LINAC98 Proceedings: Monday Papers Tuesday Papers Wednesday Papers Thursday Papers Friday Papers Author Index
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LINAC98 Proceedings
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Papers are organized according to session number. For example, session number MO4037 represents:
MO (Monday) 4 (sessions 1,2=invited; session 4=poster) 037 (order of presentation).
These papers are available in PDF format only. To view a paper, click on either the session number or the
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bit), Macintosh, IBM-AIX, SGI-IRIX, Sun Solaris, SunOS, HP-UX, Linux, Digital Unix, OS/2 Warp (Adobe
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Monday Papers Tuesday Papers Wednesday Papers
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LINAC98 Home Page at ANL
XIX International Linear
Accelerator Conference
Fairmont Hotel, Chicago, Illinois, USA
August 23 - 28, 1998
Organized by Argonne National Laboratory
in association with Fermi National
Accelerator Laboratory
COMMITTEES: Conference Chairman: Yanglai Cho, [email protected]
International
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Organizing Last Updated: September 22, 1998
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LINAC98 International Organizing Committee
LINAC98 International
Organizing Committee
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Conference Chairman: Yanglai Cho [email protected]
J. Alessi BNL Upton, NY USA [email protected]
N. Angert GSI Darmstadt, Germany [email protected]
B. Aune CEA,DSM/DAPNIA Saclay, France [email protected]
Y. Cho ANL-APS Argonne, IL USA [email protected]
G. Dutto TRIUMF Vancouver, BC, Canada [email protected]
L.W. Funk SRS-APT Savannah River, SC USA [email protected]
R.L. Gluckstern U. Maryland College Park, MD USA [email protected]
H.D. Haseroth CERN Geneva, Switzerland [email protected]
H. Henke TUB Berlin, Germany [email protected]
M. Inoue ICR-Kyoto U Kyoto, Japan [email protected]
H. Klein IAP-Goethe U Frankfurt, Germany [email protected]
A. Kolomiets ITEP Moscow, Russia [email protected]
L. Kravchuk INR Moscow, Russia [email protected]
J. Le Duff LAL Orsay, France [email protected]
C.W. Leemann TJNAF Newport News, VA USA [email protected]
G.A. Loew SLAC Stanford, CA USA [email protected]
G.E. McMichael ANL-IPNS Argonne, IL USA [email protected]
W. Namkung POSTECH Pohang, Korea [email protected]
R.C. Pardo ANL ATLAS Argonne, IL USA [email protected]
C.W. Schmidt FNAL Batavia, IL USA [email protected]
S.O. Schriber LANL Los Alamos, NM USA [email protected]
D.F. Sutter US DOE Washington, DC USA [email protected]
F. Tazzioli INFN-LNF Frascati, Italy [email protected]
D. Trines DESY Hamburg, Germany [email protected]
S.H. Wang IHEP USMirror Beijing, China [email protected]
Y. Yamazaki KEK Tsukuba, Japan [email protected]
S. Yu LBNL Berkeley, CA USA [email protected]
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LINAC98 International Organizing Committee
LINAC98 Program Committee LINAC98 Local Organizing Committee
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LINAC98 Program Committee
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Program Committee Chairman: G. E. McMichael [email protected]
J. Alessi BNL Upton, NY USA [email protected]
N. Angert GSI Darmstadt, Germany [email protected]
V. Balakin BINP Novosibirsk, RU [email protected]
J. Barnard LLNL Livermore, CA USA [email protected]
M.H. Cho POSTECH Pohang, Korea [email protected]
Y. Cho ANL-APS Argonne, IL USA [email protected]
G. Dutto TRIUMF Vancouver, BC Canada [email protected]
T. Garvey LAL-Orsay Orsay, France [email protected]
H.D. Haseroth CERN Geneva, Switzerland [email protected]
C. Hill CERN Geneva, Switzerland [email protected]
N. Holtkamp DESY Hamburg, Germany [email protected]
A. Kolomiets ITEP Moscow, Russia [email protected]
L. Kravchuk INR Moscow, Russia [email protected]
G.E. McMichael ANL-IPNS Argonne, IL USA [email protected]
R. Miller SLAC Stanford, CA USA [email protected]
M. Mizumoto JAERI Tokai, Japan [email protected]
O. Napoly CEA-Saclay Gif/Yvette, France [email protected]
G. Neil TJNAF Newport News, VA USA [email protected]
R.C. Pardo ANL ATLAS Argonne, IL USA [email protected]
M. Popovic FNAL Batavia, IL USA [email protected]
A. Schempp IAPRFQ Goethe U Frankfurt, Germany [email protected]
S.O. Schriber LANL Los Alamos, NM USA [email protected]
C.W. Schmidt FNAL Batavia, IL USA [email protected]
K.W. Shepard ANL ATLAS Argonne, IL USA [email protected]
J. Staples LBNL Berkeley, CA USA [email protected]
D.F. Sutter US DOE Washington,DC USA [email protected]
F. Tazzioli INFN-LNF Frascati, Italy [email protected]
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LINAC98 Program Committee
S.H. Wang IHEP USMirror Beijing, China [email protected]
M. White ANL-APS Argonne, IL USA [email protected]
Y. Yamazaki KEK Tsukuba, Japan [email protected]
LINAC98 International Organizing Committee LINAC98 Local Organizing Committee
Questions about the Conference should be directed to: [email protected]
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LINAC98 Local Organizing Committee
LINAC98
Local Organizing Committee
LINAC98 Home
Joan Brunsvold [email protected]
Lucinda Carroll [email protected]
Yanglai Cho [email protected]
Joanne Day [email protected]
Jeff Dooling [email protected]
Catherine Eyberger [email protected]
Richard Fenner [email protected]
Barbara Grelick [email protected]
Elliott McCrory [email protected]
William McDowell [email protected]
Gerry McMichael [email protected]
Geraldine Nolen [email protected]
Jerry Nolen [email protected]
Anne Owens [email protected]
Richard Pardo [email protected]
Charles Schmidt [email protected]
Ken Shepard [email protected]
Carolyn Tobin [email protected]
Marion White [email protected]
Marcia Wood [email protected]
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LINAC98 Local Organizing Committee
LINAC98 International Organizing Committee LINAC98 Program Committee
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Other Links of Interest
LINAC98 Important Dates to
Remember
LINAC98 Home
MARCH 15, 1998 Deadline for Submitting Invited Abstracts
Abstract submission form and instructions are now online
APRIL 17, 1998 Deadline for Submitting Contributed (Poster) Abstracts
Abstract submission form and instructions are now online
JULY 24, 1998 Deadline for Early Registration
After July 24 the conference registration fee becomes $600.00
JULY 24, 1998 Deadline for Guaranteed LINAC98 Hotel Rates
Reservations received after deadline are accepted on a space-available basis at
regular rates
AUGUST 7, 1998 Deadline for Cancelling Conference Registration
No refunds for conference-related fees will be made after this date
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Announcements
LINAC98 News and Information
LINAC98 Home
● Tuesday 22 September 1998 Home page changed to remove registration and outdated conference info.
Conference papers put online.
● Friday 21 August 1998 Online Web forms removed for Expression of Interest, Registration, and
Abstract submission.
● Tuesday 4 August 1998 Location of exhibitor booths added.
● Tuesday 21 July 1998 List of exhibitors was added.
● Monday 8 June 1998 Abstracts were added.
● Wednesday 3 June 1998 Exhibitor Information was added.
● Tuesday 2 June 1998 Links to instructions on preparing and submitting manuscripts were added.
● Friday 22 May 1998 Instructions on preparing manuscripts were mailed to authors. Web pages will
follow shortly.
● Wednesday 1 April 1998 Links to conference information, companion program, and registration pages
were added to home page.
● Friday 20 February 1998 Home page was revised, and new links were added:
Preliminary Program, Expression of Interest form, Abstract Submission form, Abstract Instructions.
● Thursday 18 December 1997 `Important Dates' added to home page.
● Friday 5 December 1997 Home Page v.3 online.
● Tuesday 16 September 1997 Second Draft. Public.
● Monday 21 July 1997 The first draft version of the LINAC98 Home Page is available.
Questions about the Conference should be directed to: [email protected]
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LINAC98 Abstracts
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Invited Papers
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Tuesday
Thursday
Author Index
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Information about Chicago
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About
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Links to Upcoming or Recent Accelerator-Related Conferences
● PAC99 HomePage
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● LINAC96 Proceedings
● PAC EPAC APAC Joint Website - Conference Proceedings
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● RHIC Instrumentation Publications
Journals and Newsletters
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Other Links of Interest
● ICFA Beam Dynamics Newsletters and Beam Physics Page
● SLAC Beamline
● CERN Courier
Conferences
● Upcoming HEP Conferences
Other
● US Particle Accelerator School HomePage
● LANL - General Physics Links
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LINAC98 Papers - Monday
LINAC98 Papers - Monday
LINAC98 Home Tuesday papers Wednesday papers Thursday papers Friday papers Author Index
INVITED TALKS
Session MO1: Monday, August 24, 1998
Page #
MO1001 Low-ß SC Linacs: Past, Present, and Future 3
L.M. Bollinger (ANL)
MO1002 Status of the TESLA Design 8
D. Trines (DESY)
MO1003 Research and Development for an X-Band Linear Collider
C. Adolphsen (SLAC)
Note: Paper received too late to be included in published proceedings.
MO1004 Scaling Laws for Normal Conducting e+e- Linear Colliders 13
J.P. Delahaye, G. Guignard, I. Wilson (CERN); T. Raubenheimer (SLAC)
INVITED TALKS
Session MO2: Monday, August 24, 1998
Page #
MO2001 An Induction Linac for the Second Phase of DARHT 21
H.L. Rutkowski (LBNL)
MO2002 High-Power Proton Linac for APT; Status of Design and Development 26
G.P. Lawrence (LANL)
MO2003 Heavy Ion Fusion Experiments at LBNL and LLNL 31
L. Ahle (LBNL & LLNL)
MO2004 Linear Accelerators for Exotic Ion Beams 36
P. Bricault (TRIUMF)
MO2005 µ +-µ - Collider: µ +-µ - Generation, Capture, and Cooling 41
D. Neuffer (FNAL)
ORAL POSTERS
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LINAC98 Papers - Monday
Session MO3: Monday, August 24, 1998
Page #
MO3001 BEPC Injector Upgrade 49
(MO4002) G. Pei (IHEP-Beijing)
MO3002 Demonstration of Two-Beam Acceleration in CTF II 85
(MO4017) R. Bossart, H.H. Braun, G. Carron, M. Chanudet, F. Chautard, J.P. Delahaye, J.C.
Godot, S. Hutchins, I. Kamber, C. Martinez, G. Suberlucq, P. Tenenbaum, L. Thorndahl,
M. Valentini, I. Wilson, W. Wuensch (CERN)
MO3003 Results from Hardware R&D on C-Band RF-System for e+e- Linear Collider 94
(MO4020) T. Shintake, N. Akasaka, H. Matsumoto (KEK); J.S. Oh (PAL-POSTECH); M. Yoshida
(Univ. of Tokyo); K. Watanabe (Tohoku Univ.); Y. Ohkubo, H. Yonezawa (Toshiba Co.);
H. Baba (NKH Co. Ltd.)
MO3004 The Drive Beam Decelerator of CLIC 118
(MO4031) A. Riche, D. Schulte (CERN)
MO3005 Optics Elements for Modeling Electrostatic Lenses and Accelerator Components 150
(MO4045) IV. Electrostatic Quadrupoles and Space Charge Modeling
G.H. Gillespie (G.H. Gillespie Associates Inc.)
MO3006 Recent Developments in the Accelerator Design Code PARMILA 156
(MO4047) H. Takeda, J.H. Billen (LANL)
MO3007 Comparison of Beam Simulations with Measurements for a 1.25-MeV, CW RFQ 174
(MO4055) H.V. Smith Jr., G.O. Bolme, J.D. Sherman, R.R. Stevens Jr., L.M. Young, T.J. Zaugg
(LANL)
MO3008 Study of Compensation Process of Ion Beams 198
(MO4063) A. Jakob, H. Klein, A. Lakatos, J. Pozimski, L. Wicke (IAP-Univ. of Frankfurt)
MO3009 Design, Analysis and Testing of a High Thermal Conductivity Waveguide Window 240
(MO4078) for Use in a Free Electron Laser
T. Schultheiss, V. Christina, M. Cole, J. Rathke, Q. Shu (Northrop Grumman Corp.); T.
Elliot, V. Nguyen, L. Phillips, J. Preble (TJNAF)
MO3010 The Dipole Wakefield for a Rounded Damped Detuned Linear Accelerator with 282
(MO4092) Optimised Cell-to-Manifold Coupling
R.M. Jones (SLAC); N.M. Kroll (SLAC & UCSD); R.H. Miller, Z. Li, J.W. Wang
(SLAC); T. Higo (KEK); J. Irwin (SLAC)
MO3011 Basic Research on Horizontal Assembly Method of SC Cavities with High Q and 294
(MO4096) High Gradient
K. Saito (KEK); P. Kneisel (TJNAF); E. Kako, T. Shishido, S. Noguchi, M. Ono, Y.
Yamazaki (KEK)
MO3012 Simulation of High-Average Power Windows for Accelerator Production of 297
(MO4097) Tritium
L.D. Daily, C.C. Shang, C. M. Gooch, D.J. Mayhall, S.D. Nelson (LLNL); K.A.
Cummings (LANL); J. Salem (NASA Lewis Research Center)
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LINAC98 Papers - Monday
POSTERS
Session MO4: Monday, August 24, 1998
Page #
MO4002 BEPC Injector Upgrade 49
G. Pei (IHEP-Beijing)
MO4005 Linac LUE-200 Test Facilities 52
S. Dolya, W. Furman, K. Goldenberg, A. Kaminsky, A. Krasnykh, E. Laziev, V. Shvets, A.
Sumbaev, V. Zamrij (JINR); N. Dikansky, P. Logachev, V. Skarbo (BINP); E. Begloyan,
E. Gazazian, Y. Nazarian, V. Nikogossian, G. Oksuzian (YerPhI); V. Senyukov (MEPhI)
MO4006 Construction of the 8-GeV e- / 3.5-GeV e+ Injector Linac for KEKB 55
A. Enomoto (KEK)
MO4007 Single Bunched Beam Testing for SPring-8 Linac 58
T. Kobayashi, T. Hori, H. Yoshikawa, H. Sakaki, T. Asaka, K. Yanagida, A. Mizuno, S.
Suzuki, T. Taniuchi, H. Abe, H. Yokomizo (SPring-8)
MO4009 Performance of an AccSys Technology PL-7 Linac as an Injector for the IUCF 61
Cooler Injector Synchrotron
D.L. Friesel, W. Hunt (Indiana Univ. Cyclotron Facility)
MO4010 A 100 MeV Superconducting Proton Linac: Beam Dynamics Issues 64
M. Comunian, A. Facco, A. Pisent (INFN Laboratori Nazionali Di Legnaro (PD))
MO4011 Status of the Superconducting Heavy-Ion Tandem-Booster Linac at JAERI 67
S. Takeuchi, M. Matsuda (JAERI)
MO4012 MEBT Design for the JHF 200-MeV Proton Linac 70
T. Kato, S. Fu (KEK)
MO4013 First Beam Study for the 432-MHz DTL 73
F. Naito, K. Yoshino, T. Kato, Z. Igarashi, M. Kawamura, E. Takasaki, Y. Morozumi, C.
Kubota, T. Kubo, M. Ono, S. Anami, Y. Yamazaki (KEK)
MO4014 Recent Developments at the NIRS-HIMAC Injector 76
Y. Sato, T. Honma, T. Murakami, A. Kitagawa, K. Tashiro, M. Muramatsu, S. Yamada, Y.
Hirao (NIRS); T. Fujimoto, H. Sakamoto, M. Yamamoto, T. Okada (AEC)
MO4015 Parameter Study for a High Current Heavy Ion Linac 79
G. Parisi, A. Sauer, H. Deitinghoff, H. Klein (IAP-Frankfurt University)
MO4016 Luminosity Monitor Options for TESLA 82
O. Napoly (CEA/Saclay); D. Schulte (CERN)
MO4017 Demonstration of Two-Beam Acceleration in CTF II 85
R. Bossart, H.H. Braun, G. Carron, M. Chanudet, F. Chautard, J.P. Delahaye, J.C.
Godot, S. Hutchins, I. Kamber, C. Martinez, G. Suberlucq, P. Tenenbaum, L. Thorndahl,
M. Valentini, I. Wilson, W. Wuensch (CERN)
MO4018 The CLIC 30 GHz Two-Beam Test Accelerator 88
I. Wilson, W. Wuensch, W. Coosemans, C. Achard (CERN)
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LINAC98 Papers - Monday
MO4019 Beam Loading Compensation Using Phase to Amplitude Modulation Method in 91
ATF
S. Kashiwagi (Graduate Univ. for Advanced Studies); H. Hayano, K. Kubo, T. Naito, K.
Oide, T. Shintake, S. Takeda, N. Terunuma, J. Urakawa (KEK); T. Korhonen (PSI); S.
Nakamura (YNU)
MO4020 Results from Hardware R&D on C-Band RF-System for e+e- Linear Collider 94
T. Shintake, N. Akasaka, H. Matsumoto (KEK); J.S. Oh (PAL-POSTECH); M. Yoshida
(Univ. of Tokyo); K. Watanabe (Tohoku Univ.); Y. Ohkubo, H. Yonezawa (Toshiba Co.);
H. Baba (NKH Co. Ltd.)
MO4021 RK-TBA Studies in Ka-Band 97
S.M. Lidia, S.S. Yu (LBNL); J. Gardelle, T. Lefevre, J.L. Rullier (CEA/CESTA); G.A.
Westenskow (LLNL); J.T. Donohue (CENBG)
MO4024 High Charge Short Electron Bunches for Wakefield Accelerator Structures 100
Development
M.E. Conde, W. Gai, R. Konecny, J.G. Power, P. Schoessow (ANL)
MO4025 Laser System for a Subpicosecond Electron Linac 103
R.A. Crowell, C.D. Jonah, A.D. Trifunac, J. Qian (ANL)
MO4026 Feasibilty Study of a 2 GEV Superconducting H- Linac as Injector for the CERN PS 106
R. Garoby, H. Haseroth, C.E. Hill, A.M. Lombardi, (CERN); P.N. Ostroumov (INR RAS);
J.M. Tessier, M. Vretenar (CERN);
MO4027 Recent Progress in the Development of a Circular Ion Induction Accelerator for 109
Space Charge Dominated Beams at LLNL
L. Ahle, T.C. Sangster, D. Autrey, J. Barnard, G. Craig, A. Friedman, D.P. Grote, E.
Halaxa, R.L. Hanks, M. Hernandez, H.C. Kirbie, B.G. Logan, S.M. Lund, G. Mant, A.W.
Molvik, W.M. Sharp (LLNL); D. Berners, S. Eylon, D.L. Judd, L. Reginato (LBNL); A.
Debeling, W. Fritz (Bechtel Nevada Corporation)
MO4028 The LINAC of the Munich Accelerator for Fission Fragments (MAFF) 112
O. Kester, D. Habs, R. Rao, T. Sieber, H. Bongers, A. Kolbe, M. Gross, P. Thirolf, J. Ott
(LMU Muenchen); U. Koester (TU Muenchen); A. Schempp, (IAP-Univ. of Frankfurt);
U. Ratzinger (GSI Darmstadt)
MO4029 Field Description in an RFQ and its Effect on Beam Dynamics 115
R. Ferdinand, R. Duperrier, J.-M. Lagniel, P. Mattei, S. Nath (CEA/Saclay)
MO4031 The Drive Beam Decelerator of CLIC 118
A. Riche, D. Schulte (CERN)
MO4032 Wake Field Effects in APT Linac 121
S.S. Kurennoy (LANL)
MO4033 Design Studies of the DARHT Phase II Injector with the GYMNOS PIC Code 124
W.M. Fawley, E. Henestroza (LBNL); Y.-J. Chen, D.W. Hewett (LLNL)
MO4034 Emittance Growth from Bend/Straight Transitions for Beams Approaching 127
Thermal Equilibrium
J.J. Barnard, B. Losic (LLNL)
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LINAC98 Papers - Monday
MO4036 Coupling Slots Measurements Against Simulation for TRISPAL Accelerating 130
Cavities
P. Balleyguier (CEA/DPTA)
MO4037 External Q Studies for APT SC-Cavity Couplers 133
P. Balleyguier (CEA/DPTA)
MO4038 2.5D Cavity Code with High Accuracy 136
Y. Iwashita (ICR-Kyoto Univ.)
MO4041 Computing Eigenmodes in Highly Lossy Accelerating Structures 139
S. Setzer, T. Weiland (TU-Darmstadt)
MO4042 Simulation Results with an Alternate 3D Space Charge Routine, PICNIC 141
N. Pichoff, J.-M. Lagniel, S. Nath (CEA/DSM/DAPNIA/SEA)
MO4043 MUSTAFA -- A Tool for Numerical Simulations of the Beam Behavior in a Linac 144
G. Guignard, J. Hagel (CERN)
MO4044 Simulation of Halo Formation in Breathing Round Beams in a Periodic Focusing 147
Channel
Z. Huang, Y. Chen (CIAE)
MO4045 Optics Elements for Modeling Electrostatic Lenses and Accelerator Components IV. 150
Electrostatic Quadrupoles and Space Charge Modeling
G.H. Gillespie (G.H. Gillespie Associates Inc.)
MO4046 Beam Dynamics in a High Current SC Proton Linac for Nulcear Waste 153
Transmutation
G. Bellomo, P. Pierini (INFN-Milano-LASA)
MO4047 Recent Developments in the Accelerator Design Code PARMILA 156
H. Takeda, J.H. Billen (LANL)
MO4049 Simulations of the Nonlinear Transverse RF Field Effects on the Beam Dynamics in 159
Low Energy X-Band SW Linacs
X. Sun, Y. Lin (Tsinghua Univ.)
MO4050 A Novel Structure of Multi-Purpose RF Gun 162
E. Tanabe (AET Associates Inc.); A. Nakayama, F. Oda, M. Yokoyama (Kawasaki Heavy
Industries)
MO4051 The High Voltage System for the High Intensity CERN Proton Source 165
C.E. Hill, M. O'Neil (CERN)
MO4052 First Experience of Works with Compact Injectors for Trials and Drills of RF Linac 168
Structures
V.V. Kushin, N.A. Nesterov, S.V. Plotnikov, D.N. Seleznev, A.S. Suvorov, A.B. Zarubin,
V.P. Zubovsky (ITEP); E.P. Bogolyubov, V.T. Bobylev, Y.K. Presnyakov, V.A. Samarin
(All-Russian Research Institute of Automatics)
MO4054 The Cathode Test Stand for the DAHRT Second-Axis 171
C. Fortgang (LANL); C. Hudson, D. Macy (Bechtel); M. Monroe (LANL); K. Moy
(Bechtel); D. Prono (LANL)
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LINAC98 Papers - Monday
MO4055 Comparison of Beam Simulations with Measurements for a 1.25-MeV, CW RFQ 174
H.V. Smith Jr., G.O. Bolme, J.D. Sherman, R.R. Stevens Jr., L.M. Young, T.J. Zaugg
(LANL)
MO4056 The SNS Front End Accelerator Systems 177
J. Staples, D. Cheng, M. Fong, J. Greer, M. Hoff, R. Keller, K. Kennedy, M. Leitner, R.
MacGill, D. Oshatz, A. Ratti, J. Remais, S. Virostek (LBNL)
MO4057 Ferroelectric Ceramics: A Novel Efficient and Robust Photocathode 180
I. Boscolo, R. Parafioriti, A. Scurati (Univ. of Milano and INFN); M. Castellano, L.
Catani, M. Ferrario, F. Tazzioli (INFN-LNF); A. Doria, G.P. Gallerano, L. Giannessi, E.
Giovenale (ENEA-CRE)
MO4058 Fields Induced by Chopped Beams in the Tank Cavity 183
E. Takasaki, Z. Igarashi, F. Naito, K. Nanmo, T. Takenaka (KEK)
MO4059 Design and Development of the LEDA Slow Wire Scanner Profile Measurement 186
J.F. O'Hara (AlliedSignal FM&T); J.F. Power, J. Ledford, J.D. Gilpatrick (LANL); J.
Sage (General Atomics); M. Stettler (LANL)
MO4060 Improvements on the Accuracy of Beam Bugs 189
Y.J. Chen, T.J. Fessenden (LLNL)
MO4061 A Coaxial Cable Beam Loss Monitor Ion Chamber System for High Power 192
Multi-bunch Beams
M.C. Ross, D. McCormick (SLAC)
MO4062 Time Resolved, 2-D Hard X-ray Imaging of Relativistic Electron-Beam Target 195
Interactions on ETA-II
C.E. Crist (SNL); S. Sampayan (LLNL); M. Krogh (AlliedSignal FM&T); G. Westenskow,
G. Caporaso, T. Houck, J Weir, D. Trimble (LLNL)
MO4063 Study of Compensation Process of Ion Beams 198
A. Jakob, H. Klein, A. Lakatos, J. Pozimski, L. Wicke (IAP-Univ. of Frankfurt)
MO4064 Absolute Beam Position Monitoring Using HOM-Damper Signals 201
C. Peschke, G. Schreiber, P. Huelsmann, H. Klein (IAP-Univ. of Frankfurt)
MO4065 Design of the RF Phase Reference System and Timing Control for the TESLA 204
Linear Collider
A. Gamp, M. Liepe, T. Plawski, K. Rehlich, S.N. Simrock (DESY)
MO4066 Frequency Source for the ISAC RFQ 207
K. Fong, S. Fang, M. Laverty (TRIUMF)
MO4067 A Development and Integration Analysis of Commercial and In-House Control 210
Subsystems
D.M. Moore (WSRC); L.R. Dalesio (LANL)
MO4068 Performance of the Klystron Modulators at the S-Band Test Facility at DESY 213
S. Choroba, J. Hameister, M. Kuhn (DESY)
MO4069 Advanced Buck Converter Power Supply "ABCPS" for APT 216
R. Street, T. Overett, E. Bowles (General Atomics)
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LINAC98 Papers - Monday
MO4070 Status of the 36 MHz RF-System for the High-Current Injector at GSI 219
W. Vinzenz, W. Gutowski, G. Hutter (GSI Darmstadt); B. Rossa (Thomcast AG Turgi
Swiss)
MO4072 Klystron RF Stabilization Using Feedforward Circuit 222
H. Hayano, M. Akemoto, T. Naito, S. Takeda (KEK); D. Aizawa, M. Higuchi, T.
Sakamoto (Tohoku-Gakuin University)
MO4073 Improvement in the Upgraded Modulator of the KEKB Injector Linac 225
H. Honma, T. Shidara, S. Anami, K. Nakahara (KEK)
MO4074 New High Power 200 MHz RF System for the LANSCE Drift Tube Linac 228
J. Lyles, C. Friedrichs, M. Lynch (LANL)
MO4075 Accelerator Production of Tritium 700 MHz and 350 MHz Klystron Test Results 231
D. Rees, M. Lynch, P. Tallerico (LANL)
MO4076 Electromagnetic Cold-Test Characterization of the Quad-Driven Stripline Kicker 234
S.D. Nelson, J.E. Dunlap (LLNL)
MO4077 Solid-State Switch Modulator Deck for the MIT-Bates S Band Transmitter 237
C. Wolcott, R. Campbell, A. Hawkins, W. North, L. Solheim, R. Trepsas, D. Wang, A.
Zolfaghari (MIT-Bates); M. Gaudreau, M. Mulvaney (Diversified Technologies Inc.)
