent of the cultivable area in Bangladesh is under


rice. Rice straw accounts for 30% to 90% of cattle feed, according to
different estimates. Nutrition and veterinary care are the critical
constraints in cattle improvement. Feeding urea-treated straw to
cattle will be the first logical step in cattle improvement. Urea-
treated straw increases digestability, crude protein content, and
voluntary uptake.

Investigations were conducted at the Jamalpur (Bangladesh) FSR site to


evaluate the technical feasibility and economic viability of the
technology. Since the most visible impact of the technology is on milk
yield, the experiment was conducted with lactating cows. Intestinal
parasites are known to heavily infest cattle in Bangladesh and the
effect of urea-treated straw could be marred by such infestations.
Therefore, 10 animals were treated with anthalmentics and fed urea-
treated straw, 10 animals were fed only urea-treated straw, and 10
animals were used as controls.

It was not possible to select 30 cows with calves at the commencement


of the experiment. Therefore, 30 cows at various stages of lactation
were assigned to the three treatments. As far as possible, the
proportion of cows in different stages of lactation were balanced
across treatments.

Animals that were dewormed and fed urea-treated straw recorded a 7%


mean daily increase in milk yield, compared to a 5% increase for
animals fed with urea-treated straw only. The weight gain recorded for
these two groups were 4% and 2%, respectively. When the cows were used
for draft, the milk yield of control animals decreased by 20% the
following day, whereas the reduction was only 10% for cows fed urea-
treated straw. At the early stages of lactation, the cost-benefit
ratio of the technology was 3:4.

1
Formerly Regional Agricultural Research Station, Jamalpur, Bangladesh;
currently 27 Rhaasingha Road, Colombo 6, Sri Lanka.
2
Regional Agricultural Research Station, Jamalpur, Bangladesh.

97
TRENDS OF CHANGE IN A FARMING SYSTEM IN THE
EASTERN HIGHLANDS OF ETHIOPIA:
THE LIMITS OF CROP/LIVESTOCK INTEGRATION
1
Hervé Wibaux

This paper is based on results from the FSR project carried out with
French assistance at the Alemaya University of Agriculture in the
Ethiopian Eastern Highlands.

The Eastern Highlands region, although under great pressure, is self-


sufficient in food production. This is partly due to complex
combinations of crop and livestock enterprises that efficiently use
available resources. A rapidly increasing population, however, creates
new limitations by decreasing the amount of land that can be devoted
to production. The consequences for land preparation, sowing dates,
and the use of labor are analyzed in detail.
An historical perspective is valuable in that it can reveal the
relationships between crop and livestock subsystems. The study of six
farms led to the identification of three key factors that affect farm
productivity: access to land, to irrigation, and to the t'chat (Catha
edulis) market. The increasing population density is increasing the
number of small farms. Although small-scale farmers receive low
returns, they remain in agriculture because there are few
alternatives.

Even if farmers' circumstances are considered, research cannot help


but be unproductive if trends and differences among farms are not
understood.

1
Groupe de Recherche et D'Echanges Technologiques (GRET), 213, rue La
Fayette 75010, Paris, France.

98
AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT WITHIN A MIXED FARMING
SYSTEM IN THE SEMIHUMID TROPICAL REGION OF MEXICO
1
J. Zuñiga, A. Turrent, S. Uribe,
N. Francisco, R. Camacho, and N. Estrella

In 1981 a research project began in Los Tuxtlas, Veracruz, Mexico.


Its objective was to develop agricultural production technology
suitable to the ecological and socioeconomic conditions of the region.
The production system comprises two corn crops per year — one during
the humid season (June-November), and another in the dry season using
the residual humidity (November-March). In order to increase land and
labor productivity and to preserve water and soil, technological
innovations were progressively introduced with the consent of the
farmers. Every year these innovations were refined in such a way that
by 1986 an appropriate technology was developed. It consists of a
high level of mechanization and intense use of fertilizer and
pesticides. Although yields are no higher than those obtained by
traditional farmers, labor requirements have decreased. This has
allowed farmers to perform other activities, such as animal husbandry
to obtain meat and milk. Many socioeconomic and cultural factors still
restrain the adoption of the technological innovations, but out of
eight farmers who used them, the one who achieved the best results has
obtained an average annual yield (sum total of both crops) of 5.5
ton/ha while traditional producers have obtained 4.1 ton/ha. This
farmer was able to increase his herd from 5 cows in 1981 to 15 in
1987. Instead of burning the stubble he used it to feed his herd.
During 1986 he obtained 3,000 liters of milk.

1
Centro de Edafología, Colegio de Postgraduados, Chapingo, Mexico.

99
Blank Page in Original
101
Blank Page in Original
SOLVING THE FOOD-SHORTAGE PROBLEM IN THE HUMID TROPICS
THROUGH AGROFORESTRY
1
Akinola A. Agboola

Agriculture in the humid tropics is moving from shifting cultivation


to continuous production of arable crops. Crop production is now at
the point where everybody seems to be an expert, and the humid tropics
seem to be a zone where a lot of plans have been made to increase crop
production. Yet crop yield is still on the decline despite the
increase in investment and area planted. In my view this is due to the
fact that the correct type of farming system is not being used.

Attempts to impose continuous land use without soil cover have


resulted in 1) intensely weathered soils that tend to acidification,
2) rapid leaching of plant nutrients including fertilizers, 3) toxic
levels of aluminum in the subsoil that accentuate other problems by
restricting root depth, and 4) low effective cation exchange capacity.
One of the potential methods of solving these problems is through
agroforestry. Agroforestry is defined as an approach to integrate land
use involving the deliberate mixture or retention of trees or other
woody perennials as part of the crop/animal-production enterprise,
which can be used to increase food production.

Agroforestry ensures continuous soil cover, thereby preventing soil


loss by runoff; maintains soil moisture; provides an environment
favorable to soil organisms; and suppresses weeds. Also, it enables
nitrogen and other elements to be recycled, and furnishes animal
fodder, staking material for climbers, and firewood. The concept of
agroforestry is not alien to the existing cropping systems in the
humid tropics because most farmers have scattered fruit trees and
other trees all over their farm and planted arable food crops in
between the trees.

Research so far seems to show that the present farming systems need to
be further improved. Nevertheless, the capacity of these systems to
incorporate animal husbandry and fit into the existing cropping system
would go a long way toward solving food shortages in the humid
tropical forest zone.

1
Department of Agronomy, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.

103
NITROGEN ECONOMY IN A LEUCAENA/SORGHUM AGROFORESTRY SYSTEM
1 2
Martha E. Avery and David Rhodes

The supply of food, fodder, and fuelwood in the arid and semiarid
tropics is inadequate to meet the demand. In many regions this has led
to increased cultivation of marginal lands and a shortened fallow
period in traditional agricultural systems. To increase productivity
and conserve or restore site fertility, agroforestry systems including
plants capable of symbiotic nitrogen fixation are used. Direct
evidence of advantages from intercropping with nitrogen-fixing plants
is limited. Several authors suggest that nitrogen-fixing plants must
be under stress for significant nitrogen transfer to occur. There is a
need to define the productive potential and increase the biological
efficiency of these systems so farmers and other land managers can
choose efficient systems to meet specific goals.

This research provides data on the growth and nitrogen content of


Leucaena leucocephala and Sorghum bicolor grown in a nitrogen-free
nutrient medium in sole and mixed cropping. Preliminary results show
the sorghum grown in association with leucaena maintains a growth rate
of approximately 0.32 cm/days whereas the sorghum grown alone
maintains a growth rate of only 0.053 cm/day between 78 and 95 days
after planting. The leucaena grown in the presence of sorghum
exhibited reduced plant height in comparison to leucaena grown alone.
The increase in plant height of sorghum grown alone was significant at
the P = 0.01 level. Furthermore, this increase of plant height was
associated with an approximately twofold increase of total nitrogen of
both the roots and shoots of sorghum grown in the presence of
leucaena. Investigations into the biochemical and (or) biophysical
mechanisms involved in the below-ground processes of nitrogen transfer
between leucaena and sorghum are in progress.

1
Department of Forestry and Natural Resources, Purdue University,
Lafayette, IN 47907. U.S.A.
2
Department of Horticulture, Purdue University, Lafayette, IN 47907,
U.S.A.

104
USE OF SYSTEMS MODELING FOR AGROFORESTRY DEVELOPMENT
IN THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES
1
Evert K. Byington and R. D. Child

The potential of the 50 million forested acres on southern U.S. farms


has not been adequately developed. A major constraint is the limited
understanding of the complex interactions that must be managed when
integrating agriculture and forestry. A four-step system-modeling
methodology was used to identify opportunities to improve silvo-
pastoral management. Two conceptual models (agroecosystem and farm
system) and diagrammatic modeling were used to link management inputs
and silvopastoral outputs. The final steps were the development of
mathematical and computer models. The quantitative agroecosystem model
was only partially successful in simulating biophysical processes.
More ecological data are needed on overstory/understory interactions,
mixed-species grazing systems, and technological impacts on ecological
processes. Optimization models for southern farming systems focused on
interactions between four subsystems: crops, forage/livestock,
forestry, and farm management. Silvopastoral systems can improve farm
economics in pine agroecosystems; however, implementation has been
limited by availability of labor, capital, management and marketing
skills, and sufficiently large landholdings. Similar limitations exist
in hardwood agroecosystems, along with many unsolved techno-logical
problems. Increased multiorganizational cooperation is needed to
provide the interdisciplinary skills needed to remove these
limitations.

1
Vinrock International, Route 3, Morrilton, AR 72110, U.S.A.

105
AN INVESTIGATIVE REPORT OF ON-FARM ALLEY-CROPPING TRIALS
IN EAST AND CENTRAL NIGERIA
1 2
Fields Ashley Caveness and Wolfgang Vogel

IITA has been conducting on-farm trials on alley cropping in the Zaki-
Biam area of Benue state. ILCA also has on-farm trials on alley
farming and feed gardens in Mgbakwu village in Anambra state. Both
areas are examined to give a systems status report, analysis of
reasons for adoption or rejection, and recommendations for further
research.
The five original on-farm trials established by IITA in Zaki-Biam in
1980 through 1982, experienced difficulties due to the establishment
of leucaena hedgerows at 2-m intervals. The method of land preparation
in the area is to create large ridges and heaps. The 2-m hedgerow
intervals, combined with lateral roots of the leucaena, restrict the
ability of farmers to prepare the soil. All new trials are being
established at 4-m intervals to avoid this problem. Farmer interest in
the alley-cropping system is primarily based on fertility needs. They
have little knowledge of potential uses of the system for animal feed,
firewood, or construction. Access of farmers to IITA information and
advice is limited and needs to be improved. Further research on the
lateral-root problem is needed. The impact and potential of the system
used for women needs to be studied.

Alley farms and feed gardens were established in Mgbakwu by ILCA in


1983 and 1984. The feed gardens are accepted because they take up
little space in a compound and provide valued animal browse. Alley
farms are not considered to be a long-term system because village land
is being converted from cropped plots to house sites as urbanization
of Mgbakwu village continues. Use of the system in outlying farming
areas is restricted by land-tenure patterns that do not allow for the
use of perennial trees in the alley cropping.

A nearby state farm employs many local farmers as laborers and could
be considered as a site for alley-cropping demonstration plots. From
this may ensue agreement between family members to try the system on
their communally owned and cultivated land in outlying areas of
Mgbakwu village.

1
2220 Q Street, Lincoln, NE 68503, U.S.A.
2
International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), P.M.B. 5320,
Ibadan, Nigeria.

106
THE POTENTIAL NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF SOME TROPICAL
BROWSE SPECIES FROM GUANACASTE, COSTA RICA

Nancy Lou Conklin, P. J. 1Van Soest,


and D. E. Hogue

Twenty-five species of tropical trees and shrubs were analyzed for


crude protein (CP), in vitro digestibility (IVTD), cell wall,
cellulose, lignin, and tannins. Nineteen of the species were observed
to be browsed by cattle. Six extremely common but unbrowsed species
also were sampled (the species sampled here happened to be common on
the ranch where the field work was carried out). Leaf, twig, and
fruit samples were analyzed. The species were ranked according to mean
values for CP and IVTD of leaves collected at different ages. The
ranking was, in descending order: Acacia farnesiana (25.5%, 65.1%),
Caesalpinia eriostachys (24.4%, 66.5%), Cassia bicapsularis (21.0%,
71.4%), Myrospermum frutescens (17.1%, 79.8%), Gliricidia sepium
(20.7%, 60.9%), Pithecellobium saman (23.8%, 47.3%), Tabebuia ochracea
(22.2%, 52.2%), Spondius purpurea (16.5%, 68.8%), Lysiloma divaricata
(16.8%, 67%), Cajanus cajan (20.5%, 49%), Enterolobium cyclocarpum
(22.8%, 39.7%), Bauhinia ungulata (19.5%, 48.2%), Cordia alliodora
(19.6%, 45.7%), Ficus sp. guachero (12.5%, 66.8%), Piscidia
carthagenensis (19.5%, 43%), Lonchocarpus minimiflorus (20.1%, 33.3%),
Tamarindus indica (14.6%, 50.9%), Ficus sp. higueron (13.3%, 49.9%),
Guazuma tomentosa (12.4%, 48.1%), Mangifera indica (8.6%, 58%),
Hymenaea courbaril (13.6%, 33.4%), Andira inermis (15.5%, 14.8%).
Fruit samples only were collected from Cassia grandis, Crescentia
alata, and Acrocomia vinifera. The higher-ranking species are
recommended for further research, even though three of the top five
were not browsed by cattle. Feeding trials to study the effects of
tannins are needed.

1
330 Morrison Hall, Department of Animal Science, Cornell University,
Ithaca, NY 14833, U.S.A.

107
DEFORESTATION AND AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY:
AN EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS
1
Simeon K. Ehui and Thomas W. Hertel

Diminishing forest cover has been hypothesized to decrease the


productivity of agriculture in the tropics. The empirical
relationships between deforestation and crop yields are examined using
aggregate data from the Ivory Coast. Results indicate that
deforestation contributes positively to current yields. However, in
the longer run, cumulative deforested lands diminish yields. The
estimated yield function also exhibits diminishing marginal
productivity in nutrients added, through both deforestation and
fertilization. Examination of the impacts of deforestation and
cumulative deforested lands on agricultural revenues indicates that in
the short term (1 year), agricultural revenues decline after the rate
of deforestation is reduced. However, these revenues increase in
subsequent years due to the decrease in cumulative deforested lands.
When these two revenue streams are discounted, the net present value
(to agriculture) associated with reduced deforestation is positive and
equal to $71 per hectare of forest saved. The internal rate of return
(in agriculture) of the associated additional forest stock is 19%.

1
Department of Agricultural Economics, Purdue University, West
Lafayette, IN 49707, U.S.A.

108
AGROFORESTRY POTENTIAL IN TRANSMIGRATION AREAS OF INDONESIA
1 2
Carl L. I. Evensen, Russell
3
S. Yost,
and Sholeh

Transmigration programs in Indonesia provide an exciting agricultural as


well as social laboratory to observe rapid technology development and
innovation. Agroforestry is an integral component of most transmigrant
farming systems, varying in scope and execution with the soil,
topography, and climate, farmer background and preferences, and age of
the transmigrant settlement. Cropping systems incorporating trees,
silvopastoral systems, and multiple cropping or livestock enterprises
among plantation or timber trees can provide economic and ecological
stability to transmigrant farming systems. Most transmitgrant systems
are still immature and dynamic and farmers are remarkably open to change
and innovation since they are facing many new constraints and
opportunities. They frequently learn from the indigenous farmers in
their region and adapt to their own changing socioeconomic conditions
within an environment of rapid infrastructural development. Sitiung West
Sumatra, a transmigration area intensively studied by the TROPSOILS
Indonesia Project, is offered as a case study of agroforestry practices
and potential among transmit-grants. Existing home garden, upland field
and cash crop plantings are reviewed, and the research and development
potential of alley cropping, livestock/silvicultural systems, living
fences, and fuelwood/timber production is discussed. Other
transmigration sites in Indonesia are also described. The possibility of
transferring agroforestry technologies developed in Sitiung on the basis
of similar soils and transmigrant ethnicity is considered promising.

1
TROPSOILS Indonesia, University of Hawaii, 2500 Dole Street, Honolulu,
HI 96822, U.S.A.
2
Agronomy and Soil Science Department, University of Hawaii, Honolulu,
HI
3
96822, U.S.A.
Center for Soil Research, Jalan, IR. H., Juanda, No. 98, Bogor,
Indonesia.