MO4078 Design, Analysis and Testing of a High Thermal Conductivity Waveguide Window 240
for Use in a Free Electron Laser
T. Schultheiss, V. Christina, M. Cole, J. Rathke, Q. Shu (Northrop Grumman Corp.); T.
Elliot, V. Nguyen, L. Phillips, J. Preble (TJNAF)
MO4079 Design Considerations for Very High Power RF Windows at X-Band 243
W.R. Fowkes, R.S. Callin, E.N. Jongewaard, D.W. Sprehn, S.G. Tantawi, A.E. Vlieks
(SLAC)
MO4080 Strategies for Waveguide Coupling for SRF Cavities 246
L.R. Doolittle (TJNAF)
MO4081 Systematic Design of an S-Band Pillbox-Type RF Window 249
A. Joestingmeier, M. Dohlus, N. Holtkamp (DESY)
MO4082 Design of a HOM Broadband Absorber for TESLA 252
M. Dohlus, A. Joestingmeier, N. Holtkamp, H. Hartwig (DESY)
MO4083 Biperiodic Disk-and-Washer Cavity for Electron Acceleration 255
H. Ao, Y. Iwashita, T. Shirai, A. Noda, M. Inoue (ICR-Kyoto Univ.); T. Kawakita, M.
Matsuoka (MHI)
MO4084 The Estimations for Mechanical Vibrations of Stems-Like Elements in RF Cavities 258
A.S. Levchenko, V.V. Paramonov, R.S. Ter-Antonyan (INR RAS)
MO4085 Fabrication of the C-Band (5712 MHz) Choke-ModeType Damped Accelerator 261
Structure
H. Matsumoto, T. Shintake, N. Akasaka (KEK)
MO4086 An Electroplating Fabrication Method for Electron Accelerator Structures 264
H. Matsumoto, T. Shintake (KEK); Y. Iino, Z. Kabeya (MHI)
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LINAC98 Papers - Monday
MO4087 Status of Engineering Development of CCDTL for Accelerator Production of 267
Tritium
R.L. Wood, J.H. Billen, W. T. Hunter, P.O. Leslie, R.J. Roybal, F.E. Sigler (LANL)
MO4088 Tuning the LEDA RFQ 6.7 MeV Accelerator 270
L.M. Young, L.J. Rybarcyk (LANL)
MO4089 Temperature Distribution Calculations on Beryllium Windows in RF Cavities for a 273
Muon Collider
D. Li, J. Corlett, W. Turner (LBNL)
MO4090 Conceptual Design of the SNS RFQ 276
A. Ratti, C. Fong, M. Fong, R. MacGill, R. Gough, J. Staples, M. Hoff, R. Keller, S.
Virostek, R. Yourd (LBNL)
MO4091 Test Results for a Cold Model of a CCDTL Two Gap to Three Gap Transition 279
Region
M.D. Cole, H. Bluem (Northrop Grumman Corp.); J.H. Billen, P.O. Leslie (LANL)
MO4092 The Dipole Wakefield for a Rounded Damped Detuned Linear Accelerator with 282
Optimised Cell-to-Manifold Coupling
R.M. Jones (SLAC); N.M. Kroll (SLAC & UCSD); R.H. Miller (SLAC); T. Higo (KEK);
K. Ko, Z. Li, R.D. Ruth, V. Srinivas, J. W. Wang (SLAC)
MO4093 Effects of Alternating Cell Misalignments on the DDS 285
R.M. Jones (SLAC); N.M. Kroll (SLAC & UCSD); R.H. Miller (SLAC); T. Higo (KEK)
MO4094 Application of a Mapping Function Technique to the Design of Damped Detuned 288
Structures and to the Rapid Calculation of Their Wakefields
R.M. Jones (SLAC); N.M. Kroll (SLAC & UCSD); R.H. Miller (SLAC)
MO4095 Optimum Operating Temperature of Superconducting Cavities 291
H. Safa (LANL and CEA/Saclay)
MO4096 Basic Research on Horizontal Assembly Method of SC Cavities with High Q and 294
High Gradient
K. Saito (KEK); P. Kneisel (TJNAF); E. Kako, T. Shishido, S. Noguchi, M. Ono, Y.
Yamazaki (KEK)
MO4097 Simulation of High-Average Power Windows for Accelerator Production of Tritium 297
L.D. Daily, C.C. Shang, C.M. Gooch, D.J. Mayhall, S.D. Nelson (LLNL); K.A. Cummings
(LANL); J. Salem (NASA Lewis Research Center)
MO4098 An Accelerator-Assisted Nuclear Fuel Assembly for a Future Project at KURRI 300
Y. Kawase, S. Shiroya (RRI-Kyoto Univ.); M. Inoue (ICR-Kyoto Univ.)
MO4099 Design of 1 GeV, 30 mA Proton Linac with Superconducting Cavities 303
A.P. Durkin, V.M. Belugin, B.I. Bondarev, A.P. Fedotov, Y.D. Ivanov, B.P. Murin, I.V.
Shumakov, N.I. Uksusov (MRTI)
MO4100 Bremsstrahlung Pair-Production of Positrons with Low Neutron Background 306
E. Lessner, M. White (ANL)
MO4101 The KEK-PF Slow-Positron Facility at a New Site 309
T. Shidara, T. Kurihara, A. Shirakawa, A. Enomoto, H. Kobayashi, K. Nakahara (KEK)
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LINAC98 Papers - Monday
MO4102 Faraday Cup Measurements of the Plasma Plume Produced at an X-ray Converter 311
T. Houck, M. Garcia, S. Sampayan (LLNL)
MO4103 Experimental Investigation of Beam Optics Issues at the Bremsstrahlung 314
Converters for Radiographic Applications
S. Sampayan, G. Caporaso, Y.-J. Chen, M. Garcia, T. Houck, (LLNL); M. Krogh (Allied
Signal); R. Richardson, J. Weir, G. Westenskow (LLNL); C. Crist (SNL)
MO4104 RF Power Distribution and Phasing at SSRL Injector Linac 317
S. Park (SLAC)
MO4106 Induction Core Performance 320
A.W. Molvik, W.R. Meier (LLNL); A. Faltens, L. Reginato (LBNL); C. Smith (Nonvolatile
Electronics Inc.)
MO4107 High Resolution BPM for Future Colliders 323
C. Magne, M. Juillard, M. Lalot, A. Mosnier, B. Phung, Y. Lussignol (CEA/Saclay); R.
Bossart (CERN)
MO4108 Heat Transfer Coefficient in Serpentine Coolant Passage for CCDTL 326
P. Leslie, R. Wood, F. Sigler, A. Shapiro, A. Rendon (LANL)
MO4109 Double Dynamic Focusing for Linear Colliders 329
J. Irwin (SLAC)
MO4110 2 MeV LIA Injector Design 332
L. Zhang, N. Cheng, G. Dai, H. Wang, L. Chengjun, J. Deng, B. Ding (IFP)
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LINAC98 Papers - Tuesday
LINAC98 Papers - Tuesday
LINAC98 Home Monday papers Wednesday papers Thursday papers Friday papers Author Index
INVITED TALKS
Session TU1: Tuesday, August 25, 1998
Page #
TU1001 Advanced Concepts for High-Gradient Acceleration 335
D.H. Whittum (SLAC)
TU1002 High Intensity Injector Linacs for Spallation Sources 339
K. Bongardt, M. Pabst (FZJ); A. Letchford (RAL)
TU1003 High Brightness Electron Sources 344
J.B. Rosenzweig (UCLA)
TU1004 A High Intensity Proton Linac Development for the JAERI Neutron Science 349
Project
M. Mizumoto, J. Kusano, K. Hasegawa, N. Ouchi, H. Oguri, M. Kinsho, E. Chishiro,
T. Tomisawa, Y. Touchi, M. Ikegami, Y. Honda, K. Mukugi, H. Ino, F. Noda, N.
Akaoka, H. Kaneko (JAERI)
INVITED TALKS
Session TU2: Tuesday, August 25, 1998
Page #
TU2001 The TESLA Free Electron Laser -- Concept and Status 357
J. Rossbach (DESY)
TU2002 The Linac Coherent Light Source at SLAC 362
P. Emma (SLAC)
TU2003 Modeling and Design of Klystron 367
Y.H. Chin (KEK)
TU2004 Theory of an Electrostatic Instability Driven by Transverse-Longitudinal 372
Temperature Anisotropy in Space Charge Dominated Beams
S.M. Lund, D.A. Callahan, A. Friedman, D.P. Grote (LLNL); I. Haber (NRL); T.F.
Wang (LANL)
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LINAC98 Papers - Tuesday
TU2005 Decelerating and Accelerating RFQs 377
A.M. Lombardi (CERN)
TU2006 A Low-Charge-State CW RFQ 382
K.W. Shepard, M. Kedzie, R.A. Kaye (ANL)
ORAL POSTERS
Session TU3: Tuesday, August 25, 1998
Page #
TU3001 Design of the 200-MeV Proton Linac for the Japan Hadron Facility 409
(TU4011) T. Kato, Y. Yamazaki (KEK)
TU3002 A Linac for the Spallation Neutron Source 415
(TU4013) A.J. Jason (LANL)
TU3003 First Results of the Two-Beam Funneling Experiment 424
(TU4016) A. Firjahn-Andersch, H. Liebermann, A. Schempp, J. Thibus, H. Vormann, E. Winschuh,
H. Zimmermann (IAP-Univ. of Frankfurt)
TU3004 Present Performance of the CERN Proton Linac 427
(TU4017) C.E. Hill, A. Lombardi, E. Tanke, M. Vretenar (CERN)
TU3005 Achieving 800 kW CW Beam Power and Continuing Energy Improvements in 448
(TU4025) CEBAF
C.E. Reece (TJNAF)
TU3006 Controlling Backstreaming Ions from X-ray Converter Targets with Time Varying 472
(TU4034) Final Focusing Solenoidal Lens and Beam Energy Variation
Y.-J. Chen, G.J. Caporaso, A.C. Paul (LLNL)
TU3007 Electron Gun Simulation Using MAGIC 493
(TU4043) S. Michizono, H. Tsutsui, S. Matsumoto, Y.H. Chin, S. Fukuda (KEK)
TU3008 Doppler-Shift Proton Fraction Measurement on a CW Proton Injector 511
(TU4051) J.H. Kamperschroer (General Atomics); J.D. Sherman, T.J. Zaugg (LANL); A.H. Arvin,
A.S. Bolt, M. C. Richards (WSRC)
TU3009 Design, Construction and Operational Results of the IGBT Controlled Solid State 561
(TU4071) Modulator High Voltage Power Supply Used in the High Power RF Systems of the
Low Energy Demonstration Accelerator of the Accelerator Production of Tritium
(APT) Project
J.T. Bradley III, D. Rees, R.S. Przeklasa (LANL); M.C. Scott (Continental Electronics
Corp.)
TU3010 The Cold Model of the CDS Structure 579
(TU4077) V.V. Paramonov, L.V. Kravchuk, V.A. Puntus (INR RAS)
TU3011 324-MHz RF Deflector Design and Test 585
(TU4079) S. Fu, T. Kato, F. Naito, K. Yoshino (KEK)
TU3012 Design of an Ogive-Shaped Beamstop 618
(TU4092) T.H. Van Hagan, D.W. Doll (General Atomics); J.D. Schneider, F.R. Spinos (LANL)
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LINAC98 Papers - Tuesday
POSTERS
Session TU4: Tuesday, August 25, 1998
Page #
TU4001 Upgrading of Linear Induction Accelerator X-ray Facility (LIAXF) 389
J.J. Deng, B.N. Ding, J.S. Shi, Y. He, J. Li, Q. Li, G.G. Cao, L. Wen, G.S. Dai (Institute of
Fluid Physics)
TU4002 Installation of the AIRIX Induction Accelerator 391
E. Merle, R. Boivinet, M. Mouillet, O. Pierret (CEA/PEM); Ph. Anthouard, J. Bardy, C.
Bonnafond, A. Devin, P. Eyl, C. Vermare (CEA/CESTA)
TU4003 Experimental Results of Electron Beam Neutralization Induced by a Limited 394
Space-Charge Emission
C. Vermare, J. Labrouche, D. Villate, P. Le Taillandier (CEA/CESTA)
TU4005 Picosecond and Sub-Picosecond, High Charge Electron Linacs 397
A.M.M. Todd, H.P. Bluem, C.C. Paulson, M.F. Reusch, I.S. Lehrman (Northrop Grumman
Corp.)
TU4006 Development of an Upgrade of the CEBAF Acceleration System 400
J.R. Delayen (TJNAF)
TU4007 Latest Developments from the S-DALINAC and its Free-Electron-Laser 403
M. Brunken, S. Doebert, R. Eichhorn, H. Genz, H.-D. Graef, T. Hampel, S. Kostial, U.
Laier, H. Loos, A. Richter, B. Schweizer, A. Stascheck, O. Titze, T. Wesp (Institut fuer
Kernphysik TU-Darmstadt)
TU4009 1-GeV Linac Upgrade Study at Fermilab 406
M. Popovic, A. Moretti, R. Noble, C.W. Schmidt (FNAL)
TU4011 Design of the 200-MeV Proton Linac for the Japan Hadron Facility 409
T. Kato, Y. Yamazaki (KEK)
TU4012 Development of a Commissioning Plan for the APT Linac 412
L.W. Funk (WSRC); K.R. Crandall (TECHSOURCE); J.D. Gilpatrick, E.R. Gray, A.H.
Regan, A. Rohlev, L.J. Rybarcyk, T.P. Wangler (LANL)
TU4013 A Linac for the Spallation Neutron Source 415
A.J. Jason (LANL)
TU4014 Status Update on the Low-Energy Demonstration Accelerator (LEDA) 418
H.V. Smith Jr., J.D. Schneider (LANL)
TU4015 Beam Dynamics Design of the 211 MeV APT Normal Conducting LINAC 421
L.M. Young, J.H. Billen, H. Takeda, R.L. Wood (LANL)
TU4016 First Results of the Two-Beam Funneling Experiment 424
A. Firjahn-Andersch, H. Liebermann, A. Schempp, J. Thibus, H. Vormann, E. Winschuh,
H. Zimmermann (IAP-Univ. of Frankfurt)
TU4017 Present Performance of the CERN Proton Linac 427
C.E. Hill, A.M. Lombardi, E. Tanke, M. Vretenar (CERN)
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LINAC98 Papers - Tuesday
TU4019 Fermilab Linac 1997-98 Operations, Studies and Improvements 430
L.J. Allen, C.W. Schmidt, M. Popovic (FNAL)
TU4020 Moscow Meson Factory Linac - Operation and Improvements 433
L.V. Kravchuk, Y.V. Bylinsky, S.K. Esin, P.N. Ostroumov, V.L. Serov (INR RAS)
TU4021 Status of a New Switchyard Design for LANSCE 436
R.W. Garnett, C. Rose, F. Shelley, J.D. Zumbro (LANL)
TU4022 Understanding Accelerator Reliability 439
C.M. Piaszczyk (Northrop Grumman Corp.)
TU4023 Status of 200 MeV Electron LINAC and Its Application 442
Y.J. Pei, Y.F. Wang, S. Dong, X.F. Luo, G.R. Huang, G.C. Wang, W. Wang, Y.X. Li (Univ.
of Science & Technology of China)
TU4024 Status of PLS 2-GeV Electron Linac Performance 445
M.H. Cho, K.R. Kim, J.S. Oh, S.H. Park, S.S. Park, I.S. Ko, W. Namkung
(PAL-POSTECH)
TU4025 Achieving 800 kW CW Beam Power and Continuing Energy Improvements in 448
CEBAF
C.E. Reece (TJNAF)
TU4026 The Drive Beam Accelerator of CLIC 451
D. Schulte (CERN)
TU4027 High Current Transport and Acceleration at the Upgraded UNILAC 454
W. Barth, J. Glatz, J. Klabunde (GSI Darmstadt)
TU4029 Analysis and Modeling of a Stripline Beam Kicker and Septum 457
B.R. Poole, G.J. Caporaso, Y.J. Chen, L.-F. Wang (LLNL)
TU4030 Higher-Order-Modes and Beam Breakup Simulations in the Jefferson Lab FEL 460
Recirculating Linac
L. Merminga, I.E. Campisi (TJNAF)
TU4031 TESLA Injector Simulations with MAFIA 463
P. Schuett, T. Weiland (TU-Darmstadt)
TU4032 Halo Formation in 3-D Bunches with Different Phase Space Distributions 466
A.V. Fedotov, R.L. Gluckstern (Univ. of Maryland); S.S. Kurennoy, R.D. Ryne (LANL)
TU4033 Study of the Transverse Beam Motion in the DARHT Phase II Accelerator 469
Y.-J. Chen, T.L. Houck (LLNL); W.M. Fawley (LBNL)
TU4034 Controlling Backstreaming Ions from X-ray Converter Targets with Time Varying 472
Final Focusing Solenoidal Lens and Beam Energy Variation
Y.-J. Chen, G.J. Caporaso, A.C. Paul (LLNL)
TU4035 EM-PIC Simulations of e-Beam Interaction with Field Emitted Ions from 475
Bremsstrahlung Targets
P.W. Rambo, S. Brandon (LLNL)
TU4038 Transverse Wakefield Effect Measurement via Model-Independent Analysis 478
J. Irwin, C.-X. Wang, K. Bane, Y. Yan, M. Minty, F.J. Decker, G. Stupakov (SLAC)
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LINAC98 Papers - Tuesday
TU4039 Multiple Coupling and Beam Loading of a RF Cavity 481
H. Safa (LANL and CEA/Saclay)
TU4040 Analytical Treatment of Single Bunch Stability in a Linac 484
G. Guignard, J. Hagel (CERN)
TU4041 Application of the Mode Matching Technique to the Analysis of Waveguide Arrays 487
A. Joestingmeier, M. Dohlus, N. Holtkamp (DESY)
TU4042 Simulation Study of the Bunching Section of X-Band Klystrons 490
S. Matsumoto, S. Michizono, H. Tsutsui, Y.H. Chin, S. Fukuda (KEK)
TU4043 Electron Gun Simulation Using MAGIC 493
S. Michizono, H. Tsutsui, S. Matsumoto, Y.H. Chin, S. Fukuda (KEK)
TU4044 High Energy Beam Transport Beamline for LEDA 496
W.P. Lysenko, J.D. Gilpatrick (LANL); M. Schulze (General Atomics)
TU4045 Beam Dynamics Simulation of the Spallation Neutron Source Linear Accelerator 499
H. Takeda, J.H. Billen, T. Bhatia (LANL)
TU4046 CW RFQ Designing Using the LIDOS.RFQ Codes 502
B. Bondarev, A. Durkin, S. Vinogradov (MRTI); J.-M. Lagniel, R. Ferdinand
(CEA/DSM/DAPNIA/SEA)
TU4047 Multi-fiducial Techniques for Tracking Large Phase Space Distributions in 505
Non-linear Fields
S.M. Lidia (LBNL)
TU4048 Production of Negative Hydrogen and Deuterium Ions in Microwave-Driven Ion 508
Sources
D. Spence, K.R. Lykke (ANL)
TU4051 Doppler-Shift Proton Fraction Measurement on a CW Proton Injector 511
J.H. Kamperschroer (General Atomics); J.D. Sherman, T.J. Zaugg (LANL); A.H. Arvin,
A.S. Bolt, M. C. Richards (WSRC)
TU4053 Beam Simulations for the H-Injector Upgrade at LANSCE 514
R.R. Stevens Jr., W. Ingalls, O. Sander, B. Prichard Jr., J. Sherman (LANL)
TU4054 Ion Source Development for LANSCE Upgrade 517
M. Williams, R. Gough, R. Keller, K. Leung, D. Meyer, A. Wengrow (LBNL); O. Sander,
W. Ingalls, B. Prichard, R. Stevens (LANL)
TU4055 High Power Test Results of the First SRRC/ANL High Current L-Band RF Gun 520
C.H. Ho, S.Y. Ho, G.Y. Hsiung, J.Y. Hwang, T.T. Yang (SRRC); M. Conde, W. Gai, R.
Konecny, J. Power, P. Schoessow (ANL)
TU4056 Extraction and Low Energy Transport of Negative Ions 523
A. Lakatos, J. Pozimski, A. Jakob, H. Klein (IAP-Univ. of Frankfurt)
TU4057 Stable Ampere Level Emission of Energetic Electrons by Electrically Excited 526
Ferroelectric Ceramics
I. Boscolo, A. Scurati (Univ. of Milano and INFN)
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LINAC98 Papers - Tuesday
TU4059 Time-Resolved Imaging for the APS Linac Beams 529
A.H. Lumpkin, W.J. Berg, B.X. Yang, M. White (ANL)
TU4060 LEDA & APT Beam Position Measurement System: Design and Initial Tests 532
J.D. Gilpatrick, J.F. Power, R.B. Shurter, M. Stettler (LANL); J.F. O'Hara (AlliedSignal);
D. Martinez (General Atomics)
TU4062 Laser Diagnostic for High Current H- Beams 535
R.E. Shafer (LANL)
TU4063 Horizontal Emittance Measurement in ATF Extraction Line 538
T. Okugi, T. Hirose (Tokyo Metropolitan Univ.); H. Hayano, K. Kubo, N. Terunuma, J.
Urakawa (KEK); S. Kashiwagi (Graduate Univ. for Advanced Studies)
TU4064 Requirements for the RF Control of the Vector Sum for Superconducting Proton 543
Linacs
M. Huening, S.N. Simrock (DESY); T. Schilcher (PSI)
TU4065 Time Delay Compensation for the Digital RF Control at the TESLA Test Facility 546
H. Imsieke, A. Kholodnyi, S.N. Simrock (DESY)
TU4066 RF Control Studies for Moderate Beamline Coupling Between SRF Cavities 549
L.R. Doolittle, D.X. Wang (TJNAF)
TU4067 The RF System for the CEBAF Polarized Photoinjector 552
M. Crofford, C. Hovater, G. Lahti, C. Piller, M. Poelker (TJNAF)
TU4069 Waveguide Harmonic Damper for Klystron Amplifier 555
Y. Kang, A. Nassiri (ANL)
TU4070 Development of a 114.24 MHz Sub-Harmonic Buncher for the KEKB Injector Linac 558
S. Yamaguchi, S. Ohsawa, M. Ikeda, A. Enomoto (KEK); Y. Igarashi (MHI)
TU4071 Design, Construction and Operational Results of the IGBT Controlled Solid State 561
Modulator High Voltage Power Supply Used in the High Power RF Systems of the
Low Energy Demonstration Accelerator of the Accelerator Production of Tritium
(APT) Project
J.T. Bradley III, D. Rees, R.S. Przeklasa (LANL); M.C. Scott (Continental Electronics
Corp.)
TU4072 Design, Operation, and Test Results of 350 MHz LEDA RF System 564
D. Rees, J. Bradley III, K. Cummings, A. Regan, T. Rohlev, W. Roybal, Y.M. Wang
(LANL)
TU4073 The RF Power System for the SNS Linac 567
P.J. Tallerico, W.A. Reass (LANL)
TU4074 High Power RF Component Testing for the NLC 570
A.E. Vlieks, W.R. Fowkes, R.J. Loewen, S.G. Tantawi (SLAC)
TU4075 Linear Inductive Voltage Adders (IVA) for Advanced Hydrodynamic Radiography 573
M.G. Mazarakis, J.D. Boyes, D.L. Johnson, J.S. Lash, J.E. Maenchen, P.R. Menge, C.L.
Olson, S.E. Rosenthal, D.C. Rovang (SNL); B.V. Oliver, D.R. Welch (Mission Research
Corporation); V.L. Bailey, I.D. Smith (Pulse Sciences Inc.)
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LINAC98 Papers - Tuesday
TU4076 High Performance Pulse Modulater for 80 MW S-Band Klystron in SPring-8 Linac 576
T. Hori, H. Yoshikawa, T. Kobayashi, T. Asaka, H. Sakaki, S. Nagasawa, H. Yokomizo
(SPring-8)
TU4077 The Cold Model of the CDS Structure 579
V.V. Paramonov, L.V. Kravchuk, V.A. Puntus (INR RAS)
TU4078 The Bridge Coupling Cavities in the Separated Drift Tube Linac Structure 582
V.V. Paramonov, L.V. Kravchuk, A.S. Levchenko (INR RAS); T. Kato, F. Naito, Y.
Yamazaki (KEK)
TU4079 324-MHz RF Deflector Design and Test 585
S. Fu, T. Kato, F. Naito, K. Yoshino (KEK)
TU4080 Optimization on Wakefield Damping in C-Band Accelerating Structure 588
N. Akasaka, T. Shintake, H. Matsumoto (KEK)
TU4081 Design Considerations for Multiple-Beam RFQ Structures 591
V. Kapin, M. Inoue, Y. Iwashita, A. Noda (ICR-Kyoto Univ.)
TU4082 Proton Beam Studies with a 1.25 MeV, CW Radio Frequency Quadrupole LINAC 594
G.O. Bolme, T.W. Hardek, L.D. Hansborough, D.J. Hodgkins, D.R. Keffeler, J.D.
Sherman, H.V. Smith, R.R. Stevens, L.M. Young, T.J. Zaugg (LANL); P.P. Balleyguier
(CEA/Bruyeres Le Chatel); A.H. Arvin, A.S. Bolt, M.C. Richards (SRS); J.H.
Kamperschroer (General Atomics)
TU4083 The Mechanical Design and Fabrication of a Ridge-Loaded Waveguide for an RFQ 597
R. Valdiviez, P. Roybal, B. Clark, F. Martinez, D. Casillas, G. Gonzales, J. Tafoya
(LANL)
TU4084 Prototype Models for the SNS RFQ 600
A. Ratti, J. Ayers, R. Gough, J. Greer, M. Hoff, R. Keller, R. MacGill, J. Remais, J.
Staples, R. Yourd (LBNL)
TU4085 Design of a Charge-State Multiplier System for the RIKEN RI-Beam Factory 603
O. Kamigaito, A. Bandyopadhyay, M. Kase, Y. Miyazawa, T. Chiba, M. Hemmi, S.
Kohara, E. Ikezawa, A. Goto, Y. Yano (RIKEN)
TU4086 The Present Status of Development on Superconducting Cavities at SHI 606
Y. Matsubara, M. Hirose, T. Hori (SHI Tokyo); H. Saito (SHI Ehime-Ken); F. Yukawa
(STC); H. Inoue, M. Ono, E. Kako, S. Noguchi, K. Saito, T. Shishido (KEK)
TU4087 RF Tests on the Initial 2.8m Section of the 8m Long ISAC RFQ at TRIUMF 609
R.L. Poirier, P. Bricault, G. Dutto, K. Fong, R. Laxdal, A.K. Mitra, B. Uzat (TRIUMF)
TU4089 Development of a Raster Electronics System for Expanding the APT Proton Beam 612
S. Chapelle, E.L. Hubbard, T.L. Smith, M.E. Schulze, R.E. Shafer (General Atomics)
TU4090 Low to High Energy Beamstops for APT 615
D. Doll, T. Van Hagan, K. Redler, J. Tooker, A. Baxter, M. Fikani (General Atomics); D.
Schneider, F. Spinos (LANL); W. Funk (Westinghouse SRS)
TU4092 Design of an Ogive-Shaped Beamstop 618
T.H. Van Hagan, D.W. Doll (General Atomics); J.D. Schneider, F.R. Spinos (LANL)
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LINAC98 Papers - Tuesday
TU4094 Low-Stored-Energy 100-kV Regulator for Ion Sources at LANSCE 621
E.G. Jacobson, R.L. Haffner, W.B. Ingalls, B.J. Meyer, J.S. Stelzer (LANL)
TU4095 Testing of Vacuum Pumps for the APT/LEDA RFQ 624
K. Kishiyama, S. Shen, D. Behne (LLNL); N.G. Wilson (AMPRO Inc.); D. Schrage, R.
Valdiviez (LANL)
TU4096 Medical Applications of C-Band Accelerator Technologies 627
E. Tanabe (AET Associates Inc.); Y. Fineberg (Stanford); H. Matsumoto, T. Shintake
(KEK)
TU4097 An Updated Assessment of a Medical Cyclotron as an Injector for an Energy 630
Upgrade
J.A. Clarke, D.M. Dykes, C.W. Horrabin, P.A. McIntosh, H.L. Owen, M.W. Poole, S.L.
Smith, V.P. Suller (Daresbury); A. Kacperek, B. Marsland (Clatterbridge)
TU4098 LIBO - A 3 GHz Proton Linac Booster of 200 MeV for Cancer Treatment 633
U. Amaldi, B. Szeless, M. Vretenar, E. Wilson (CERN); K. Crandall (Consult Crandall);
J. Stovall (RAL); M. Weiss (TERA)
TU4099 Medical Isotope Production with the Accelerator Production of Tritium (APT) 636
Facility
M.R. Buckner (WSRC); M. Cappiello, E. Pitcher (LANL); H. O'Brien (O'Brien &
Associates)
TU4100 Operation of High-Power 8.6 and 17.1 GHz Coaxial Gyroklystrons 639
W. Lawson, B. Hogan, M. Castle, V.L. Granatstein, M. Reiser, X. Xu (Institute for Plasma
Research)
TU4101 Experience at Fermilab with High Quantum Efficiency Photo-Cathodes for RF 642
Electron Guns
A. Fry, E. Hahn, W. Hartung, M. Kuchnir (FNAL); P. Michelato, D. Sertore
(INFN-Milano)
TU4102 A High Charge Photoinjector for the Pulsed Radiolysis Facility - ELYSE 645
J.C. Bourdon, T. Garvey, J. Le Duff (LAL); M. Gaillard (Universite de Paris-Sud)
TU4103 First Performance of the RFD Linac Structure 648
D.A. Swenson, K.R. Crandall, F.W. Guy, J.W. Lenz, W.J. Starling (Linac Systems)
TU4104 The Performance of the 1.3 GHz Superconducting RF Cavities in the First Module 651
of the TESLA Test Facility Linac
W.-D. Moeller (DESY)
TU4106 Simulation of Beam Dynamics Including Space Charge in Proton Linac with Errors 654
D.V. Gorelov, P.N. Ostroumov (INR RAS)
TU4107 Basis for Low Beam Loss in the High-Current APT Linac 657
T.P. Wangler, E.R. Gray, F.L. Krawczyk, S.S. Kurennoy, G.P. Lawrence, R.D. Ryne
(LANL); K.R. Crandall (TECHSOURCE)
TU4108 Design Simulation for Spot Size Stabilization in ITS/DARHT 660
T.J.T. Kwan, D.C. Moir, B.G. DeVolder, C.M. Snell, M. Kang (LANL)
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LINAC98 Papers - Tuesday
TU4109 Modeling Beams with Elements in Phase Space 663
E.M. Nelson (LANL)
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LINAC98 Papers - Wednesday
LINAC98 Papers - Wednesday
LINAC98 Home Monday papers Tuesday papers Thursday papers Friday papers Author Index
INVITED TALKS
Session WE1: Wednesday, August 26, 1998
Page #
WE1001 Survey Talk - New Laser and Optical Radiation Diagnostics 669
W.P. Leemans (LBNL)
WE1002 High Gradient Superconducting RF Structures 674
H. Weise (DESY)
WE1003 CW RFQ Fabrication and Engineering 679
D. Schrage, L. Young, P. Roybal, A. Naranjo, D. Baca, W. Clark, F. Martinez, H.
Haagenstad, J. Mitchell, D. Montoya, A. Rendon, F. Krawczyk, T. Davis, D.