109
AN INTEGRATED AGROFORESTRY SYSTEM:
FRUITS, FORESTS, AND GRASSES
1
Manuel Flores L.

This paper examines the potential for exploiting the Peruvian forests,
which make up 15%, or 19 million hectares, of the country's total
surface area. This study takes maximum advantage of the natural
resources of a specific land area by integrating agricultural and
forestry activities. A complete randomized block design was used, with
3
a factorial arrangement of 2 x 3 repetitions, in a total area of 1.44
ha.

Research components:
fruit species: Matisia cordata
Inga edulis
forest species: Cedrelinga catenaeformis
Aspidosperma macrocarpum

leguminous species: Desmodium ovalifolium


Pueraria phaseoloides

It was concluded that kudzu grows fastest but is susceptible to


humidity, which favors fungus diseases. It is not recommended as a
cover crop for perennial crops because of its climbing nature.
Desmodium ovalifolium behaves well, grows vigorously, and is resistant
to excess humidity and disease. Finally, the potential is pointed out
for technical development in various forest zones of the Peruvian
highlands.

1
Agricultural Experiment Station of Tulumayo, P.O. Box 78, Tingo Maria,
Peru.

110
SISTEMA INTEGRADO AGROSILVOPASTORIL:
FRUTAL-FORESTAL-PASTOS
1
Manuel Flores L.

Se examina la posibilidad de explotar la ceja de selva del Perú, que


ocupa un 15% de la superficie total con 19 millones de hectáreas. Se
trata de un ensayo que permite aprovechar al máximo los recursos
naturales de una determinada área de terreno, mediante la integración
de la actlvldad agrícola y forestal. Se empleó un diseño de Bloques
3
completamente randomizados en arreglo factorial 2 x3 repeticiones, en
una superficie total de 1.44 has.

Componentes en estudio:
especies frutales: Matisia cordata (Zapote)
Inga edulis (huaba)
especies forestales: Cedrelinga catenaeformis Ducke (tornillo)
Aspidosperma macrocarpum Mart (Pucaquiro)

especies leguminosas: Desmodium ovalifolium


Pueraria phaseoloides (kudzu)

Se concluye que el kudzú tiene mayor velocidad de cobertura y es


susceptible a la humedad, que favorece el ataque de enfermedades
fungosas. No se recomienda para cobertura de cultivos perennes por su
habito trepador. Sin embargo el D. ovalifolium tiene buen comport-
amiento, crecimiento vigoroso, resistencia al exceso de humedad y
ataque de plagas. Finalmente, se destaca la posibilidad de desar-
rollar la técnica en diferentes zonas de la selva alta peruana.

1
Estación Experimental Agropecuaria de Tulumayo, Apartado 78, Tingo
Maria, Perú.

111
GRAZING AND OVERSTOCKING EFFECTS ON
PINE GROWTH AND STEER PERFORMANCE
1 2 3
V. L. Ford, J. M. Phillips,
4
G. L. Wheeler,
5
R. J. Colvin, and R. W. Farham

Pine timber and beef cattle are two major enterprises in southwest
Arkansas, and are often combined in a dual-management system. Loblolly
pine (Pinus taeda L.) was planted in tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea
Schreb.) or bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.) at 2.4 m x 3 m
spacing (1,344 trees/ha). Grazing was begun at three stand ages: 1
year, 2 years, and 3 years after planting. A grazing intensity of one
steer per acre (2.4 steers/ha) was used on each pasture. The Bermuda-
grass was used as the summer pasture, and the tall fescue was used as
the winter pasture. Mortality and damage to the first-year plantation
were severe. Although mortality was not high, seedlings of the second
year suffered height reductions and multiple tops due to grazing
damage. Tree mortality was minor and height growth was not affected by
grazing during the third year. In addition to quality and growth
reductions in trees, steer weight gain was negligible on either
pasture. Refined stocking rates of both trees and cattle are needed to
make agroforestry in pine plantations a successful option.
Demonstrations such as this have shown producers both the benefits and
problems of this management system.

1
University of Arkansas, Southwest Research and Extension Center, Route
3,
2
Box 258, Hope, AR 71801, U.S.A.
University of Arkansas, Southwest Research and Extension Center, Route
4,
3
1113 W. 16th St., Hope, AR 71801, U.S.A.
Horticulture and Forestry Department, University of Arkansas,
Fayetteville, AR 72701, U.S.A.
4
University of Arkansas, Southwest Research and Extension Center, Route
1,
5
Box 21, Hope, AR 71801, U.S.A.
University of Arkansas, Southwest Research and Extension Center, Route
2, Box 79Aa, Hope, AR 71801, U.S.A.

112
ALLEY CROPPING EASTERN BLACK WALNUT
1
Harold E. Garrett, J. Jones, and W. Kurtz

The concept of growing farm crops and trees together on the same land,
commonly referred to as agroforestry, is emerging as an important
means of achieving less destructive, and more productive, use of land.
An 11-year study at the University of Missouri has demonstrated that
eastern black walnut (Juglans nigra L.) is ideally suited to
agroforestry practices due to its value (wood and nuts), its short
growing season (typically 90 to 135 days), and its unique root
morphology (deep rooted with few roots near the surface). Agroforestry
management with black walnut entails initial plantings at wide
spacings (40' x 10') to accommodate the biological needs of intercrops
while providing an adequate number of trees to fully occupy the site.
Black walnut's compatibility with certain grasses, grains, and other
crops allows alternative management options not possible with other
species of trees. Field plantings (over 300 acres) of soybeans, and
winter wheat with eastern black walnut in the Stockton, Missouri, area
yielded an average over the first 5 years of 24 bushels and 41 bushels
per acre of cropland, respectively, on an upland site and 32 bushels
and 41 bushels, respectively, on a bottomland site. Yields declined
over the second 5 years due to increased shade. Our research
indicates that certain forage species perform well in walnut shade and
are ideal for replacing row and (or) specialty crops when shade
reduces their yields.

1
School of Forestry, Fisheries and Wildlife, University of Missouri,
Columbia, M0 65211, U.S.A.

113
UNDERSTANDING INTERDISCIPLINARY RESEARCH AND ITS
APPLICATION TO AGROFORESTRY SYSTEMS RESEARCH
1
Michael A. Gold and Larry Tombaugh

Agroforestry is the term given to sustainable, tree-based, agricultural


land-use systems involving intimate and integrated associations of
trees, agricultural crops, horticultural crops, and animals in a
variety of combinations.

Increased environmental degradation, deforestation, and loss of


biological diversity have been recognized by international agencies as
critical development issues. Removal of trees in developing countries
shows no sign of slowing nor opportunity for substitution. The
critical and fundamental roles that agroforestry could play in helping
maintain the integrity of many different ecosystems and in farming
systems has been recognized, but there is much yet to learn. For this
reason, interest in agroforestry research is increasing.

Agroforestry brings together many disciplines, both applied and basic.


It depends upon forestry, agronomy, animal husbandry, and horticulture
for its major inputs, with additional inputs from soil science,
microbiology, ecology, plant breeding, chemistry, economics,
sociology, agricultural engineering, and others. Because of its
interdisciplinary nature, agroforestry research is difficult to
conduct and manage.

Fortunately, there is considerable accumulated experience with


interdisciplinary research directed at such diverse issues as energy
systems, aerospace systems, and environmental protection. These
experiences have revealed several ingredients for successful inter-
disciplinary projects having direct applicability to the funding and
conduct of agroforestry research. Key ingredients include 1) a problem
to which the research is directed that is so compelling that it
attracts the interest of the most capable scientists; 2) an identified
funding source; 3) the availability of a strong, effective leader with
proven, respected research skills; and 4) an "exit plan," permitting
and encouraging scientists to return to their disciplines at the end
of a predetermined period. The applicability of these principles from
other areas of science to agroforestry research is discussed in this
paper.

1
Department of Forestry, Michigan State University, E. Lansing, MI
48824-1222, U.S.A.

114
USE OF ETHNOECOLOGY IN AGROFORESTRY SYSTEMS RESEARCH:
AF TECHNOLOGY AND PEST-MANAGEMENT RESEARCH IN KENYA
1 2
Luis Malaret and Dianne E. Rocheleau

Agroforestry (AF), as an emergent formal science of complex systems


managed by rural people, can benefit from ethnoecological research to
identify promising species combinations for AF systems and to explore
their interaction with pest-management problems on smallholder farms.
Integrative methods combining elements of farming systems research and
extension, ethnography, and ecology are presented, as well as the
results of their application at an AF research site in Kenya. Both
rapid appraisal and in-depth surveys were conducted with groups,
households, and individuals to determine the scope and relevance of
indigenous knowledge for the design and management of AF technologies.
Researchers also sampled and identified plant and insect species;
mapped the distribution of land use, termitaria, and source areas of
promising plant species; monitored crop damage in farmers' fields; and
designed AF technologies with residents for on-farm testing.

Some farmers exhibited extensive knowledge of termites and their


ecology and impact on trees and crops, which proved to be useful in
the identification and management of tree species for experimental
agroforestry systems. Knowledge of the local flora and its use and
management was far more widespread, especially among women. Surveys
and informal discussions resulted in specific suggestions for plant
domestication, species combinations, and design of AF systems.
Additional surveys at sites in Siaya District and Northeast Zambia
yielded similar results with respect to plant species and soil-
management technologies. In all these cases rural people provided new
information to researchers and helped to focus and refine agroforestry
research hypotheses and technology designs to serve local needs.

1
University of Nairobi, Department of Zoology, P.O. Box 30197, Nairobi,
Kenya.
2
Formerly ICRAF; currently Ford Foundation, Box 41081, Nairobi, Kenya.

115
EXTENSION OF ACACIA ALBIDA TECHNOLOGY IN CHAD:
TEN YEARS AFTER
1
Michael L. McGahuey

The Acacia albida tree, used as a permanent intercrop in traditional


Sahelian systems, has been shown to significantly increase millet and
sorghum yields while sustaining soil productivity. The tree is a large
legume that defoliates at the onset of the rainy season, allowing
sufficient light to pass through the crown to support crops planted
under it. Acacia albida is also appreciated by herders for its
abundant, high-quality browse during the long dry season, and it has
been noted that the carrying capacity is significantly increased in
areas with minimum densities of the tree. CARE-Chad, the Chadian
Forestry Service, and USAID helped over 3,000 farmers to plant
seedlings on their farms during 1975 through 1978. Despite droughts
and civil war, enough trees remain to have had an impact on food and
fodder production. Literature reviews indicate that these plantings
have been one of the few initiatives to have increased millet or
sorghum production in the Sahel over the last 25 years. The
presentation will discuss data that quantify the effects of A. albida
on soil productivity and discuss implementation lessons of the
project. It will present slides of reforested fields 12 years after
the project's initiation. Finally, it will discuss linkages between
food security and natural-resource projects with particular attention
to the lessons learned from this project.

1
Chemonics International, Suite 200, 2000 M Street, Washington, D.C.
20036, U.S.A.

116
THE ORGANIZATION OF HOUSEHOLD LABOR IN AN AGROFORESTRY SYSTEM
1
Mary Ann Pollisco-Botengan

This paper addresses issues of labor supply and demand in a Philippine


highland community. Qualitative and quantitative data were collected
through participant observation in five topographically distinct
sitios in Barangay Ambassador, Benguet Province, from May 1984 to
January 1985. A complete enumeration of household heads was made.
Applying a systems framework in this study, foresters and
agriculturalists were involved in the research team as consultants,
especially with reference to agronomic and biophysical matters. The
primary focus of this paper is on the seasonal and annual constraints
and demands of both the household and the biophysical environment on
the allocation of labor. The paper is organized around the analysis of
each area of activity (i.e., the particular agro-silvo-pastoral
products) whether for commercial or subsistence purposes. Outside
labor activities are likewise taken into account. These sectoral
analyses are integrated to determine the annual household-labor-
allocation strategies involved in this agroforestry system. The paper
demonstrates how labor as a resource is a strong determinant of
economic activities that define and sustain the agroforestry system.
The results suggest that a full understanding of agroforestry systems
requires an analysis of the constraints and demands on the allocation
of labor of all household members.

1
Department of Sociology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK
74076, U.S.A.

117
AN EVALUATION OF AN AGROFORESTRY SYSTEM FOR MARGINAL
UPLAND SMALL FARMS IN THE TROPICS — A CASE STUDY
1
Upatissa Ravindranath Sangakkara and H. H. Ratnayake

The techniques and technology of agroforestry are considered suitable


for the optimal use of the upland marginal areas of the humid tropics,
where farmers strive to achieve some level of productivity from
unsuitable lands with little or no use of modern technology. Thus a
study evaluated the benefits of agroforestry and its operational
procedures over conventional clean tillage in a growth cycle of 1
year, for smallholder allotments in the hilly areas of the dry regions
of Sri Lanka. This system was considered valuable due to the
unavailability of irrigation water for these allotments, which are
thus totally dependent on rainfall. Two nitrogen-fixing tree species
were used to develop the agroforestry systems on the selected farms.
Crop growth was superior to that observed under clean-tilled
conditions, especially during the periods of the year when farmers
generally lose their crops due to dry weather. Weed populations too
were reduced and resource use was optimal, especially in terms of
moisture, in the agroforestry systems. The results are thus presented
in terms of their value to the farmer and are discussed in the context
of increasing agricultural productivity of the smallholders through
agroforestry systems in the drier areas of Sri Lanka. In addition,
this system is valuable in maintaining the ecological balance of the
regions that have acted as watersheds and tropical rain forests until
opened up under agricultural expansion and development, which is a
common feature of the developing world of the tropics.

1
Faculty of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri
Lanka.

118
SUGGESTED GUIDELINES AND CRITERIA FOR THE EVALUATION OF
SMALL-SCALE AGROFORESTRY PROJECTS
1
James Robert Seyler

While agroforestry techniques have considerable potential to alleviate


land-use pressures in sub-Saharan Africa, the term agroforestry has
become a buzz-word on much of the continent. As a result, there has
been a proliferation of small-scale agroforestry projects, many of
which have not taken into consideration the socioeconomic, cultural,
technical, and institutional factors necessary for sound project and
program development. The assumption that all of these projects are
successful in terms of having an impact on agricultural production and
(or) the forest product needs of their target audiences seems highly
unlikely.

This proliferation of projects implies the need for some form of simple,
objective, and systematic evaluation methodology in order to determine
which projects are effective and why, which projects should be modified,
and which should be dropped for lack of impact. Unfortunately,
evaluation methodologies currently available are either too complex, or
too costly, or have difficulty in melding the natural, sociopolitical,
and cultural dimensions necessary for a "constructive" assessment of a
particular project.

The purpose of this paper is to suggest that small-scale agroforestry


projects can be effectively evaluated in terms of their technical,
cultural, institutional, and professional seriousness. An "index of
seriousness test" in the form of evaluation guidelines, criteria, and
rationale is proposed as an alternative to existing evaluation
methodologies.

1
Department of Forestry, 126 Natural Resources, Michigan State
University, East Lansing, MI 48824, U.S.A.

119
IDENTIFICATION OF LAND USE SYSTEMS IN THE FOREST ZONE
OF CAMEROON: AGROFORESTRY INTERVENTIONS
1
J. Tonye, R. Ambassa-Kiki, and M. Sanghou

The forest in Cameroon covers mainly the South, Central, East, and
Littoral Provinces. The soils in the area are mostly red ultisols with
low base saturation. The main shade trees in cocoa fields are those
with no commercial value (Musanga cecropioides), those with high wood
quality (Terminalia superba), and those used for their wood and their
fruits (Baillonella toxisperma).
Existing land-use practices comprise fallow, home-garden, and cocoa
systems. The fallow system is characterized by very long fallow (more
than 10 years), long fallow (5 to 9 years), and by short fallow (2 to
4 years). The home-garden system is characterized by small, free-
ranging stock; small food-crop farms, and a lack of crop-species
diversity. Most cocoa farms are poorly shaded and have poor soil
fertility.

The improvement of the entire system will mainly rely on the


introduction of leguminous trees to improve soil fertility for food
and cocoa production. Live-fencing and diversification of crop
species may bring substantial improvement in the home-garden system.

1
Institute of Agronomic Research, P.O. Box 2067, Yaounde, Cameroon.

120
IDENTIFICATION DBS SYSTEMES D'UTILISATION DES TERRES DANS LA
ZONE FORESTIERE DU CAMEROUN: INTERVENTIONS AGROFORESTIERES
1
J. Tonye, R. Ambassa-Kiki, and M. Sanghou

La zone forestiere du Cameroun couvre principalement les Provinces du


Sud, du Centre, de l'Est et du Littoral. Les sols de la zone sont
généralement ferrallitiques avec un pH acide (inférieur à 6), une
faible capacité d'échange et un faible taux de saturation en bases.
Les principales essences d'ombrage observées dans les cacaoyers sont
soit celles ne présentant aucune valeur commerciale (Musanga
cecropioides), soit celles ayant un bois de grande valeur
technologique (Terminalia superba), soit encore celles présentant un
intérêt à la fois pour leur bois et leurs fruits (Baillonella
toxisperma).

Les systèmes actuels d'utilisation des terres sont la jachère, les


jardins de case et la cacaoculture. Le système jachère est
caractérisé par une jachère très longue (plus de dix ans), longue
(entre cinq et neuf ans) ou courte (entre deux et quatre ans). Le
système jardin de case se distingue par l'élevage du petit betail, par
des petits champs de cultures annuelles et pluriannuelles, de petites
superficies et un nombre limité d'espèces de plantes cultivées.
Beaucoup de plantations de cacao n'ont pas un ombrage approprié.

L'introduction de légumineuses pour améliorer la fertilité des sols et


1'ombrage des cacaoyers est susceptible d'apporter une amélioration
certaine dans tous les systèmes. La technique des haies vives et la
diversification des plantes cultivées sont susceptibles d'accroitre la
production et la productivité dans les jardins de case.

______________

1
Institut de la Recherche Agronomique, B.P. 2067, Yaoundé, Cameroun.

121
IMPACT OF IMPROVED AGROFORESTRY SYSTEMS IN THE AMAZON REGION:
PRELIMINARY RESEARCH FINDINGS
1
Jorge E. Uquillas

The Amazon region of South America is generally acknowledged to be a


very fragile ecosystem. Existing colonist land settlements tend to
inefficiently use this ecosystem, leading to its degradation. On the
other hand, countries sharing the vast Amazon region are under growing
pressure to use this ecosystem, to rapidly exploit natural resources
and expand agricultural frontiers.
Faced with this dilemma, several institutions in countries like
Ecuador are working on the development of economical, viable, and
ecologically sound farming systems. The objective is to develop
productive and sustainable low-external-input systems that, combined
with appropriate land-tenure policies, will reduce the pressure to
clear increasing areas of forest.

Ecuador's Ministry of Agriculture, with USAID support and the


collaboration of the National Agriculture and Livestock Research
Institute, is developing agroforestry technology and assembling
appropriate packages of adapted trees and pastures for transfer to
farmers in the humid tropics of the Amazon.

This paper describes the research and extension process. It presents


the preliminary findings of a study to determine rates of adoption of
new technologies and to assess the socioeconomic impact of improved
agroforestry systems among colonist settlers in the Amazon region
(Napo Province).

A combination of social-research techniques (including formal surveys,


monitoring, and case studies) are being used to quantify technical and
socioeconomic parameters.

Results thus far indicate that adoption rates are relatively high
among colonist settlers, but vary according to length of stay in the
region. After 2 1/2 years of on-farm trials, there is some evidence of
a positive impact of improved technologies on soil fertility, as well
as in pasture and livestock production. But more time is needed to
assess the full socioeconomic impact of these modified agroforestry
systems.

__________
1
Fundación Ecuatoriana de Investigación Agropecuaria, Casilla 10569,
Sucursal de Correos #4, La Luz, Quito, Ecuador.

122
KILIMANJARO AGROFORESTRY — A MODEL FOR EAST AFRICAN HIGHLANDS
1 2
G. H. Weaver and Aku O'Ktingati

Agroforestry systems coordinate production of food crops, trees,


forests, and animals simultaneously or sequentially on the same land,
thus mitigating environmental degradation and improving the livelihood
of indigenous people. Fragile, tropical, mountain ecosystems are
endangered by their greater rainfall and fertility. These
characteristics promote high population densities, and the resultant
increasing demand for food, fuelwood, and fodder has overtaxed many
such ecosystems. As a result, deforestation and accelerated soil
erosion occurs. Agroforestry systems were developed in recognition of
local cultural values by individuals attempting to maintain site
productivity while minimizing reliance on expensively purchased
agricultural inputs. Over 100 plant and crop species are intentionally
cropped under the Kilimanjaro Agroforestry System. Most farmers see
trees as being useful on their farm, and an average of 47 trees are
retained on each property. Trees are retained on the farms for the
following reasons: timber and shade (30%), edible fruits (36%), animal
fodder (17%), and medicinal, pest control, and other uses (17%).
Livestock production is limited to confined animals. The number of
cattle, goats, and sheep declined as farm size declined. However,
swine appeared as a new and growing animal enterprise. Profitability
of the agroforestry system could be improved with an expanded
marketing program and reliable transportation systems. While surplus
family labor exists, more employment opportunities are available with
the agroforestry system.

1
School of Forestry Research, P.O. Drawer FR, Mississippi State
University, Mississippi State, MS 39762, U.S.A.
2
Faculty of Forestry, Sokoine University of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3009,
Morogoro, Tanzania.

123
FIELD STUDIES ON GROWTH PERFORMANCE OF ALLEY SHRUBS
IN THE HIGHLAND REGION OF RWANDA
1 2
Charles F. Yamoah, Ron K. 3Grosz,
and Egide Nizeyimana

In the land-scarce, resource-poor, mountainous region of Rwanda,


agroforestry and related cropping systems form the thrust of soil-
fertility-management research. After reviewing the relevant research
experiences in-country and elsewhere, field work began. The first work
involved on-station and selected off-station researcher-managed trials
to test promising woody species. Second, on-farm multi-site trials
were conducted to further ascertain the shrubs' adaptability to
identified micro-ecozones and to tap farmers' opinions. Third, farmers
were trained as paraprofessionals acting in concert with extension
agents to assess the agronomic and economic benefits of agroforestry
under real farming conditions. Participant farmers were chosen during
a field day and training workshop. Preliminary findings rank growth
performance of the shrubs as: Sesbania sesban > Leucaena leucocephala
> Calliandra calothyrsus > Markhamia lutea. Unlike leucaena and
possibly calliandra and markhamia, the initial growth performance of
sesbania is affected neither by altitude nor by low soil fertility.
For good establishment, however, it is not advisable to intercrop
sesbania with peas. Manure and lime applications influence positively,
even though not significantly in all cases, the growth rates of the
shrubs. Farmers' attitudes towards alley cropping are encouraging.
They have come to value the technology as a means of providing stakes
for their pole beans, a way of minimizing soil erosion, and a cheap
method of manuring their impoverished farmlands. Evidence for the
latter statement is seen in their readiness to offer their fields,
albeit very small, as trial sites and to render their services as
"farmer-researchers" assisting scientists to help fine-tune and
propagate the technology.

1
Rwanda Farming Systems Research Program (FSRP), B.P. 625, Kigali,
Rwanda.
2
Formerly Rwanda Farming Systems Research Program (FSRP), B.P. 625,
Kigali, Rwanda; currently 1833 N, Quesada, North Quesada Street,
Arlington,
3
VA 22205, U.S.A.
Formerly Rwanda Farming Systems Research Program (FSRP), B.P. 625,
Kigali, Rwanda; currently c/o Thomas J. Bicki, Department of Agronomy,
Turner Hall, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, 1102 South
Goodwin, Urbana, IL 61801, U.S.A.

124
Blank Page in Original
CHARACTERIZING FSR/E COMMUNICATIONS IN BANGLADESH
1 2
James H. Bemis and Peter Thorpe

As multidisciplinary farming systems research and extension (FSR/E)


teams translate and combine the technologies of farmers, researchers,
and extension scientists, they draw from a range of communication
skills, information-processing tools, and management procedures. But
few studies have sought to identify, characterize, compare, or index
these communications proficiencies and processes, at either the
individual or institutional level. Apparently these skills and
processes are assumed to be assimilated or developed through previous
formal education or through on-the-job experiences. Thus, in FSR/E
design and implementation, communications technology seldom is treated
as "transferable" agricultural technology, per se. This paper examines
some FSR/E-related institutional roles and communications skills
within the Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI) system,
focusing on assessment of communications skills needed by younger,
relatively inexperienced BARI research staff members. Exploratory,
diagnostic tools are designed and tested for rapid appraisal of
communications capabilities of these researchers and training and
communications staff at BARI and related extension and academic
components. Sample training modules are designed and tested for
strengthening of basic communications skills and procedures of the
individual researchers and their information-support specialist staff.
FSR/E concepts and terminology are emphasized.

1
Winrock International, Communications Department, Route 3, Morrilton,
AR
2
72110, U.S.A.
No. 3, Wesley Crescent, Shifnal, Shropshire, TF11 9AQ, United Kingdom.

127
IMPLICATIONS OF NATIONAL SURVEY DATA ON APPLIED
FARMING SYSTEMS RESEARCH

M. Bertelsen, R. A. Swanson,
1
and Q. Grafton

Implications for the major ADS-II farming systems programs in the


Department du Sud, Haiti, using area and yield information from the
National Agricultural Survey are considered. Contrasting conclusions
concerning project benefits "with or without" the agricultural survey
information on area and yield are then presented. The value of both
the agricultural survey information and the farming systems programs
may be inferred, based on the extent to which the survey information
modifies future decisions.

1
Agricultural Development Support II Project (ADS-II), Damien Offices,
MARNDR, Port-au-Prince, Haiti.

128
GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM/CRIES HAITI
MICROCOMPUTER SLIDE SHOW

D. Brown, M. Bertelsen, 1
R. Swanson, and C. Hypollite

A microcomputer-based slide show in color will demonstrate most of the


major applications of the geographically referenced database for Haiti.
These will include Haiti administrative boundaries (departments,
arrondissements, communes, section rurales); elevation contours;
vegetative cover; infrastructure (road systems); Holdridge Life
Classification zones; primary, secondary, and subwatershed systems;
soil erosion classifications; etc. Applications with different services
within the Ministry of Agriculture (natural resources, meteorology,
agriculture) and Health are given.

1
Agricultural Development Support II Project (ADS-II), Damien Offices,
MARNDR, Port-au-Prince, Haiti.

129
GEOGRAPHICALLY REFERENCED CROP-TRIAL RECORDS:
A CASE STUDY
1 1 2
D. Brown, M. Bertelsen, and A. Chatterjee

Maps are extremely useful tools in analyzing phenomena that exhibit


spatial variation. Unfortunately, making a map is a time-consuming and
technically difficult task. As a result, maps are much less widely
used than they might be. The ADS-II project has adopted a combination
of software packages that, to a large extent, automate the mapping
process. Since many of the time and skill requirements have been
eliminated by the system, mapping has become much more widely
available as an analytic tool.

The heart of the system is a combination of the Lotus 1-2-3 spread-


sheet program from Lotus Development Corporation and the geographic
information system from the Comprehensive Resource Inventory and
Evaluation System (CRIES) of Michigan State University. The Lotus
program is used to establish a database that is referenced to the
spatial recordkeeping units on the map. The linkage mechanism allows
data to be transferred between the two programs. The analytic and
report facilities of either program are available for use with the
data. The choice of the particular analysis facility used under any
given set of circumstances depends on the nature of the data and the
analysis to be performed. The real power of the combination of the two
systems comes from the ability to use the graphic output capabilities
of the two systems. Once the basic map has been constructed and
digitized, the time-consuming tasks of constructing additional maps
and graphs can be mostly relegated to the computer.

This paper describes the ADS-II database system in detail, using the
database we have recently established to maintain the records of rice
trials in the Les Cayes Plain of Haiti to illustrate the practical
utility of the system. We briefly describe the system's hardware and
software configuration to provide an understanding of the fixed costs.
We then introduce the crop-trial database. Discussion includes the
establishment of the database, data analysis, and production of output
products. The paper concludes with some speculation on the utility of
similar databases in other situations.

1
Agricultural Development Support II Project (ADS-II), Damien Offices,
MARNDR,
2
Port-au-Prince, Haiti.
Agronomat de Cayes, B.P. 9 Les Cayes, Haiti, West Indies.

130
FARMING SYSTEMS AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS:
A PHILIPPINES CASE STUDY
1
Royal D. Colle and Clifford Scherer

This paper presents a case study of a farming systems project in the


central Philippines. The paper concentrates on the communication,
information, and "technology transfer" aspects of the project.
The authors will analyze the structure of the "system," identifying
how persons in different components communicate among their units. The
authors will consider alternatives to the existing situation.

The alternative approaches will be based on the authors' own recent


participation in the project as well as data compiled in a recently
completed graduate thesis. A survey conducted by farming systems staff
at the Visayan State Agricultural College among participants in a
farming systems training program in the Philippines during the summer
of 1987 will provide additional perspectives.

1
Department of Communication, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853,
U.S.A.

131
THE USE OF COMMUNICATION AND INDIGENOUS INNOVATION
IN DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES:
A CASE STUDY OF TIMIKA, IRIAN JAYA, INDONESIA
1
Carolyn D. Cook

Many development projects in Irian Jaya, Indonesia, have given people


hope, yet have ended in failure brought about by a lack of
communication between developers and local people. Following a series
of promises and disappointing results, the indigenous people have
begun to create their own solutions. This case study presents the
innovations of the Timika area people as an alternative to the present
development practices. Swidden culturists have incorporated their
traditional methods into a cash-crop system that enables them to
compete in the market with newcomers from other islands. To
incorporate such alternatives into their own program, development
agents must use a communications system that accesses local knowledge
and indigenous innovations in order to design viable farming systems
projects. The approach advocated for a successful two-way exchange is
one in which the developer recognizes the need for the locals to give
as well as receive.

1
Department of Anthropology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA
99164-4910, U.S.A.

132
COMMUNICATION LINKAGES TO FORM A WATER-USER
ASSOCIATION IN THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
1
Bernard L. Delaine

In the process of forming an effective water-user association in the


Dominican Republic, in order to involve the farmers in the maintenance
and management of the water-delivery system, the key appeared to be
the setting up of a communication system between the five major
subsystems represented by INDRHI (The National Institute of Hydraulic
Resources) and the farmers.
Prior to the formation of the association, INDRHI was managing the
system for the farmers, but without their input. Once the communication
system was set up, a two-way flow of information allowed the farmers to
get more and more involved in the management of the system, and to
eventually take full control of it.

1
Burundi Small Farming Systems Research (Burundi S.F.S.R.), B.P. 1540,
Bujumbura, Burundi.

133
THE ADOPTION OF TECHNOLOGIES AMONG SMALL FARMERS
IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES:
AN INFORMATION-SYSTEM APPROACH
1
T. Durant and R. D. Christy

An information-system paradigm is used as a conceptual framework for


analyzing the transfer of technology to the samples of small-scale
farmers (CN = 304) in Sierra Leone, West Africa. A theoretical
discussion of the concept of an information-system paradigm is
presented. Using a multiple-regression model, the predictive power of
three sets of independent variables (subjective attributes of the
technology, promotional communication channels, and market selection
and representation) was used to explain farmer adoptions of selected
farming innovations.

Highly significant differences were found in the adoption behavior


between the two samples of farmers. Subjective attributes and
promotional communication were found to be the strongest predictors of
rate of adoption of improved seed rice and fertilizer. Market
selection and segmentation had the least effect on rate of adoption.
The results could provide valuable insights into factors influencing
small-scale farmers' adoption of new crop technologies promoted by
agricultural development change agencies in developing countries.

1
Department of Agricultural Economics, Louisiana State University,
Baton Rouge, LA 70803, U.S.A.

134
THE RESEARCH DIMENSION OF AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
IN THE COASTAL PLAIN
1
John W. English

This 30-minute video presentation shows the team approach to


agricultural research in an experiment station. It shows the
interaction among plant pathologists, ag engineers, agronomists,
entomologists, hydrologists, and plant geneticists. It illustrates
their work on a single crop — peanuts — at a single site — Tifton,
Georgia. It also incorporates the extension worker's link to the
farmer.

1
c/o School of Journalism, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602,
U.S.A.