Casillas, A. Gonzales, G. Gonzales, S. Hidalgo, E. Kettering, G. Leeches, B.
Ormond, R. Reinert, O. Smith, J. Tafoya (LANL)
WE1004 Real-Time Transverse Emittance Diagnostics 684
P. Piot, G.A. Krafft, R. Li, J. Song (TJNAF)
WE1005 Periodic Permanent Magnet Development for Linear Collider X-Band 689
Klystrons
D. Sprehn, G. Caryotakis, E. Jongewaard, R.M. Phillips (SLAC)
INVITED TALKS
Session WE2: Wednesday, August 26, 1998
Page #
WE2001 Review of Fabrication of SC Cavity Structures 697
V. Palmieri (INFN)
WE2002 The U.S. DOE Grand Challenge in Computational Accelerator Physics 701
R. Ryne, S. Habib, J. Qiang (LANL); K. Ko, Z. Li, B. McCandless, W. Mi, C. Ng, M.
Saparov, V. Srinivas, Y. Sun, X. Zhan (SLAC); V. Decyk (UCLA); G. Golub
(Stanford)
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LINAC98 Papers - Wednesday
WE2003 High-Intensity Linac Studies in France 706
J.-M. Lagniel (CEA/Saclay)
WE2005 Commissioning of the KEKB Linac 711
Y. Ogawa (KEK)
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LINAC98 Papers - Thursday
LINAC98 Papers - Thursday
LINAC98 Home Monday papers Tuesday papers Wednesday papers Friday papers Author Index
INVITED TALKS
Session TH1: Thursday, August 27, 1998
Page #
TH1001 A Review of Accelerator Concepts for the Advanced Hydrotest Facility 719
A.J. Toepfer (SAIC)
TH1002 Review of Beam Diagnostics in Ion Linacs 724
P.N. Ostroumov (INR RAS)
TH1004 Halo Formation in Intense Linacs 729
C. Chen (MIT)
INVITED TALKS
Session TH2: Thursday, August 27, 1998
Page #
TH2001 RF Pulse Compression for Linear Colliders 737
H. Mizuno (KEK)
TH2002 The Design of an Accelerator for Advanced Pulse Radiolysis Experiments 742
C.D. Jonah, R.A. Crowell (ANL)
TH2003 New Techniques for Emittance Tuning in the SLC 745
P. Raimondi, R.W. Assmann, T. Barklow, J.R. Bogart, F.J. Decker, C. Field, H.
Hendrickson, D.J. McCormick, M. Minty, N. Phinney, M.C. Ross, J.L. Turner, T.
Usher, M.D. Woodley, F. Zimmermann (SLAC)
TH2004 Towards the Zero Beam Diagnostics 748
A. Rovelli (INFN)
TH2005 Nonlinear Space Charge Effects and Emittance Growth in Linac 753
Y. Chen, Z. Huang (CIAE)
TH2006 A High Charge, High Duty Factor RF Photoinjector for the Next Generation 758
Linear Collider
E. Colby (SLAC)
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LINAC98 Papers - Thursday
ORAL POSTERS
Session TH3: Thursday, August 27, 1998
Page #
TH3001 Status of the ISAC Accelerator for Radioactive Beams 786
(TH4010) R. Laxdal, R. Baartman, P. Bricault, G. Dutto, R. Poirier, P. Schmor (TRIUMF)
TH3003 The SCHERM Space Charge Routine --- Limitations and Solutions 845
(TH4034) P. Lapostolle, J.M. Lagniel, S. Nath, N. Pichoff (CEA/DSM/DAPNIA/SEA); E.
Tanke (CERN); S. Valero (CEA/DSM/DAPNIA/SEA)
TH3004 Operation of the APS RF Gun 863
(TH4042) J.W. Lewellen, S. Biedron, A. Lumpkin, S.V. Milton, A. Nassiri, S. Pasky, G.
Travish, M. White (ANL)
TH3005 TPS Analysis of Heavy-element Ions from Laser-produced Plasma 881
(TH4051) L. Laska, B. Kralikova, J. Krasa, K. Masek, M. Pfeifer, J. Skala, K. Rohlena (IP
ASCR); E. Woryna, P. Parys, J. Wolowski (IPPLM); W. Mroz (IO Mut)
TH3006 Non-Interceptive Emittance Measurement of a High Intensity Beam at Low 902
(TH4059) Energy
R. Ferdinand, P.-Y. Beauvais, D. Bogard, R. Gobin, B. Pottin (CEA/Saclay)
TH3007 Performance of an S-Band Klystron at an Output Power of 200MW 917
(TH4066) S. Choroba, J. Hameister, S. Jarylkapov (DESY)
TH3008 Development of the X-Band Klystron Modulator at KEK 926
(TH4069) M. Akemoto, S. Anami, H. Mizuno, S. Tokumoto (KEK); T. Majima, Y. Kobayashi
(IHI)
TH3009 Progress of APT Superconducting Linac Engineering Development 986
(TH4097) K.C.D. Chan, B.M. Campbell, R.C. Gentzlinger (LANL); P. Balleyguier (CEA
Saclay); J.A. Waynert, F. Krawczyk, W.B. Haynes, J.P. Kelley, B. Rusnak (LANL);
H. Safa (CEA Saclay)
TH3010 Development of a Fast Traveling-Wave Beam Chopper for the SNS Project 1004
(TH4104) S.S. Kurennoy, J.F. Power (LANL)
TH3011 Characterization of a Variable Energy Deuteron RFQ System for Neutron 1010
(TH4106) Production
R.W. Hamm (AccSys Technology Inc.); B.R. Kala, U.A.S. Tapper, J. Guzek
(Schonland Research Centre); C.B. Franklyn (Atomic Energy Corp. of South
Africa)
TH3012 Status of the INFN High Current SC Proton Linac for Nuclear Waste 1013
(TH4108) Transmutation
C. Pagani, G. Bellomo (INFN-Milano-LASA); R. Parodi (INFN-Genova); P.
Pierini (INFN-Milano-LASA)
POSTERS
Session TH4: Thursday, August 27, 1998
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LINAC98 Papers - Thursday
Page #
TH4001 Design and Construction of the BPL-RFQ 765
D.-M. Kong, Z.-H. Luo, J.-M. Qiao, S.-H. Wang, W.-W. Xu (IHEP-Beijing)
TH4002 Testing of New 2 MeV RFQ and Perspective of 433 MHz Linac for Applied Purposes 768
Y.A. Svistunov, Y.V. Afanasiev, Y.N. Gavrish, A.K. Liverovsky, V.G. Mudrolubov, A.P.
Strokach, M.F. Vorogushin (EIEA)
TH4004 High Power Conditioning of the 202 MHz IH Tank 2 at the CERN Linac3 771
J. Broere, H. Kugler, M. Vretenar (CERN); U. Ratzinger (GSI Darmstadt); B.
Krietenstein (TU-Darmstadt)
TH4005 Design of the KOMAC H+/H- RFQ Linac 774
J.M. Han, Y.S. Cho, B.J. Yoon, B.H. Choi (KAERI); Y.S. Bae, I.S. Ko (Pohang Univ); B.S.
Han (SHIC)
TH4006 Design and Status of the RFQ for REX-ISOLDE 777
T. Sieber, D. Habs, O. Kester, A. Kolbe (LMU Muenchen); A. Schempp (IAP-Univ. of
Frankfurt)
TH4008 Recent Developments of the Folded-Coaxial RFQ for the RIKEN Heavy Ion Linac 780
O. Kamigaito, A. Goto, Y. Miyazawa, T. Chiba, M. Hemmi, M. Kase, S. Kohara, E.
Ikezawa, T. Nakagawa, M. Kidera, Y. Yano (RIKEN)
TH4009 First Beam Test with the ISAC RFQ 783
R. Laxdal, R. Baartman, P. Bricault, G. Dutto, K. Fong, K. Jayamanna, M. MacDonald,
G. Mackenzie, R. Poirier, W. Rawnsley, L. Root, P. Schmor, B. Uzat, J. Welz (TRIUMF)
TH4010 Status of the ISAC Accelerator for Radioactive Beams 786
R. Laxdal, R. Baartman, P. Bricault, G. Dutto, R. Poirier, P. Schmor (TRIUMF)
TH4011 Operation of the VE-RFQ Injector for the ISL Cyclotron 789
O. Engels, F. Hoellering, A. Schempp (IAP-Univ. of Frankfurt); A. Denker, H. Homeyer,
W. Pelzer (Hahn-Meitner-Institut); J. Haeuser (NTG Neue Technologien)
TH4012 Design of a High Current RFQ Injector with High Duty Factor 791
H. Vormann, A. Schempp, U. Bessler (IAP-Univ. of Frankfurt); A. Letchford, C.W.
Planner (RAL)
TH4014 Proposal to Use PIVAIR as a 30 GHz High-Power Generator 794
J. Gardelle, T. Lefevre, J.L. Rullier (CEA/Cesta); J.T. Donohue (CENBG)
TH4015 First Order Design Study of an Accelerator Beamline for the PEARL FEL 797
M.C. Lampel (G.H. Gillespie Associates Inc.); J.M.J. Madey (U. of Hawaii); R.J. Burke
(Arcata Systems)
TH4016 First Lasing of the JAERI FEL Driven by the Superconducting RF Linac 800
E.J. Minehara, M. Sugimoto, M. Sawamura, R. Nagai, N. Kikuzawa, T. Yamanouchi, N.
Nishimori (JAERI)
TH4017 Recent Performance of the JAERI Superconducting Linac for FEL 803
M. Sawamura, R. Nagai, N. Kikuzawa, N. Nishimori, E.J. Minehara (JAERI)
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LINAC98 Papers - Thursday
TH4018 Electron Beam Charge State Amplifier (EBQA) -- A Conceptual 806
Evaluation (corrected)
J.C. Dooling, J.A. Nolen (ANL)
TH4020 Long Range Plan Proposal for an Extension to ISAC 809
R. Baartman, R. Laxdal, L. Root (TRIUMF)
TH4021 Status of the REX-ISOLDE Linac 812
O. Kester, D. Habs, R. Rao, K. Rudolph, T. Sieber, H. Bongers, A. Kolbe, P. Thirolf (LMU
Muenchen); R. Von Hahn, H. Podlech, R. Repnow, D. Schwalm (MPI fuer Kernphysik);
A. Schempp, K.U. Kuehnel, C. Welsch (IAP-Univ. of Frankfurt); U. Ratzinger (GSI
Darmstadt) and The Rex-ISOLDE Collaboration
TH4022 RTA Gun Performance 815
G.A. Westenskow, T.L. Houck (LLNL); D.E. Anderson, S. Eylon, E. Henestroza, S.M.
Lidia, D.L. Vanecek, S.S. Yu (LBNL)
TH4023 Achromat with Linear Space Charge for Bunched Beams 818
D. Raparia, J.G. Alessi, Y.Y. Lee, W.T. Weng (BNL)
TH4024 A Possible Particle-Core Approach to Mismatched Beams in a Periodic Focusing 821
Channel
M. Ikegami, M. Mizumoto (JAERI)
TH4025 Halo Formation by Mismatch for High Intensity Bunched Beams 824
K. Bongardt, M. Pabst (FZJ); A. Letchford (RAL)
TH4026 Self-Consistent 3D Simulations of Longitudinal Halo in RF-Linacs 827
J.J. Barnard, S.M. Lund (LLNL); R.D. Ryne (LANL)
TH4027 Analytic Model of Ion Emission from the Focus of an Intense Relativistic Electron 830
Beam on a Target
G.J. Caporaso, Y.-J. Chen (LLNL)
TH4028 Trapping Backstreaming Ions from an X-ray Converter Using an Inductive Cell 833
J. McCarrick, Y.-J. Chen, T.L. Houck, B.R. Poole (LLNL)
TH4029 Analysis of the Frequency Dependence of the Longitudinal Coupling Impedance of a 836
Small Hole in a Coaxial Liner
A.V. Fedotov, R.L. Gluckstern (Univ. of Maryland)
TH4031 Beam Dynamics Simulations of the LANSCE Linac 839
F. Merrill, L. Rybarcyk (LANL)
TH4033 The Nonlinear Transverse RF Field Effects on the Beam Dynamics 842
X. Sun, Y. Lin (Tsinghua Univ.)
TH4034 The SCHERM Space Charge Routine --- Limitations and Solutions 845
P. Lapostolle, J.M. Lagniel, S. Nath, N. Pichoff (CEA/DSM/DAPNIA/SEA); E. Tanke
(CERN); S. Valero (CEA/DSM/DAPNIA/SEA)
TH4035 A Multi-Platform Graphic User Interface for the Particle Optics Code MARYLIE 848
G.H. Gillespie, B.W. Hill, M.C. Lampel, H. Martono, J.M. Moore, K.J. Ryan (G.H.
Gillespie Associates Inc.); A.J. Dragt (Univ. of Maryland)
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LINAC98 Papers - Thursday
TH4036 X-Band Klystron Output Cavity Simulation 851
H. Tsutsui, S. Matsumoto, S. Michizono, Y.H. Chin, S. Fukuda (KEK)
TH4038 Designing Double-Gap Linear Accelerators for a Wide Mass Range 854
W.P. Lysenko, E.A. Wadlinger, B. Rusnak, F. Krawczyk (LANL); K. Saadatmand, Z. Wan
(Eaton Corp.)
TH4040 Physics Design of the DARHT 2nd Axis Accelerator Cell 857
T.L. Houck, Y.-J. Chen, C. Shang (LLNL); L.L. Reginato, S.S. Yu (LBNL)
TH4041 The Perfect Boundary Approximation Technique Facing the Big Challenge of High 860
Precision Field Computation
B. Krietenstein, R. Schuhmann (TU-Darmstadt); P. Thoma (CST GmbH); T. Weiland
(TU-Darmstadt)
TH4042 Operation of the APS RF Gun 863
J.W. Lewellen, S. Biedron, A. Lumpkin, S.V. Milton, A. Nassiri, S. Pasky, G. Travish, M.
White (ANL)
TH4043 Challenges of Operating a Photocathode RF Gun Injector 866
X.J. Wang, M. Babzien, I. Ben-Zvi, R. Malone, J. Sheehan, J. Skaritka, T. Srinivasan-Rao,
M. Woodle, V. Yakimenko, L.H. Yu (BNL)
TH4045 Suppression of the 1 MHz Beam Current Modulation in the LEDA Proton Source 869
P. Balleyguier (CEA); J. Sherman, T. Zaugg (LANL)
TH4046 Photo-Cathodes for the CERN CLIC Test Facility 872
E. Chevallay, J. Durand, S. Hutchins, G. Suberlucq, H. Trautner (CERN)
TH4048 Operation of the Upgraded H--Injection System of the Linac III at DESY 875
C.-M. Kleffner, N. Holtkamp, M. Nagl, H. Poggensee, J. Peters (DESY); A. Schempp
(IAP-Univ. Frankfurt)
TH4049 Beam Transport, Acceleration and Compression Studies in the Fermilab 878
High-Brightness Photoinjector
J.-P. Carneiro, R.A. Carrigan, M.S. Champion, A. Cianchi, E.R. Colby, P.L. Colestock,
H.T. Edwards, J.D. Fuerst, W.H. Hartung, K.P. Koepke, M. Kuchnir, L.K. Spentzouris
(FNAL); M.J. Fitch, A.R. Fry, A.C. Melissinos, B.D. Taylor (Univ. of Rochester); P.
Michelato, D. Sertore, C. Pagani (INFN-Milano-LASA); J.B. Rosenzweig (UCLA)
TH4051 TPS Analysis of Heavy-Element Ions from Laser-Produced Plasma 881
L. Laska, B. Kralikova, J. Krasa, K. Masek, M. Pfeifer, J. Skala, K. Rohlena (IP ASCR);
E. Woryna, P. Parys, J. Wolowski (IPPLM); W. Mroz (IO Mut)
TH4052 Ion Sources for the New High Current Injector at GSI 884
P. Spaedtke, H. Emig, K.D. Leible, C. Muehle, H. Reich, B.H. Wolf (GSI Darmstadt)
TH4053 Enhanced H- Ion Source Testing Capabilities at LANSCE 887
W.B. Ingalls, M.W. Hardy, B.A. Prichard, O.R. Sander, J.E. Stelzer, R.R. Stevens (LANL);
K.N. Leung, M.D. Williams (LBNL)
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LINAC98 Papers - Thursday
TH4054 Development and Test Results of the Low-Energy Demonstration Accelerator 890
(LEDA) Proton Injector on a 1.25 MeV cw Radio Frequency Quadrupole
J.D. Sherman, G. Bolme, L. Hansborough, T. Hardek, D. Hodgkins, D. Kerstiens, E.
Meyer, J.D. Schneider, H.V. Smith Jr., M. Stettler, R. Stevens Jr., M. Thuot, T. Zaugg
(LANL); A. Arvin, A.S. Bolt, M. Richards (SRS); P. Balleyguier (CEA/Bruyeres Le
Chatel); J. Kamperschroer (General Atomics)
TH4055 Operation of a Microwave Proton Source in Pulsed Mode 893
T. Zaugg, C. Rose, J.D. Schneider, J. Sherman, R. Stevens Jr. (LANL)
TH4057 The Frankfurt H- Source for the European Spallation Source 896
K. Volk, A. Maaser, H. Klein (IAP-Univ. of Frankfurt)
TH4058 Implementation of Improved Interactive Image Analysis at the Advanced Photon 899
Source (APS) Linac
N. Arnold, W. Berg, S. Biedron, A. Lumpkin, S. Milton, M. White, B. Yang (ANL)
TH4059 Non-interceptive Emittance Measurement of a High Intensity Beam at Low Energy 902
R. Ferdinand, P.-Y. Beauvais, D. Bogard, R. Gobin, B. Pottin (CEA/Saclay)
TH4061 Bunch Length and Velocity Measurement of the JHP-RFQ Beam with INR BLVD 905
P.N. Ostroumov, A.V. Feschenko, V.A. Gaidach, S.A. Krioukov, A.A. Menshov (INR RAS);
A. Ueno (KEK)
TH4063 Roll Bar X-ray Spot Size Measurement Technique 908
R.A. Richardson, T.L. Houck (LLNL)
TH4064 Development of Nanometer Resolution C-Band Radio Frequency Beam Position 911
Monitors in the Final Focus Test Beam
T. Slaton, G. Mazaheri (SLAC); T. Shintake (KEK)
TH4065 A High Peak Power S-Band Switching System for the Advanced Photon Source 914
(APS) Linear Accelerator (Linac)
A.E. Grelick, N. Arnold, S. Berg, R. Fuja, Y.W. Kang, R.L. Kustom, A. Nassiri, J. Noonan,
M. White (ANL)
TH4066 Performance of an S-Band Klystron at an Output Power of 200MW 917
S. Choroba, J. Hameister, S. Jarylkapov (DESY)
TH4067 Overview of the APT RF Power Distribution System 920
M. McCarthy, T. Overett, G. Spalek, J. Tooker (General Atomics); M. Lynch, D. Rees
(LANL)
TH4068 A Conceptual Design of RF System in the NSP Superconducting Linac at JAERI 923
E. Chishiro (JAERI); Y. Honda (MHI); N. Ouchi (JAERI); Y. Touchi (SHI); K. Hasegawa,
J. Kusano, M. Mizumoto (JAERI)
TH4069 Development of the X-Band Klystron Modulator at KEK 926
M. Akemoto, S. Anami, H. Mizuno, S. Tokumoto (KEK); T. Majima, Y. Kobayashi (IHI)
TH4070 A New RF System for the Debuncher at the KEK 40-MeV Proton Linac 929
Z. Igarashi, E. Takasaki, T. Takenaka, K. Nanmo (KEK)
TH4071 The C-Band 50 MW Klystron Using Traveling-Wave Output Structure 932
Y. Ohkubo, H. Yonezawa (Toshiba Co.); T. Shintake, H. Matsumoto, N. Akasaka (KEK)
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LINAC98 Papers - Thursday
TH4072 Efficiency and Gain Enhancement of RF-Pulse Compressor for C-Band RF-System 935
M. Yoshida (Univ. of Tokyo); T. Shintake (KEK)
TH4073 Results and Lessons Learned from Conditioning 1 MW CW 350 MHz Coaxial 938
Vacuum Windows
K. Cummings, R. Cordova, D. Rees, W. Roybal (LANL); S. Risbud (UC-Davis); D. Wilcox
(EEV)
TH4074 Solid State Power Amplifier as 805 MHz Master Source for the LANSCE 941
Coupled-Cavity Linac
J.T.M. Lyles, J.L. Davis (LANL)
TH4075 LEDA LLRF Control System Characterization 944
A.H. Regan (LANL); P. Balleyguier (CEA); C.D. Ziomek (ZTEC)
TH4076 LEDA RF Distribution System Design and Component Test Results 947
W.T. Roybal, D.E. Rees, H.L. Borchert (LANL); M. McCarthy (General Atomics); L.
Toole (SRS)
TH4077 A Thermal Analysis and Optimization of the APT 210 kW Power Coupler 950
J.A. Waynert, F.C. Prenger (LANL)
TH4081 Deep X-Ray Lithography Fabrication of mmWave Cavities at the Advanced Photon 953
Source
J.J. Song, Y.W. Kang, R.L. Kustom, A. Nassiri (ANL); G. Caryotakis, E.N. Jongewaard
(SLAC); V. White (U. of Wisconsin at Madison)
TH4082 Development of Niobium Spoke Cavities for a Superconducting Light-Ion Linac 956
K.W. Shepard, M. Kedzie (ANL); J.R. Delayen, C. Piller (TJNAF); A.M. Porcellato
(INFN)
TH4083 A Tapered Damped Accelerating Structure for CLIC 959
M. Dehler, I. Wilson, W. Wuensch (CERN)
TH4084 Pi/2 Interleaved Cavity Developments for the Muon Collider Cooling Experiment 962
A. Moretti (FNAL); J.N. Corlett, D. Li, W. C. Turner (LBNL); H.G. Kirk, R. B. Palmer, Y.
Zhao (BNL)
TH4085 Scale Room Temperature Model of the Superconducting RFQ1 for the PIAVE Linac 965
V. Andreev, G. Bisoffi, M. Comunian, A. Lombardi, A. Pisent, A.M. Porcellato
(INFN-LNL); T. Shirai (ICR-Kyoto Univ.)
TH4086 Equivalent Lumped Circuit Study for the Field Stabilization of a Long Four-Vanes 968
RFQ
A. Pisent (INFN-LNL); R. Celentano (Univ. of Naples); R. Zennaro (Univ. of Ferrara)
TH4088 The Possibility of Multipactor Discharge in Coupling Cells of Coupled Cells 971
Accelerating Structures
V.V. Paramonov, S.G. Tarasov (INR RAS)
TH4089 Progress on a 27 MHz Heavy Ion RFQ 974
A.A. Kolomiets, V.A. Andreev, D.A. Kashinsky, S.A. Minaev, V.I. Pershin, R.M. Vengrov,
V.L. Zviagintsev, S.G. Yaramishev (ITEP); G. Parisi (IAP-Univ. of Frankfurt)
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LINAC98 Papers - Thursday
TH4093 Calculations of External Coupling to a Single Cell RF Cavity 977
D. Li, R. Rimmer, S. Kosta (LBNL)
TH4094 Mechanical Design, Construction and Alignment of the ISAC RFQ Accelerator at 980
TRIUMF
G. Stanford, P. Bricault, G. Dutto, R. Laxdal, D. Pearce, R.L. Poirier, R. Roper
(TRIUMF); R. Obidowski, W. Teskey (Univ. of Calgary)
TH4096 Engineering Design of the APT Cryomodules 983
B.M. Campbell, M.J. Fagan, J.P. Kelley, A.D. Puckett, R. Valicenti, J.A. Waynert (LANL)
TH4097 Progress of APT Superconducting Linac Engineering Development 986
K.C.D. Chan, B.M. Campbell, R.C. Gentzlinger (LANL); P. Balleyguier (CEA Saclay);
J.A. Waynert, F. Krawczyk, W.B. Haynes, J.P. Kelley, B. Rusnak (LANL); H. Safa (CEA
Saclay)
TH4098 Analysis of Performance Limitations for Superconducting Cavities 989
J.R. Delayen, L.R. Doolittle, C.E. Reece (TJNAF)
TH4099 Resonance Control Cooling System for the APT/LEDA RFQ 992
R. Floersch, G. Domer (AlliedSignal)
TH4101 First Tests of a Traveling-Wave Chopper for the ATLAS Positive Ion Linac 995
R.C. Pardo, J.M. Bogaty, B.E. Clifft (ANL)
TH4102 Simulation and Measurement of the Electrostatic Beam Kicker in the Low-Energy 998
Undulator Test Line
G.J. Waldschmidt, Y.W. Kang (ANL)
TH4103 Improved Temperature Regulation of APS Linac RF Components 1001
R. Dortwegt, S. Pasky, M. White (ANL)
TH4104 Development of a Fast Traveling-Wave Beam Chopper for the SNS Project 1004
S.S. Kurennoy, J.F. Power (LANL)
TH4105 Experimental Results of the Active Deflection of a Beam from a Kicker System 1007
Y.J. Chen, G. Caporaso, J. Weir (LLNL)
TH4106 Characterization of a Variable Energy Deuteron RFQ System for Neutron 1010
Production
R.W. Hamm (AccSys Technology Inc.); C.B. Franklyn (Atomic Energy Corp. of South
Africa); J. Guzek, B.R. Kala, U.A.S. Tapper, J.I.W. Watterson (Schonland Research
Centre);