135
DIAGNOSTIC RESEARCH IN A NEW ZONE OF PLAN PUEBLA, MEXICO
1
N. Estrella and F. Escobedo

When Plan Puebla started 20 years ago, its main objective was to
increase corn production in the region. To accomplish that objective,
on-farm research was carried out. Extension workers promoted the new
technology with the farmers and with the local institutions to supply
the required services. As a consequence of the success of this
approach new zones have been added to the original region. One of
these new zones is "CADER-Atlixco" (Support Center for Rural
Development-Atlixco). This zone is quite different from the original
region of the Plan Puebla. To gather information about this new
region, diagnostic research was carried out during the fall and winter
of 1986. The research was carried out by technicians working in the
region, with advice from professors of the Graduate School of
Chapingo. The results obtained showed that it is possible to gain
knowledge about the region and about farmer circumstances in a short
length of time. The results of the research show the main constraints
to increased crop production. Some constraints are 1) planting dates
and crop varieties for corn, 2) diseases in horticultural crops, 3)
lack of credit for horticultural crops, 4) high numbers of farmers to
be served by extension agents, and 5) existence of crops for which
technology is not available. The main findings of the diagnostic
research were included in this year's program of activities of both
agronomic researchers and extension agents.

1
CEICADAR, Apartado Postal 1-12, La Libertad, Puebla, Mexico.

136
AN EXPLORATION OF THE ROLE OF EXTENSION IN PLANNING,
DESIGN, IMPLEMENTATION, AND EVALUATION OF AN FSR/E PROJECT:
EXPERIENCES FROM SOUTHCENTRAL VIRGINIA AND BEYOND
1 2
Michael L. Joshua and John Caldwell

Some of the desirable features of the farming systems research and


extension (FSR/E) process include farmer participation and interdisci-
plinarity. On the one hand, the traditional relationship between
extension and farmers gives extension a pivotal role in strengthening
the development and dissemination of appropriate technology for
farmers. On the other hand, the sharp distinction between research and
extension tends to undermine the fulfillment of the requirement of
interdisciplinarity. Based on experiences from an FSR/E project in
Southcentral Virginia and implications from the changing agricultural
structure, the paper explores the operational role of extension in the
farming-system-research-and-development process.

1
Bureau of Economic Research and Development, Virginia State
University,
2
Box W, Petersburg, VA 23803, U.S.A.
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA
24061, U.S.A.

137
APPLICATION OF EXPERT-SYSTEMS CONCEPTS FOR
FARMING SYSTEMS RESEARCH AND EXTENSION
1
Harbans Lal and R. M. Peart

Expert systems are computer programs that mimic the behavior of a


human expert within a limited domain of knowledge. Their use is
growing rapidly in business and industry, and agriculture has a few
operating examples. The concept of expert systems brings a new tool to
the task of technology transfer.

The multidisciplinary nature of farming systems research and extension


(FSR/E) requires each of its team members to gather, assimilate, and
apply a great deal of information to be successful. There exist
different sources and methods for acquiring this information.
However, according to Don Jones and Laura Hoelscher (Transfer of
agricultural research results to end users. 1986. ASAE Paper No. 86-
4554. Amer. Soc. of Agr. Engineers, St. Joseph, MI, U.S.A.),
developments such as teleconferencing, videotapes, and expert systems
can provide more appropriate means for training a heterogeneous group
like that of FSR/E.

This paper analyzes the application of expert-systems concepts in


training the FSR/E worker with some examples. This method for training
FSR/E workers can be very effective both on a time and monetary basis
in the situations of short supply and nonavailability of human experts
in a particular discipline. The expert system provides a rapid, easily
accessible method of recalling the knowledge of the expert within a
narrow field. An example is presented of an agricultural expert system
for identifying and determining the need for treatment for soybean
insects.

1
Agricultural Engineering Department, Rogers Hall, University of
Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, U.S.A.

138
ORGANIZATION AND MANAGERIAL GUIDELINES FOR STRENGTHENING
THE INTEGRATION OF ON-FARM AND EXPERIMENT STATION RESEARCH:
LESSONS FROM NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH SYSTEMS
1 2
Deborah M. Merrill-Sands and Stephen D. Biggs

On-farm research with a farming systems perspective (OFR/FSP) is an


important adaptive research strategy that complements experiment
station research. OFR/FSP must be closely integrated with on-station
research if it is to contribute optimally to the technology-generation
process. Two of the primary functions of on-farm research reflect this
need for integration. To develop appropriate technology for specified
groups of farmers, on-farm research needs to draw on a steady stream
of technical information from research stations. In turn, through its
close work with farmers, on-farm research is expected to feed back
information on major production problems and the performance of
technologies so that experiment station research remains relevant to
the priority needs and changing production situations of farmers.

Experience has shown that successfully performing these functions can


pose significant institutional challenges. Organizational and
managerial factors strongly influence the quality and level of
communication and collaboration within research systems. Research
managers implementing on-farm research programs must, therefore,
develop alternative organizational arrangements and management
processes within the research system to bring about an effective and
mutually beneficial interaction between on-station and on-farm
research.

In this paper we develop guidelines for strengthening the integration


of experiment station and on-farm research within national
agricultural research systems (NARS). The guidelines are derived
largely from in-depth analyses of selected NARS that have had
significant experience with on-farm research. Emphasis is placed on
the organizational and managerial arrangements that strengthen the
ability of on-farm research to effectively perform the adaptive
research and feedback functions. This analysis is one component of a
larger study on the organization and management of on-farm research
conducted by the International Service for National Agricultural
Research (ISNAR) in collaboration with several NARS.

1
International Service for National Agricultural Research (ISNAR), P.O.
Box
2
93375, 2509 AJ The Hague, Netherlands.
University of East Anglia, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, U.K.

139
AUDIENCE ANALYSIS SONDEO IN TWO ZAIRE SUBREGIONS

David J. Miller, Mbuyi Lusambo,


1
and Esul Bwar A Bwar

A newly appointed Zairian extension training team with a national


farming-systems-research-and-extension project conducted a 38-day
assessment of potential audiences in a rural region of Zaire. This
USAID/IITA project is charged with extending research information to
organizations working with farm families.

The team consisted of two Ingenieur Techniciens (each with 3 years of


university study). Team members used the questionnaire-and-discussion
method to determine principal extension-type structures, working
environments, constraints, tasks performed, skills and knowledge
needed for tasks, existing knowledge level, and specific training
needs. Potential training facilities for use in extension teaching
were also sought.

The purpose was for team and project staff to assess the knowledge
level and specific agricultural subject matter needed by the
organizations and project staff working directly with farmers.
Findings were to form a basis for specific training to be offered by
the project to the staff of the organizations within the region.

Available resources were scarce: the team used minimal funds for per
diem expenses, and had no project vehicle support. Local
transportation in the sparsely populated region was used exclusively.

The team identified potential client organizations and projects, their


objectives and methods of working, constraints, tasks performed by
staff, knowledge level and specific subject-matter needs in several
crop areas, and several process needs in communication and extension
methods. Potential training facilities were identified.

The data prompted a second sondeo in another region using the same
methods and a similar questionnaire-discussion format. The information
was used as a basis for developing specific training for the staff of
the organizations.

1
Projet Recherche Agronomique Appliquee et Vulgarisation, B. P. 11635,
Kinshasa 1, Zaire.

140
IMPACT OF DIAGNOSTIC SURVEY ON STRENGTHENING
INSTITUTIONAL LINKAGES — BURUNDI EXPERIENCE
1
Menuyellet Moussie

One of the major objectives of any farming-systems-research project is


to strengthen institutional linkages among all parties who have either
direct or indirect relationships with farmers. A well-planned and -
organized diagnostic survey could be a good starting point to cement
effective institutional linkages. This paper presents the planning of
the diagnostic survey, the setting in which it was conducted, and its
impact on the technical and social relationship of agriculturalists
who participated in this survey, which was conducted over a 3-week
period in Bugenyuzi Commune, Province of Karuzi, Burundi. Also
discussed in the paper are the techniques used to organize and
implement the survey such that each participant would have full
interaction with those from different backgrounds, programs, and
disciplines. If handled with caution, the diagnostic survey could also
have a potential impact on bridging the communication and research
gaps that exist between national and foreign researchers.

1
Burundi Small Farming Systems Research (Burundi S.F.S.R.), B. P. 1540,
Bujumbura, Burundi.

141
COMMUNICATION ALTERNATIVES FOR FARMING SYSTEMS:
A MULTI-PHASE PLANNING MODEL
1 2
Rosalie Huisinga Norem and Eric A. Abbott

This paper presents a model that identifies communication alternatives


for planning diagnosis, training, and linkage activities at three phases
of development projects and programs. Farming systems projects, and many
other development efforts, typically involve several phases, from
planning and organization through intervention. A phase that is less well
developed for many projects is that of identifying new initiatives during
the later stages of a project. These initiatives could provide for
continued extension of new or adapted technology, facilitate the
processing and (or) marketing of increased production, and suggest
alternatives for responding to broader community needs in terms of health
and education programming, community improvement, and involvement of the
private sector. The model outlined and discussed in the paper suggests
communications-activity categories of diagnosis, training, and linkage
building for the project phases of organization, intervention, and new
initiatives. Communications alternatives and networking potentials are
presented for each section of the resulting nine-cell planning grid. Each
development phase offers a wide opportunity for mass- and interpersonal-
communication activities in coordination with agencies that can make
available necessary information, and other inputs such as credit. The
goal is to illustrate ways in which existing extension efforts can be
linked to public- and private-sector communication alternatives to
maximize opportunities for farm households to take advantage of
agricultural innovations and information, and to enhance their ability to
develop a wider range of ongoing communication linkages. Examples from
projects are used to illustrate various components of the model.

1
Iowa State University, 166 LeBaron, Ames, IA 50011, U.S.A.
2
Department of Journalism, Room 204B, Hamilton Hall, Iowa State
University, Ames, IA 50011, U.S.A.

142
INFORMATION MANAGEMENT AS AN AID TO
AGRICULTURAL POLICY FORMULATION IN AFRICA
1
William Asenso Okyere

Agriculture plays a dominant role in the economic development of


several African countries. In 1983 FAO reported that on the average
about 34% of the GDP of countries in West Africa comes from
agriculture and that the sector employs nearly 61% of the labor force.
Most African countries have managed their economies through
development plans. However, in almost all cases plan objectives were
not achieved because the plan developments were not based on an
integrated information system capable of predicting or determining the
consequences of the specific policy proposals. It was therefore not
surprising that food production fell consistently in several African
countries in the 1970s and 1980s.

Agricultural policy in many African countries has included input and


credit subsidies and the offer of guaranteed minimum prices. There are
time and space problems with food distribution. Food is abundant at
harvest and near production centers and is scarce during the lean
period and at the consuming centers. A limited transportation system
is used to back haul commodities with little or no provision made for
storage or processing. Regular assessment of African countries'
competitiveness in the export market is vital to the success of an
export program, which is needed in most of these countries for
generating foreign exchange and improving the balance of trade.

The paper argues that African agricultural policy suffers from a lack
of information, and discusses how a good information system can be put
together.

1
Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic Research (ISSER),
University of Ghana, P.O. Box 74, Legon, Ghana.

143
IMPACT ANALYSIS OF CROPPING-SYSTEMS RESEARCH IN SELECTED COUNTRIES

N. F. C. Ranaweera, R. R.1 Gonzaga,


and N. T. Palma

Farming systems research and extension programs have been undertaken


in a number of Asian countries. Over the last 15 years, large-scale
adoptions of some of the technologies have been reported. With these
adoptions, increased food production is assumed — which should lead to
increased incomes among farmers. Increased incomes should be reflected
in greater capital accumulation, better nutrition, and improved
education — generally a better quality of life.

To study this aspect, a research project is now under way in the


Philippines, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka — where farmers have been
selected from among those who adopt the new cropping systems
technology and those who do not. Monitoring of household consumption,
production, and income-generating activities indicate the differences
in how the two groups behave. Preliminary analysis indicates a strong
behavioral difference between the two groups in the countries.

An added objective of the study is to develop an efficient and cost-


effective data-management-and-analysis technique adaptable to micro-
computers. This ensures that data can be collected and analyzed within
the sites.

The study will highlight policy measures that are required to ensure
that the new technology benefits the farmers by providing them with
stable crop-production alternatives.

1
Agricultural Economics Department, International Rice Research
Institute (IRRI), P.O. Box 933, Manila, Philippines.

144
LISTENING ABILITIES AND THE COMMUNICATION OF INFORMATION
AMONG GROUPS OF AGRICULTURAL EXPERTS IN PERU
1
Hernan Rincon

Interpersonal communication skills are taken for granted in many


large-scale systems involved in the process of transferring
information on agriculture. The abilities to listen, to understand and
accept other's views, to change one's mind when needed, to decide upon
meanings, or to reduce the level of complexity are not commonly dealt
with in either the formal or nonformal education of agricultural
researchers, extensionists, or farmers. Experiences and lessons from
human resources development, with emphasis on listening abilities
within groups of professionals in agricultural sciences in Peru, are
described within the framework of national agricultural research
centers.

1
Training and Communications, International Potato Center, P.O. Box
5969, Lima, Peru.

145
QUANTITATIVE LAND EVALUATION OF LAND-USE TYPES AND FARMING SYSTEMS:
THE CRIES PROJECT SYSTEMS APPROACH TO INTEGRATED DEVELOPMENT PLANNING
1
Gerhard E. Schultink

This paper addresses analytical procedures developed by the Comprehensive


Resource Inventory and Evaluation System (CRIES), representing a
systems approach to integrated resource assessment and development
planning. The CRIES Resource Information System (RIS) and its objectives
are described within its resource evaluation framework. Selected outputs
of the CRIES Geographic Information System (CRIES-GIS) and the CRIES
Agro-economic Information System (CRIES-AIS) are discussed using
selected examples from developing countries. Specific emphasis is given
to the use of the integrated spatial database, maintained in the
GIS system and the Agro-economic Information System software used
to assess comparative land-use advantage by location.

An overview is provided of the four phases of land evaluation, and the


CRIES-YIELD model is introduced. This model provides the capability to
predict yield for a large number of food and export crops for user-
selected locations and agroecological zones. This model, in
combination with enterprise analysis software, may be used to analyze
short- and long-season crops and to deter-mine economic returns
resulting from farming systems options representing Land Utilization
Types (LUTs).

In combination with other CRIES-RIS modules and the established


database, the analytical framework is presented to evaluate physical
and socioeconomic attributes by location, and to determine the
comparative advantage of sites for land-use alternatives. The
framework presented permits the evaluation of farming systems, and
regional or national aggregates can also be evaluated with regard to
their optimum performance characteristics and resulting socioeconomic
benefits derived under alternative land-use-and-development-policy
scenarios.

1
302 Natural Resources, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI
48824, U.S.A.

146
FSR AND THE DANGLING /E:
EXTENSION, INFORMATION FLOW, AND THE FARMING SYSTEMS APPROACH IN NIGER
1
Frederick W. Sowers and Kabo Ousseini

The /E of FSR/E has served a heuristic function of considerable


importance in defining a systems perspective toward research on small-
farm agriculture in the developing world. As farming systems research
makes inroads across a broad diversity of national and international
environments, it becomes increasingly evident that the classical
junior-partner role traditionally ascribed to extension has been
inherited with little modification. This paper examines the
theoretical and practical propensities that lend the farming systems
approach a strong research bias. One frequent consequence is the
pigeon-holing of FSR/E activity into pilot or other restricted
programs. We argue that extension can and should play a more active
role in the conception and implementation of national programs in
FSR/E and that, if it does, it would at least partially alleviate a
major constraint to the widespread application of an integrated
systematic approach to agricultural research and development. This
implies the existence of a strong research-extension liaison wherein
the institutional structures facilitate effective communication.

Unfortunately, the information and communication processes within


research and extension do not always lend themselves to efficiently
overcoming production constraints faced by rural producers. The second
portion of this paper draws on the results of an institutional sondeo
carried out in Niger, West Africa. This case study evaluates the
obstacles at a national level to the adoption of a farming systems
approach in which the extension services would be used to broaden the
impact of research's tentative initiatives. This institutional sondeo,
carried out by a planning-and-analysis unit within the extension
services, revealed numerous deficiencies in the gathering, processing,
and communicating of information necessary to an effective program.
The results of the sondeo and the consequent steps taken to address
the identified shortcomings are then presented. The paper concludes
that a constant need for monitoring communication processes is essen-
tial and may in some cases be more appropriate to the institutions of
extension than to those of research.