TH4108 Status of the INFN High Current SC Proton Linac for Nuclear Waste 1013
Transmutation
C. Pagani, D. Barni, G. Bellomo (INFN-Milano-LASA); R. Parodi (INFN-Genova); P.
Pierini (INFN-Milano-LASA)
TH4109 Characterization of High Power CW Klystrons and Its Application to Low Level RF 1016
Control
A.S. Rohlev, D.E. Reese (LANL)
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LINAC98 Papers - Friday
LINAC98 Papers - Friday
LINAC98 Home Monday papers Tuesday papers Wednesday papers Thursday papers Author Index
INVITED TALKS
Session FR1: Friday, August 28, 1998
Page #
FR1001 RF System Developments for CW and/or Long Pulse Linacs 1021
M. Lynch (LANL)
FR1002 Linac R&D in Korea 1026
W. Namkung (PAL-POSTECH)
FR1003 Review of Negative Hydrogen Ion Sources High Brightness/High Current 1031
J. Peters (DESY)
FR1004 Emerging Industrial Applications of Linacs 1036
A.M.M. Todd (Northrop Grumman Advanced Energy Systems)
INVITED TALKS
Session FR2: Friday, August 28, 1998
Page #
FR2001 The Challenge of Inertial Fusion Driven by Heavy Ion Accelerators 1043
I. Hofmann (GSI Darmstadt)
FR2002 Toward a Fourth-Generation X-ray Source 1048
D.E. Moncton (ANL)
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LINAC98 Author Index for Papers
LINAC98 Author Index for
Papers
LINAC98 Home
A
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
Abe, H. , MO4007
Achard, C. , MO4018
Adolphsen, C. , MO1003
Afanasiev, Y.V. , TH4002
Ahle, L. , MO2003 , MO4027
Aizawa, D. , MO4072
Akaoka, N. , TU1004
Akasaka, N. , MO3003 , MO4020 , MO4085 , TU4080 , TH4071
Akemoto, M. , MO4072 , TH3008 , TH4069
Alessi, J.G. , TH4023
Allen, L.J. , TU4019
Amaldi, U. , TU4098
Anami, S. , MO4013 , MO4073 , TH3008 , TH4069
Anderson, D.E. , TH4022
Andreev, V. , TH4085
Andreev, V.A. , TH4089
Anthouard, Ph. , TU4002
Ao, H. , MO4083
Arnold, N. , TH4058 , TH4065
Arvin, A. , TH4054
Arvin, A.H. , TU3008 , TU4051 , TU4082
Asaka, T. , MO4007 , TU4076
Assmann, R.W. , TH2003
Autrey, D. , MO4027
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LINAC98 Author Index for Papers
Ayers, J. , TU4084
B
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Back to top
Baartman, R. , TH3001 , TH4009 , TH4010 , TH4020
Baba, H. , MO3003 , MO4020
Babzien, M. , TH4043
Baca, D. , WE1003
Bae, Y.S. , TH4005
Bailey, V.L. , TU4075
Balleyguier, P. , MO4036 , MO4037 , TH3009 , TH4045 , TH4054 , TH4075 , TH4097
Balleyguier, P.P. , TU4082
Bandyopadhyay, A. , TU4085
Bane, K. , TU4038
Bardy, J. , TU4002
Barklow, T. , TH2003
Barnard, J. , MO4027
Barnard, J.J. , MO4034 , TH4026
Barni, D. , TH3012 , TH4108
Barth, W. , TU4027
Baxter, A. , TU4090
Beauvais, P.-Y. , TH3006 , TH4059
Begloyan, E. , MO4005
Behne, D. , TU4095
Bellomo, G. , MO4046 , TH3012 , TH4108
Belugin, V.M. , MO4099
Ben-Zvi, I. , TH4043
Berg, S. , TH4065
Berg, W. , TH4058
Berg, W.J. , TU4059
Berners, D. , MO4027
Bessler, U. , TH4012
Bhatia, T. , TU4045
Biedron, S. , TH3004 , TH4042 , TH4058
Billen, J.H. , MO3006 , MO4047 , MO4087 , MO4091 , TU4015 , TU4045
Bisoffi, G. , TH4085
Bluem, H. , MO4091
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LINAC98 Author Index for Papers
Bluem, H.P. , TU4005
Bobylev, V.T. , MO4052
Bogard, D. , TH3006 , TH4059
Bogart, J.R. , TH2003
Bogaty, J.M. , TH4101
Bogolyubov, E.P. , MO4052
Boivinet, R. , TU4002
Bollinger, L.M. , MO1001
Bolme, G. , TH4054
Bolme, G.O. , MO3007 , MO4055 , TU4082
Bolt, A.S. , TU3008 , TU4051 , TU4082 , TH4054
Bondarev, B. , TU4046
Bondarev, B.I. , MO4099
Bongardt, K. , TU1002 , TH4025
Bongers, H. , MO4028 , TH4021
Bonnafond, C. , TU4002
Borchert, H.L. , TH4076
Boscolo, I. , MO4057 , TU4057
Bossart, R. , MO3002 , MO4017 , MO4107
Bourdon, J.C. , TU4102
Bowles, E. , MO4069
Boyes, J.D. , TU4075
Bradley III, J. , TU4072
Bradley III, J.T. , TU3009 , TU4071
Brandon, S. , TU4035
Braun, H.H. , MO3002 , MO4017
Bricault, P. , MO2004 , TU4087 , TH3001 , TH4009 , TH4010 , TH4094
Broere, J. , TH4004
Brunken, M. , TU4007
Buckner, M.R. , TU4099
Burke, R.J. , TH4015
Bylinsky, Y.V. , TU4020
C
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Back to top
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LINAC98 Author Index for Papers
Callahan, D.A. , TU2004
Callin, R.S. , MO4079
Campbell, B.M. , TH3009 , TH4096 , TH4097
Campbell, R. , MO4077
Campisi, I.E. , TU4030
Cao, G.G. , TU4001
Caporaso, G. , MO4062 , MO4103 , TH4105
Caporaso, G.J. , TU3006 , TU4029 , TU4034 , TH4027
Cappiello, M. , TU4099
Carneiro, J.P. , TH4049
Carrigan, R.A. , TH4049
Carron, G. , MO3002 , MO4017
Caryotakis, G. , WE1005 , TH4081
Casillas, D. , TU4083 , WE1003
Castellano, M. , MO4057
Castle, M. , TU4100
Catani, L. , MO4057
Celentano, R. , TH4086
Champion, M.S. , TH4049
Chan, K.C.D. , TH3009 , TH4097
Chanudet, M. , MO3002 , MO4017
Chapelle, S. , TU4089
Chautard, F. , MO3002 , MO4017
Chen, C. , TH1004
Chen, Y. , MO4044 , TH2005
Chen, Y.-J. , MO4033 , MO4103 , TU3006 , TU4033 , TU4034 , TH4028 , TH4040
Chen, Y.J. , MO4060 , TU4029 , TH4027 , TH4105
Cheng, D. , MO4056
Cheng, N. , MO4110
Chengjun, L. , MO4110
Chevallay, E. , TH4046
Chiba, T. , TU4085 , TH4008
Chin, Y.H. , TU2003 , TU3007 , TU4042 , TU4043 , TH4036
Chishiro, E. , TU1004 , TH4068
Cho, M.H. , TU4024
Cho, Y.S. , TH4005
Choi, B.H. , TH4005
Choroba, S. , MO4068 , TH3007 , TH4066
Christina, V. , MO3009 , MO4078
Cianchi, A. , TH4049
Clark, B. , TU4083
Clark, W. , WE1003
Clarke, J.A. , TU4097
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LINAC98 Author Index for Papers
Clifft, B.E. , TH4101
Colby, E. , TH2006
Colby, E.R. , TH4049
Cole, M. , MO3009 , MO4078
Cole, M.D. , MO4091
Colestock, P.L. , TH4049
Comunian, M. , MO4010 , TH4085
Conde, M. , TU4055
Conde, M.E. , MO4024
Coosemans, W. , MO4018
Cordova, R. , TH4073
Corlett, J. , MO4089
Corlett, J.N. , TH4084
Craig, G. , MO4027
Crandall, K. , TU4098
Crandall, K.R. , TU4012 , TU4103 , TU4107
Crist, C. , MO4103
Crist, C.E. , MO4062
Crofford, M. , TU4067
Crowell, R.A. , MO4025 , TH2002
Cummings, K. , TU4072 , TH4073
Cummings, K.A. , MO3012 , MO4097
D
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Back to top
Dai, G. , MO4110
Dai, G.S. , TU4001
Daily, L.D. , MO3012 , MO4097
Dalesio, L.R. , MO4067
Davis, J.L. , TH4074
Davis, T. , WE1003
Debeling, A. , MO4027
Decker, F.J. , TU4038 , TH2003
Decyk, V. , WE2002
Dehler, M. , TH4083
Deitinghoff, H. , MO4015
Delahaye, J.-P. , MO1004
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LINAC98 Author Index for Papers
Delahaye, J.P. , MO3002 , MO4017
Delayen, J.R. , TU4006 , TH4082 , TH4098
Deng, J. , MO4110
Deng, J.J. , TU4001
Denker, A. , TH4011
Devin, A. , TU4002
DeVolder, B.G. , TU4108
Dikansky, N. , MO4005
Ding, B. , MO4110
Ding, B.N. , TU4001
Döbert, S. , TU4007
Dohlus, M. , MO4081 , MO4082 , TU4041
Doll, D. , TU4090
Doll, D.W. , TU3012 , TU4092
Dolya, S. , MO4005
Domer, G. , TH4099
Dong, S. , TU4023
Donohue, J.T. , MO4021 , TH4014
Dooling, J.C. , TH4018
Doolittle, L.R. , MO4080 , TU4066 , TH4098
Doria, A. , MO4057
Dortwegt, R. , TH4103
Dragt, A.J. , TH4035
Dunlap, J.E. , MO4076
Duperrier, R. , MO4029
Durand, J. , TH4046
Durkin, A. , TU4046
Durkin, A.P. , MO4099
Dutto, G. , TU4087 , TH3001 , TH4009 , TH4010 , TH4094
Dykes, D.M. , TU4097
E
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Back to top
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LINAC98 Author Index for Papers
Edwards, H.T. , TH4049
Eichhorn, R. , TU4007
Elliot, T. , MO3009 , MO4078
Emig, H. , TH4052
Emma, P. , TU2002
Engels, O. , TH4011
Enomoto, A. , MO4006 , MO4101 , TU4070
Esin, S.K. , TU4020
Eyl, P. , TU4002
Eylon, S. , MO4027 , TH4022
F
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Back to top
Facco, A. , MO4010
Fagan, M.J. , TH4096
Faltens, A. , MO4106
Fang, S. , MO4066
Fawley, W.M. , MO4033 , TU4033
Fedotov, A.P. , MO4099
Fedotov, A.V. , TU4032 , TH4029
Ferdinand, R. , MO4029 , TU4046 , TH3006 , TH4059
Ferrario, M. , MO4057
Feschenko, A.V. , TH4061
Fessenden, T.J. , MO4060
Field, C. , TH2003
Fikani, M. , TU4090
Fineberg, Y. , TU4096
Firjahn-Andersch, A. , TU3003 , TU4016
Fitch, M.J. , TH4049
Floersch, R. , TH4099
Fong, C. , MO4090
Fong, K. , MO4066 , TU4087 , TH4009
Fong, M. , MO4056 , MO4090
Fortgang, C. , MO4054
Fowkes, W.R. , MO4079 , TU4074
Franklyn, C.B. , TH3011 , TH4106
Friedman, A. , MO4027 , TU2004
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LINAC98 Author Index for Papers
Friedrichs, C. , MO4074
Friesel, D.L. , MO4009
Fritz, W. , MO4027
Fry, A. , TU4101
Fry, A.R. , TH4049
Fu, S. , MO4012 , TU3011 , TU4079
Fuerst, J.D. , TH4049
Fuja, R. , TH4065
Fujimoto, T. , MO4014
Fukuda, S. , TU3007 , TU4042 , TU4043 , TH4036
Funk, L.W. , TU4012
Funk, W. , TU4090
Furman, W. , MO4005
G
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Back to top
Gai, W. , MO4024 , TU4055
Gaidach, V.A. , TH4061
Gaillard, M. , TU4102
Gallerano, G.P. , MO4057
Gamp, A. , MO4065
Garcia, M. , MO4102 , MO4103
Gardelle, J. , MO4021 , TH4014
Garnett, R.W. , TU4021
Garoby, R. , MO4026
Garvey, T. , TU4102
Gaudreau, M. , MO4077
Gavrish, Y.N. , TH4002
Gazazian, E. , MO4005
Gentzlinger, R.C. , TH3009 , TH4097
Genz, H. , TU4007
Giannessi, L. , MO4057
Gillespie, G.H. , MO3005 , MO4045 , TH4035
Gilpatrick, J.D. , MO4059 , TU4012 , TU4044 , TU4060
Giovenale, E. , MO4057
Glatz, J. , TU4027
Gluckstern, R.L. , TU4032 , TH4029
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LINAC98 Author Index for Papers
Gobin, R. , TH3006 , TH4059
Godot, J.C. , MO3002 , MO4017
Goldenberg, K. , MO4005
Golub, G. , WE2002
Gonzales, A. , WE1003
Gonzales, G. , TU4083 , WE1003
Gooch, C.M. , MO3012 , MO4097
Gorelov, D.V. , TU4106
Goto, A. , TU4085 , TH4008
Gough, R. , MO4090 , TU4054 , TU4084
Gräf, H.-D. , TU4007
Granatstein, V.L. , TU4100
Gray, E.R. , TU4012 , TU4107
Greer, J. , MO4056 , TU4084
Grelick, A.E. , TH4065
Gross, M. , MO4028
Grote, D.P. , MO4027 , TU2004
Guignard, G. , MO1004 , MO4043 , TU4040
Gutowski, W. , MO4070
Guy, F.W. , TU4103
Guzek, J. , TH3011 , TH4106
H
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Back to top
Haagenstad, H. , WE1003
Haber, I. , TU2004
Habib, S. , WE2002
Habs, D. , MO4028 , TH4006 , TH4021
Haffner, R.L. , TU4094
Hagel, J. , MO4043 , TU4040
Hahn, E. , TU4101
Halaxa, E. , MO4027
Hameister, J. , MO4068 , TH3007 , TH4066
Hamm, R.W. , TH3011 , TH4106
Hampel, T. , TU4007
Han, B.S. , TH4005
Han, J.M. , TH4005
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LINAC98 Author Index for Papers
Hanks, R.L. , MO4027
Hansborough, L. , TH4054
Hansborough, L.D. , TU4082
Hardek, T. , TH4054
Hardek, T.W. , TU4082
Hardy, M.W. , TH4053
Hartung, W. , TU4101
Hartung, W.H. , TH4049
Hartwig, H. , MO4082
Hasegawa, K. , TU1004 , TH4068
Haseroth, H. , MO4026
Häuser, J. , TH4011
Hawkins, A. , MO4077
Hayano, H. , MO4019 , MO4072 , TU4063
Haynes, W.B. , TH3009 , TH4097
He, Y. , TU4001
Hemmi, M. , TU4085 , TH4008
Hendrickson, H. , TH2003
Henestroza, E. , MO4033 , TH4022
Hernandez, M. , MO4027
Hewett, D.W. , MO4033
Hidalgo, S. , WE1003
Higo, T. , MO3010 , MO4092 , MO4093
Higuchi, M. , MO4072
Hill, B.W. , TH4035
Hill, C.E. , MO4026 , MO4051 , TU3004 , TU4017
Hirao, Y. , MO4014
Hirose, M. , TU4086
Hirose, T. , TU4063
Ho, C.H. , TU4055
Ho, S.Y. , TU4055
Hodgkins, D. , TH4054
Hodgkins, D.J. , TU4082
Hoff, M. , MO4056 , MO4090 , TU4084
Hofmann, I. , FR2001
Hogan, B. , TU4100
Höllering, F. , TH4011
Holtkamp, N. , MO4081 , MO4082 , TU4041 , TH4048
Homeyer, H. , TH4011
Honda, Y. , TU1004 , TH4068
Honma, H. , MO4073
Honma, T. , MO4014
Hori, T. , MO4007 , TU4076 , TU4086
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LINAC98 Author Index for Papers
Horrabin, C.W. , TU4097
Houck, T. , MO4062 , MO4102 , MO4103
Houck, T.L. , TU4033 , TH4022 , TH4028 , TH4040 , TH4063
Hovater, C. , TU4067
Hsiung, G.Y. , TU4055
Huang, G.R. , TU4023
Huang, Z. , MO4044 , TH2005
Hubbard, E.L. , TU4089
Hudson, C. , MO4054
Hülsmann, P. , MO4064
Hüning, M. , TU4064
Hunt, W. , MO4009
Hunter, W.T. , MO4087
Hutchins, S. , MO3002 , MO4017 , TH4046
Hutter, G. , MO4070
Hwang, J.Y. , TU4055
I
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Back to top
Igarashi, Y. , TU4070
Igarashi, Z. , MO4013 , MO4058 , TH4070
Iino, Y. , MO4086
Ikeda, M. , TU4070
Ikegami, M. , TU1004 , TH4024
Ikezawa, E. , TU4085 , TH4008
Imsieke, H. , TU4065
Ingalls, W. , TU4053 , TU4054
Ingalls, W.B. , TU4094 , TH4053
Ino, H. , TU1004
Inoue, H. , TU4086
Inoue, M. , MO4083 , MO4098 , TU4081
Irwin, J. , MO4109 , TU4038
Ivanov, Y.D. , MO4099
Iwashita, Y. , MO4038 , MO4083 , TU4081
J
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LINAC98 Author Index for Papers
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Back to top
Jacobson, E.G. , TU4094
Jakob, A. , MO3008 , MO4063 , TU4056
Jarylkapov, S. , TH3007 , TH4066
Jason, A.J. , TU3002 , TU4013
Jayamanna, K. , TH4009
Johnson, D.L. , TU4075
Jonah, C.D. , MO4025 , TH2002
Jones, R.M. , MO3010 , MO4092 , MO4093 , MO4094
Jongewaard, E. , WE1005
Jongewaard, E.N. , MO4079 , TH4081
Jöstingmeier, A. , MO4081 , MO4082 , TU4041
Judd, D.L. , MO4027
Juillard, M. , MO4107
K
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Back to top
Kabeya, Z. , MO4086
Kacperek, A. , TU4097
Kako, E. , MO3011 , MO4096 , TU4086
Kala, B.R. , TH3011 , TH4106
Kamber, I. , MO3002 , MO4017
Kamigaito, O. , TU4085 , TH4008
Kaminsky, A. , MO4005
Kamperschroer, J. , TH4054
Kamperschroer, J.H. , TU3008 , TU4051 , TU4082
Kaneko, H. , TU1004
Kang, M. , TU4108
Kang, Y. , TU4069
Kang, Y.W. , TH4065 , TH4081 , TH4102
Kapin, V. , TU4081
Kase, M. , TU4085 , TH4008
Kashinsky, D.A. , TH4089
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LINAC98 Author Index for Papers
Kashiwagi, S. , MO4019 , TU4063
Kato, T. , MO4012 , MO4013 , TU3001 , TU3011 , TU4011 , TU4078 , TU4079
Kawakita, T. , MO4083
Kawamura, M. , MO4013
Kawase, Y. , MO4098
Kaye, R.A. , TU2006
Kedzie, M. , TU2006 , TH4082
Keffeler, D.R. , TU4082
Keller, R. , MO4056 , MO4090 , TU4054 , TU4084
Kelley, J.P. , TH3009 , TH4096 , TH4097
Kennedy, K. , MO4056
Kerstiens, D. , TH4054
Kester, O. , MO4028 , TH4006 , TH4021
Kettering, E. , WE1003
Kholodnyi, A. , TU4065
Kidera, M. , TH4008
Kikuzawa, N. , TH4016 , TH4017
Kim, K.R. , TU4024
Kinsho, M. , TU1004
Kirbie, H.C. , MO4027
Kirk, H.G. , TH4084
Kishiyama, K. , TU4095
Kitagawa, A. , MO4014
Klabunde, J. , TU4027
Kleffner, C.-M. , TH4048
Klein, H. , MO3008 , MO4015 , MO4063 , MO4064 , TU4056 , TH4057
Kneisel, P. , MO3011 , MO4096
Ko, I.S. , TU4024 , TH4005
Ko, K. , MO3010 , MO4092 , WE2002
Kobayashi, H. , MO4101
Kobayashi, T. , MO4007 , TU4076
Kobayashi, Y. , TH3008 , TH4069
Koepke, K.P. , TH4049
Kohara, S. , TU4085 , TH4008
Kolbe, A. , MO4028 , TH4006 , TH4021
Kolomiets, A.A. , TH4089
Konecny, R. , MO4024 , TU4055
Kong, D.-M. , TH4001
Korhonen, T. , MO4019
Kosta, S. , TH4093
Köster, U. , MO4028
Kostial, S. , TU4007
Krafft, G.A. , WE1004
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LINAC98 Author Index for Papers
Králiková, B. , TH3005 , TH4051
Krása, J. , TH3005 , TH4051
Krasnykh, A. , MO4005
Kravchuk, L.V. , TU3010 , TU4020 , TU4077 , TU4078
Krawczyk, F. , WE1003 , TH3009 , TH4038 , TH4097
Krawczyk, F.L. , TU4107
Krietenstein, B. , TH4004 , TH4041
Krioukov, S.A. , TH4061
Krogh, M. , MO4062 , MO4103
Kroll, N.M. , MO3010 , MO4092 , MO4093 , MO4094
Kubo, K. , MO4019 , TU4063
Kubo, T. , MO4013
Kubota, C. , MO4013
Kuchnir, M. , TU4101 , TH4049
Kugler, H. , TH4004
Kuhn, M. , MO4068
Kühnel, K.-U. , TH4021
Kurennoy, S.S. , MO4032 , TU4032 , TU4107 , TH3010 , TH4104
Kurihara, T. , MO4101
Kusano, J. , TU1004 , TH4068
Kushin, V.V. , MO4052
Kustom, R.L. , TH4065 , TH4081
Kwan, T.J.T. , TU4108
L
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Back to top
Labrouche, J. , TU4003
Lagniel, J.-M. , MO4029 , MO4042 , TU4046 , WE2003
Lagniel, J.M. , TH3003 , TH4034
Lahti, G. , TU4067
Laier, U. , TU4007
Lakatos, A. , MO3008 , MO4063 , TU4056
Lalot, M. , MO4107
Lampel, M.C. , TH4015 , TH4035
Lapostolle, P. , TH3003 , TH4034
Lash, J.S. , TU4075
Láska, L. , TH3005 , TH4051
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LINAC98 Author Index for Papers
Laverty, M. , MO4066
Lawrence, G.P. , MO2002 , TU4107
Lawson, W. , TU4100
Laxdal, R. , TU4087 , TH3001 , TH4009 , TH4010 , TH4020 , TH4094
Laziev, E. , MO4005
Le Duff, J. , TU4102
Le Taillandier, P. , TU4003
Ledford, J. , MO4059
Lee, Y.Y. , TH4023
Leeches, G. , WE1003
Leemans, W.P. , WE1001
Lefevre, T. , MO4021 , TH4014
Lehrman, I.S. , TU4005
Leible, K.D. , TH4052
Leitner, M. , MO4056
Lenz, J.W. , TU4103
Leslie, P. , MO4108
Leslie, P.O. , MO4087 , MO4091
Lessner, E. , MO4100
Letchford, A. , TU1002 , TH4012 , TH4025
Leung, K. , TU4054
Leung, K.N. , TH4053
Levchenko, A.S. , MO4084 , TU4078
Lewellen, J.W. , TH3004 , TH4042
Li, D. , MO4089 , TH4084 , TH4093
Li, J. , TU4001
Li, Q. , TU4001
Li, R. , WE1004
Li, Y.X. , TU4023
Li, Z. , MO3010 , MO4092 , WE2002
Lidia, S.M. , MO4021 , TU4047 , TH4022
Liebermann, H. , TU3003 , TU4016
Liepe, M. , MO4065
Lin, Y. , MO4049 , TH4033
Liverovsky, A.K. , TH4002
Loewen, R.J. , TU4074
Logachev, P. , MO4005
Logan, B.G. , MO4027
Lombardi, A. , TH4085
Lombardi, A.M. , MO4026 , TU2005 , TU3004 , TU4017
Loos, H. , TU4007
Losic, B. , MO4034
Lumpkin, A. , TH3004 , TH4042 , TH4058
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LINAC98 Author Index for Papers
Lumpkin, A.H. , TU4059
Lund, S.M. , MO4027 , TU2004 , TH4026
Luo, X.F. , TU4023
Luo, Z.-H. , TH4001
Lussignol, Y. , MO4107
Lykke, K.R. , TU4048
Lyles, J. , MO4074
Lyles, J.T.M. , TH4074
Lynch, M. , MO4074 , MO4075 , TH4067 , FR1001
Lysenko, W.P. , TU4044 , TH4038
M
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Back to top
Maaser, A. , TH4057
MacDonald, M. , TH4009
MacGill, R. , MO4056 , MO4090 , TU4084
Mackenzie, G. , TH4009
Macy, D. , MO4054
Madey, J.M.J. , TH4015
Maenchen, J.E. , TU4075
Magne, C. , MO4107
Majima, T. , TH3008 , TH4069
Malone, R. , TH4043
Mant, G. , MO4027
Marsland, B. , TU4097
Martinez, C. , MO3002 , MO4017
Martinez, D. , TU4060
Martinez, F. , TU4083 , WE1003
Martono, H. , TH4035
Masek, K. , TH3005 , TH4051
Matsubara, Y. , TU4086
Matsuda, M. , MO4011
Matsumoto, H. , MO3003 , MO4020 , MO4085 , MO4086 , TU4080 , TU4096 , TH4071
Matsumoto, S. , TU3007 , TU4042 , TU4043 , TH4036
Matsuoka, M. , MO4083
Mattei, P. , MO4029
Mayhall, D.J. , MO3012 , MO4097
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LINAC98 Author Index for Papers
Mazaheri, G. , TH4064
Mazarakis, M.G. , TU4075
McCandless, B. , WE2002
McCarrick, J. , TH4028
McCarthy, M. , TH4067 , TH4076
McCormick, D. , MO4061
McCormick, D.J. , TH2003
McIntosh, P.A. , TU4097
Meier, W.R. , MO4106
Melissinos, A.C. , TH4049
Menge, P.R. , TU4075
Menshov, A.A. , TH4061
Merle, E. , TU4002
Merminga, L. , TU4030
Merrill, F. , TH4031
Meyer, B.J. , TU4094
Meyer, D. , TU4054
Meyer, E. , TH4054
Mi, W. , WE2002
Michelato, P. , TU4101 , TH4049
Michizono, S. , TU3007 , TU4042 , TU4043 , TH4036
Miller, R.H. , MO3010 , MO4092 , MO4093 , MO4094
Milton, S. , TH4058
Milton, S.V. , TH3004 , TH4042
Minaev, S.A. , TH4089
Minehara, E.J. , TH4016 , TH4017
Minty, M. , TU4038 , TH2003
Mitchell, J. , WE1003
Mitra, A.K. , TU4087
Miyazawa, Y. , TU4085 , TH4008
Mizumoto, M. , TU1004 , TH4024 , TH4068
Mizuno, A. , MO4007
Mizuno, H. , TH2001 , TH3008 , TH4069
Moir, D.C. , TU4108
Möller, W.-D. , TU4104
Molvik, A.W. , MO4027 , MO4106
Moncton, D. , FR2002
Monroe, M. , MO4054
Montoya, D. , WE1003
Moore, D.M. , MO4067
Moore, J.M. , TH4035
Moretti, A. , TU4009 , TH4084
Morozumi, Y. , MO4013
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LINAC98 Author Index for Papers
Mosnier, A. , MO4107
Mouillet, M. , TU4002
Moy, K. , MO4054
Mróz, W. , TH3005 , TH4051
Mudrolubov, V.G. , TH4002
Mühle, C. , TH4052
Mukugi, K. , TU1004
Mulvaney, M. , MO4077
Murakami, T. , MO4014
Muramatsu, M. , MO4014
Murin, B.P. , MO4099
N
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Back to top
Nagai, R. , TH4016 , TH4017
Nagasawa, S. , TU4076
Nagl, M. , TH4048
Naito, F. , MO4013 , MO4058 , TU3011 , TU4078 , TU4079
Naito, T. , MO4019 , MO4072
Nakagawa, T. , TH4008
Nakahara, K. , MO4073 , MO4101
Nakamura, S. , MO4019
Nakayama, A. , MO4050
Namkung, W. , TU4024 , FR1002
Nanmo, K. , MO4058 , TH4070
Napoly, O. , MO4016
Naranjo, A. , WE1003
Nassiri, A. , TU4069 , TH3004 , TH4042 , TH4065 , TH4081
Nath, S. , MO4029 , MO4042 , TH3003 , TH4034
Nazarian, Y. , MO4005
Nelson, E.M. , TU4109
Nelson, S.D. , MO3012 , MO4076 , MO4097
Nesterov, N.A. , MO4052
Neuffer, D. , MO2005
Ng, C. , WE2002
Nguyen, V. , MO3009 , MO4078
Nikogossian, V. , MO4005
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LINAC98 Author Index for Papers
Nishimori, N. , TH4016 , TH4017
Noble, R. , TU4009
Noda, A. , MO4083 , TU4081
Noda, F. , TU1004
Noguchi, S. , MO3011 , MO4096 , TU4086
Nolen, J.A. , TH4018
Noonan, J. , TH4065
North, W. , MO4077
O
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Back to top
O'Brien, H. , TU4099
O'Hara, J.F. , MO4059 , TU4060
O'Neil, M. , MO4051
Obidowski, R. , TH4094
Oda, F. , MO4050
Ogawa, Y. , WE2005
Oguri, H. , TU1004
Oh, J.S. , MO3003 , MO4020 , TU4024
Ohkubo, Y. , MO3003 , MO4020 , TH4071
Ohsawa, S. , TU4070
Oide, K. , MO4019
Okada, T. , MO4014
Oksuzian, G. , MO4005
Okugi, T. , TU4063
Oliver, B.V. , TU4075
Olson, C.L. , TU4075
Ono, M. , MO3011 , MO4013 , MO4096 , TU4086
Ormond, B. , WE1003
Oshatz, D. , MO4056
Ostroumov, P.N. , MO4026 , TU4020 , TU4106 , TH1002 , TH4061
Ott, J. , MO4028
Ouchi, N. , TU1004 , TH4068
Overett, T. , MO4069 , TH4067
Owen, H.L. , TU4097
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LINAC98 Author Index for Papers
P
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Back to top
Pabst, M. , TU1002 , TH4025
Pagani, C. , TH3012 , TH4049 , TH4108
Palmer, R.B. , TH4084
Palmieri, V. , WE2001
Parafioriti, R. , MO4057
Paramonov, V.V. , MO4084 , TU3010 , TU4077 , TU4078 , TH4088
Pardo, R.C. , TH4101
Parisi, G. , MO4015 , TH4089
Park, S. , MO4104
Park, S.H. , TU4024
Park, S.S. , TU4024
Parodi, R. , TH3012 , TH4108
Parys, P. , TH3005 , TH4051
Pasky, S. , TH3004 , TH4042 , TH4103
Paul, A.C. , TU3006 , TU4034
Paulson, C.C. , TU4005
Pearce, D. , TH4094
Pei, G. , MO3001 , MO4002
Pei, Y.J. , TU4023
Pelzer, W. , TH4011
Pershin, V.I. , TH4089
Peschke, C. , MO4064
Peters, J. , TH4048 , FR1003
Pfeifer, M. , TH3005 , TH4051
Phillips, L. , MO3009 , MO4078
Phillips, R.M. , WE1005
Phinney, N. , TH2003
Phung, B. , MO4107
Piaszczyk, C.M. , TU4022
Pichoff, N. , MO4042 , TH3003 , TH4034
Pierini, P. , MO4046 , TH3012 , TH4108
Pierret, O. , TU4002
Piller, C. , TU4067 , TH4082
Piot, P. , WE1004
Pisent, A. , MO4010 , TH4085 , TH4086
Pitcher, E. , TU4099
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LINAC98 Author Index for Papers
Planner, C.W. , TH4012
Plawski, T. , MO4065
Plotnikov, S.V. , MO4052
Podlech, H. , TH4021
Poelker, M. , TU4067
Poggensee, H. , TH4048
Poirier, R. , TH3001 , TH4009 , TH4010
Poirier, R.L. , TU4087 , TH4094
Poole, B.R. , TU4029 , TH4028
Poole, M.W. , TU4097
Popovic, M. , TU4009 , TU4019
Porcellato, A.M. , TH4082 , TH4085
Pottin, B. , TH3006 , TH4059
Power, J. , TU4055
Power, J.F. , MO4059 , TU4060 , TH3010 , TH4104
Power, J.G. , MO4024
Pozimski, J. , MO3008 , MO4063 , TU4056
Preble, J. , MO3009 , MO4078
Prenger, F.C. , TH4077
Presnyakov, Y.K. , MO4052
Prichard, B. , TU4053 , TU4054
Prichard, B.A. , TH4053
Prono, D. , MO4054
Przeklasa, R.S. , TU3009 , TU4071
Puckett, A.D. , TH4096
Puntus, V.A. , TU3010 , TU4077
Q
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Back to top
Qian, J. , MO4025
Qiang, J. , WE2002
Qiao, J.-M. , TH4001
R
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Back to top
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LINAC98 Author Index for Papers
Raimondi, P. , TH2003
Rambo, P.W. , TU4035
Rao, R. , MO4028 , TH4021
Raparia, D. , TH4023
Rathke, J. , MO3009 , MO4078
Ratti, A. , MO4056 , MO4090 , TU4084
Ratzinger, U. , MO4028 , TH4004 , TH4021
Raubenheimer, T. , MO1004
Rawnsley, W. , TH4009
Reass, W.A. , TU4073
Redler, K. , TU4090
Reece, C.E. , TU3005 , TU4025 , TH4098
Rees, D. , MO4075 , TU3009 , TU4071 , TU4072 , TH4067 , TH4073
Rees, D.E. , TH4076 , TH4109
Regan, A. , TU4072
Regan, A.H. , TU4012 , TH4075
Reginato, L. , MO4027 , MO4106
Reginato, L.L. , TH4040
Rehlich, K. , MO4065
Reich, H. , TH4052
Reinert, R. , WE1003
Reiser, M. , TU4100
Remais, J. , MO4056 , TU4084
Rendon, A. , MO4108 , WE1003
Repnow, R. , TH4021
Reusch, M.F. , TU4005
Richards, M. , TH4054
Richards, M.C. , TU3008 , TU4051 , TU4082
Richardson, R. , MO4103
Richardson, R.A. , TH4063
Riche, A. , MO3004 , MO4031
Richter, A. , TU4007
Rimmer, R. , TH4093
Risbud, S. , TH4073
Rohlena, K. , TH3005 , TH4051
Rohlev, A. , TU4012
Rohlev, A.S. , TH4109
Rohlev, T. , TU4072
Root, L. , TH4009 , TH4020
Roper, R. , TH4094
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LINAC98 Author Index for Papers
Rose, C. , TU4021 , TH4055
Rosenthal, S.E. , TU4075
Rosenzweig, J.B. , TU1003 , TH4049
Ross, M.C. , MO4061 , TH2003
Rossa, B. , MO4070
Rossbach, J. , TU2001
Rovang, D.C. , TU4075
Rovelli, A. , TH2004
Roybal, P. , TU4083 , WE1003
Roybal, R.J. , MO4087