1
Ministry of Agriculture, PCN, B.P. 10583, Niamey, Niger.

147
HAITI GEOGRAPHICALLY REFERENCED WATERSHED-SYSTEMS RESEARCH:
A SOCIOECONOMIC APPLICATION

R. Swanson, D. Brown, 1
M. Bertelsen, and C. Hypollite

Maps are extremely useful tools in analyzing phenomena that exhibit


spatial variation. Using a geographically referenced microcomputer-
based system, spatial variation of such factors as location of
different types of soil-conservation structures (rock terraces,
vegetative barriers, etc.), ownership patterns of different farms and
plots located in a watershed system, land-tenure patterns, nature of
cropping patterns across two different agricultural seasons in 1 year,
and distance of household residence from various household
landholdings were presented.

Using a database developed on Lotus 1-2-3, linked to the CRIES/


geographic information system, this paper will show how spatial
variation of complex socioeconomic factors can be mapped and studied.

1
Agricultural Development Support II Project (ADS-II), Damien Offices,
MARNDR, Port-au-Prince, Haiti.

148
USING MICROCOMPUTERS TO ORGANIZE AND PRESENT CONTEXTUAL DATA
1
William E. Tedrick

Organizing qualitative information for effective decision-making is


enhanced by using microcomputer-assisted techniques. The application
of dBase and PC-SAS software to keyword search procedures allows
information users to organize and present contextual information in
more effective formats designed specifically for various audience
types. Relatively large databases can be organized into identifiable
fields that can be "sorted" or "output" in desired configurations
depending upon the purpose or goal of the communication task. Further
presentation efficiencies can be achieved by applying such software
programs as "Overhead Express" and (or) "ShowMaker" with computer
projection equipment to project the output. This paper describes the
application of these popular software programs for organizing and
presenting contextual information.

1
230 Special Services Building, Texas A&M University, College Station,
TX 77843, U.S.A.

149
EVALUATION RESEARCH:
AN IMPERATIVE FOR FSR/E METHODOLOGY
1 2
Janis K. Timberlake, Thomas
3
Kalb,
and Barbara Wyche

Evaluation is an integral part of a farming systems research/extension


(FSR/E) approach. The approach is designed to take into account both
failures and successes of past production efforts to develop solutions
to constraints faced by limited-resource farm families. This paper
argues it is imperative that a systematic evaluation methodology be
institutionalized within FSR/E. The implementation of a systematic
evaluation system will continually strengthen the quality of FSR/E
research efforts, increasing both their impact and cost effectiveness.
The paper proposes an evaluation methodology based on a time-series
research design whereby project impact can be measured at predetermined
intervals. Three different instruments are used to measure 1)
production/income of the intervention, 2) social and economic factors of
the farm family, and 3) knowledge and acceptance of the project by the
extension service. The design provides an effective method of monitoring
yearly interventions and also measuring overall project impact by
assessing change across time. This design is currently being used in an
evaluation of Virginia State University and Virginia Polytechnic
Institute and State University's FSR/E project in south-east Virginia.
Evaluation results are discussed.

1
Department of Sociology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
University,
2
Blacksburg, VA 24061, U.S.A.
Department of Horticulture, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
University,
3
Blacksburg, VA 24061, U.S.A.
Bureau of Economic Research and Development, Virginia State
University, Petersburg, VA 23803, U.S.A.

150
AGRICULTURAL KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS AND TARGET CATEGORIES IN FSR/E
1
Mahinda Wijeratne

The concept of agricultural knowledge systems (AKS) is gaining


significant attention among extension scientists because it has been
realized that this concept can be used as an analytical tool. The AKS
includes three subsystems — the research subsystem, dissemination
subsystem, and user subsystem — which establish linkages through
dissemination of knowledge or information. AKS has six functions —
need identification, generation of innovative knowledge, operational-
ization, dissemination, utilization, and evaluation. These functions
are similar to the functions described in the market-research concept.
FSR/E has used similar concepts, but initially concentrated on the
agroecological zones as its base.

However, now it has been realized that the farmers' resources play a
substantial role in the process of knowledge use. Therefore, in
addition to agroecological zones, the resources available to the
farmers should also receive prime attention in the process of
development and dissemination of innovations. Therefore, even within
the agroecological zones, target categories have to be identified. The
concept of AKS and target categories provide vital contributions to
the FSR/E paradigm, especially for its knowledge-dissemination
components.

1
Department of Agricultural Economics, Faculty of Agriculture,
University of Ruhuna, Mapalana, Kamburupitiya, Sri Lanka.

151
USING "EXPERT SYSTEMS" ON MICROCOMPUTERS TO AID
FARM MANAGEMENT AND POLICY DECISIONS
1
Karin Wisiol

Farmers, extension advisers, administrators, policymakers, and funding


agencies must often base decisions about farming systems on both
biological and social factors. Often they must deal with information
that is uncertain, farming systems that are complex or unfamiliar, and
knowledge from one scale or site that is to be applied at another.

State-of-the-art techniques for making decisions that respond to such


multiple needs are now being explored for agriculture. These include
"expert systems" techniques, which lend themselves being combined with
hierarchical approaches and indicators. Development and use of such
tools on microcomputers is a recent advance with great potential.
Examples are taken from the author's work with projects of the U.S.
Department of Agriculture and projects in international agriculture.

1
Karin Wisiol & Associates, 614 Indian Road, Glenview, IL 60025, U.S.A.

152
THE RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION OF AGRICULTURAL
EXTENSION AGENTS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
1 2
Phyllis E. Worden and Patrick J. Ludgate

The purpose of the study was to gather information about the problems
of recruiting and retaining agricultural extension agents in
developing countries. The researcher interviewed 41 students/scholars
at Colorado State, representing 38 developing countries.

In reviewing the literature, Dr. Ludgate found that the number of


farmers per extension agent varied greatly. In Africa, it varied from
250 to 300 farmers per agent in Botswana, to approximately 10,000
farmers per agent in Sudan. In Asia, it varied from 500 farmers per
agent in the Republic of Korea, to 3,000 farmers per agent in
Thailand.

Thirty-one issue statements were developed and used by the researcher


in this study. Nineteen of these statements had positive agreement in
the literature and 12 did not. After interviewing the respondents for
this study, Dr. Ludgate found "nonconcurrence" in 9 of the 31
statements by the respondents when their responses were compared to
the way the statement was supported in existing literature.

Results of the Colorado State study:

Desirable Characteristics for Extension Agents, 1987

Rank Recruitment Retention

1st Willing and able to learn from others Transportation or


travel funding

2nd Minimum educational preparation Career advancement


(i.e., basic degree or better) opportunities

3rd Employment-related experience Competitive salary


scales

This research will be helpful to extension and research administrators


in developing countries involved in farming systems projects as well
as to U.S. university personnel working with farming systems programs
in developing countries.

1
Cooperative Extension, 203 Administration, Colorado State University,
Ft.
2
Collins, CO 80523, U.S.A.
Department of Vocational Education, Colorado State University,
Ft. Collins, CO 80523, U.S.A.

153
Blank Page in Original
Blank Page in Original
HOW SYSTEMS WORK AT THE FARMING SYSTEMS RESEARCH
SITE AT KALIKAPUR IN BANGLADESH
1
Z. Abedin, M. A. Islam, M. F. Islam,
and R. N. Mallick

A farming-systems research (FSR) project was initiated at Kalikapur in


1985; a cropping-systems component had been initiated in 1981. The
research team consists of one site coordinator, two agronomists, one
economist, one sociologist, and eight scientific assistants. A team
of 25 on-station scientists provide technical backstopping. Planning
is done by monitoring farmers' production problems and practices.
Since crops contribute 72% of farm income, a greater research effort
is devoted to cropping systems. The residual effects of fertilizers
were studied so that fertilizers could be recommended on a cropping-
pattern basis. Homestead vegetable gardening was introduced in order
to involve women, children, and old family members as well as the
landless and marginal farmers who make up 49% of the population.
Epil-epil was planted to determine its feasibility for fodder,
fencing, and firewood. Special surveys are also conducted to discover,
for example, the involvement of women in homestead production systems.
Another survey was conducted on livestock production and use. One
field day in each crop season is organized for farmers and extension
workers to observe the performance of technology in the farmers'
fields. The same group is also brought to the research station so
that they can compare on-farm and station performance. The
participant-farmers are trained in new technologies. Research is
evaluated in the field and is subject to internal review every 6
months. The program is redesigned on the basis of the evaluation;
constraints such as fencing and water problems in the homestead area,
are addressed. The technology that gives consistent results is
verified at Multilocation Testing Sites, which have similar
environments, for final recommendation. The sites are serving as the
training grounds for other FSR scientists.

_________
l
OFRD - RARS - BARI - Ishurdi, Pabna, Bangladesh.

157
UNDERSTANDING HOW A FARMING SYSTEM WORKS
FOR THE PURPOSE OF A BASIC FSR ANALYSIS:
IDENTIFICATION OF RESEARCH PROJECTS IN ZAIRE
1
C. Bartlett, L. Simba, N. Diankende, K. Kassongo,
L. Landu, N. Mbula, and O. Osiname

The method for choosing priority agricultural research projects


involved identifying opportunities to change agricultural production
and then asking two questions: "What help does the farmer need if he
is to take advantage of these opportunities?" and "Is it worth
supplying him with these requirements?" The second question was
answered by roughly assessing the probable ratio of the benefits from
each opportunity to the costs of providing the farmer with what he
needed to take advantage of the opportunity. On the basis of this
ratio a selection was made among production opportunities, and thus
among the associated research projects required to realize these
opportunities. Research was required to further identify
opportunities, to design the innovations, and to identify problems
farmers might have with these innovations and changes in practices
that might be necessary.

The analysis consisted of examining specific hypotheses on


opportunities farmers might have to change agricultural production and
on problems with taking advantage of these opportunities. The
following information on the farming system was required for this
work: a simple description of the cropping system and an assessment of
resource scarcities and of strategies farmers use to solve their major
problems. In addition more specific information was required for the
examination of individual hypotheses. But a more general description,
or deeper understanding, of how the farming system worked appeared not
to be necessary for this basic FSR analysis. Attempts to provide such
an understanding or description would have involved a lot of effort
for little additional accuracy in defining and selecting research
topics and would probably have diverted attention from analyses
required to answer the essential questions.

_________
1
Programme National Manioc, BP 11635, Kinshasa 1, Zaire.

158
INTEGRATION OF FOOD PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION
THROUGH MULTIDISCIPLINARY TEAM TRAINING
1
John S. Caldwell and Marilyn S. Prehm

The usefulness of multidisciplinary teams in integrating production


and consumption was assessed in a joint laboratory of an FSR/E course
and an international nutrition course. Four teams integrated
production and consumption in two FSR/E activities:

1. sondeos of 16 Virginia farms to identify domains and possible


interventions
2. review of literature of the developing country of a team member to
prepare an FSR/E project design

Student achievement of course and laboratory objectives was assessed


by both self-evaluation and instructors' ratings. Content analysis of
the self-evaluation revealed that the greatest contribution of each
person to team activities was from their own discipline, but that
their greatest gains were from the integration of all the disciplines.
Students evaluated themselves higher on achievement of overall team-
related objectives than on achievement of individual course-related
objectives. Suggested improvements included formal training in team-
building, more training in processing techniques, and more time for
team planning.

1
301E Saunders Hall, Department of Horticulture, VPI & SU, Blacksburg,
VA 24061, U.S.A.

159
COMPLEMENTARY METHODS FOR INTEGRATING INTRA-HOUSEHOLD
DYNAMICS INTO CROP/LIVESTOCK SYSTEMS
1
Hilary Sims Feldstein, Janice Jiggins,
and Susan Poats

There is a growing awareness of the importance of integrating


information on intra-household dynamics and gender roles into
crop/livestock-systems research and extension. However, many
practitioners are unfamiliar with methodologies that can be used for
collecting and analyzing such information in a timely and resource-
efficient manner. This presentation will provide an opportunity for
participants to learn about and discuss methods used by four
practitioners.

Format: The session will open with a slide presentation and


discussion of intra-household dynamics and farming systems.
Participants will be split into four groups. In rotation, each group
will visit for 15 minutes with four presenters who will have visual
displays of methodologies and will lead a short discussion. There
will be a final wrap up.

Presenters: Dr. Jacqueline Ashby, Rural Sociologist, IFDC/CIAT,


Colombia — participant observation and postharvest trials in
evaluating bean varieties; Doyle Baker, Agricultural Economist, ATIP,
Botswana — focused topic surveys for analysis by microcomputer and
group evaluation of on-farm trials; Dr. Felix Nweke, Agricultural
Economist, IITA, Nigeria — survey methods for specifying desirable
postharvest characteristics in advance of breeding research; and
Christine Okali, Socioeconomist, Director for Africa, OXFAM-America —
use of the community as a unit of analysis, and monitoring of farmer
experimentation with introduced technologies.

__________
1
RFD 1, Box 821, Hancock, NH 03449, U.S.A.; Population Council/FSSP
Case Studies Project.

160
A PRODUCER-SUPPORTED ON-FARM RESEARCH PROGRAM
ON VEGETABLES IN PANAMA
1
Mark L. Gaskell and Esteban Sanchez

A new collaborative research program on vegetable crops is under way


in the highlands of western Panama. This program closely ties together
researchers from the Panamanian Agricultural Research Institute
(IDIAP) with a producers' cooperative and a marketing cooperative in
the principal Panamanian vegetable-production area. The program
follows on 3 years of successful on-farm cooperation between national
researchers and cooperative members and responds to a desire by
producers and researchers to continue and expand the program. Although
the previous experience with on-farm research was very positive when
compared to the more traditional experiment station focus, serious
limitations had plagued the program. This new model attempts to
resolve some of the difficulties in doing on-farm research for this
and other similar national programs in the region and also provides
important producer input to the program. The newly established
mechanisms for financing and administration respond to a chronic need
for more reliable and timely provision of field resources for research
personnel. The program also attempts to develop mechanisms for active
grower support and participation in the research process, for a market
orientation for the research, and for a role for the producer in the
periodic evaluation of research projects. The design of the program,
the focus of past and present research, and the perceived advantages
and disadvantages of this and alternative programs are discussed.

1
Rutgers University, USAID/Panama, Agency for International
Development, Washington, D.C. 20523, U.S.A.

161
RECONCEPTUALIZING THE RURAL HOUSEHOLD: A BASIS FOR IMPACT
MODELING OF DONOR ASSISTANCE IN AGRICULTURE
1
Natalie D. Hahn, Lily Ohiorhenuan,
and Anthony Ikpi

Postharvest technologies and decision-making at the rural-household


level continue to be undervalued and excluded from most on-farm
research and farming systems methodologies. This has serious
implications as a sound basis for appropriate testing of technologies
and international donor assistance in agriculture.
The purpose of this paper is to propose a model that will expand and
refine the conceptualization of the household through capturing the
intra- and inter-household dynamics. This will facilitate a better
understanding and modeling of the potential impact of international
donor assistance in agriculture. In the process, the paper will review
the current state of the art on household economics in relation to
decision-making on crop production and use, as well as the nutritional
and health implications.

Case studies to support this suggested methodology will include


1) nutrition and agricultural research surveys (IITA-UNICEF Program on
Household Food Security and Nutrition); 2) compound farm surveys for
identifying agro-nutritional factors of the compound (home) garden in
relation to outlying fields in indigenous farming systems; and
3) improved crop interventions, particularly with respect to recent
research on soybeans.

1
Crop and Resource Management Program, IITA, Oyo Road PMB 5320, Ibadan,
Nigeria.

162
NUTRITIONAL STATUS INDICATORS: THEIR USES IN FARMING
1
Gail G. Harrison

Recently there has been increased recognition of the usefulness of


information on food consumption in planning and evaluating farming
systems research. However, nutritional status information has been
conspicuously omitted from consideration in most instances. There are
several reasons for this, including the perceptions that 1) such
information is in the purview of the health sector; 2) collecting such
information is costly or inordinately complicated; and 3) since
nutritional status is affected by many other factors as well as by
agricultural production, reliance on these indicators might give
falsely negative impressions of the success of agricultural
development efforts. Without attention to nutritional status, however,
there is no way to measure nutritional impact. The goal of nutritional
improvement cannot be met unless the diets improve in households that
contain malnourished individuals or in which there is significant risk
of malnutrition. There is a need to develop guidelines and materials
that can guide researchers in how to use and interpret existing data
that directly and indirectly reflect nutritional status, and to decide
when additional data need to be collected. There is also a need to
develop and disseminate appropriate, simple field methods for
identifying the most common types of malnutrition. Simple indicators
and their use in relation to protein-energy malnutrition, iron
deficiency, and vitamin A deficiency are most important in this
regard.

1
Department of Family and Community Medicine, University of Arizona,
Tucson, AZ 85724, U.S.A.

163
INTEGRATED RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
1
Paul Kleene and Vincent Dollé

How does one link research and development? How does one meet the
needs of rural communities and farms, and their economic and social
organizations? How does one elaborate and spread pertinent social and
technical innovations integrating the variability of the environment
and the national and international constraints? These are three
questions, among others, that research and development is dealing with
now.
Starting from field operations, farmers, development agents, and
scientists study specific problems to help farmers master the changes
that are necessary to the progress of their agriculture. This approach
consists of three guidelines, although the actual procedure may vary
for individual cases:
- The analysis of farmers' problems should be discussed during
group meetings. This implies an understanding of the mechanisms
and dynamics of agrarian and farming systems.

- Changes and innovations to improve the organization and


technology of existing systems should be designed and tested,
depending on the physical constraints and the farmers' capacity
to adopt changes. These tests are obviously negotiated with the
different rural social groups: farmers, families, ethnic
groups, commodity-oriented groups, and types of workers.

- The organization and transfer of these innovations should be


supported. Strategies calling for active participation of the
farmers should be specified and carried out through:
a. creating the appropriate climate, providing information,
taking action on different phases of communication
campaigns concerning social and technical innovations
b. training farmers, researchers, and development agents
c. following up and evaluating these activities

All these actions are aimed toward producing results that are of
direct relevance to development. Right from the start, they are
carried out with the farmers, who are the main actors in their own
development.

1
DSA-CIRAD, Ave. du Val de Montferand, B.P. 5035, 34032 Montpellier
Cedex, France.

164
THE SONDEO APPLIED TO PERENNIAL CROPS:
RESULTS FROM FRUIT GROWERS WITH WOODLANDS

Steven E. Kraft, Thomas Purcell,


1
Paul Roth, and Brad Taylor

The literature on the rapid survey or "the sondeo" revolves around its
use with farmers producing primarily annual crops. Examples from the
literature on the application of the approach to perennial crops are
few. In this paper, we report on the use of the rapid-survey technique
with farmers producing perennial crops: fruit trees and forests. As in
the traditional sondeo, a multidisciplinary team was used to meet with
the farmers and identify their goals, resource limitations, problems,
farm enterprises, off-farm activities, etc. As part of this process,
it was necessary to find out about the nature of the stands of fruit
trees and woodlands. To accomplish this, it was frequently necessary
to spend time carrying out a "rapid survey of these" in order to
assess their potential and the manner in which the perennials were
integrated into the farm operation. A two-phase sondeo was developed.
First, the team met with the farmer and discussed the nature of the
farm operation and how it was merged with the household. Second, the
team carried out a second visit in which the tree plantations were
inspected to determine the age, variety, and management of the fruit
trees. Additionally, the woodlands were inspected to determine the
different stands and to assess the possibility of managing the
woodlands for economic returns with the other ongoing farming
activities. In the study area, woodlands are frequently seen not as a
resource to be used but as something filling the spaces between
fields. When this perception was confirmed during the initial contact
with the farmers, we decided that team members would have to see the
forests to determine what management options might be open to farmers.
This paper reports on how the two-phase sondeos were developed, how
they were carried out, results obtained from them, and how our
experience can be generalized to dealing with perennial crops in other
areas.

1
Department of Agribusiness Economics, Southern Illinois University,
Carbondale, IL 62901, U.S.A.

165
THE FORMATION OF RECOMMENDATION DOMAINS USING CLUSTER ANALYSIS

Steven E. Kraft, Paul Roth,


1
and Angela Thielen

The success of the FSR approach relies on the identification of


relevant recommendation domains. The literature in this area of
farming systems is not extensive. This is especially the case with the
development of recommendation domains for large areas in which a large
number of farm operations are located. In this paper, we report on an
effort in which empirically derived recommendation domains were
identified using the numerical technique of cluster analysis. A random
sample of farm operators was drawn for the 34 southern-most counties
of Illinois. This is an area dominated by small, part-time farm
operations. A survey was sent to the members of the sample in which
information about their farming operations was requested: size,
enterprises, socioeconomic characteristics of operator and spouse,
sources of income, goals, limiting resources. Based on the survey
responses and an analysis of the data, we found that the area had
diversity of farms that were basically small, with many enterprises,
and high levels of off-farm income. Additionally, there was a range
of larger farm operations. We used cluster analysis to develop
homogeneous sets of farm operations from these data. The analysis
showed that 20 groups captured the range of diversity within the farms
in the area. Once the clusters were formed, additional information was
collected on each cluster to verify that it was significantly
different from the others. These clusters have become our first cut in
the development of recommendation domains for the area. Cluster
analysis is a fast, accurate technique that could be a useful tool in
the application of farming systems.

__________
1
Department of Agribusiness Economics, Southern Illinois University,
Carbondale, IL 62901, U.S.A.

166
FARMING SYSTEMS RESEARCH ALONG THE SENEGAL RIVER VALLEY:
THE MAURITANIA AGRES II PROJECT
1
Mark B. Lynham, Hamath N'Gaide,
and Timothy R. Frankenberger

The AGRES II project is a University of Arizona farming systems


research and extension (FSR/E) project funded by USAID. The Mauritanian
counterpart organization is the Centre de Recherche Agronomique et de
Developpement Agricole (CNRADA), which is based at Kaedi. The overall
objective of the AGRES II project is to improve the standard of living
of farm households by increasing agricultural production, especially
staple foods, and by arresting the deterioration of the environment in
the river valley. To accomplish this objective, the project is pursuing
a number of activities that include 1) establishing the research center
at Kaedi as a credible and region-ally recognized research institution
(institution building); 2) establishing collaborative links among the
various development, research, and educational institutions
(institutional linkages); 3) applying the FSR/E methodology in
diagnosis, experimental design, and on-farm trials (establishing an
FSR/E capability); and 4) extending the new tested technologies to
farmers in the region.

To guide project implementation, a research strategy that identifies


potential research activities to be implemented by CNRADA has been
formulated. This information is based on the results of two farming-
systems reconnaissance surveys conducted in four regions along the
Senegal River. These surveys allowed the researchers to assess the
current agricultural practices, constraints, and needs of farmers so
that research programs could be devised accordingly. Dry-season and
rainy-season data were collected on cropping patterns (irrigated,
recession, and rainfed), animal husbandry, off-farm economic
activities, marketing, and consumption. A list of research
alternatives was drawn up from this information, to be pursued by the
research station. Following up on these alternatives, on-farm trials
are presently being implemented in a number of villages.

1
Office of Arid Lands Studies, University of Arizona, 845 N. Park,
Tucson, AZ 85719, U.S.A.

167
ON-FARM RESEARCH IN SWAZILAND:
RESPONSES TO UNIQUE FARM PRESSURES
1
Millicent Malaza and Neil A. Patrick.

Swaziland is the second smallest country in Africa, and has a long,


though interrupted, history of agricultural research and extension.
Use of modern agricultural technology on traditional farms is common.
Most rural homesteads have one or more persons who have off-farm wage-
earning occupations; these earnings are used to purchase agricultural
inputs as well as to increase farm welfare. A farming-systems-research
project was begun in 1982 to revitalize the research division,
reorient its work toward traditional sector farms, and improve the
capability of extension. Reconnaissance and verification surveys were
conducted and on-farm research was begun on a pilot-study basis in the
1982-1983 growing season. The fifth year of on-farm trials has just
been completed.
On-farm trials were expanded in 1985 to 10 rural development areas
located in all of the four major ecological zones. Research assistants
were seconded, mostly from extension, to conduct the trials at the
local level. In the past year several problems have been identified
regarding the trials. These problems center around the desire of
farmers to obtain new production technology and their confusion
regarding the purposes of agricultural research. The problems have
created a unique situation regarding the design and conduct of on-farm
research. The paper discusses these problems and the modifications in
the "normal" farming systems methodology that have been instituted to
cope with them.

1
Malkerns Research Station, P.O. Box 4, Malkerns, Swaziland.

168
UTILIZING ECONOMICS AND NUTRITION
TO EVALUATE FSR/E INTERVENTIONS
1
Patricia M. O'Brien-Place

Farming systems research and extension (FSR/E) interventions are


generally evaluated on production changes, project operational success,
and possibly the benefit-cost ratio for the project. As FSR/E
interventions need to be more and more "fine-tuned" to achieve results
with low-resource farmers, a need has arisen for a closer evaluation of
interventions before, during, and after implementation. Ideally this
evaluation would take account of the farmer's goals as well as those of
the project personnel. Given that low-resource farmers have household
food security as a basic goal (along with other goals, depending on
their circumstances), the use of food-related indicators for evaluation
is particularly attractive.

Through the use of economic and nutritional data that should be


generally available or easily found, nutritional-economics indicators
can be derived. These indicators for the most part are based on the
relative nutrient cost (RNC), which is calculated by dividing the
present food expenditure by the quantity of a particular nutrient
consumed. The data necessary for the RNC can be calculated from
national data if local project data are unavailable. The RNC can be
used to derive the nutrient-production cost, nutritional value for a
commodity, nutritional yield, cost-to-nutritional-value ratio, and
relative-nutrient-production-cost ratio.

1
U.S. Department of Agriculture/OICD/TA/NEG, Washington, D.C. 20250-
4300, U.S.A.

169
INCORPORATING FOOD-CONSUMPTION ISSUES IN FSR/E:
EFFORTS TO DATE OF THE NUTRITION IN AGRICULTURE COOPERATIVE AGREEMENT
1
Patricia M. O'Brien-Place, T. Frankenberger,
K. DeWalt, and G. Harrison

The University of Arizona and the University of Kentucky have a


cooperative agreement with the nutrition economics group, Office of
International Cooperation and Development, United States Department of
Agriculture, focusing on incorporating nutritional/food-consumption
concerns in farming systems research and extension (FSR/E) and other
agricultural development projects. Support for this work is from the
U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), Office of
Nutrition. The general objectives of this agreement are to 1)
establish a cooperative framework for technical and research support
for applied research and technical assistance designed to assist
developing countries improve the food-consumption consequences of
their agricultural projects, and 2) increase the capabilities of U.S.
educational institutions to develop or increase expertise in this
field.

The main activities under this project include 1) identifying,


testing, and evaluating alternative ways of incorporating food-
consumption and nutrition concerns into the designs, implementation,
and evaluation of FSR/E and other agricultural development projects;
2) identifying, standardizing, and writing case studies on projects
where consumption or nutrition concerns have been or are being
addressed within past or current agricultural projects (i.e.,
Honduras, Sierra Leone); 3) developing and testing low-cost methods
for collecting data on diets and other relevant food-related
activities; 4) developing training materials based on the above
research; and 5) organizing a nutrition-in-agriculture network (NIAN)
for information dissemination on these topics.

Food-consumption research has been initiated in a FSR/E project in


Mauritania over the past year. Data on food consumption were collected
as part of two FSR/E reconnaissance surveys, demonstrating that this
information can be obtained with production data in a cost-effective
manner.

1
U.S. Department of Agriculture/OICD/TA/NEG, Washington, D.C. 20250-
4300, U.S.A.

170
FARMING SYSTEM RESEARCH AND "RECHERCHE-DEVELOPPEMENT"
1
Didier Pillot

It is becoming usual for institutions concerned with strengthening


links between research and rural development in the Third World to
admit that proposals of technical innovation cannot be made without an
understanding of the farmer's behavior.
System analysis is generally used to formalize this approach. In this
formalization, differences of definitions and concepts rely mainly on
the level of appraisal of the observed phenomenon: the plot, the
farm, the village, or the region.

In the search for a universal methodology, the English-speakers'


approach (farming systems research) has often been contrasted with the
French speakers' approach (Analyse des Systemes Agraires-Recherche-
Developpement). However, when field cases have been analyzed, no real
differences between the two come to light.

Still, approaches can be differentiated, but not based on language or


nationality. Rather, these differences are related to the goals of the
programs and to the duration of the diagnostic phase. The wish to be
operational, i.e., to become efficient quickly, may be difficult if
the quality of the research is to be preserved. Regardless of the
nationality of the farming-systems-research practitioner, it has been
shown that there is:
- a need for simple and operational tools for understanding the
relationship between the human being and his environment
− a need for trials with the farmers
− a need to conceive the diagnostic phase as a continuous process
of bringing the researcher and farmer closer together, through
formal and informal surveys and experimentation trials

These needs imply bringing together the teams in order to find more
operational tools with better-defined functions. In this view, it
becomes necessary to separate the works according to their goals:
System Research (on rural societies and farming systems) on the one
hand and development-oriented research on the other.

1
GRET, 213, rue La Fayette 75010, Paris, France.

171
UNIVERSAL PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION: AN EVALUATION DEVICE
1
Norman E. Tooker

This paper focuses on problems of extension/technology-transfer


systems in developing countries and principles that must be adhered to
if those systems are to be successful. It also proposes a "measuring
instrument" that could be used to determine the successes, strengths,
and shortcomings of existing extension/technology-transfer systems.
Principles discussed are:

1. Start high enough.


2. Go low enough.
3. Base subject matter on research.
4. Start where the people are.
5. Make sure workers have appropriate backgrounds.
6. Seek and harness local leadership.
7. Measure results — evaluate periodically.
8. Report results periodically.
9. Use demonstration methods.
10. Build in a system of reward and recognition.
11. Recognize the importance of pre-service and in-service training.
12. Cooperate and coordinate with other agencies.
13. Separate regulation and education.
14. Be satisfied with tiny successes.
15. Involve both men and women.

If these 15 principles are each put to their best use, an


extension/technology-transfer program has a very high probability of
being successful. In-country methods of observing each of these
underlying principles is what makes each program unique. Programs can
be tailored to local needs and still be in step with these principles.

1
210 Ag. Hall, East Campus, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583,
U.S.A.

172
FARMING SYSTEMS RESEARCH FOR THE DRY TROPICS OF THE DEVELOPING WORLD:
ICRISAT'S EXPERIENCE OVER THE LAST DECADE
1
Surinder Virmani

The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics


(ICRISAT) established a farming systems program for area-based research
to complement its commodity-based crop-improvement work in developing and
improving farming systems in the rainfed semiarid tropics. In these
regions of low and erratic rainfall and poor soil fertility, stable
sustainable production — without further environmental degradation — is
as important as higher yields.

In its area-based research on farming systems, ICRISAT conducted most of


its research in three subject-matter areas. These are: 1) farming systems
analysis (i.e., the study of farming systems as they exist); 2) farming
systems adaptive research (i.e., on-farm research with a farming systems
perspective); and 3) new farming systems development. In terms of
approach and emphasis, ICRISAT has given more weight to farming systems
analysis and new farming systems development than to commodity-based on-
farm research, in India. In West Africa, however, the approach is much
more in consonance with on-farm adaptive research. Collaborative studies
on crop/livestock and crop/agroforestry interactions are an integral part
of it, and the importance of the toposequence in conditioning farming
systems is clearly recognized.

After a decade of experience, we are convinced that the productivity of


area-based farming systems research (FSR) is ultimately linked to the
adoption of improved cultivars. Further, we believe the framework of FSR
might be made more useful if the element of technology design were added.
The effective use of baseline studies for assessing the probabilities of
the success of introducing improved technology components is essential
for expediting the transfer of new FSR knowledge. The national research,
in our opinion, need assistance and training in technology design and
assessment.

1
Resource Management Program, ICRISAT, Patancheru P.O. 502 324, A.P.,
India.

173
LOSING TOUCH: FSR/E AT THE CROSSROADS
1
David Vance Youmans

After a decade of fits, starts, and occasional successes, farming


systems research and extension (FSR/E) is losing touch. It is losing
touch with farmers, the very people felt by earlier practitioners to
be central to the vitality of the philosophy itself. Academics are
elevating that philosophy to the heady world of models, constructs,
and software, and have distanced themselves from the realities of
Third World rural conditions as perceived through farmers' frames of
reference. They are developing their own language, alien to farmers.
Reality is being adapted to software, not the other way around. The
farmer is being made a subject to be studied, a laboratory rabbit. He
is under a microscope, and he is uncomfortable.

FSR/E needs to get back to basics. The refreshing experience of


spending time on the land with farmers, jointly puzzling through
perceptions, problems, and possible solutions will slip away if
university faculty does not get their feet back on the ground. The
sensitivities and plain hard work prescribed by Norman, Winkelmann,
Hildebrand, and Shaner will be totally replaced by FSR/E symposia
where academics talk about farmers instead of with them.