Roybal, W. , TU4072 , TH4073
Roybal, W.T. , TH4076
Rudolph, K. , TH4021
Rullier, J.L. , MO4021 , TH4014
Rusnak, B. , TH3009 , TH4038 , TH4097
Ruth, R.D. , MO3010 , MO4092
Rutkowski, H.L. , MO2001
Ryan, K.J. , TH4035
Rybarcyk, L. , TH4031
Rybarcyk, L.J. , MO4088 , TU4012
Ryne, R. , WE2002
Ryne, R.D. , TU4032 , TU4107 , TH4026
S
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Back to top
Saadatmand, K. , TH4038
Safa, H. , MO4095 , TU4039 , TH3009 , TH4097
Sage, J. , MO4059
Saito, H. , TU4086
Saito, K. , MO3011 , MO4096 , TU4086
Sakaki, H. , MO4007 , TU4076
Sakamoto, H. , MO4014
Sakamoto, T. , MO4072
Salem, J. , MO3012 , MO4097
Samarin, V.A. , MO4052
Sampayan, S. , MO4062 , MO4102 , MO4103
Sander, O. , TU4053 , TU4054
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LINAC98 Author Index for Papers
Sander, O.R. , TH4053
Sangster, T.C. , MO4027
Saparov, M. , WE2002
Sato, Y. , MO4014
Sauer, A. , MO4015
Sawamura, M. , TH4016 , TH4017
Schempp, A. , MO4028 , TU3003 , TU4016 , TH4006 , TH4011 , TH4012 , TH4021 , TH4048
Schilcher, T. , TU4064
Schmidt, C.W. , TU4009 , TU4019
Schmor, P. , TH3001 , TH4009 , TH4010
Schneider, D. , TU4090
Schneider, J.D. , TU3012 , TU4014 , TU4092 , TH4054 , TH4055
Schoessow, P. , MO4024 , TU4055
Schrage, D. , TU4095 , WE1003
Schreiber, G. , MO4064
Schuhmann, R. , TH4041
Schulte, D. , MO3004 , MO4016 , MO4031 , TU4026
Schultheiss, T. , MO3009 , MO4078
Schulze, M.E. , TU4044 , TU4089
Schütt, P. , TU4031
Schwalm, D. , TH4021
Schweizer, B. , TU4007
Scott, M.C. , TU3009 , TU4071
Scurati, A. , MO4057 , TU4057
Seleznev, D.N. , MO4052
Senyukov, V. , MO4005
Serov, V.L. , TU4020
Sertore, D. , TU4101 , TH4049
Setzer, S. , MO4041
Shafer, R.E. , TU4062 , TU4089
Shang, C. , TH4040
Shang, C.C. , MO3012 , MO4097
Shapiro, A. , MO4108
Sharp, W.M. , MO4027
Sheehan, J. , TH4043
Shelley, F. , TU4021
Shen, S. , TU4095
Shepard, K.W. , TU2006 , TH4082
Sherman, J. , TU4053 , TH4045 , TH4055
Sherman, J.D. , MO3007 , MO4055 , TU3008 , TU4051 , TU4082 , TH4054
Shi, J.S. , TU4001
Shidara, T. , MO4073 , MO4101
Shintake, T. , MO3003 , MO4019 , MO4020 , MO4085 , MO4086 , TU4080 , TU4096 , TH4064 , TH4071 ,
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LINAC98 Author Index for Papers
TH4072
Shirai, T. , MO4083 , TH4085
Shirakawa, A. , MO4101
Shiroya, S. , MO4098
Shishido, T. , MO3011 , MO4096 , TU4086
Shu, Q. , MO3009 , MO4078
Shumakov, I.V. , MO4099
Shurter, R.B. , TU4060
Shvets, V. , MO4005
Sieber, T. , MO4028 , TH4006 , TH4021
Sigler, F. , MO4108
Sigler, F.E. , MO4087
Simrock, S.N. , MO4065 , TU4064 , TU4065
Skála, J. , TH3005 , TH4051
Skarbo, V. , MO4005
Skaritka, J. , TH4043
Slaton, T. , TH4064
Smith, C. , MO4106
Smith, H.V. , TU4082
Smith, I.D. , TU4075
Smith, O. , WE1003
Smith, S.L. , TU4097
Smith, T.L. , TU4089
Smith Jr., H.V. , MO3007 , MO4055 , TU4014 , TH4054
Snell, C.M. , TU4108
Solheim, L. , MO4077
Song, J. , WE1004
Song, J.J. , TH4081
Spädtke, P. , TH4052
Spalek, G. , TH4067
Spence, D. , TU4048
Spentzouris, L.K. , TH4049
Spinos, F. , TU4090
Spinos, F.R. , TU3012 , TU4092
Sprehn, D. , WE1005
Sprehn, D.W. , MO4079
Srinivas, V. , MO3010 , MO4092 , WE2002
Srinivasan-Rao, T. , TH4043
Stanford, G. , TH4094
Staples, J. , MO4056 , MO4090 , TU4084
Starling, W.J. , TU4103
Stascheck, A. , TU4007
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LINAC98 Author Index for Papers
Stelzer, J.E. , TU4094 , TH4053
Stettler, M. , MO4059 , TU4060 , TH4054
Stevens, R. , TU4054
Stevens, R.R. , TU4082 , TH4053
Stevens Jr., R. , TH4054 , TH4055
Stevens Jr., R.R. , MO3007 , MO4055 , TU4053
Stovall, J. , TU4098
Street, R. , MO4069
Strokach, A.P. , TH4002
Stupakov, G. , TU4038
Suberlucq, G. , MO3002 , MO4017 , TH4046
Sugimoto, M. , TH4016
Suller, V.P. , TU4097
Sumbaev, A. , MO4005
Sun, X. , MO4049 , TH4033
Sun, Y. , WE2002
Suvorov, A.S. , MO4052
Suzuki, S. , MO4007
Svistunov, Y.A. , TH4002
Swenson, D.A. , TU4103
Szeless, B. , TU4098
T
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Back to top
Tafoya, J. , TU4083 , WE1003
Takasaki, E. , MO4013 , MO4058 , TH4070
Takeda, H. , MO3006 , MO4047 , TU4015 , TU4045
Takeda, S. , MO4019 , MO4072
Takenaka, T. , MO4058 , TH4070
Takeuchi, S. , MO4011
Tallerico, P. , MO4075
Tallerico, P.J. , TU4073
Tanabe, E. , MO4050 , TU4096
Taniuchi, T. , MO4007
Tanke, E. , TU3004 , TU4017 , TH3003 , TH4034
Tantawi, S.G. , MO4079 , TU4074
Tapper, U.A.S. , TH3011 , TH4106
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LINAC98 Author Index for Papers
Tarasov, S.G. , TH4088
Tashiro, K. , MO4014
Taylor, B.D. , TH4049
Tazzioli, F. , MO4057
Tenenbaum, P. , MO3002 , MO4017
Ter-Antonyan, R.S. , MO4084
Terunuma, N. , MO4019 , TU4063
Teskey, W. , TH4094
Tessier, J.M. , MO4026
Thibus, J. , TU3003 , TU4016
Thirolf, P. , MO4028 , TH4021
Thoma, P. , TH4041
Thorndahl, L. , MO3002 , MO4017
Thuot, M. , TH4054
Titze, O. , TU4007
Todd, A.M.M. , TU4005 , FR1004
Toepfer, A.J. , TH1001
Tokumoto, S. , TH3008 , TH4069
Tomisawa, T. , TU1004
Tooker, J. , TU4090 , TH4067
Toole, L. , TH4076
Touchi, Y. , TU1004 , TH4068
Trautner, H. , TH4046
Travish, G. , TH3004 , TH4042
Trepsas, R. , MO4077
Trifunac, A.D. , MO4025
Trimble, D. , MO4062
Trines, D. , MO1002
Tsutsui, H. , TU3007 , TU4042 , TU4043 , TH4036
Turner, J.L. , TH2003
Turner, W. , MO4089
Turner, W.C. , TH4084
U
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Back to top
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LINAC98 Author Index for Papers
Ueno, A. , TH4061
Uksusov, N.I. , MO4099
Urakawa, J. , MO4019 , TU4063
Usher, T. , TH2003
Uzat, B. , TU4087 , TH4009
V
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Back to top
Valdiviez, R. , TU4083 , TU4095
Valentini, M. , MO3002 , MO4017
Valero, S. , TH3003 , TH4034
Valicenti, R. , TH4096
Van Hagan, T. , TU4090
Van Hagan, T.H. , TU3012 , TU4092
Vanecek, D.L. , TH4022
Vengrov, R.M. , TH4089
Vermare, C. , TU4002 , TU4003
Villate, D. , TU4003
Vinogradov, S. , TU4046
Vinzenz, W. , MO4070
Virostek, S. , MO4056 , MO4090
Vlieks, A.E. , MO4079 , TU4074
Volk, K. , TH4057
von Hahn, R. , TH4021
Vormann, H. , TU3003 , TU4016 , TH4012
Vorogushin, M.F. , TH4002
Vretenar, M. , MO4026 , TU3004 , TU4017 , TU4098 , TH4004
W
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Back to top
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LINAC98 Author Index for Papers
Wadlinger, E.A. , TH4038
Waldschmidt, G.J. , TH4102
Wan, Z. , TH4038
Wang, C.-X. , TU4038
Wang, D. , MO4077
Wang, D.X. , TU4066
Wang, G.C. , TU4023
Wang, H. , MO4110
Wang, J.W. , MO3010 , MO4092
Wang, L.-F. , TU4029
Wang, S.-H. , TH4001
Wang, T.F. , TU2004
Wang, W. , TU4023
Wang, X.J. , TH4043
Wang, Y.F. , TU4023
Wang, Y.M. , TU4072
Wangler, T.P. , TU4012 , TU4107
Watanabe, K. , MO3003 , MO4020
Waynert, J.A. , TH3009 , TH4077 , TH4096 , TH4097
Weiland, T. , MO4041 , TU4031 , TH4041
Weir, J. , MO4062 , MO4103 , TH4105
Weise, H. , WE1002
Weiss, M. , TU4098
Welch, D.R. , TU4075
Welsch, C. , TH4021
Welz, J. , TH4009
Wen, L. , TU4001
Weng, W.T. , TH4023
Wengrow, A. , TU4054
Wesp, T. , TU4007
Westenskow, G. , MO4062 , MO4103
Westenskow, G.A. , MO4021 , TH4022
White, M. , MO4100 , TU4059 , TH3004 , TH4042 , TH4058 , TH4065 , TH4103
White, V. , TH4081
Whittum, D.H. , TU1001
Wilcox, D. , TH4073
Williams, M. , TU4054
Williams, M.D. , TH4053
Wilson, E. , TU4098
Wilson, I. , MO1004 , MO3002 , MO4017 , MO4018 , TH4083
Wilson, N.G. , TU4095
Winschuh, E. , TU3003 , TU4016
Wolcott, C. , MO4077
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LINAC98 Author Index for Papers
Wolf, B.H. , TH4052
Wolowski, J. , TH3005 , TH4051
Wood, R. , MO4108
Wood, R.L. , MO4087 , TU4015
Woodle, M. , TH4043
Woodley, M.D. , TH2003
Woryna, E. , TH3005 , TH4051
Wuensch, W. , MO3002 , MO4017 , MO4018 , TH4083
X
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Back to top
Xu, W.-W. , TH4001
Xu, X. , TU4100
Y
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Back to top
Yakimenko, V. , TH4043
Yamada, S. , MO4014
Yamaguchi, S. , TU4070
Yamamoto, M. , MO4014
Yamanouchi, T. , TH4016
Yamazaki, Y. , MO3011 , MO4013 , MO4096 , TU3001 , TU4011 , TU4078
Yan, Y. , TU4038
Yanagida, K. , MO4007
Yang, B. , TH4058
Yang, B.X. , TU4059
Yang, T.T. , TU4055
Yano, Y. , TU4085 , TH4008
Yaramishev, S.G. , TH4089
Yokomizo, H. , MO4007 , TU4076
Yokoyama, M. , MO4050
Yonezawa, H. , MO3003 , MO4020 , TH4071
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LINAC98 Author Index for Papers
Yoon, B.J. , TH4005
Yoshida, M. , MO3003 , MO4020 , TH4072
Yoshikawa, H. , MO4007 , TU4076
Yoshino, K. , MO4013 , TU3011 , TU4079
Young, L. , WE1003
Young, L.M. , MO3007 , MO4055 , MO4088 , TU4015 , TU4082
Yourd, R. , MO4090 , TU4084
Yu, L.H. , TH4043
Yu, S.S. , MO4021 , TH4022 , TH4040
Yukawa, F. , TU4086
Z
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Back to top
Zamrij, V. , MO4005
Zarubin, A.B. , MO4052
Zaugg, T. , TH4045 , TH4054 , TH4055
Zaugg, T.J. , MO3007 , MO4055 , TU3008 , TU4051 , TU4082
Zennaro, R. , TH4086
Zhan, X. , WE2002
Zhang, L. , MO4110
Zhao, Y. , TH4084
Zimmermann, F. , TH2003
Zimmermann, H. , TU3003 , TU4016
Ziomek, C.D. , TH4075
Zolfaghari, A. , MO4077
Zubovsky, V.P. , MO4052
Zumbro, J.D. , TU4021
Zviagintsev, V.L. , TH4089
Last Update December 23, 1998 13:27:58
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LOW-β SC LINACS: PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE*
Lowell M. Bollinger
Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, Illinois 60439 USA
Abstract
2 FIRST SC ION LINAC
This paper is a general review of superconducting low-β The demands on SC low-β studies at Argonne changed
technology and applications from its beginning in 1969 greatly in 1974 when the Atomic Energy Commission
into the near-term future. The emphasis is on studies of agreed to support construction of a small SC linac, i.e.,
accelerating resonators and on SC linacs that boost the we had to consider all aspects of the system: RF phase
energy of heavy-ion beams from tandem electrostatic control, beam optics, cryogenics, etc. - not just the
accelerators used for nuclear-physics research. Other accelerating structures. Our initial plan was to use 5-cell
topics are positive-ion SC injectors to replace tandems helix resonators for a 13-MV linac to boost the energy of
and the need for accelerating structures with β outside of heavy ions from our 8.5-MV tandem. Fortunately, before
the present proven range, 0.008 < β < 0.2. our funding arrived in late 1975 we were able to replace
the helix with the Cal Tech split ring, but with several
1 EARLY HISTORY changes: (1) Nb as the SC, (2) a smaller frequency (97
MHz) so as to increase the active length, and (3) an outer
The development and construction of the superconducting housing made of Nb explosively bonded to copper.
(SC) electron linac at Stanford stimulated others to Figure 1 compares our design to other structures that were
investigate SC technology needed to accelerate low-β ions available at the time.
[1]. This effort started (1969) at Karlsruhe, Germany.
Much of this work was devoted to Nb helix resonators and
related technology. Accelerating fields of 2 to 3 MV/m
were achieved for β = 0.04, suggesting that it was feasible
to build a useful SC low-β linac. However, it was
difficult to control the RF phase of a helix because of its
mechanical instability.
In 1970, a small group at Cal Tech also started studies
of the helix, but later found that other geometries provided
greater accelerating fields and mechanical stability. These
new units included the “split ring”, two curved RF arms
driving two drift tubes with opposite phases. Unlike the
helix, for the split ring the RF and the field-formation
elements are independent, thus allowing the RF arms to
be mechanically stiff. All of the low-β structures at Cal
Tech used lead plated on copper as the SC.
In 1971, a group at Argonne joined the study of SC
low-β technology and, from the beginning, the goal was
to build a SC linac to boost the energy of heavy ions
from a tandem electrostatic accelerator. Again, this work
started with the single-cell helix, and two such Nb
structures (β = 0.06) with independent phase control
accelerated an ion beam (proton) for the first time. This
and other achievements led to a proposal to build a small
SC low-β linac. Figure 1: Heavy-ion accelerating structures in 1977.
A fourth effort (1973) on a low-β structure was at
Stanford, where a small group studied a Nb cavity with β The layout of the tandem-booster linac system [2] is
= 0.04 and f = 430 MHz. For these parameters, the shown in Fig. 2. Note the beam bunching system [3], 2
accelerating gap was very narrow (~ 1 cm), which required bunchers and a chopper, which converts ~ 65% of the DC
the accelerating field to be exceptional large for this unit beam of the tandem into narrow beam pulses (~ 200 ps).
to be competitive with other structures, which had active Initially the pulse rate of the beam was 97/2 = 48.5 MHz
gaps ranging from ~ 5 to 15 cm. but, at the user’s request, it was soon reduced to 97/8 =
_______ 12.125 MHz. Two classes of resonators are used in the
*Work supported by the U.S. Department of Energy, Nuclear booster: β = 0.065 and β = 0.105. The split rings are
Physics Division, under Contract W-31-109-ENG-38. closely mounted in groups of 2 separated by SC beam-
3
focusing solenoids, the first accelerator of any kind in
which SC was used for both acceleration and beam optics.
The second SC linac was built at Stony Brook [5] with
split-ring Pb/Cu resonators provided by Cal Tech. The
other parts of the linac were handled by a small group of
faculty members and students at Stony Brook. I was
especially impressed that students, after training, did work
Figure 2: Main components of a tandem-linac system. such as welding large pipes.
The linac at U. of Washington [8] was the first to use
The phase control of each resonator is controlled by a the quarter-wave resonator (QWR), a new class of
VCX (voltage control reactance) but, in spite of the sturdy structure developed at Stony Brook [17]. Two types of
arms of our split rings, our initial VCR’s provided only units are used: β = 0.10 and β = 0.20, both with Pb/Cu as
marginal control. After several major upgrades, the the SC. These relatively large values of β indicate that
control problem was removed by a VCX that has a stored the goal was to accelerate rather light ions, including
energy of 30 kW. protons, as needed by the research program.
As soon as a small part of the booster was operable it The linac at JAERI (Japan) [9] was the first to use Nb
was tested (June, 1978) and soon used for research for QWR. The oval-shaped outer shell of these units are
(September, 1978). This step-by-step approach was explosively-bonded Nb to Cu. These units provide an
continued for the next 3 years until the booster was average accelerating field > 5 MV/m, much greater than
completed. The goals of the project were more than met: other SC low-β linacs in routine use.
an accelerating voltage of ~ 22 MV, excellent beam The most ambitious of all SC low-β projects [11-13] is
quality, short beam pulses, adequate acceptance of the at Legnaro (Italy). It’s injector is a 15-MV tandem, and
tandem beam, easy change of beam energy, and future the linac is designed to provide 48 MV, both substantially
expandability. larger than any other tandem-linac system. The initial
In late 1983 funding was obtained to extend the booster plan was to use QWR units with Pb/Cu as the SC, and
linac and to add an adequate experimental area. The goal some such units were installed, tested, and used. These
was to be able to accelerate ions with A ≤ 130 to energies initial structures are now being replaced by several kinds
above the Coulomb barrier (~ 5.5 MeV/A). Since the of RFQ units in which the SC is bulk Nb metal in some
original linac was operating well, we used the same and Nb sputtered on Cu in others [11,12,13,18].
technology for the addition. After completion in 1985, An interesting aspect of the teams that have designed and
the entire linac provides ~ 38 MV; and the enlarged built the SC low-β linacs is that very few persons who
tandem-linac system [1,4] was named ATLAS. played major roles had much experience in accelerator
technology before entering the SC low-β game; indeed, I
3 EXISTING SC LOW-β LINACS can think of only one American who did have earlier
experience. On the other hand, most of the leading
During the twenty-year period following the initial
success of the tandem-linac system at Argonne, other figures were physicists who had a thorough understanding
laboratories undertook similar projects [5-15], listed in of their goals.
Table 1. Their primary goals were the same as discussed
in Sec. 2, but often with significant differences in 4 ACCELERATING RESONATORS
technology, as indicated in Table 1 and in [1,16]. For The SC low-β resonators available in 1977 are shown in
lack of space, only a few of these tandem-linac systems Fig. 1. Since then, many other structures have been
are mentioned below. Accelerating structures are treated studied, starting with the quarter-wave resonator (QWR)
in Sec. 4. developed [17] at Stony Brook in 1983. The laboratories
involved in these investigations are listed in Table 2,
which includes (a) work before 1983, (b) other designs
4
that have been fully tested, and (c) work now in progress.
Most of these units were designed for use in planned or
existing linacs.
Figure 4: New resonators.
The long-term efforts at Legnaro and Canberra to use
Figure 3 shows some of the resonators initiated in the sputtered Nb on Cu as the SC surface are now being
1980’s; all but the half-wave unit are now in use. The tested on the linac at Legnaro and the results are very
units in Fig. 4 are more recent products for which an encouraging [18,19]. It seems unlikely that sputter Nb
important objective is to reduce fabrication costs. Design will be superior to bulk metal, but it may reduce costs.
changes and improvements in welding appear to have In SC low-β resonator design, many factors need to be
reduced costs by a factor of ~ 1.5. considered: the SC material, RF frequency, optimum β,
number of accelerating gaps, mechanical stability, the
number of different resonator types needed, the ratio of
accelerating field to maximum surface field, fabrication
difficulties, and costs. Many of these factors interact with
each other, making it impossible to determine a unique
solution. For example, for resonators in routine use, the
split ring in ATLAS has the greatest accelerating voltage
because of its large size generated by its three gaps, low
frequency, and high β. However, the higher-frequency 2-
gap QWR in the JAERI linac has a greater accelerating
field, is more stable mechanically, and is effective over a
wider range of β. Which one is better?
5 POSITIVE ION INJECTOR
The linacs discussed above were energy boosters for
tandems, an injector which requires a negative-ion source.
By 1983 we at Argonne recognized that our tandem needed
to be replaced because it could not produce useful beams
for the upper half of the periodic table. After considering
several possibilities, including a much larger tandem, we
decided to build a positive-ion injector (PII) consisting of
an ECR ion source on a voltage platform followed by a
very-low-β SC linac [20,21].
Figure 3: SC resonators from the 1980's. Since ECR sources were well developed by the mid-
1980’s and the bunching concept used at our tandem could
5
be used at PII, the main challenge was the linac, which
had to accelerate ions from β = 0.008 up to β = 0.05
without destroying the excellent quality of beams from
the ECR. The front end of the linac seemed especially
difficult because of the very low velocity and the rapid
change in velocity of the beam.
One of the four interdigital resonators [22] used to span
the required β range is shown in Fig. 3. The housing is
Nb explosively bonded to Cu, and this housing is
compressed around the beam line so as to form an oval-
like shape. As in the booster linacs, SC solenoids are
located after one or two resonators so as to minimize the
beam size within resonators. The PII linac is easily tuned
and, in practice, the whole ATLAS linac (including PII) is
now usually tuned to the same recorded velocity profile
for many ion species, and consequently tuning is
exceptionally easy and rapid [23].
A different positive ion injector [24] is planned for the SC
linac at Legnaro. The ion source is an ECR, of course,
and its output is injected into an array of three Nb SC
RFQ’s followed by a QWR section. These RFQ 80 MHz
units are designed to cover the β range 0.009 to 0.05. A
full-scale stainless-steel model of an RFQ has been
studied and a Nb unit is under construction. Based on the
experience for other SC low-β resonators, phase control
for a large SC RFQ may be difficult. In the early 1990's
a SC low-β RFQ was built and tested at Stony Brook
[25], but phase control was not attempted.
6 OPERATIONAL EXPERIENCE AT
ATLAS
ATLAS is the largest and most intensively used SC low-
β linac now in operation. The overall layout of the Figure 5: ATLAS in 1998.
system is shown in Fig. 5. The primary injector is PII,
where a second, more powerful ECR ion source has been
added recently. The tandem is still used for very light Small linacs might be useful in materials science and
ions and for radioactive species. industry. For example, most ion implantation is done
The first experiment with a small part of ATLAS was with small electrostatic accelerators which provide limited
20 years ago, Sept. 1978. Since then the system has depths of implantation and range of ion species. These
been used steadily as the linac grew, and in recent years its limitations could be removed by a small SC low-β linac.
beam has been used for research and occasionally However, it is not obvious that this approach is
development for more than 5,000 hr. annually [23]. optimum, especially since CW operation may not be
Overall, since 1978 ATLAS has provided ~ 70,000 hr. of needed.
useful beam time. SC accelerating structures for intermediate-β ions may
Because of its positive ion injector, ATLAS provides be attractive for a number of accelerators now being
beams for all parts of the periodic table. This wide range considered, of which I will mention two. One class is the
is used regularly; for example, 28 different isotopes high-current high-energy machines that have been studied
ranging from hydrogen to uranium were used in FY1997. at Los Alamos. They have tested 700 MHz SC cavities
Altogether, there were 63 separate runs ranging from 8 hr. with β ≈ 0.48, 0.64, and 0.82, and have concluded that for
to 8 days. them, room-temperature structures are better for β = 0.48,
and SC is optimum for the other two [25].
7 NEEDS FOR NEW ACCELERATING Another active proposal is a radioactive ion beam
STRUCTURES accelerator (RIB) at Argonne. The driver of this system is
Several future applications of SC linacs come to mind: to be a 200-MV linac that can accelerate both protons and
(1) small linacs for purposes other than nuclear physics, much heavier ions. CW operation is highly desirable,
(2) accelerating structures for intermediate-β ions, and (3) which makes SC technology very attractive. In an
radioactive ion accelerators (RIB).
6
Argonne-CEBAF collaboration [27], a SC 1/2-wave [2] J. Aron et al., Proc. 1979 Linear Accel. Conf.,
resonator with f = 350 MHz and β = 0.4 is being built for Montauk, NY, 511-34 (1979).
possible use in the RIB driver. An important feature of [3] F. J. Lynch et al., Nucl. Instr. Meth. 159, 245-263
the 1/2-wave design (see Fig. 3) is that its ratio of (1979).
accelerating field to surface field is substantially greater [4] J. Aron et al., Rev. Sci. Instrum. 57, 737-739
than for all other low-β resonators and, consequently, in (1986).
an earlier test [28] on a β = 0.10 unit, the maximum [5] J. R. Delayen et al., IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. NS-26
accelerating field was 18 MV/m, ~ 50% greater than other (3), 3664-3666 (1979).
low-β units as shown in Table 3 of [20]. However, [6] J. D. Fox et al., Rev. Sci. Inst. 57, 763 (1986).
additional experience is needed before the optimum [7] B. Cauvin et al., Proc. 1989 Particle Accel. Conf.
IEEE, 601 (1989).
structure can be chosen.
[8] D. W. Storm et al., Nucl. Instr. Meth. A287, 247-
The third need for resonators is in the range below β =
252 (1990).
0.008, the present limit set for SC by the first resonator [9] S. Takeuchi et al., Nucl. Instr. Meth. A382, 153-160
in PII at Argonne. The requirements for the Argonne RIB (1996).
are extreme: to accelerate a CW beam of radioactive ions [10] T. J. Gray, Rev. Sci. Instr. 57, 783 (1986).
with q/A = 1/120 through the range from β = 0.001 to β [11] G. Fortuna et al., Nucl. Instr. Meth. A308, 236
= 0.008 without seriously deteriorating the beam quality. (1993).