In a sense, the simplemindedness of the FSR/E concept was its greatest


strength. While it is true that this interactive experience must be
reported, documented, and studied, the study is not the end. The
publication is not the end and the spin-off is not the end. The end is
the improvement of the quality of life and the productivity of people
on the land through mutually discovered, affordable solutions to
everyday problems. If this cannot happen, then FSR/E, academics, and
thousands of unfortunate farmers will have been reduced to lifeless
silicon. FSR/E needs to rediscover its roots and feel again the earth
under its feet.

1
Washington State University, USAID/JVASP, American Embassy, Amman,
Jordan.

174
AUTHOR INDEX

Abbott, Eric A............................................................................................................. p. 142


Abedin, M.Z ..................................................................................................................p. 77
Abedin, Z ....................................................................................................................p. 157
Abeyratne, Fredrick A. .................................................................................................p. 45
Adriano, Buenaventura C. .............................................................................................p. 46
Agboola, Akinola A. .................................................................................................... p.103
Ahmad, Rafiq ..................................................................................................................p. 3
Alvarez, Rossanna C. .....................................................................................................p.53
Ambassa-Kiki, R............................................................................................ p. 120, p. 121
Ames, Glenn C.W. ........................................................................................................ p. 47
Amir, P.......................................................................................................................... p. 69
Ardapple-Kindberg, Beth................................................................................................ p. 4
Ardapple-Kindberg, Eric................................................................................................. p. 4
Asaduzzman, S.M. ............................................................................................. p. 20, p. 21
Ashraf, Malik ................................................................................................................ p. 30
Avery, Martha E.......................................................................................................... p. 104
Axinn, George H........................................................................................................... p. 48
Axinn, Nancy W. .......................................................................................................... p. 48
Bacon, Robert ............................................................................................................... p. 22
Bakhshi, R..................................................................................................................... p. 38
Balakrishnan, Revathi ................................................................................................... p. 49
Banner, Roger E............................................................................................................ p. 70
Barros, H. H. A. ............................................................................................................ p. 41
Bartel, Paul.................................................................................................................... p. 70
Bartlett, C.................................................................................................................... p. 158
Barton, David................................................................................................................ p. 71
Basak, N.C. ................................................................................................................... p. 21
Bemis, James H........................................................................................................... p. 127
Berdegue, Julio A.......................................................................................................... p. 50
Bertelsen, M........................................................................................ p. 62, p. 128, p. 129
Bhatti, Muzaffar Iqbal................................................................................................... p. 73
Biggs, Stephen D. ....................................................................................................... p. 139
Bransby, David I. .......................................................................................................... p. 72
Brewster, Marcie L. ........................................................................................................ p. 5
Brown, D. ..........................................................................................p. 129, p. 130, p. 148
Bull, Leonard L. ...............................................................................................................p.6
Bwar, Esul Bwar A. .................................................................................................... p. 140
Byerlee, Derek .............................................................................................................. p. 73
Byington, E.K. .............................................................................................................. p. 78
Byington, Evert K. ...................................................................................................... p. 105
Caldwell, John............................................................................................................. p. 137
Caldwell, John S. ............................................................................................. p. 23, p. 159
Calub, Arsenio D. ......................................................................................................... p. 74

175
Camacho, R........................................................................................................ p. 95, p. 99
Carangal, Virgilio R...................................................................................................... p. 74
Caveness, Fields Ashley ............................................................................................. p. 106
Chairatanayuth, P.......................................................................................................... p. 94
Chatterjee, A. .............................................................................................................. p. 130
Cheema, S.S. ................................................................................................................... p. 7
Chen, Y.S. ..................................................................................................................... p. 28
Child, R.D. .................................................................................................................. p. 105
Christy, R.D. ............................................................................................................... p. 134
Claros-Quinonez, Hilda L............................................................................................. p. 53
Cochran, Mark J............................................................................................................ p. 29
Colfer, Carol J. Pierce.................................................................................................... p. 8
Colle, Royal D. ........................................................................................................... p. 131
Colvin, R.J. ................................................................................................................. p. 112
Conelly, Tom W............................................................................................................ p. 83
Conklin, Nancy Lou.................................................................................................... p. 107
Cook, Carolyn D. ........................................................................................................ p. 132
Cooper, Peter................................................................................................................ p. 27
Costello, J...................................................................................................................... p. 90
Coveney, Anne R. ......................................................................................................... p. 49
Crews, Jerry .................................................................................................................. p. 88
Crozat, Yves.................................................................................................................... p. 9
Curry, John J. ................................................................................................................ p. 51
Daniels, L.B. ................................................................................................................. p. 94
Delaine, Bernard L...................................................................................................... p. 133
Deuson, R...................................................................................................................... p. 25
Dewalt, K. ................................................................................................................... p. 170
Diankende, N. ............................................................................................................. p. 158
Diaz, M. ........................................................................................................................ p. 50
Dickey, James R............................................................................................................ p. 52
Dolle, Vincent ............................................................................................................. p. 164
Duffield, James A. ........................................................................................................ p. 75
Durant, T. .................................................................................................................... p. 134
Duseja, D. R.................................................................................................................. p. 10
Ehui, Simeon K........................................................................................................... p. 108
Elbehri, Albdelfatah...................................................................................................... p. 12
El-Kheshen, Kamal S.................................................................................................... p. 11
Elliot, Howard............................................................................................................... p. 54
English, John W. ......................................................................................................... p. 135
Escobedo, F................................................................................................................. p. 136
Estrella, N. ............................................................................................. p. 95, p. 99, p. 136
Evensen, Carl L. I. ...................................................................................................... p. 109
Fashola, R. .................................................................................................................... p. 28
Fattori, Thomas R. ........................................................................................................ p. 76
Feldstein, Hilary Sims................................................................................................. p. 160
Fitzhugh, H. .................................................................................................................. p. 91

176
Flores, Manuel L........................................................................ p. 13, p. 14, p. 110, p. 111
Ford, V.L...................................................................................................................... p.112
Francisco, N. ................................................................................................................. p. 99
Frankenberger, T......................................................................................................... p. 170
Frankenberger, Timothy R.......................................................................................... p. 167
Fuglie, Keith O.............................................................................................................. p. 15
Galt, D.L. ...................................................................................................................... p. 81
Garcia, R. ...................................................................................................................... p. 50
Garrett, Harold E......................................................................................................... p. 113
Gaskell, Mark L. ......................................................................................................... p. 161
Gay, Charles W............................................................................................................. p. 70
Gibbon, David............................................................................................................... p. 71
Gillard-Byers, Thomas E. ............................................................................................... p. 9
Gold, Michael A.......................................................................................................... p. 114
Goldstein, W.A. ............................................................................................................ p. 16
Goldstein, Walter G. ..................................................................................................... p. 65
Gonzaga, R.R. .................................................................................................. p. 59, p. 144
Gonzalez, S. .................................................................................................................. p. 50
Gonzalez, V.M. .............................................................................................................p. 42
Khan, M. Rahman .............................................................................................. p. 33, p. 97
Kleene, Paul ................................................................................................................ p. 164
Klein, K.K..................................................................................................................... p. 80
Knipscheer, Henk.......................................................................................................... p. 83
Kraft, Steven E............................................................................................... p. 165, p. 166
Krause, M.A.................................................................................................................. p. 25
Kurtz, W...................................................................................................................... p. 113
Lal, Harbans................................................................................................................ p. 138
Landu, L...................................................................................................................... p. 158
Lev, Larry S. ................................................................................................................. p. 55
Loewer, O.J................................................................................................................... p. 90
Loewer, Otto J............................................................................................................... p. 84
Ludgate, Patrick J........................................................................................................ p. 153
Lusambo, Mbuyi ......................................................................................................... p. 140
Lynham, Mark B......................................................................................................... p. 167
Malaret, Luis ................................................................................................................. p. 15
Malaza, Millicent ........................................................................................................ p. 168
Maliki, K. ...................................................................................................................... p. 25
Mallick, R.N............................................................................... p. 20, p. 21, p. 32, p. 157
Mascarinas, Arnulfo Mateum ..................................................................................... p. 46
Mathema, S.B................................................................................................................ p. 81
Mayo, C.C..................................................................................................................... p. 79
Mazid, Ahmed............................................................................................................... p. 27
Mbula, N. ................................................................................................................... p. 158
McGahuey, Michael L. ............................................................................................... p. 116
Merrill-Sands, Deborah M. ......................................................................................... p. 139
Mhango, C..................................................................................................................... p. 79

177
Miller, Bill R................................................................................................................. p. 75
Miller, David J. ........................................................................................................... p. 140
Misra, N.K. .................................................................................................................... p. 7
Mittal, J.P. .................................................................................................................... p. 38
Moore, Keith M. ........................................................................................................... p. 82
Moula, G. ...................................................................................................................... p. 97
Moussie, Menuyellet................................................................................................... p. 141
Mukhebi, Adrian W. ..................................................................................................... p. 83
Musalia, L. .................................................................................................................... p. 91
Muzaffar, Nasreen........................................................................................................... p. 3
Nasr, Mamdouh M. ....................................................................................................... p. 11
Navasero, N.C............................................................................................................... p. 28
Nazif, I. ......................................................................................................................... p. 50
N'Gaide, Hamath......................................................................................................... p. 167
Nizeyimana, Egide...................................................................................................... p. 124
Nolte, Dale L................................................................................................................. p. 70
Norem, Rosalie Huisinga ............................................................................................ p. 142
O'brien-Place, Patricia M ............................................................................... p. 169, p. 170
Ohiorhenuan, Lily ........................................................................................................ p.162
O'Ktingati, Aku........................................................................................................... p. 123
Okyere, William Asenso............................................................................................. p. 143
Onim, M........................................................................................................................ p. 91
Osawaru, Sam O. .......................................................................................................... p. 10
Osborn, C. Tim ............................................................................................................. p. 26
Osiname, O. ................................................................................................................ p. 158
Ospina, E.O................................................................................................................... p. 78
Ossamba, Tonyemba..................................................................................................... p. 47
Otieno, K....................................................................................................................... p. 91
Ousseini, Kabo............................................................................................................ p. 147
Oyugi, Luke A. ............................................................................................................. p. 83
Pala, Mustafa................................................................................................................. p. 27
Palada, Manuel C. ......................................................................................................... p. 28
Palma, N.T. ...................................................................................................... p. 59, p. 144
Panth, M.P..................................................................................................................... p. 81
Parham, R.W............................................................................................................... p. 112
Parker, Karen E............................................................................................................. p. 30
Parsch, L. ...................................................................................................................... p. 90
Parsch, Lucas D. ...................................................................................... p. 5, p. 29, p. 84
Patrick, Neil A. ........................................................................................................... p. 168
Paul, J.L. ....................................................................................................................... p. 56
Peart, R.M. ..................................................................................................................p. 138
Phillips, J.M. ............................................................................................................... p. 112
Pierre, J. ........................................................................................................................ p. 31
Pillot, Didier................................................................................................................ p. 171
Poats, Susan ................................................................................................................ p. 160
Poats, Susan V. ............................................................................................................. p. 57

178
Pollisco-Botengan, Mary Ann .................................................................................... p. 117
Prasad, V.L........................................................................................................ p. 58, p. 85
Prehm, Marilyn S. ....................................................................................................... p. 159
Puetz, Detlev ................................................................................................................. p. 63
Purcell, Thomas .......................................................................................................... p. 165
Quezada, X. ...................................................................................................................p. 50
Rahman, M.M. .............................................................................................................. p. 32
Rakes, Jerry M. ............................................................................................................. p. 86
Ranaweera, N.F.C. ........................................................................................... p. 59, p. 144
Rao, V.M............................................................................................................ p. 58, p. 85
Rassam, Andree ............................................................................................................ p. 27
Ratnayake, H.H........................................................................................................... p. 118
Reddy, C.K.................................................................................................................... p. 25
Rhaman, H. ................................................................................................................... p. 33
Rhodes, David............................................................................................................. p. 104
Rincon, Hernan. .......................................................................................................... p. 145
Rocheleau, Dianne E................................................................................................... p. 115
Roth, Paul....................................................................................................... p. 165, p. 166
Roxas, Domingo B........................................................................................................ p. 74
Russell, Rich ...................................................................................................... p. 87, p. 88
Saadullah, M. ................................................................................................................ p. 89
Sanchez, Esteban......................................................................................................... p. 161
Sands, Michael.............................................................................................................. p. 93
Sangakkara, Upatissa Ravindranath................................................................. p. 34, p. 118
Sanghou, M .................................................................................................... p. 120, p. 121
Sasidhar, V.K. ............................................................................................................... p. 35
Scherer, Clifford ......................................................................................................... p. 131
Schultink, Gerhard E....................................................................................................p. 146
Scott, Gregory J. ........................................................................................................... p. 60
Scott, H. D..................................................................................................................... p. 90
Scott, H. Don...................................................................................................... p. 19, p. 29
Sebillotte, Michel.......................................................................................................... p. 36
Semenye, P.P. ............................................................................................................... p. 91
Setia, Parvee.................................................................................................................. p. 26
Seyler, James Robert................................................................................................... p. 119
Sholeh ......................................................................................................................... p. 109
Shriver, Ann L. ............................................................................................................. p. 55
Simba, L...................................................................................................................... p. 158
Simba, Lianabo ............................................................................................................. p. 92
Simpson, James R. ........................................................................................................ p. 93
Singh, Karampal ........................................................................................................... p. 37
Singh, M.P. ................................................................................................................... p. 38
Singh, Surendra............................................................................................................. p. 38
Small, Leslie E. ............................................................................................................. p. 61
Snow, Judith.................................................................................................................. p. 54
Sonntag, B.H................................................................................................................. p. 80

179
Sowers, Frederick W................................................................................................... p. 147
Spring, Anita ................................................................................................................. p. 39
Stallcup, Odie T. ........................................................................................................... p. 94
Swanson, R. ........................................................................................ p. 62, p. 129, p. 148
Swanson, R. A............................................................................................................. p. 128
Taylor, Brad ................................................................................................................ p. 165
Taylor, Daniel B........................................................................................................... p. 45
Tedrick, William E...................................................................................................... p. 149
Thielen, Angela........................................................................................................... p. 166
Thompson, Lyell F........................................................................................................ p. 40
Thorpe, Peter............................................................................................................... p. 127
Timberlake, Janis K. ................................................................................................... p. 150
Tombaugh, Larry ........................................................................................................ p. 114
Tonye, J.......................................................................................................... p. 120, p. 121
Tooker, Norman E. ..................................................................................................... p. 172
Trice, Kalven L. ............................................................................................................ p. 29
Trigo, Eduardo .............................................................................................................. p. 54
Tully, Dennis................................................................................................................. p. 27
Turner, Kay Decker ...................................................................................................... p. 82
Turrent, A.......................................................................................................... p. 95, p. 99
Uquillas, Jorge E......................................................................................................... p. 122
Uribe, S .............................................................................................................. p. 95, p. 99
Van Dyke, Jerry ............................................................................................................ p. 87
Van Soest, P.J. ............................................................................................................. p.107
Vignarajah, N....................................................................................... p. 33, p. 96, p. 97
Vogel, Wolfgang......................................................................................................... p. 106
von Braun, Joachim ...................................................................................................... p. 63
Wakatsuki, T. ................................................................................................................ p. 28
Watts, W. Michael ........................................................................................................ p. 84
Weaver, G.H. ...............................................................................................................p. 123
West, C.J. ..................................................................................................................... p. 90
Wheeler, G.L............................................................................................................... p. 112
Wibaux, Herve ............................................................................................................. p. 98
Wijeratne, Mahinda..................................................................................................... p. 151
Wisiol, Karin............................................................................................................... p. 152
Wollenberg, Eva K....................................................................................................... p. 64
Worden, Phyllis E. ...................................................................................................... p. 153
Wyche, Barbara........................................................................................................... p. 150
Yamoah, Charles F...................................................................................................... p. 142
Yost, Russell ................................................................................................................... p. 8
Yost, Russell S. ........................................................................................................... p. 109
Young, Douglas L......................................................................................................... p. 65
Zaffaroni, Eduardo........................................................................................................ p. 41
Zuniga, J........................................................................................................................ p. 99
Zuniga, J.L. ................................................................................................................... p. 42

180
Title Index

A Bioeconomic Simulation Model of Beef, Forage, and Grain Production in Western


Canada ......................................................................................................................................p. 80

A Cement Kiln Flue Dust as a Potassium Fertilizer ............................................................ p. 40

A Farming Systems Analysis of Cotton Production in the Haut-Zaire Region of Zaire: The
Impact of Negative Price Policies .......................................................................................... p. 47