The system planned [29] has two steps: a CW room- [12] G. Fortuna et al., Proc. XVIII Intl. Linear Accel.
temperature 12.125 MHz RFQ on a 300 kV platform for Conf., Geneva, 905-909 (1996).
the β range 0.001 to 0.0025, followed by a second RFQ [13] A. Dainelli et al., Nucl. Instr. Meth. A382, 100-106
on an independent voltage platform for the β range 0.0025 (1996).
to 0.008. The first RFQ is undergoing tests now [29] and [14] A. Roy, Proc. 8Th Workshop RF Superconductivity,
seems likely to be an excellent solution, and the second Legnaro, 1997, to be published.
RFQ should be less demanding than the first because of [15] A. E. Stuchbery and D. C. Weisser, Nucl. Instr.
the greater velocity of the beam. Note that the very low Meth., A382, 172-175 (1996).
RF frequency is an essential design feature because of its [16] D. W. Storm, Nucl. .Instr. Meth. A328, 213-220
low RF-power requirements. It appears, then, that if a (1993); K. W. Shepard, Nucl. Instr. Meth. A382,
very low RF frequency is acceptable and if the 12.125 128-131 (1996).
MHz RFQ's function as well as expected, then SC [17] I. Ben-Zwi and J. M. Brennan, Nucl. Instr. Meth.
212, 73 (1983).
structures are not competitive below β ≈ 0.008.
[18] V. Palmieri, in proceedings of this conference.
As has been hinted by the topics mentioned in this
[19] A. M. Porcellato et al., to be published.
section, there are still many questions to be answered [20] L. M. Bollinger, Nucl. Instr. Meth. A328, 221-230
about SC low-β linacs. Unlike most of the past, these (1993).
questions are concerned with the two fringes of the low-β [21] R. C. Pardo et al., 1992 Linear Accel. Conf. Proc.,
spectrum, and answers are needed for small but important AECL-10728, 70-72 (1992).
parts of future accelerator systems. The subject is still [22] K. W. Shepard, Proc. 1986 Linear Accelerator Conf.,
interesting - but, for me, not as exciting as it was in the Stanford, 269 (1986).
1970’s. [23] G. Zinkann et al., Nucl. Instr. Meth. A382, 132-139
(1996).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS [24] A. Lombari, Proc. Linac 96 Conference, CERN96-
07, 125 (1996).
The author is indebted to K. W. Shepard, R. C. Pardo, [25] A. Jain et al., Nucl. Instr. Meth. A328, 251 (1993).
and G. P. Zinkann for providing information for many [26] T. Wangler, personal communication (1998).
parts of this paper. [27] K. W. Shepard et al., in proceedings of this
conference.
[28] J. R. Delayen et al., Nucl. Instr. Meth. B56/57, 1025
REFERENCES (1991).
[1] L. M. Bollinger, "Superconducting Linear [29] K. W. Shepard, in proceedings of this conference.
Accelerators for Heavy Ions", Ann. Rev. Nucl. Part.
Sci. 36, 475-503 (1986). This published review
gives a summary of work before 1986, including
references to topics in Sec. 1 of the present review.
7
STATUS OF THE TESLA DESIGN
D. Trines for the TESLA Collaboration *
Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY, 22603 Hamburg, Germany
Abstract
ZKHUH B is the relative energy loss caused by beam-
+ -
The status of the layout of the linear collider project, strahlung, ECM is the centre of mass energy of the e e
TESLA, which employs superconducting accelerating FROOLVLRQ LVWKHFRQYHUVLRQHIILFLHQF\IURPPDLQVSRZHU
structures, will be presented. Latest results from the R&D PAC WR EHDP SRZHU yN is the normalised vertical emit-
program on 1.3 GHz superconducting cavities, the accel- tance at the IP and HD is the disruption factor. Thus, the
erating gradients and quality factors which were achieved figure of merit [7] for the luminosity performance of a
will be shown as well as the performance of the TESLA OLQHDUFROOLGHULVJLYHQE\ ¥ yN. Therefore the combina-
Test Facility linear accelerator. tion of high conversion efficiency and small emittance
dilution makes a superconducting linear collider the ideal
1 INTRODUCTION choice with respect to the achievable luminosity.
Since the first proposal for a superconducting linear
+ -
e e collider by M. Tigner [1] in 1965, accelerator build- 2 A SHORT HISTORY OF TESLA
ers [2,3,4] have been fascinated by the potential of super- The major challenges to be mastered so that a super-
+ -
conductivity for high energy linear e e colliders. The low conducting linear collider becomes feasible were to in-
resistive losses in the walls of superconducting cavities crease the accelerating gradients from about 5 MV/m to
yield a high conversion efficiency from mains to beam 25 MV/m and to reduce the cost per length from existing
power. As energy can be stored very efficiently in the systems by about a factor of four to obtain ~ 2000 $/MV.
cavities, a large number of bunches can be accelerated Encouraged by results from R&D work at CEBAF,
spaced far apart in a long RF pulse. This allows for a fast CERN, Cornell, DESY, KEK, Saclay and Wuppertal
bunch to bunch orbit feedback which guarantees that [12,13,14], several institutions - the nucleus of the TESLA
bunches from the opposing beams hit head on at the IP Collaboration formally established in 1994 - decided in
despite ground motion effects. 1991 to set up the necessary infrastructure at DESY [8] to
The shunt impedance per unit length for superconduct- process and test 40 industrially produced 9 cell 1.3 GHz
LQJFDYLWLHVGHSHQGVRQ5)IUHTXHQF\ DV solid Niobium cavities. The aim was to achieve gradients
9
of 15 MV/m at a Q value of 3Â in a first step and fi-
ω 9
nally reach 25 MV/m at a Q value of 5Â suitable for the
UV ~ (1)
$ω + 5UHV
2
linear collider. The infrastructure of the TESLA Test
Facility TTF consists of cleanrooms, chemical treatment
favouring RF frequencies in the range of 0.5 to 3 GHz. A installations, a 1400° C purification furnace, a high pres-
is a function of temperature and material and Rres is the sure water rinsing system, a cryogenic plant to operate
residual surface resistance. Because low frequencies are vertical and horizontal cavity test stands at 1.8 K and a 1.3
preferred for s.c. cavities, this make them ideally suited to GHz RF source. A detailed description of the infrastruc-
accelerate low emittance beams, as the emittance dilution ture, which was completed by the end of 1995, will be
3
by wakefields is small (W⊥~ω ). In addition tolerances on given in [9].
the fabrication and alignment of cavities are very relaxed. In addition the collaboration decided to build a
The luminosity of a linear collider is given by [5,6] 500 MeV linac as an integrated system test to demonstrate
that a linear collider based on s.c. cavities can be con-
structed and operated with confidence.
δ% Considerable attention has been given to the subject of
η
/ ≈ FRQVW. ⋅ ⋅ 3$& ⋅ + ' ( 2) cost reduction [10,11]. For example:
( &0 ε \1 • The number of cells per accelerating structure was
increased to 9 compared to the customary 4-5. This
*
TESLA Collaboration: Armenia: Yerevan Physics Institute, P.R. China: IHEP Academia Sinica, Tsinghua Univ., Finland: Inst. of
Physics Helsinki, France: CEA/DSM Saclay, IN2P3 Orsay, Germany: Max-Born-Inst. Berlin, DESY Hamburg and Zeuthen, GH
Wuppertal, Univ. Hamburg, IAP Univ. Frankfurt, GKSS Geesthacht, FZ Karlsruhe, IfH TU Darmstadt, ITE TU Berlin, IKK TU
Dresden, RWTH Aachen, Univ. Rostock, Italy: INFN Frascati, Legnaro, Milano, Univ. Roma II, Poland: Polish Acad. of Sciences,
Univ. Warsaw, INP Krakow, Univ. of Mining & Metallurgy, Polish Atomic Energy Agency, Soltan Inst. for Nuclear Studies, Russia:
JINR Dubna, IHEP Protvino, INP Novosibirsk, USA: Argonne National Lab., Cornell Univ., Fermilab, UCLA
8
reduces the number of RF input and HOM cou- The performance limitations seen in six cavities were
plers, tuning systems and cryostat penetrations, it due to an improper welding procedure and could be elimi-
also simplifies the RF distribution system and in- nated in the subsequent cavity production. The remaining
creases the filling factor. cavities not performing to expectations showed inclusions
• Costly cryostat ends and warm to cold transitions of Tantalum grains in the Niobium. Such defects will be
were avoided by combining eight 9 cell cavities and avoided by scanning all Nb sheets for impurities with an
optical elements, which were all chosen to be su- eddy-current method. For a detailed information on cavity
perconducting, into one long, simple cryostat. Also treatment procedures and results see [9,21].
the complete helium distribution system has been
All components for beam acceleration through the first
incorporated into the cryostat using the cold low
pressure gas return tube as support structure for cryomodule were installed in May 97. As the 14 MeV
cavities and optical elements. injector was already in operation at design values [22],
From the work starting in 1990 [13] a concept for a 500 stable beam acceleration in the first module could be
GeV cm energy superconducting linear collider emerged, established within a few days. Although the module con-
operating at 1.3 GHz with a gradient of 25 MV/m at tained 5 out of 8 cavities with fabrication errors, accelera-
9 33 -2 -1
Q=5Â and a luminosity of some 5Â cm sec . A tion gradients of 16.7 MeV/m were obtained in a RF pulse
conceptual design report (CDR) was published in May of 100 µsec. For more details see [21,27].
1997 [15] giving a complete description of the machine The measurement of cryogenic properties of the mod-
including all subsystems. The report includes a joint study ule such as cryogenic loads, behaviour of cavity positions
with ECFA on the particle physics and the detector layout. during thermal cycles and vibrations stayed well within
Since 1990 interest has grown [16,17] in linac driven the expected limits [23]. Detailed reports on the low level
X-ray FEL radiation, based on the Self-Amplified Spon- RF control, achieving a very impressive stability of phase
taneous Emission (SASE) principle [18,19]. As the re-
and amplitude of the accelerating fields, will be given at
quirements on the emittance of the beam for a short wave
length FEL are very demanding, again a superconducting this conference [24].
low RF frequency linac lends itself as the best choice for Several alternatives to the welding of dumb-bells for
such an application. The CDR includes the layout of an X- the production of 9-cell Niobium cavities - like hydro-
ray FEL facility integrated into the linear collider as well forming [28,32], spinning [29], or plasma spraying of
as various scientific applications of the FEL radiation. A copper on thin walled Nb cavities [30] - are being pursued
detailed report on the status of the X-ray facility will be within the collaboration. If successful, these methods may
given at this conference [20]. eventually lead to a further cost reduction in the cavity
fabrication.
3 R&D RESULTS AND ACTIVITIES A very important new development was initiated by the
proposal of a cavity "superstructure" [31]. In this scheme
Up to now 25 9-cell Niobium cavities have been tested
the spacing between adjacent cavities is reduced from 1.5
at the TTF. The majority of the cavities exceeded the
9 to 0.5 RF wavelengths and a group of 4 or more of these
initial TTF design goal of 15 MV/m at Q=3Â . Fig. 1
closely spaced cavities is supplied with RF power by only
shows the measurements in the vertical test stand [26] of
one input coupler. In this way the filling factor - the ratio
all cavities excluding only those with a well identified
of active to total length - increases from 66 % to 76 % or
fabrication error. On average a gradient of 22 MV/m at
10 more, thus reducing the required gradient for 500 GeV cm
Q=10 is obtained. In the most recent measurement in the
9 operation from 25 to 21.7 MV/m for fixed linac length.
horizontal test [25] a gradient of 33 MV/m at Q=4Â has
The cost reductions due to the smaller number of RF input
been achieved.
couplers and cryostat penetrations, and the simplification
101 1 P1 of the RF distribution system are obvious.
D1
D2
D3
A15 4 TESLA PARAMETERS
C19
C21 In the Conceptual Design Report the machine parame-
Q0 101 0
C22
C23 ters were chosen such that luminosity and beamstrahlung
C24
new TESLA 500 C25 energy loss were comparable to other linear collider de-
C26 signs [33]. The potential of the superconducting linac to
C27
TESLA goal S28 accelerate a very small emittance beam with small emit-
TTF goal S29
9 D38 tance dilution was not exploited intentionally, keeping
10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 requirements on the alignment and stability of the linac
Eacc [MV/m] and final focus components quite relaxed. Since the com-
pletion of the CDR, however, this strength of the TESLA
Figure 1: Quality factor Q versus acc. gradient for all 9- concept has been investigated to some extent [34] leading
cell cavities without fabrication error (vertical test). to a new parameter set [35] suited for high luminosity
operation at 500 GeV cm energy (see Table 1). The bene-
9
fits of the new "superstructure" concept have been incor- As, for a given beam energy and beam power, the dis-
porated into the design. ruption parameter Dy is proportional to the product of
luminosity and bunch length [35], the increase of Dy at a
Table 1: Updated parameters at Ecm=500GeV in compari- higher luminosity can be compensated by shortening the
son with the original reference parameters. bunchlength. This handle has been applied only moder-
TESLA TESLA ately up to now in the new design due to problems in the
(ref.) (new) damping rings.
site length [km] 32.6 32.6 The TESLA damping rings are quite unconventional
active length [km] 20 23 machines. At a beam energy of only 3.2 GeV they have a
acc. Gradient [MV/m] 25 21.7 circumference of 17 km, of which 95 % are straight sec-
10
quality factor Q0 [10 ] 0.5 1 tions, located inside the TESLA tunnel (see Figure 2).
tpulse [µs] 800 950 Only two short return bends on either side with extra
# bunches nb/pulse 1130 2820 tunnels are needed ("dogbone"), thus saving substantially
bunch spacing ∆tb [ns] 708 337 on civil engineering costs. However, the large circumfer-
rep. rate frep [Hz] 5 5 ence C and the low energy lead to an unfavourable en-
Ne/bunch [10 ]
10
3.6 2 hancement factor of the incoherent space charge tune
shift:
εx / εy (@ IP) [10 m]
-6
14 / 0.25 10 / 0.03
beta at IP βx/y [mm]
*
25 / 0.7 15 / 0.4 & 1H
∆4 ~ ⋅ (3)
spot size σx /σy [nm] ( 2
σ ] ε [ε \
* *
845 / 19 553 / 5
bunch length σz [mm] 0.7 0.4
beamstrahlung δB [%] 2.5 2.8 Already for the CDR parameters the vertical tune shift
Disruption Dy 17 33 amounted to -0.18. Further reductions of bunchlength and
PAC (2 linacs) [MW] 95 95 emittances therefore would lead to uncomfortably large
efficiency ηAC È b [%] 17 23 tune shifts. The proposed cure for this problem [39] is to
34
luminosity [10 cm s ]
-2 -1
0.68 3 increase the beam size in the long straight sections by
coupling the longitudinal or horizontal emittance to the
The reduction of the required gradient vertical plane. First calculations [40] show that the space
(25 MV/m) leads to an increase of the quality fac- charge tune shift can be very effectively reduced in this
9 10
tor from 5Â to 10 . Both effects lower the required way without trading in problems due to intra-beam scat-
power for the cryogenics. This power savings has been tering.
invested in the beam power. The resulting lower loaded
Q-value corresponds to a shorter filling time of the cavi-
ties, which in turn results in an increased conversion effi- 5 LAYOUT OF THE COLLIDER
ciency from mains to beam power (17 FACILITY
Although the vertical emittance has gone down by al-
There has been consensus within the collaboration that
most an order of magnitude as compared to the CDR,
the linear collider facility must be built at an existing high
tracking simulations [36] show that the emittance only
energy physics laboratory to make use of the existing
grows by 23 % and 17 % due to single bunch and multi
infrastructure and staff. In the CDR two possible sites
bunch effects respectively. However, most of the growth
have been envisaged, one being DESY, the other Fermi-
due to multibunch effects is not an incoherent spot size
lab. Both sites allow for a future option to collide
dilution but a systematic variation of the beam center - +
500 GeV e /e with high energy protons circulating in
along the bunch train at the IP. In combination with the
HERA or the Tevatron.
larger disruption parameter - as compared to the CDR -
This option fixes the possible direction of the linear
these offsets may drive the opposing beams apart and
collider. At DESY the tunnel is foreseen with the main
critically reduce the luminosity. Fortunately, being mostly
linac axis being tangential to the West straight section of
systematic, the offsets can be strongly reduced by the fast
HERA, extending about 32 km into the state of
bunch to bunch orbit feedback. Further investigations of
Schleswig-Holstein. The countryside is flat at about 10 m
this topic will be needed, however.
above sea level with maximum height variations of some
As is to be expected the smaller spot sizes of the col-
10 m. The tunnel axis is foreseen at 8 m below sea level,
liding beams put stronger requirements on the accuracy of
giving more than sufficient soil coverage for radiation
the fast orbit feedback at the IP [37]. To keep the lumi-
protection. The soil, consisting mainly of sand, allows for
nosity loss below 7 % the relative offset of the opposing
easy tunneling by the hydroshield method, which was also
EHDPV DW WKH ,3 KDV WR EH NHSW EHORZ y [38]. This
used at HERA. The tunnel follows the earth's curvature
requires a bpm resolution at the final focussing quad-
rupoles of 2 µm, which should be feasible.
10
over most of its length, except for a section of about 5 km shaft connecting the service hall with the tunnel (see Fig.
length to direct the tunnel axis tangentially to HERA. 3).
A view into the planned tunnel (diameter 5.2 m) is Due to the large spacing between consecutive bunches,
shown in Fig. 2 at a section which contains the straight there is no crossing angle required at the IP and conse-
sections of the "dogbone" damping ring (upper left side) quently no angle between the tunnel axis of the two linacs.
and several beam lines (right below the cyromodule) to The beams are deflected by electrostatic separators, hav-
the FEL facility. At the top of the tunnel there is a mono- ing passed the interaction region and the large aperture,
rail for the transportation of equipment and personnel. superconducting quadrupole doublet. A tunnel length of
about 1.2 km between the IP and the ends of either super-
conducting linac is needed for the beam delivery system
[15] containing beam collimation systems, beam diagnos-
tics and orbit correction elements, and the final focus
system, demagnifying the beam size and correcting chro-
matic effects. These tunnel sections also house the beam
dumps and the positron source.
As the amount of positrons needed for a beam pulse ex-
ceeds the potential of conventional positron sources, the
electron beam having passed the interaction region is used
to produce the required number of positrons. In this
scheme, proposed in the original VLEPP design [43], the
spent electron beam is collimated and passed through a
ZLJJOHU SURGXFLQJ ODUJH TXDQWLWLHV RI UD\V ZKLFK FRn-
+ -
vert in a thin rotating target into e e pairs. The fraction of
Figure 2: View into the TESLA Tunnel. positrons which can be captured by the source optics,
accelerated to 3 GeV and stored in the dogbone damping
Klystrons and their pulse transformers are installed ring yields a sufficient number of particles for the opera-
horizontally below the floor in the middle of the tunnel tion of the linear collider. With the new design parameters
above the cooling water tubes. There is a total of about the fraction of the spent electron beam usable for positron
625 10 MW klystrons including about 2.5 % spare. Each production actually increases from 86 % to 93 % due to
klystron feeds 32 9-cell cavities corresponding to a length the smaller beam emittance, thus substantially reducing
of about 48 m. With a lifetime of 40,000 hours about 10 the power load on the collimators [44]. Although a de-
klystrons will have to be replaced in a one day interrup- tailed technical layout of the positron source is still miss-
tion once per month. ing, first investigations indicate that the whole system can
The experience of the SLC [41] on the failure rate of well be accommodated into the tunnel.
modulators does not permit an installation into the tunnel,
inaccessible during machine operation. Therefore in the 6 ENERGY UPGRADE POTENTIAL
present layout the modulators are housed in service halls With the new "superstructure" concept the gradient
above ground connected to the pulse transformers in the needed for 800 GeV cm energy is 34 MV/m. From the
tunnel by long cables (Fig. 2, lower right). However, the results on cavity R&D (section 3) the optimism, that aver-
design of modulators reliable enough to be installed into age gradients well above 30 MV/m at Q values of 5 10
. 9
the tunnel is being investigated. can be reached within the near future, is well justified.
Service halls, spaced along the collider at a distance of The theoretical maximum gradient for our structures lim-
about 5 km are needed for the cryogenic plants [42] in any ited by the critical magnetic field is at about 55 MV/m.
case. The length of superconducting linac that can be All subsystems of the collider have been laid out for
cooled by a cryoplant is about 2.5 km. This distance is 800 GeV operation. The number of klystrons and modu-
mainly determined by the pressure drop in the large return lators will be doubled. With the present layout of the
tube (300 mm diameter) for low pressure Helium gas at cryogenics the repetition rate of the collider will have to
about 2 K. The pressure in tube determines the vapour be reduced from 5 to 3 Hz to maintain the level of avail-
pressure of the superfluid helium surrounding the cavities able cooling capacity. By further reducing the normalised
and thus the operating temperature of the cavities. -8
vertical emittance by a factor 3 to 10 m , a luminosity of
Each service hall houses two cryoplants each supplying 34 -2 -1
5Â cm sec can be obtained [35], the beamstrahlung
a 2.5 km section of the linac. In case of a failure of one energy loss staying below 5 %. The mains power re-
plant, the other one can supply two sectors operating the quirement will go up to 130 MW. An upgrade of the
collider at a reduced repetition rate. The big cryogenic cryogenic cooling capacity will allow luminosities close
boxes are planned to be installed in the 14 m diameter 35 -2 -1
to 10 cm sec to be reached by running the collider at a
repetition rate of 5 Hz.
11
[9] H. Weise, Contribution to this conference.
[10] H. Padamsee, EPAC92, Berlin.
[11] D. Trines et al. HEACC92, Hamburg, Vol. II.
th
[12] 4 Workshop on RF Superconductivity, Tsukuba
1989, KEK Report 89-21, Ed. Y. Kojima.
st
[13] 1 International TESLA Workshop, Cornell 1990,
CLNS 90-1029.
th
[14] 5 Workshop on RF Superconductivity, Hamburg
1991, DESY M-92-01.
+ -
[15] Conceptual Design of a 500 GeV e e Linear Collider
with Integrated x-ray Laser Facility,
Ed. R. Brinkmann, G. Materlik, J. Rossbach,
A. Wagner, DESY 1997-048, ECFA 1997-182.
[16] L. Serafini, M. Ferrario, C. Pagani, A. Ghio,
P. Michelato, A. Peretti, LNF-90/035 (R).
Figure 3: Service hall with shaft connection to the tunnel. [17] C. Pellegrini, Workshop on Fourth Generation Light
Sources, SSRL Report 92/02, p. 364.
7 OUTLOOK [18] R. Bonifacio, C. Pellegrini, L. N. Narducci, Opt.
Communi Vol. 50, No. 6 (1984).
On the basis of the existing knowhow, orders to indus- [19]Ya. S. Derbenev, A. M. Kodratenko and E. L. Saldin
try are being issued to evaluate the requirements of large NIM, A193, 415 (1982).
scale industrial cavity production. Together with a de- [20] J. Rossbach, Contribution to this conference.
tailed layout of all subsystems of the collider the informa- [21] M. Pekeler, EPAC98, Stockholm.
tion from the industrial studies will allow for a proposal [22] T. Garvey et al., PAC97, Vancouver.
containing technical design of the facility, and a reliable [23] J. G. Weisend II et al., ICEC98, Bournemouth, UK.
schedule and cost evaluation, to be submitted in two to [24] S. Simrock, Contribution to this conference.
three years from now. To obtain public acceptance the [25] P. Clay et al., ICEC95, Columbus, Ohio.
states, the communities, and the residents involved have [26] T. H. Nicol et al., IEEE Proceedings PAC93, Vol. 2.
been informed about the planning. An administrative [27] W.-D. Möller, Contribution to this conference.
procedure to eventually ensure the necessary legal condi- [28] I. Gonin et al., TESLA 98-09
tions for the construction of the facility - if approved - is [29] V. Palmieri, Contribution to this conference.
underway. [30] M. Fouaidy et al., EPAC98, Stockholm.
[31] J. Sekutowicz, M. Ferrario and C. Tang, EPAC98,
8 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Stockholm and TESLA 98-08.
th
I would like to express my respect to the many people [32] C. Z. Antoine et al., 8 Workshop on RF Supercon-
in and outside the collaboration who have been working ductivity, Abano Terme 1997, DAPNIA/SEA-98-10.
on the cavity R&D over the years. This work has been [33] G. Loew (ed), Int. Linear Collider Technical Review
certainly cumbersome at times but finally lead to the Commmittee Report, SLAC-R-95-471.
beautiful cavity results, which we have today. Many peo- [34] R. Brinkmann, TESLA 97-13.
ple have contributed to the present status of the TESLA [35] R. Brinkmann, EPAC98, Stockholm.
design, whom I cannot give proper credit to. But I would [36] A. Mosnier, unpublished contribution.
like to give special credit to the late G. Horlitz for de- [37] I. Reyzl, PhD Thesis, TU Berlin, 1998, to be pub-
signing the complete cryogenics system of TESLA. lished.
[38] O. Napoly, D. Schulte, unpublished contribution.
[39] N. Walker, unpublished contribution.
9 REFERENCES [40] K. Balewski, unpublished contribution.
th
[1] M. Tigner, Nuovo Cimento, 37 (1965) 1228. [41] A. R. Donaldson, J. R. Ashton, 20 Int. Power Mod.
[2] U. Amaldi, Phys. Lett., B61 (1976) 313. Symp., Myrtle Beach, South Carolina, 1992.
[3] J. Kirchgessner et al., HEACC, Geneva 1980. [42] S. Wolff et al., ICEC98, Bournemouth, UK.
[4] H. Gerke and K. Steffen, DESY PET-79/04 (1979). [43] V. E. Balakin, A. A. Mikhailichenko, Preprint
[5] R. Palmer, New Developments in Particle Accelera- INP 79-85.
tion Techniques, Orsay 1987, CERN 87-11, ECFA [44] R. Glantz, unpublished contribution.
87/110.
[6] R. Brinkmann, DESY M-95-10 (1995).
[7] J.P. Delahaye, G. Guignard, T. Raubenheimer and
I. Wilson, LC97, Zvenigorod, Russia, Vol. I, p. 428.
[8] TTF-Proposal, DESY-TESLA-93-01.
12
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT FOR AN
X-BAND LINEAR COLLIDER*
C. Adolphsen
Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, Stanford University, Stanford CA 94309 USA
Abstract initially with a 500 GeV center-of-mass energy where
only the first half of each of the opposing linacs will
At SLAC and KEK research is advancing toward a contain rf components, and the beams will ‘drift’
design for an electron-positron linear collider based on through the remaining halves.
X-Band (11.4 GHz) rf accelerator technology. The The main components of the linac rf system are the
nominal acceleration gradient in its main linacs will modulators that power the klystrons, the 75 MW
be about four times that in the Stanford Linear Collider klystrons that generate the rf, the distribution system
(SLC). The design targets a 1.0 TeV center-of-mass that transports the rf to the accelerator structures, and
energy but envisions initial operation at 0.5 TeV and the structures themselves. In the following sections, we
allows for expansion to 1.5 TeV. A 10 34 cm –2 s –1 review the designs, recent R&D and future develop-
luminosity level will be achieved by colliding multiple ment plans for these components.
bunches per pulse with bunch emittances about two
orders of magnitude smaller than those in the SLC. The 2 MODULATORS
key components needed to realize such a collider are
The modulators that are used in the SLC are
under development at SLAC and KEK. In this paper we
conventional line-type with pulse-forming networks
review recent progress in the development of the linac
(PFN). These networks are composed of discrete
rf system and discuss future R&D.
inductors and capacitors that are slowly charged and
then rapidly discharged (via a thyratron) through a
1 INTRODUCTION step-up transformer to generate the high voltage pulse
For the next generation electron-positron linear needed to drive an SLC klystron. A similar approach is
collider, one wants to generate at least one TeV being pursued at SLAC to produce the 490 kV, 260 A,
center-of-mass collisions to complement the physics 1.5 µs long pulses required for the X-Band klystrons
reach of the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) that is being that are being developed [3]. The current design has a
constructed at CERN. At SLAC and KEK research has single modulator powering two klystrons through a 14:1
been focused on a collider design that uses X-Band transformer. A prototype version has been built using
(11.4 GHz) rf technology to achieve this goal [1,2]. high-energy-density glass-type capacitors, and tested
The design has evolved largely from the experience with a single S-Band klystron at a lower voltage
gained from operation of the Stanford Linear Collider (290 kV) to produce the same impedance as two
(SLC) where S-Band (2.9 GHz) rf technology is used X-Band klystrons. In this configuration, 89% of the
to accelerate beams to about 50 GeV. Increasing the rf stored energy is transferred from the modulator to the
frequency allows for higher gradients (72 MeV/m klystron, and 82% of the transferred energy is within
versus 17 MeV/m in the SLC) which keeps the the 1.5 µs long pulse flattop, between the pulse rise
machine cost from becoming prohibitive at the higher (350 ns) and fall (450 ns) periods. The charging power
energies. supply used in the test was not particularly efficient;
To be efficient, multiple bunches (95) will be however, if the goal of 90% is achieved, the overall
accelerated on each rf pulse (120 Hz repetition rate). energy transfer efficiency from AC to usable klystron
There will be about 1010 particles per bunch and the beam power would be 66%.
bunch spacing will be 2.8 ns. These 0.6 A beams will To improve efficiency, KEK is working with a
reduce (load) the gradient in the 1.8 m long X-Band Blumlein modulator configuration [2]. Here a step-up
accelerator structures by 16%. Including energy transformer of half the turns-ratio as the conventional
overhead, the effective gradient in the structures will configuration sits between two PFNs of the appropriate
be 55 MeV/m. The structures will fill 86% of the lineal impedance to double the primary voltage. In principle,
distance along the main linacs so 10.4 km long beam this should yield a faster rise time due to the lower
lines will be required to accelerate the electron and leakage inductance of the transformer [4]. However,
positron beams from their 10 GeV injection energies to tests thus far with klystron loads have yielded values
500 GeV. However, the collider will be operated comparable to the SLAC results. Both groups will
________________ continue to upgrade their test setups to improve
* Work Supported by DOE Contract DE-AC03-76F00515.
efficiency, reduce costs, and handle the full klystron
pulse requirements. 3 KLYSTRONS
One drawback of these modulator designs is their During the past decade at SLAC and KEK, research
use of thyratrons which in general have relatively short has been directed at developing X-Band (11.4 GHz)
lifetimes (10-20 khour) and require periodic tuning. As klystrons in the 50 to 130 MW range [1,2,6,7,8]. Until
an alternative, a solid-state induction-type modulator is the last few years these klystrons have used large
being developed at SLAC and LLNL that has the solenoid magnets to focus the beam in its path from
potential of better reliability and higher efficiency [5]. the gun through the bunching and output sections to the
The basic idea is to sum many low voltage sources collector. However, the power used by these magnets,
inductively to yield the desired klystron voltage. This around 20 kW, is comparable to the average rf output
has been realized by having each source drive a power so it has a big impact on efficiency. This has
transformer made from a 4.5 inch ID, by 11.5 inch OD, prompted the development of a focusing scheme that
by 2 inch thick Metglass core. The cores are stacked uses permanent magnets so there is no associated
so the secondary windings, which sum the output power loss.
voltages, can be threaded through their IDs. Each Before discussing this scheme however, we review
source is essentially a capacitor that is slowly charged results from the latest and perhaps last generation of
and then partially (20%) discharged through a solid- solenoid-focused X-Band klystrons that SLAC and
state switch to generate the pulse. KEK will develop. They operate with a perveance
Recent improvements in Isolated Gate Bipolar (I [Amps] / V 3/2 [Volts]) of 1.2 × 10–6 and contain four-
Transistor (IGBT) switches, which are used in electric
cell traveling wave output cavities. At SLAC, the XL4
trains for example, have made this induction scheme
klystrons are the culmination of its 50 MW klystron
conceivable. They have relatively fast rise and fall
development program. Six of these tubes have been
times (< 100 ns between 10% and 90%) with turn-off
built, and they are used as X-Band rf sources for
occurring after a fixed delay of about 100 ns from the
component testing and beam acceleration in the Next
end of the gate pulse. Tests so far have been done with
Linear Collider Test Accelerator (NLCTA). They
resistive loads: a single source has directly (no core)
reliably generate 1.5 µs long, 50 MW pulses with a
switched 1.5 kA at 2 kV, and an 18 kV pulse has been
41% beam-to-rf efficiency. In a brief test, one klystron
generated inductively through a six-core stack with
produced 75 MW, 1.2 µs long pulses at 48%
single-turn primaries and a four-turn secondary.
efficiency. At KEK, the XB72K #9 tube, which was
Although the switching times are fast in these cases, developed with BINP, has recently produced 72 MW
the rise and fall times in actual operation will be with a 31% efficiency although the pulse length was
somewhat longer due to the combination of the modu- limited to 200 ns by the modulator. KEK, in
lator leakage inductance and the klystron capacitance. collaboration with Toshiba, has also recently com-
Simulations have shown that a 1:1 turns-ratio is needed pleted assembly of a tube that is expected to produce
to produce fast enough rise and fall times (≈ 200 ns) to 126 MW, 1.5 µs long pulses at 48% efficiency. It uses
yield an overall efficiency of 75%. Part of this longer cavity cells with a lower Qext to be able to
efficiency would come from including circuitry in each operate at higher currents for the same cavity surface
source that would recover much of the stored energy fields. Testing of this tube has just started.
remaining in stray inductances and capacitances after At SLAC, permanent magnet tubes are now being
the IGBTs shut off. developed. In these designs, about 40 magnet rings
For the 1:1 turns-ratio design, one hundred 5 kV, with alternating polarities are interleaved with iron
2 kA sources are summed to drive 8 klystrons. IGBTs pole pieces to generate a periodic (i.e., sine-like) axial
capable of switching such power are expected to be field along the ≈ 0.5 meter region between the gun
available soon. Failure of any single source should be anode and beam collector. The resulting focusing
benign; the core will saturate and be nearly transparent strength is proportional to the RMS of this axial field.
to the pulse. Some overhead in voltage capability will About 2 kG can be achieved practically, which is
be included to offset such a loss. Also, the sources will smaller than the ≈ 5 kG field in the solenoid-focused
be independently timed to better shape the pulse, for tubes. This has led to a lower perveance (0.8 × 10 – 6 )
example, to offset the natural droop. One potential design where the space charge defocusing is smaller.
problem in driving many klystrons is that an arc in one To handle the increased voltage drop along the output
will be fed by the stored energy in the others (the cavity, it was lengthened to five cells. The lower
circuit itself can be shut off in time to not be a perveance has the advantage of increasing efficiency
problem). Adding inductors in the power feeds that fan through improved bunching, but it makes the modulator
out to the klystrons should reduce the discharge power harder to build due to the higher voltage hold-off
to a manageable level. In the next year a more (490 kV). The efficiency goal for these Periodic
realistic prototype will be built to better evaluate this
induction modulator scheme.
Permanent Magnet (PPM) klystrons is at least 60% In the original version of this Delay Line Distribution
when generating 75 MW, 1.5 µs long pulses at 120 Hz. System (DLDS), which was proposed by KEK, the
Thus far, SLAC has built a 50 MW PPM klystron power is summed with 3 dB hybrid combiners and
using samarium cobalt magnets. This tube has pro- distributed up-beam through individual circular wave-
duced 2 µs long pulses with a 55% efficiency at the guides to each set of structures [2,9]. The power routing
design power. A 75 MW PPM tube has also been built is accomplished by varying the relative rf phases of the
but has had operational problems that are thought to four sources. In the circular waveguides, the power is
arise in part from using magnets that do not fully meet transported in the low-loss TE01 mode as is done in the
specifications. A switch to NbFeB magnets was made SLED II delay lines. To reduce the length of
for machining and cost reasons, but they proved harder waveguide, a multimode version of this system has
to manufacture within the desired magnetic tolerances. been proposed at SLAC in which the power is
The present program is to improve the operation of this distributed through a single circular waveguide, but in
tube and concurrently to build a new version that is four different modes [10]. In this case the power from
more suited for mass production. It should be com- the four klystron pairs is sent to a ‘launcher’ that
pleted by the end of 1999. At KEK, a 75 MW PPM generates the modes based on the relative rf phases of
tube that was designed and built by BINP was tested the four inputs. During operation, the phases are varied
with limited success. Work there has recently focused to excite the four modes sequentially in equal time
on more accurate klystron modeling using the MAGIC intervals. The circular waveguide modes are TE 01,
code. These studies have resulted in a better under- TE12H , TE12V and TE21 where the H and V subscripts
standing of existing tubes and will be used as the basis refer to horizontal and vertical polarizations. Three of
for designing the first PPM tube at KEK. modes travel up-beam and are extracted at appropriate
locations to arrive 100 ns (the structure filling time)
4 RF DISTRIBUTION before the beam. Each ‘extractor’ couples out only one
mode and passes the remaining modes. The fourth
The function of the rf distribution system is to
mode (TE21) is extracted at the launcher. KEK is
transport the klystron output power to the accelerator
considering a similar scheme but with the power
structures. This task is made more difficult by the fact
distributed in two circular waveguides where two
that the klystrons optimally generate a lower power
modes (TE01, TE12H ) are launched and extracted in
and longer pulse than that needed for the structures. In
each waveguide.
past linac designs and in the NLCTA, the solution was
For the rf transport between the klystrons and
to use pulse compression, namely the SLED II system
launcher, and between the extractors and the struc-
which is a delay line version of the SLAC Linac
tures, the TE01 circular waveguide mode is used. The
Energy Doubler (SLED) [1]. It consists of a 3 dB hybrid
extracted power in each case feeds three contiguous
divider that routes the klystron output power equally to
accelerator structures. To power a contiguous array of
two delay lines made of circular waveguide. These
structure triplets, nine DLDSs (a nonet) are interleaved
lines are shorted at the far end and have irises at the
to form a 225 m long sector. The sector length is set by
near end that partially reflect the rf. During operation
the 1.5 µs klystron pulse length and the relative beam-
in the NLCTA, for example, the two 40 m long lines
to-rf group velocity (about 2c). Twenty-two sectors are
are resonantly filled during the first 5/6th of the 1.5 µs
required to produce a 500 GeV beam.
long klystron pulse, and then effectively discharged
An important requirement of this distribution system
through the remaining hybrid port by a 180º reversal of
is its power handling capability. With eight 75 MW
the klystron phase during the last 1/6th of the pulse.
klystrons, 600 MW of rf power will be launched,
This yields a shorter (1/6th as long), higher power
extracted and ‘taped-off’ in thirds to feed 200 MW to
pulse that is used to power two NLCTA accelerator
each structure. Based on operational experience, the
structures. Although it works well, it is not particularly
goal is to keep the surface fields in all transport
efficient; about 30% of the power goes to the structures
components below about 40 MeV/m [11]. Recently,
during the filling of the delay lines, so the power gain
two planar-style 3 dB hybrids and several rectangular
is about four.
(TE10) to circular (TE01) mode converters were
Although there are more efficient pulse compression
successfully tested to 420 MW with 150 ns long
methods, the scheme now being pursued sums the
pulses. To test components at their design power level
power from four pairs of klystrons, ‘slices’ it into four
and beyond, the NLCTA is being upgraded to produce
equal time intervals, and then distributes it up-beam to
800 MW, 240 ns long pulses.
four sets of accelerator structures that are appropriately
Concepts for the launcher, extractors and bends are
spaced so that the beam-to-rf arrival time is the same
in hand and development programs have begun at
in each case. Hence no power is wasted although there
SLAC and KEK. In addition to reducing the surface
are still resistive wall losses.
fields, the designs aim for a power reduction of < 1%
in each component due to mismatches and resistive
wall losses. Overall, a klystron-to-structure transfer were machined flat to < 0.5 µm and smooth to
efficiency of about 85% is expected where only a < 50 nm. The cells were then assembled in Japan using
small portion of the power loss occurs in the long a two-step diffusion bonding technique. In the first
circular waveguides. This assumes no mode conversion step, the cells were stacked on an inclined V-block
in these sections. A joint experiment is under way to and pressed by 600 kg of force for 48 hours in a 180 °C
verify that such conversion losses are small, especially environment. This procedure partially bonded the sur-
from rotation of the polarized modes. faces which prevented cell-to-cell slippage when the
stack was placed upright to be fully bonded. For this
5 ACCELERATOR STRUCTURES step, the stack was placed under 24 kg of force at
890 °C for 4 hours.
SLAC and KEK have enjoyed an active collabora-
The straightness of the resulting structure varied with
tion in X-Band accelerator structure development for
scale, increasing from a few µm cell-to-cell to a few
more than five years. This has led to a common
hundred µm over its 1.8 m length. However, the long
structure design that uses an electrical scheme
wavelength (> 0.5 m) offsets were reduced by counter
developed at SLAC and assembly techniques pio-
bowing the soft copper structure. A straightness of
neered at KEK. The electrical design addresses both
+/- 20 µ m was achieved, yielding an overall alignment
the requirement of efficient beam acceleration and the
that meets the requirements of the linear collider
need to suppress the long-range transverse wakefield
design. In this design, the long wavelength alignment
generated when a beam travels off-axis through the
of the structures will be set and maintained by the
structure. Unless the wakefield is reduced by about two
support system. The structures will be attached to
orders of magnitude, the coupling of the bunches in a
girders in sets of three with a single rf feed per girder
multibunch train will resonantly amplify any betatron
that is ‘tapped-off’ to each structure. Each girder will
motion of the train by a significant amount. This
have remote adjustment capability and will be
difficult goal has been met by using a combination of
positioned to best center the beam in the three
two methods.
structures based on the information obtained from
The first to be developed was mode detuning
whereby the frequencies of the lowest (and strongest) processing the dipole mode signals from the structure
band of dipole modes are systematically varied along manifolds. Thus, only the internal alignment of the
the 206 cell structure to produce a Gaussian distribu- structures along the girders will have to be established
tion in the product of the mode density and the mode with precision (about +/- 20 µ m) and be kept stable.
coupling strength to the beam [12]. With this detuning, Studies of long-term stability have been done with
the modes excited by an off-axis bunch add decon- mock structures on a prototype girder. They show that
structively, yielding an approximately Gaussian falloff the desired level of alignment is maintainable in an
in the net wakefield generated after each bunch. A operating-like environment.
sigma of 2.5% was chosen for the 206-mode frequency In the most recent DDS prototype, the rf match
distribution to produce more than a hundred-fold wake- through the output ports of the manifolds was improved
field suppression by 1.4 ns, the nominal bunch spacing and the dipole frequency profile was changed slightly
in the early linear collider designs. to increase the wakefield suppression. To gauge the
effect of these changes, the long-range wakefield of
This detuning works well to suppress the wakefield
the structure was measured in the Accelerator
for about the first 30 ns, after which its amplitude
Structure Setup (ASSET) facility in the SLAC Linac
increases due to a partial recoherence of the mode
[14]. Here a positron beam was used to induce a
excitations. This has led to the introduction of weak
wakefield in the structure and an electron beam was
mode damping to offset this rise [13]. The damping is
used to ‘witness’ it. The measurements show larger
achieved through the addition of four single-moded
than expected values for the wakefield, particularly at
waveguides (manifolds) that run parallel to the
short times (< 20 ns). This increase is thought to be the
structure and couple to the cells through slots. For each
result of systematic errors in the cell dimensions. Errors
dipole mode, the power flow to the manifolds occurs in
of roughly the size required to explain these data were
that region of the structure where the cell-to-cell phase
observed in a sample of cells measured for QC
variation of the mode matches that of the manifold
purposes prior to assembling the structure.
mode. When terminated into matched loads, the
Centering tests were also done in ASSET in which
manifolds reduce the mode Q’s from about 6000 to
the dipole signals were used as a guide to position the
1000, enough to keep the wakefield from significantly
positron beam. Measurements of the resulting short-
increasing again.
range wakefield (< 300 ps) indicated that the beam
To date, three of these Damped Detuned Structures
had been centered to < 20 µ m in the structure which is
(DDS) have been constructed. The cells for the most
roughly the requirement during linear collider opera-
recent version were manufactured at LLNL using
tion. However, monopole-like components of the
diamond-point turning. The mating surfaces of the cells
transverse wakefield were also observed and need to 6 SUMMARY
be understood.
The next structure that will be built will have The four major components of an rf system for an
rounded shaped cavities instead of the cylindrical X-Band linear collider - the modulators, klystrons, rf
shape used so far. This increases the shunt impedance distribution system and accelerator structures - are
of the structure by 12% which yields a 6% increase in being actively developed at SLAC and KEK. Once
the rf-to-beam efficiency. This rounded-DDS or RDDS their designs are more mature, an integrated rf system
will have an average iris radius equal to 18% of the with eight klystrons will be built that will serve as a
X-Band wavelength. This value was derived from a model element of a full-scale linac.
joint SLAC and KEK study to optimize the linac
performance. The main design difficulty thus far has 7 REFERENCES
been in damping the modes in the few cells at the
[1] “Zeroth-Order Design Report for the Next Linear
downstream end of the structure that cannot be coupled
Collider,” SLAC Report 474 (1996).
to the manifolds due to space limitations. Several
[2] “JLC Design Study,” KEK (April 1997).
solutions are being considered including adding
[3] R. Koontz et al., “NLC Klystron Pulse Modulator
individual absorbers in these cells. Otherwise, the
R&D at SLAC,” http://www.slac.stanford.edu/grp/
electrical design is nearly complete; SLAC and KEK
kly/mkw/nlc.htm (June 1998).
will jointly build and test an RDDS by the end of 1999.
[4] M. Akemoto et al., “Pulse Transformer R&D for
The suppression of the long-range wakefield is not
NLC Klystron Pulse Modulator,” SLAC-PUB-
the only difficult structure performance requirement.
7583 (July 1997).
The structures must also operate reliably at a high
[5] Dick Cassel, talk presented at the Third
gradient, about 70 MeV/m. Three structures have been
Modulator-Klystron Workshop at SLAC (1998),
rf conditioned to this level, the most recent one up to
see http://www.slac.stanford.edu/grp/kly/mkw/.
85 MeV/m after 440 hours of operation [15]. It is a
[6] G. Caryotakis, “Development of X-Band Klystron
1.3 m long, diamond-turned structure built at KEK to
Technology at SLAC,” SLAC-PUB-7548 (May
study detuning. During its conditioning, the rf power
1997).
was slowly increased until a breakdown occurred in
[7] D. Sprehn et al., “Periodic Permanent Magnet
which > 5 MW of power was reflected back toward the
Development for Linear Collider X-Band
source. The rf was then shut off for 2-4 minutes to
Klystrons,” these proceedings.
allow the structure to pump down, and then it was
[8] Y. H. Chin, “Modeling and Design of Klystrons,”
slowly ramped up again. This procedure was continu-
these proceedings.
ally repeated under computer control during most of
[9] H. Mizuno, “RF Pulse Compression for Linear
the conditioning period.
Colliders,” these proceedings.
At the highest gradient, the dark current emitted
[10] S. Tantawi et al., “A Four-Port Launcher for a
from the downstream end of the structure was about
Multi-Moded DLDS Power Distribution System,”
5 mA and the mean time between breakdowns was
these proceedings.
less than a minute. Reducing the power to yield a
[11] A. Vlieks et al., “High Power RF Component
70 MeV/m gradient reduced the dark current to about
Testing for NLC,” these proceedings.
0.5 mA and increased the periods between breakdowns
[12] K. A. Thompson et al., “Design and Simulation of
to several hours. Even at the highest gradient, however,
Accelerating Structures for Future Linear
the loading due to the dark current should not have
Colliders,” Particle Accelerators 47, 65-109
been significant.
(1994) and SLAC-PUB-6032 (Nov. 1993).
Another dark current related concern is the excita-
[13] R. H. Miller et al., “A Damped Detuned Structure
tion of transverse fields. To the extent that such fields
for the Next Linear Collider,” SLAC-PUB-7288
are the result of excitations of the lowest band of
(Sept. 1996).
dipole modes, an estimate of their size was made by
[14] C. Adolphsen et al., “Wakefield and Beam
measuring the dipole signals from a manifold of a DDS
Centering Measurements of a Damped and
during rf conditioning to 70 MeV/m. No significant
Detuned X-Band Accelerator Structure,” to be
signals were observed (except during breakdown)
presented at PAC99.
which puts a limit on the transverse field amplitude
[15] R. Loewen et al., “SLAC High Gradient Testing
that is within the tolerance required in the linear
of a KEK X-Band Accelerator Structure,” to be
collider design. The latest DDS prototype will be
presented at PAC99.
conditioned in the near future as part of a more
systematic program to understand high gradient limits
in the structures.
SCALING LAWS FOR NORMAL CONDUCTING e+ e- LINEAR COLLIDERS
J.-P. Delahaye, G. Guignard, I. Wilson/CERN, T. Raubenheimer /SLAC.
Abstract 2 LUMINOSITY - FIGURE OF MERIT
Design studies of a future TeV e+e- Linear Collider The luminosity of an e+/e- linear collider is given by:
(TLC) are presently being made by five major laborato- k b N b2 f rep N b Pb H D N b RFAC RF
b PAC
ries within the framework of a world-wide collaboration. L (1)
* * * * * *
A figure of merit is defined which enables an objective 4 x y 4 eU f x y 4 eU f x y
AC RF
comparison of these different designs. This figure of where PAC, and are the AC power, the AC-to-
RF b
merit is shown to depend only on a small number of
RF and RF-to-beam efficiencies, Uf, Pb, and Nb are the
parameters. General scaling laws for the main beam
beam energy, beam power and number of particles per
parameters and linac parameters are derived and prove to
be very effective when used as guidelines to optimize bunch, x* and y* are the r.m.s. beam sizes at the
the linear collider design. By adopting appropriate pa- Interaction Point (I.P.) after being pinched by the beam-
rameters for beam stability, the figure of merit becomes beam interaction, and HD is the corresponding luminosity
nearly independent of accelerating gradient and RF fre- enhancement factor. Each particle is decelerated by the
quency of the accelerating structures. In spite of the beam-beam interaction losing on average an energy B
strong dependence of the wakefields with frequency, the and emitting n -rays. At c.m. energies < 2 TeV the
single bunch emittance preservation during acceleration parameters are chosen such that B does not exceed a few
along the linac is also shown to be independent of the RF %, this is the so-called low beamstrahlung (LB) regime.
frequency when using equivalent trajectory correction At higher energies, to get adequate luminosity, the
schemes. In this situation, beam acceleration using high- parameters are chosen in the high beamstrahlung (HB)
frequency structures becomes very favourable because it regime [3]. In the HB regime, where n = 3.5 B, choosing
enables high accelerating fields to be obtained, which n 2 ensures a reasonable compromise between the
reduces the overall length and consequently the total cost fraction of total luminosity contributed by particles with
of the linac. energies within 1-2 % of the maximum, and the number
1 INTRODUCTION ±
of e pairs which appear as background in the detector.
In both regimes therefore B is an essential design
A lot of progress has been made in the last ten years parameter. The assumption of flat beams ( x >> y) to
on design and development studies towards high- enhance the luminosity and to decrease B leads to the
luminosity TeV-range Linear Colliders (TLC). Various following expressions in the LB and HB regimes:
options for efficient beam acceleration have been
U f N b2 n 1/ 3
N b2 / 3
explored and periodically compared within the and z
(2)
B *2 B
framework of a world-wide collaboration [1]. Two basic z x 3.5 U 1f / 3 x*2 / 3
technologies have been developed for beam acceleration:
Using (1), (2), and assuming in the LB regime a vertical
TESLA proposes to use 1.3 GHz super-conducting (SC)
beta function at the I.P. equal to the bunch length to
structures whereas SBLC, JLCc, JLCx, NLC,VLEPP and
minimise the “hourglass” effect, the luminosity scales as:
CLIC have chosen normal-conducting travelling-wave 1/ 2 AC RF 3/ 2 AC RF
(NCTW) structures operating at the very different B H Dy RF b PAC B H Dy RF b PAC
L and L (3)
frequencies of 3, 5.6, 11.4, 14 and 30 GHz, respectively. *1 / 2
U f ny U 1f / 2 *y1 / 2 1z / 2 ny
*1 / 2
General scaling laws have been derived [2] for multi- In both cases, the luminosity only depends on a small
bunch TLCs which use NCTW structures, taking into number of parameters. For objective comparisons, a
account the basic physics processes which have been figure of merit M, is defined as L normalised to PAC, B,
used to optimise the different designs. For completeness,
and Uf. Neglecting the variations of HD (small for a flat
the graphs also include data points for both TESLA and AC
VLEPP in spite of their respective SC and single bunch beam) and of RF (similar in all designs), M becomes:
RF
operation. The motivation for the scaling study is two- Uf b U1f/ 2 b
RF
fold. First, by comparing the parameters adopted by the M L and M L (4)
1/ 2 *1 / 2 3/ 2 1/ 2 *1/ 2
various design studies which cover a decade in operating B PAC ny B PAC z ny
frequency, the study provides an insight into the way the The TLC design optimisation consists of selecting beam
different optimisations have been achieved. Secondly, it parameters, and choosing a technology that is able to
provides a logical strategy based on objective, physics- accelerate, at a reasonable cost, a high power beam with
based arguments for designing or re-optimising any new an optimum AC-power to beam-power conversion
or presently-proposed linear collider. efficiency (Sections 3 and 4) while preserving a very
small vertical normalised beam emittance (Section 5).
13
3 RF POWER TO BEAM EFFICIENCY 4 THE NORMALIZED BEAM CURRENT
The RF-to-beam conversion efficiency is directly To optimise the design of a linear collider, the beam
related to the choice of the RF frequency and the beam and linac parameters are therefore chosen to maximise
parameters. In order to obtain a high RF-to-beam the J parameter while preserving the initial vertical
transfer efficiency, all TLC designs (except VLEPP) normalised beam emittance. All four parameters in the
have chosen to operate with a large number of bunches. expression for J, (eq. 6) are directly related to the RF
In the extreme case of an infinite number of bunches, the frequency, , of the accelerating structures. This is why
formulation of the RF to beam efficiency becomes the different TLC designs are mostly frequency driven.
extremely simple [2] with a dependency on only two The well known scaling with frequency of R , when
parameters: the field attenuation constant of the taking into account the iris to wave-length ratio, a/ , is
structures, , and the normalised beam current, J: well verified in the TLC designs (Fig.2):
RF 2 g( )J R rQ 1/ 2 a
/ 1 (10)
b (5)
2
2
J e
1 1
2 g
R qb R Ib
where J (6)
Ga b Ga
and R , Ib, qb, b, Gu, Ga are respectively the shunt
impedance per meter, the beam current, the charge per
bunch, the interval between bunches, the unloaded and
loaded accelerating gradient. For a given J, there is a
value opt which maximises the RF to beam efficiency:
Gu b 1
opt (7)
R qb J (1 )
Figure 2: Accelerating structure parameters.
Using accelerating structures with an optimum field The minimum distance between bunches is limited
attenuation, opt, following equation (7), and for the more by the transverse wakefield level that can be obtained at
usual range of beam parameters, 0.5 J 2 , where the the second and subsequent bunches by damping and/or
beam loading parameter is limited to 50% (Fig. 1), the detuning. For a given type of structure the number of RF
RF
scaling of b
and opt is approximated by: periods needed for the same relative wakefield reduction
R qb
1/ 2 is constant. This is reflected in Fig. 3 which shows that
RF J 1/ 2
b and opt J 9 /10 (8) in spite of the different structure designs, the distance
Ga b
between bunches adopted in the various TLC designs
Here, is the approximate proportionality implied by scales with the RF wavelength:
the straight line fit in Fig. 1 over the range of parameters 1
b (11)
considered. The figure of merit then becomes:
1/ 2 1/ 2 The J parameter then becomes:
RF R' qb
b J R qb J 3/ 2 a
( / ) 1 Ga 1 N b (12)
M (9) Ga b
*1 / 2 * *
ny ny ny G a b
The charge per bunch is therefore made as high as
possible to maximise J. Its maximum value is limited by
beam stability considerations as developed in section 5.
RF
Figure 1: Optimum RF to beam efficiency, b, field
attenuation, , and beam loading parameter, . Figure 3: Time interval between bunches.
14
5 BEAM EMITTANCE PRESERVATION
Very small vertical normalised beam emittances of a
-8
few 10 rad-m are expected from state-of-the-art damp-
ing rings presently under development. During accelera-
tion along the several-kilometer-long linacs however, the
beams suffer a transverse blow-up n
, which is espe-
cially important in the vertical plane because of the
particularly small initial emittance. One of the primary
causes of emittance blow-up comes from the transverse
wake-fields induced by the misalignment of the acceler-
ating structures and by the beam trajectory deviations.
5.1 BNS damping
Figure 4: Iris to wavelength ratio.
The single-bunch beam stability is greatly improved
by so-called BNS damping [4] using a correlated energy 5.4 Focusing optics of the linacs
spread which is introduced along the bunch such that: In order to limit the BNS momentum spread needed
LCELL for beam stability (eq. 13), the focusing strength along
p/ p BNS N b WT (13)
U the linac is usually increased with the operating
where < > is the mean betatron amplitude of the frequency as shown in Fig. 5. This is possible at higher
focusing optics along the linac, and WT is the short range frequencies because of the reduction in size of the linac
transverse wakefield averaged over the bunch with an components. Assuming the inner diameter, D, of the
r.m.s. length, z, and scaling as: quadrupoles is scaled inversely with frequency in the
WT WT' z 4
a/ 7/2
(14) same way as the inner radius of the iris, a , of the RF
z
structures, then for the same magnetic field on the poles,
Under BNS damping conditions when taking into
account equation (14), the vertical blow-up induced by B, the same phase advance per cell, 0, and the same
the transverse wake-fields [5] shows a strong quadrupole filling factor, F, the FODO cell length, Lcell ,
dependence (to the eighth power) on the frequency: scales as follows:
ny RF N b2 z2 a / 7 8G 1
a 0 Ls
2
y RF (15) D 1/ 2 1/ 2
Lcell o Locell a/
FLcell B
but the other parameters in equation (15) also scale
strongly with the frequency as shown hereafter. 5.5 Pre-Alignment tolerances of the RF structures
5.2 Bunch length Since the size of the accelerating structures becomes
smaller with increasing frequency, the accuracy with
The bunch length, z, is made as small as possible in which they can be made and pre-aligned is expected to
order to decrease the average transverse wakefield in the approximately scale with the inverse of the frequency.
bunch according to equation (14). However, the As seen in Fig. 6, the variation of the pre-alignment
minimum acceptable bunch length is determined by the tolerances of the RF structures in all TLC designs is well
need to compensate, towards the end of the linac, the approximated by the following scaling law with
energy spread associated with the longitudinal wake- frequency, which indeed is very close to expectation:
fields, by positioning the bunch off the crest of the y RF 3/ 4
(19)
accelerating RF wave. Thus:
N bW L
z sin( RF ) z N b Ga 1 a / 2 (16)
Ga
where WL is the short range longitudinal wakefield and
RF is the off-crest RF phase which is limited to small
values for the sake of beam acceleration efficiency.