A Farming Systems Approach to an Intervention in Livestock Productivity: Results From


Panama Trials ......................................................................................................................... p. 93

A Producer-Supported On-Farm Research Program on Vegetables in Panama ........... p. 161

A Simulation Model of Alternative Beef-Production Systems for the Southeastern United


States ........................................................................................................................................ p. 88

A Strategy for Technology Transfer to Crop/Livestock-Production Systems in Selected


Regions of Morocco................................................................................................................. p. 70

A Systems Approach to Cereal-Management Constraints Assessment: a Case Study in Two


Regions of Northern Morocco................................................................................................ p. 12

A Systems Model for Southern U.S. Farms.......................................................................... p. 78

Adoption if Improved Cowpea Varieties in Traditional African Farming Systems ........ p. 30

Agricultural Knowledge Systems and Target Categories in FSR/E .................................p. 151

Agricultural Research and Extension Linkages in Haiti: A Pragmatic FSR/E Approach,


....................................................................................................................................................p. 62

Agricultural Technology Development Within a Mixed Farming System in the Semi-humid


Tropical Region of Mexico ..................................................................................................... p. 99

Agroforestry Potential in Transmigration Areas of Indonesia ........................................ p. 109

Agronomists' Approaches to Farmers' Situations ............................................................... p. 36

Alley Cropping Eastern Black Walnut ............................................................................... p. 113

Alternative Production Systems: Poultry -- A Case Study ................................................. p. 85

181
Alternatives for Improving the Use of The Labor Force in Small Production Units in the
Mexican Tropics...................................................................................................................... p. 95

An Economic Evaluation of Selecting Grazing Systems for Forage - Fed Beef ................ p. 75

An Evaluation of an Agroforestry System for Marginal Upland Small Farms in the Topics -
- A Case Study ....................................................................................................................... p. 118

An Exploration of the Role of Extension in Planning, Design, Implementation, and


Evaluation of an FSR/E Project: Experiences From Southcentral Virginia and Beyond .......
..................................................................................................................................................p. 137

An Integrated Agroforestry System: Fruits, Forests, and Grasses .................................. p. 110

An Investigative Report of On-Farm Alley-Cropping Trials in East and Central Nigeria


................................................................................................................................................. p. 106

Analyzing the Adoption of Conservation Cropping Systems in the United States .......... p. 26

Application of Expert-Systems Concepts for Farming Systems Research and Extension .......
..................................................................................................................................................p. 138

Audience Analysis Sondeo in Two Zaire Subregions …………………………………... p. 140

Biological Nitrogen Fixation in Farming Systems in Northeast Thailand.......................... p.15

Broiler Litter/Milo as a Supplement for Stockers Grazing Rye: Effect of Stocking Rate and
Litter/Forage Interaction ........................................................................................................ p.87

Case for Balancing Agricultural Mechanization in Farming Systems Research.............. p. 24

Cassaca-Cowpea: A Crop System for Acid and Low-Fertility Soils in Tabasco, Mexico ........
................................................................................................................................................... p. 42

Characterizing FSR/E Communications in Bangladesh ................................................... p. 127

Charging for Public Irrigation Services: Implications for Farmers .................................. p. 61

Communication Alternatives for Farming Systems: A multi-Phase Planning Model ... p. 142

182
Communication Linkages to Form a Water-User Association in The Dominican Republic
................................................................................................................................................. p. 133

Complementary Methods for Integrating Intra-Household Dynamics into Crop/Livestock


Systems................................................................................................................................... p. 160

Crop Residues and By-Products in Animal Feed................................................................. p. 94

Crop/Livestock Interactions in Bangladesh: Nutrition and Draft Power ......................... p. 71

Crop/Livestock Systems Research In Sta. Barbara, Pangasinan, Philippines...................p. 74

Cropping Systems of Homesteads in Kerala ........................................................................ p. 35

Cropping-System Selection and Soil-Depletion Impacts....................................................... p. 6

Cross-Sectional Analysis of Bean Production for Subsistence Farmers in the Fsip Zone of
Action in Rwanda...................................................................................................................... p. 5

Deforestation and Agricultural Productivity: An Empirical Analysis ............................ p. 108

Diagnostic Research in a Few Zone Of Plan Puebla, Mexico ........................................... p. 136

Efectos Del Cultivo Multiple, Fertilizacion y Coberturas en Platano Variedad Isla Tingo
Maria........................................................................................................................................ p. 14

Effect of Surface Disturbance by Chiseling And Disc Plowing With Mulching on a Crusted
Sandy Soil ................................................................................................................................ p. 19

Effect of Wheat-Harvest Timeliness on Yield and Returns of Double-Cropped Soybeans


Under Weather Uncertainty .................................................................................................. p. 29

Effects of Manure Application Rate on Orchardgrass Alfalfa Hay Composition ............ p. 86

Effects of Multiple Cropping, Fertilization, and Soil Cover on the Plantan Variety, Tingo
Maria Island ............................................................................................................................ p. 13

Energy Uses Patterns Under Various Farming Systems of Punjab: A Case Study.......... p. 38

183
Evaluation Research: An Imperative for FSR/E Methodology........................................ p. 150

Expert Systems and the Soil-People Interface........................................................................ p. 8

Extension of Acacia Albida Technology in Chad: Ten Years After................................. p. 116

Factors Affecting the Stability Of Shipping Farming Systems in Sri Lanka .................... p. 45

Farming System Research and "Recherche-Developpement" ......................................... p. 171

Farming Systems and Communication Systems: A Philippines Case Study .................. p. 131

Farming Systems in the Forest: Agricultural Policy on Public Lands in The Philipines,
................................................................................................................................................... p. 64

Farming Systems Research Along the Senegal River Valley: The Mauritania Agres II
Project .................................................................................................................................... p. 167

Farming Systems Research and Extension: Introduction Oxen Cultivation in Zairean


Farming Systems..................................................................................................................... p. 92

Farming Systems Research and Extension: Macroeconomic Analysis Of Microeconomic


Development ............................................................................................................................ p. 53

Feeding Urea-Treated Straw to Lactating Cows ................................................................. p. 97

Fertilizer and Herbicide Effect on Farmers' Wheat Production in NorthWest Syria ..... p. 27

Field Studies on Growth Performance of Alley Shrubs in the Highland Region of Rwanda
................................................................................................................................................. p. 124

FSR and the Dangling /E: Extension, Information Flow, and the Farming Systems
Approach in Niger................................................................................................................. p. 147

FSR/E, Development Indicators, and Food Self-Sufficieny at the Household Level in


Malawi...................................................................................................................................... p. 39

184
G

Geographical Information System/Cries Haiti Microcomputer Slide Show................... p. 129

Geographical Referenced Crop-Trial Records: A Case Study......................................... p. 130

Government Tractors, Agricultural Policy, and the Farming System in Swaziland........ p. 51

Grazing and Overstock Effects on Pine Growth and Steer Performance ....................... p. 112

Haiti Geographically Referenced Watershed-Systems Research: A Socioeconomic


Application............................................................................................................................. p. 148

How Can Small Farmers Increase Their Maize Yield in Haiti? ........................................ p. 31

How Government Farm Programs Discourage Sustainable Cropping Systems: A U.S. Case
Study......................................................................................................................................... p. 65

How Systems Work at the Farming Systems Research Site at Kalikapur in Bangladesh .......
................................................................................................................................................. p. 157

How Systems Work: The "Gicci" System of Farming In Northern Nigeria..................... p. 17

Identification des Systemes D'Utilisation des Terres Dans La Zone Forestiere DU


Cameroun: Interventions Agroforestieres.......................................................................... p. 121

Identification of Land Use Systems in the Forest Zone Of Cameroon: Agroforestry


Interventions.......................................................................................................................... p. 120

Illustration of a Methodology for Grading Limiting Factors and Improving a Crop


System's Functioning ................................................................................................................ p. 9

Impact Analysis of Cropping-Systems Research in Selected Countries .......................... p. 144

Impact of Diagnostic Survey on Strengthening Institutional Linkages -- Burundi


Experience ............................................................................................................................. p. 141

Impact of Improved Agroforestry Systems in the Amazon Region: Preliminary Research


Findings.................................................................................................................................. p. 122

185
Implications of National Survey Data on Applied Farming Systems Research.............. p. 128

Improved Cropping Systems Tested at the Jamalpur, Bangladesh Farming Systems


Research Site ........................................................................................................................... p. 33

Improving Agricultural Technology: Methodology and Test Case ................................... p. 54

Incorporating Food-Consumption Issues in FSR/E: Efforts to Date of the Nutrition in


Agriculture Cooperative Agreement................................................................................... p. 170

Incorporation of Water-Balance Logic into a Selective Grazing Model ........................... p. 90

Increasing Farm Family Participation in On-Farm Testing .............................................. p. 23

Influencing Smallholder Animal Production Through On-Farm Research: Experience


From India and Pakistan........................................................................................................ p. 69

Information Management as an Aid to Agricultural Policy Formulation in Africa ...... p. 143

Infrastructure Utilization by Rural Households of Haryana, India .................................. p. 49

Insect Pollinator and Pest Management of Rape and Mustard Crops in Pakistan ............ p. 3

Integrated Research and Development............................................................................... p. 164

Integration of Food Production and Consumption Through Multidiscplinary Team


Training ................................................................................................................................. p. 159

Integration of Improved Pastures in Smallholder Dairy Production Systems ................. p. 79

Interaction of Dual-Purpose Goats With Subsistence Crops and Weeds.......................... p. 91

Intervarietal Selection Methods in Intercropping Systems in Haiti .................................. p. 22

Keyline Soil-Fertility Development Through Water Management...................................... p. 4

Kilimanjaro Agroforestry -- A Model for East African Highlands ................................. p. 123

186
L

Labor Availability and Use in Crop/Livestock Farming Systems in Western Kenya...... p. 83

Labor Management Effects on the Relative Profitability of Alternative Millet-Cowpea


Intercrop Systems in Niger .................................................................................................... p. 25

Land-Use Intensification by Crop-Based Farming Systems in the Smallholder Units of the


Dry Zone of Sri Lanka............................................................................................................ p. 34

Listening Abilities and the Communication of Information Among Groups of Agricultural


Experts in Peru...................................................................................................................... p. 145

Macro Analysis of Crop/Livestock Intersystem Pathways to Supply Protein for Human


Consumption ........................................................................................................................... p. 52

Macro Impact of Some Egyptian Desert-Farming Systems................................................ p. 11

Marketing and Farming Systems in Comparative Perspective: The Case of Potatoes. p. 60

Marketing Assessment of Coffee ........................................................................................... p. 46

Marketing Structure and Interrelation at a Cropping Systems Site in The Philippines .........
................................................................................................................................................... p. 59

Mechanisms And Effects of an African Fertilizer Crisis: When Fertilizer Did Not Arrive in
the Gambia, 1985 ................................................................................................................... p. 63

Methodologies and Statistical Design for On-Farm Trials With Cattle ............................ p. 96

Nitrogen Economy in a Leucaena/Sorghum Agroforestry System .................................. p. 104

Nutrient Cycling in Wheat-Mungbean-Rice Cropping Pattern ......................................... p. 20

Nutritional Status Indicators: Their Uses in Farming ...................................................... p. 163

187
O

On-Farm Research in Swaziland: Responses to Unique Farm Pressures ....................... p. 168

Operating Within the System: The Institutional Context of FSR/E Projects ................... p. 57

Operation Flood as a Macro System ..................................................................................... p. 58

Organization and Functioning of Chilean Peasant Farming Systems ................................ p.50

Organization and Managerial Guidelines for Strengthening the Integration of On-Farm


and Experiment Station Research: Lessons From National Agricultural Research Systems
................................................................................................................................................. p. 139

Partitioning Poultry-Production Systems into Recommendation Domains ...................... p. 76

Pathogenic Mycorrohizal Fungi as the Basis for the Decline in Productivity of Land With
Monocropping ......................................................................................................................... p. 18

Patterns of Change in a Crop/Livestock Farming System.................................................. p. 82

Performance of Promising Cropping Patterns for Meeting Food, Fodder, and Firewood
Requirement Under Rainfed Conditions .............................................................................. p. 21

Phosphorus Economy in Crop Systems ................................................................................ p. 37

Quantifying and Valuing the Joint Production of Grain and Fodder From Maize Fields in
Northern Pakistan................................................................................................................... p. 73

Quantitative Land Evaluation of Land-Use Types and Farming Systems: The Cries Project
Systems Approach to Integrated Development Planning.................................................. p. 146

Reconceptualizing the Rural Household: A Basis for Impact Modeling of Donor Assistance
in Agriculture ........................................................................................................................ p. 162

Rice-Based Cropping Systems in Inland Valley Swamps: Analysis of Agronomic


Determinants to Rice Yields In Farmer-Managed Trials ................................................... p. 28

188
Risk-Return Tradeoffs of Beef-Forage Pasturing Systems Under Weather and Price
Uncertainty .............................................................................................................................. p. 84

Rotation Effects of Medics on Wheat Yields and Wheat Interference With Weed Growth ....
................................................................................................................................................... p. 16

Selection of Varieties for Different Crop Systems ............................................................... p. 32

Sheep Production From Integrating Limited Intensive Pastures With Rangeland in South
Africa........................................................................................................................................ p. 72

Sistema Integrado Agrosivopastoril: Frutal-Forestal-Pastos ........................................... p. 111

Soil-Nutrient Relations in Two Soil-Tillage Systems........................................................... p. 10

Solving the Food-Shortage Problem in The Humid Tropics Through Agroforestry ..... p. 103

Suggested Guidelines and Criteria for the Evaluation Of Small-Scale Agroforestry Projects
................................................................................................................................................. p. 119

Support of Subversion: The Relationship Between FSR/E and Tanzania's Agricultural


Policy Objectives ..................................................................................................................... p. 55

Testing Improved Cropping Systems for Small Farmers In Northeastern Brazil ........... p. 41

The Adoption of Technologies Among Small Farmers in Developing Countries: An


Information-System Approach ............................................................................................ p. 134

The Diachronic Approach to Farming Systems in Tanzania ............................................. p. 56

The Formation of Recommendation Domains Using Cluster Analysis ........................... p. 166

The Homestead in FSR: Strategies and Experiences From Bangladesh ........................... p. 77

The Nepalese Samuhik Bhraman Approach to On-Farm Research Prioritization,


Coordination, and Evaluation................................................................................................ p. 81

The Organization of Household Labor in an Agroforestry System ................................. p. 117

189
The Potential Nutritional Value of Some Tropical Browse Species From Guanacaste, Costa
Rica......................................................................................................................................... p. 107

The Recruitment and Retention of Agricultural Extension Agents in Developing Countries .


................................................................................................................................................. p. 153

The Recycling Ratio: A Tool for Farming Systems Analysis.............................................. p. 48

The Research Dimension of Agricultural Development in the Coastal Plain ................. p. 135

The Sondeo Applied to Perennial Crops: Results From Fruit Growers With Woodlands ......
................................................................................................................................................. p. 165

The Use of Communication and Indigenous Innovation in Development Strategies: A Case


Study of Timika, Irian Jaya, Indonesia .............................................................................. p. 132

Tillage and Weed-Control Effects on Wheat Following Cotton, Groundnut, and Maize:
Wheat-Based System ................................................................................................................ p. 7

Trends of Change in a Farming System in the Eastern Highlands of Ethiopia: The Limits
of Crop/Livestock Interation ................................................................................................. p. 98

Understanding How A Farming System Works for the Purpose of a Basic FSR Analysis:
Identification of Research Projects in Zaire....................................................................... p. 158

Understanding Interdisciplinary Research and its Application to Agroforestry Systems


Research................................................................................................................................. p. 114

Universal Principles of Extension: An Evaluation Device ................................................ p. 172

Use of Agro-Industrial By-Products as Ruminant Feed in Smallholder Farming System


................................................................................................................................................... p. 89

Use of Ethnoecology in Agroforestry Systems Research: AF Technology and Pest-


Management Research in Kenya......................................................................................... p. 115

Use of Systems Modeling for Agroforestry Development in the Southern United States ........
................................................................................................................................................. p. 105

Using "Expert Systems" on Microcomputers to Aid Farm Management and Policy


Decisions................................................................................................................................. p. 152

190
Using Microcomputers to Organize and Present Contextual Data.................................. p. 149

Utilizing Economics and Nutrition to Evaluate FSR/E Interventions ............................. p. 169

191

You might also like