5.3 Ratio of iris radius to RF wavelength
As shown in Fig. 4 for the different TLC designs, the
ratio of iris radius to RF wavelength, a/ , increases with
increasing frequency in order to minimise the effect of
the transverse wakefields (equation 14):
a/ 1/5 (17) Figure 5: Focusing optics at injection into the linac.
15
Figure 6: Pre-alignment tolerances of RF structures.
Figure 7: Charge per bunch.
5.6 Accelerating section length
The length of the accelerating section, LS, is adjusted
to obtain an optimum field attenuation parameter, , to
opt
maximise the RF-to-beam efficiency (equation 7)
2Qv g opt 2Qv g
Ls (20)
J (1 )
Neglecting the variation of the beam loading
parameter , for small values, and introducing the
scaling for J (eq. 6) as well as of the quality factor Q
and the group velocity vg, the optimum length of the
accelerating sections, in the extreme case of an infinite
number of bunches, becomes:
3 a Figure 8: Bunch length.
Ls / 4 Ga N b 1 (21)
5.7 Charge per bunch
Finally, it is possible to derive the scaling of the
maximum charge per bunch. This is the charge which
produces a tolerable and frequency-independent beam
blow-up during acceleration. It is deduced by
substituting the relations for the scaling of all the
different parameters (eq. 16, 17, 18, 19 and 21) in eq. 15.
ny RF Const.
5/3 13 / 6
Nb a/ Ga2 / 3 6/5
Ga2 / 3 (22)
Figure 9: Length of the accelerating structures.
After substitution of eq. 22 for N b in eq. 13, 16, and 21,
z
, Ls, and BNS
become:
2/ 3 1/ 6
z a/ Ga 1 / 3 2/3
Ga 1/ 3 (23)
2Qv g opt 4/3 11 / 6
Ls a/ Ga1 / 3 1
Ga1 / 3 (24)
2/3 1/ 6
BNS a/ G 1a / 3 2 / 3 1/3
Ga (25)
As shown in Figs 7, 8, 9 and 10, the charge per bunch,
the bunch length, the length of the accelerating structure
and the theoretical momentum spread for BNS damping
adopted in the TLC designs compare favourably with the
above scaling laws. Figure 10: Momentum spread for BNS damping.
16
The strong dependence on frequency of the vertical derived for both the linac and beam parameters for an
blow-up induced by transverse wakefields is therefore infinite number of bunches, stable beam operation and
cancelled by an appropriate choice of the other minimum energy spread at the linac end. Under these
parameters and reduced to an acceptable level in all the conditions, the main beam parameters are fully
TLC designs, independently of the RF frequency: determined. Using them, and choosing an optimum field
*
ny ny nyo ny with ny Const. (26) attenuation for the RF structures in order to obtain an
optimum RF-to-beam efficiency, it is found that:
There is also a contribution [5] to coming from the The RF-to-beam efficiency is a weak function of the
beam position monitor (BPM) misalignments. The same frequency and accelerating gradient (Eq.28)
condition (26) on the emittance growth produces for In spite of the large increase of the wake-field
-1
yBPM the generally expected dependence with amplitude with frequency, the wakefield effect and
(Section 5.5), the corresponding beam emittance blow-up are
1/ 4 1/ 6 1 1/ 6 independent of the RF frequency (Eq. 26), for
y BPM Ga y RF Ga (27)
equivalent beam trajectory correction techniques.
Finally, by introducing the frequency laws obtained
In the low-beamstrahlung regime, generally adopted
up to this point, the normalised beam current and the
for intermediate-energy TLC designs (0.5 to 2 TeV),
RF-to-beam efficiency become roughly independent of
the luminosity slightly increases with RF frequency
the RF frequency and accelerating gradient,
and slightly decreases with accelerating gradient
b
RF
J 1/ 2 1 / 12
a / 7 / 12 G a 1 / 6 1 / 30
G a 1 / 6 (28) 1 / 2 AC 1 / 30
B RF Ga 1 / 6
L 1/ 2
PAC
Uf 1/ 3
6 SENSITIVITY TO GROUND MOTION nyo 1 ny / nyo
The slow ground motion, modelled by the standard In the high-beamstrahlung regime, usually adopted
ATL law [6], causes all linac components to move with for high-energy TLC designs (3 to 5 TeV), the
time. If uncorrected, the resulting trajectory variation luminosity increases with RF frequency but is
will lead to emittance dilution [7]. The dominant effect independent of accelerating gradient
comes from the quadrupoles with a contribution 3/ 2 AC 1/ 3
B RF
3 2 L PAC
nQUAD ATN cell BNS (29) U 1f / 2 *1 / 2 1/ 2 1/ 2
y nyo 1 ny / nyo
where Ncell is the number of focusing cells in the linac,
which is proportional to Lcell and Ga. Thus, using the Finally, the use of high frequencies in accelerating
above scaling laws, the time interval required between structures for main linacs of future TeV e+e- Linear
corrections to limit the emittance growth is Colliders is particularly appropriate, since they allow
operation with high accelerating gradients, which
G a7 / 3 ny ny minimise the overall length and therefore the cost of
TQUAD (30)
5/ 2 the linacs. Provided that the beam and linac parameters
A ny ATL
are chosen to fulfil beam stability criteria and optimum
The equivalent time interval related to cavity drift shows RF-to-beam transfer efficiency, high frequency designs
a similar dependence Ga1 / 3 5 / 3 . Finally, the high benefiting from high accelerating gradients result,
frequency vibration of the focusing magnets induces a when compared to lower frequency designs with lower
pulse-to-pulse trajectory variation which cannot be cor- gradient and similar beam quality, with the same or
rected with beam-based feedbacks. In local beam-size better RF efficiency and figure of merit.
units, this induced beam jitter is [5]:
y2 4U 0 N CELL U f
(1 ) 8 REFERENCES
2
2
y QUAD tan (31)
y ny LoCELL U o 2 [1] Int. Linear Collider Technical Review Committee
Report, ed. G. Loew, SLAC-R-95-471, 1995.
where yQUAD is the focusing magnet movement. As a
[2] J.P. Delahaye and 3 co-authors, CERN/PS/97-51,
consequence, the vibration tolerance scales as:
1997 and CLIC Note 333.
y2 Ga
2
y QUAD (32) [3] J.P.Delahaye and 6 co-authors, Proc. PAC97,
2 2/3 ny
y Vancouver, Canada, and CERN/PS 97-23, 1997.
[4] V.E. Balakin, and 3 co-authors, Proc. 12th Int. Conf.
7 CONCLUSION On High Energy Accelerators, Fermilab, 1983.
The figure of merit M, defined in Section 2, has been [5] T.O. Raubenheimer, CLIC Note 347, 1997.
+ -
used to optimise the design of a future TeV e e Linear [6] B. Baklakhov, and 5 co-authors, INP 91-15; Tech.
Collider. M is only dependent on two parameters: the Ph.38, 984, 1993.
AC-to-beam power transfer efficiency and the vertical [7] A. Sery and O. Napoly, Phys. Rev. E 53, 5323 ,1996.
beam emittance at the IP. Scaling laws have been
17
AN INDUCTION LINAC FOR THE SECOND PHASE OF DARHT
H. L. Rutkowski
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
One Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
Abstract The injector is a dispenser cathode diode driven by a
The Dual Axis Radiographic Hydrodynamics Test long pulse Marx generator at 3.2 MV peak flat voltage.
facility (DARHT) is under construction at Los Alamos The injector beam pulse enters a first cell block of 8 large
National Laboratory. The facility will contain two bore induction cells that accelerate it to 4.6 MeV energy.
electron accelerators arranged perpendicular to each The rest of the accelerator consists of 10 cell blocks of 8
other. The second accelerator is a long pulse induction cells each that accelerate the beam to the full 20 MeV
linac using Metglas core technology and will provide a energy. The exit current is 4kA maximum for 2µs.
beam pulse at 20MeV with flat top current of 4KA. The Between each cell block, an intercell provides a pumping
focal spot should be less than 1.2mm in diameter. point and a station for inserting diagnostics. The entire
Generation of beam breakup (BBU) and corkscrew system is 175 ft. long, from the injector to accelerator
motion at the focal spot must be minimal. Very flat beam exit. The induction cells use Metglas as the ferromagnetic
energy, excellent alignment of transport magnets, and low material. The first cell block has a 14” diameter beam
values for TM mode impedances in the accelerator pipe while the bulk of the cells have a 10” beam pipe.
cavities are needed. The accelerator will consist of a This is to reduce generation of BBU in the front end.
diode injector using a dispenser cathode, providing The system is presently in the design stage with
3.2MeV energy together with a linac with 88 acceleration prototyping work supporting the design. The injector
cells. Marx generators will provide pulsed power for both design is fairly detailed and two options exist for the
injector and linac. The pulse will be transported to a design of the accelerator cells. A concept of the
kicker (designed by Lawrence Livermore National accelerator sitting inside the building is shown in Fig. 1.
Laboratory) which selects four 60ns pulses for transport The downstream transport and chopper are also shown.
to the final focus and the conversion target. The status of The pulsed power units are in an adjacent hall not shown.
the design of the accelerator system will be presented
along with results from prototype tests. Effect of
operational requirements on the design of the accelerator
will also be discussed.
1 INTRODUCTION
The accelerator for the second axis of the DARHT
facility is a long pulse induction linear accelerator that
provides an electron beam that will be used to produce a
series of fast high energy X-ray pulses. The fast electron
beam pulses, nominally 60 ns in duration, will be chopped
out of a 2 µs single pulse and will be transported to a set
of X-ray conversion targets. The X-rays will be used to
image dense metal objects driven by high explosives. Fig. 1 Accelerator in Second Axis Building
Initially four short pulses are required from the machine
though the system could be upgraded to use the remaining
part of the long pulse to provide additional views or more 2 INJECTOR
time resolution. Lawrence Livermore National
The injector is shown in Fig. 2 together with its first
Laboratory has the responsibility for the system from the
block of 8 cells. The first block of 8 cells is included
point where the beam exits the accelerator up to the final
here because the physics design of these cells is
focus on the X-ray conversion target or targets. The
intimately connected with the injector design.
subject of this paper is the injector, accelerator and pulsed
The injector itself is a simple diode designed for rapid
power systems that are being designed and built by
acceleration of the electrons emitted by the cathode to 3.2
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory.
MeV in order to minimize emittance growth at the start.
The emittance required at the final focus at the X-ray
converter target is 1500 π mm-mrad normalized. This
_____________
emittance limit is derived from the 1.2mm focal spot
* This work was supported by the U.S. Department of
desired at the converter. This spot size is in turn required
Energy under Contract No. DE-ACO3-76SF00098.
by the spatial resolution desired in the radiographs. The
21
required maximum flat current is 4 kA for 2.1 µs. gap is 30cm. As can be seen in Fig. 2, the main current
However, the current must also be adjustable to allow for feed from the Marx makes a right angle bend. The
operation of the accelerator down to 1 kA to vertical part of the feed is 1.5m behind the cathode face.
accommodate various commissioning and operational This current feed geometry results in a dipole error field
modes. There are a few options for achieving this such as of 3-5 gauss in the diode gap. A quadrupole error field
changing cathodes and reducing voltage. The power also exists. Correcting coils for these fields are being
supply for the diode is a Marx generator being designed designed. The sextupole field which could increase
by Pulse Sciences Inc. The Marx must provide matched emittance was shown to be negligible in calculation as
voltage pulses of up to 3.5 MV to the combination diode were all higher order fields. A gate valve isolates the
and ballast resistor load with a flatness of ± 0.5%. The diode from the accelerator.
dielectric for the high voltage system is oil and it is being
designed to survive a variety of failure modes. The
maximum rep rate is 5 shots per minute. The insulator
column itself is made of glued Mycalex sections with
resistive grading and MOV’s for damage protection. The
injector is still being designed with fabrication to begin in
October 1998.
Fig. 3 Diode and First Cells
The rise time of the injector is required to be less than
400 n s and the design point is 200 n s. The fall time is
planned to be 100 ns with use of a laser triggered
crowbar. The off energy particles produced in the rise
and fall must be dumped in a non-destructive way.
Conical scapers will be placed in the first 8 cells to
Fig. 2 Injector and First Cell Block remove these electrons. The design of the accelerator
cells will be discussed below in the next section.
A more detailed drawing of the diode itself is shown The insulator column in the injector is designed with a
in Fig. 3. The cathode is a type M dispenser cathode (8” combination of Mycalex insulator rings and high purity
diameter) which can deliver up to 20 A/cm2 in a space aluminum oxide rings. The rings will be glued (Hyso
charge limited mode. The operating temperature will be 9359.3) with metal grading rings. The overall height is
1050°C with a uniformity of ±1% across the face. The almost 13 ft. with grading rings and joints. The Mycalex
cathode shroud is partially water cooled near the source rings were obtained from LANL where they were spares
and will be made of optically polished molybdenum, for the column of a decommissioned Van de Graaff
stainless steel, or coated stainless steel. Small scale tests accelerator. These rings are 47.5” outside diameter with
on breakdown in vacuum are being carried out on these 3” wall thickness. They offer very large cost savings over
materials and molybdenum appears to be the best choice building a ceramic brazed column of the same size or a
so far. However, full size shrouds using all three column made of new Mycalex. Mycalex which is a mica-
materials will be tested in the injector. The peak glass mixture seems to be mechanically tougher than
enhanced field stress on the cathode shroud is 162 kV/cm. ceramic and to have very good breakdown resistance.
The shroud material must not only be good to this level of The clear space inside the insulator column is 38”
enhanced stress but it must also survive in case of diameter after the grading resistors (liquid), metal oxide
breakdown. Comparison with other machines and the test varistors (MOV’s) for damage protection, and shock
results so far indicate that the configuration can be made guard rings are in place. Shock guard rings are
to work at this stress. The plate on which the cathode incorporated to shield the insulator material from any
mounts is attached to a hexapod mounting system that is shock waves generated by a breakdown in the oil
moved for alignment by six pressure activators. A dielectric. Mycalex is expected to be more survivable
bucking solenoid can be seen inside this mount in Fig. 3. than alumina with respect to such shocks.
This solenoid serves to cancel the field at the cathode The original dielectric choice of high pressure SF6 was
caused by the focusing solenoids located inside the anode discarded for oil because of the fear of insulator
surface. The anode itself is stainless steel and the diode catastrophic failure after the column aged and was subject
22
to damage from electrical breakdown. The injector pulse 3 ACCELERATOR
generator is an 88 stage PFN Marx. It can be used to
drive different beam currents by varying the resistance of The accelerator must take the 3.2 MeV injector beam up
the liquid grading and ballast resistors. The entire high to 20 MeV while not growing the emittance by more than
voltage system is being designed to 3.5 MV for safety 1000 π mm-mrad normalized. The other major
factor. A laser triggered spark gap is included in the requirement is that the beam at exit cannot have
design to reduce unwanted beam in the pulse tail and to transverse motion of its centroid greater than ± 10% of the
aid in shorting the pulse for lower pulse energy beam radius due to all sources. This means both
applications. The pulse can be shortened in six steps by corkscrew and BBU motion. Corkscrew motion of the
shorting out PFN stages in the Marx. The design will beam centroid arises because of the misalignment of
accommodate diode impedances from 714Ω to open solenoids in the transport line and energy variations
circuit (875Ω nom). A high voltage dome is located at the during the beam pulse. BBU arises if transverse magnetic
end of the Marx and contains a hydraulically driven motor (TM) modes are excited in the accelerating cavities.
generator that provides 15KW power to the cathode Since these modes have axial E fields that change
dome, power supplies, and diagnostic/controls units to direction across the beam axis they can extract beam
bring information out to the cathode dome. Voltage energy and put it into mode energy. The transverse B
flatness will be ± 0.5%. The injector Marx and all the field of the mode creates a transverse kick in the beam. In
accelerator pulsers are required to hold charge for up to order to reduce corkscrew motion the pulsers for the cells
one minute to accommodate firing site needs with no must generate voltage pulses that are flat to ± 0.5%. After
more than one failure in 20 attempts. This is an the solenoids have been aligned mechanically as well as
experimental diagnostic requirement. In the experimental possible the corrector coils in each cell can be used
shot firing mode the accelerator system cannot fail more together with a “Tuning-V” algorithm [1] developed by
than one shot in 600 where failure is defined as detonating LLNL to reduce corkscrew motion to a minimum. The
the explosive without obtaining beam. voltage for each cell is nominally 193 kV for the small
In addition to the design activity there are several bore cells and 168 kV for each of the first 8 cells. The
testing activities underway. Materials for the cathode first block of 8 cells (injector cells) is designed with a 14”
shroud are being tested at small scale for field emission beam pipe while the rest of the machine (generic cells) is
threshold, breakdown, and breakdown dependence on designed with a 10” beam pipe. This was done because
vacuum. So far, optically polished Mo has shown the best use of a larger bore at low energy reduces the transverse
results with a field emission threshold of 300 kV/cm (200 mode impedance in an area particularly susceptible to
kV total voltage). Breakdown thresholds above 400 BBU growth. In a pillbox cavity design the transverse
kV/cm have been shown for both Mo and uncoated mode impedance scales as [2] w/b2 where w is the gap
stainless steel. The breakdown threshold doesn’t seem to and b is the beam pipe radius. Another way to reduce
depend significantly on vacuum between 10-8 and 10-5 BBU generation besides increasing the pipe size is to
Torr. A scaled version of the injector gun is being set up increase the solenoid field. However, one cannot
on the Relativistic Two-beam accelerator (RTA) at arbitrarily increase the transport solenoid field at low
LBNL. The RTA machine operates at 1MV total gun energy because it causes emittance growth. The original
voltage, 1.2 kA maximum current, and 0.3 µs pulse cell design for the entire accelerator is shown in Fig. 4a
length. This test with a 3.5” diameter dispenser cathode The original 10” cell was designed with a conical section
will test the beam optics and breakdown at full field Mycalex insulator. Originally the insulator was to be
stress, current density and in a space charge dominated Rexolite because of the favorable experience LANL has
regime. This scaled gun will be used to test diagnostics had with this material. However tests at LBNL indicated
and to benchmark the EGUN, IVORY SLICE, and that it does not survive breakdown from microsecond
GYMNOS codes that are being used for design to ensure scale pulses well even though it works very well in the
that correct emittances are being calculated. A cathode regime below 100ns. Therefore Mycalex was chosen
test stand and a Long Pulse Development Facility are because of its mechanical toughness, good breakdown
being assembled at LANL to allow testing of full size behavior, and good vacuum properties. A Rexolite
cathodes and to perform beam tests of accelerator cells insulator will however be tested in the prototype cell. A
respectively. Once the parts for the full injector are ready, disadvantage of Mycalex is its high dielectric constant
the entire system will be assembled and tested as a unit at (6.9) which increases the transverse mode impedance of
an industrial location near LBNL prior to being sent to the cavity compared to a Rexolite insulated version.
LANL for final commissioning. Calculations with AMOS for a cavity without Metglas
Use of a dispenser cathode in the diode dictates an gave values of 450 Ω/m for the dominant mode.
excellent vacuum system and clean servicing Measurements have been done on a full scale cavity
environment. The system design calls for three 16” cyro without Metglas and with a cast epoxy insulator of the
pumps. The design baseline pressure in the tank in 2×10–8 same dielectric constant as Mycalex. The result for a
t. There is sufficient pumping to reach this pressure in damped cavity was 330 Ω/m for the dominant mode
less than 1 hour after roughing. (TM110). This measurement technique which uses loops
to drive modes selectively and probes inserted into the
23
cavity on axis to displace field gives a measurement of precise calculation of the final corkscrew motion requires
Z/Q through interpretation of the frequency shift of a a final machine tune.
mode due to the probe [3]. This measurement becomes
more unreliable as the mode is increasingly damped.
Since one wants to damp these modes as much as possible
other methods must be used to get definitive results with
strong damping. This original cell design is a shielded
gap with peak field stress of 100 kV/cm on the negative
electrode and 40 kV/cm on the insulator surface.
Fig. 4b Injector Cell
The transport solenoids in the generic cells are 12
layer fine wire solenoids 16” long impregnated with
epoxy. The 8 injector cell solenoids are only 6 layers
thick. The total power for running these solenoids plus
the 5” long coils in the eleven intercells is 1.5 MW steady
Fig. 4a Original Cell state if each solenoid is at maximum field (0.22T generic,
0.11T injector). The solenoids reside in cavities within the
The process of designing the special cells for the first beam pipe and are DC, water cooled units. They float
block led to the design shown in Fig.4b. This design used electrically from the machine. PC board type corrector
a different insulator shape and created a space for coils are also placed between the solenoid and the pipe
diagnostics which were desired in the first cells because wall. An initial tune has been calculated for these
of the importance of beam motion at the beginning of the solenoids and the beam envelope at exit is 1 cm diameter.
machine. Another reason for the change was to create a Based on the use of the two pipe sizes in the machine, a
mode frequency shift between the two types of cells. This BBU amplification relative to a straight pipe has been
configuration will probably be used for the smaller bore calculated. The values are 12.2 at 170 MHz, and 11.0 at
cells as well because of the opportunity to place 535 MHz. These numbers are based on a resonant seed at
diagnostics anywhere and because of some mechanical the exit of the injector at the relevant frequency. The
design advantages. AMOS calculations give transverse amplification is the ratio between the displacement with
mode impedances of 185 Ω/m at 170 MHz and 170 Ω/m cavity impedances present to displacement in the presence
at 450 MHz for this design with a Mycalex insulator and a of continuous beam pipe with no cavities.
14” beam pipe. Applying the same configuration to the The intercells shown in Fig. 1 serve as pumping points
smaller bore cells gives 300 Ω/m at 200MHz and 310 with a turbo pump and a cryo pump at each intercell.
Ω/m at 540 MHz. The mode frequencies are shifted Design vacuum in the accelerator is 10-6 t. The intercells
between the first block and the rest of the machine which also provide a place for intercepting diagnostics for beam
reduces BBU. profile and emittance measurement, B-dot loops for beam
Corkscrew motion is combatted by generating flat motion, and beam position monitors.
voltage pulses in the pulsers which are E type Marx An important part of the pulsed power design is the
PFN’s. The transport solenoid fields must also be well Metglas core material. Allied Signal 2605 SC is the
aligned to reduce corkscrew. LANL [4] experience in baseline design material because of its high ∆B of 2.8T
using the Stretched Wire Alignment Technique (SWAT) with relatively low drive current. The magnetization
leads to the expectation of aligning the magnetic center of current is relatively linear and the short pulse losses
each solenoid to ± 0.1 mm and the tilt to ± 0.3 mrad. A relatively low. 2605 SA1 has been tested at LBNL in the
unannealed state and is just marginally acceptable. The
24
drive current is very non-linear and the ∆B is about 2.4T. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Another candidate is Hitachi Finemet material if it can be
obtained at an acceptable cost. The pulser used to drive The author wishes to thank all the members of the LBNL-
both types of cells is an E-network Marx PFN. The pulser DARHT project team for their contributions especially D.
will feed to the cores at four points to eliminate Anderson, R. Briggs, E. Burgess, Y-J Chen, S. Eylon, W.
production of quadrapole fields near the beam. The Fawley, J. Fockler, E. Henestroza, T. Houck, T. Jackson,
voltage pulse must be flat to ±.5%. The cell units will be C. Peters, L. Reginato, M. Vella, and S. Yu.
mounted on rails. Removal of a cell requires removal of
an intercell to create space for movement. The cells REFERENCES
themselves will be capable of individual alignment using [1] Y-J Chen, Nuc. Inst. Meth. A398, p.139, 1997
a differential screw system developed at the LBNL [2] G. J. Caporaso, A.G. Cole, Proc. 1990 Linear
Advanced Light Source. Each cell weighs about 5 Accelerator Conf., September 10-14, 1990,
Tonnes. The differential screw system allows accurate Albuquerque, p.281
movement of such massive structures to 0.001 inches [3] D. Birx, R. Briggs, T. Houck, L. Reginato, LBNL
manually. The cells will be vacuum sealed to each other Eng. Note M7700, July 2, 1998.
with an inflatable bladder technique. [4] J. Melton, Private Communication
In addition to RF cavity tests mentioned above, two [5] L.S. Walling, D.E. McMurray, D.V. Neuffer, HA
prototype cells are being constructed. The first uses the Thiessen, Nuc. Inst. Meth., A281, p. 433, 1989
original cell design and will be used to measure damped
transverse mode impedances and pulsed power tests of
breakdown and core compensation. It has SA1 cores.
This time Metglas will be in the cell and termination
conditions at the outer radius will be realistic. The test
cavity had a simple short at the outside. After the
coupled loop-probe measurements are performed for
comparison with the previous cavity measurements,
breakdown tests with Rexolite, Mycalex, and cast epoxy
will be performed and the core compensation will be
optimized. Finally two wire [5] impedance measurements
of the actual damped cell-cavity structure will be
performed. The second prototype is a large bore unit that
will have SC cores. It will be tested for pulsed power
properties and then sent to LANL for beam spill tests. In
1999, 8 small bore cells will be put on the Long Pulse
Development Facility at LANL to study beam effects in a
full cell block before design of the generic cells is frozen
for the large production phase.
25
HIGH-POWER PROTON LINAC FOR APT;
STATUS OF DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT
G. P. Lawrence
Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM, 87545, USA
1 INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW RFQ, the entire linac operates at a frequency of 700 MHz,
with rf power supplied by 1-MW CW klystrons. After
In one of two options being considered for a new acceleration, a high-energy beam transport system
source of tritium, the US Department of Energy (DOE) is (HEBT) consisting of magnetic focusing and bending
planning an Accelerator Production of Tritium (APT) elements conveys the beam to the T/B assembly. The
plant [1] that would be built at its Savannah River Site in architecture of the transport system depends on the
South Carolina. The facility will employ a high power machine energy, as indicated in Fig. 1. At the end of the
linear accelerator to produce neutrons by spallation HEBT, a raster beam expander transforms the beam into a
reactions of protons in tungsten and lead contained in a rectangular, uniform large-area distribution, providing an
target/blanket (T/B) assembly. The fast neutrons acceptable power density in the target.
produced in the target are moderated in the light water The linac design is driven strongly by the large
3
that cools the blanket elements, and then captured by He amount of rf power required to accelerate the 100-mA
gas to produce tritium. The tritium is separated from the CW beam. Efficient conversion is needed at each stage in
3
He by permeation through a palladium membrane, with the power train (from the ac grid to the beam) to
cryogenic distillation used for isotopic purification. minimize capital and operating costs. Other important
The APT design is based on a 1700-MeV proton design factors and considerations are the need to keep
linac operated at 100 mA CW. However, changing beam losses at a very low level, avoiding generation of
tritium requirements may reduce the energy to 1030 beam halo, tight control of the high-power beam (in terms
MeV, so the plant has been designed in a modular of the coupled beam/cavity/rf-drive interaction), current-
2% Beamstop
Future
Application Target/Blanket
Tritium Separation Facility
R=27.2m
R=27.2m
97.1m
253.1m
1700.0 MeV R=27.2m 1030.0 MeV 471.4 MeV 211.4 MeV
657.6m 214.7m 235.1m
45.0m 34.2m High-β SC Linac Medium- β SC Linac NC Linac
Fig.1 Modular design architecture for APT Plant.
configuration to provide construction flexibility. Figure 1 independent operation and tuning, and high operational
shows the architecture of the modular plant. Heavy availability. Parameter selection and cost/performance
shading and lines indicate the 1030-MeV configuration; modeling to achieve these objectives have been discussed
light shading and dashed lines show the portions added in previously [4]; key parameters are listed in Table 1.
a 1700-MeV system.
The project Conceptual Design Report [2] was 2.1 Normal-Conducting Low-Energy Linac
issued in April, 1997, and formal design of the plant
The low-energy NC linac accelerates a 100-mA
technical and conventional systems has now begun. A
proton beam to 211.4 MeV in copper water-cooled struct-
program of engineering development and demonstration
ures. A 75-keV injector using a microwave-driven ion
(ED&D) has been underway since 1995 to support the
source produces a continuous 110-mA proton beam.
plant design and subsequent construction.
From this input, a 350-MHz, 8-m-long RFQ (radio-
frequency quadrupole) produces a CW 100-mA beam at
2 ACCELERATOR DESIGN 6.7 MeV. This RFQ is built in four resonantly-coupled
segments, with rf drive provided by three 1.2-MW CW
The APT linac is designed as a two-stage machine
klystrons through 12 windows; it provides a current
[3], using both normal-conducting (NC) and
independent match into the next accelerating section.
superconducting (SC) accelerating-cavity technologies.
Except for the first accelerating structure, a 350-MHz
26
Normal-Conducting Linac Superconducting Linac
Parameter RFQ CCDTL CCL β = 0.64-1 β = 0.64-2 β = 0.82
Output energy (MeV) 6.7 96.6 211.4 242.0 471.4 1700 (1030)
Struct. gradient E0T (MV/m) 1.38 2.04-1.68 1.68-1.82 4.3-4.5 4.3-5.0 5.25
Avg. gradient (MV/m) 1.38 0.77-1.12 1.12-1.22 1.21-1.54 1.21-1.54 2.05
Peak surface field (MV/m) 14.1-17.7 14.1-17.7 13.1-17.5
Quadrupole lattice period 8-9 βλ 9 βλ 4.877 6.181 8.540
(m)
Section length (m) 8.0 112.8 110.4 29.3 185.4 657.6 (298.9)
Phase-adv./period (deg) – 79-44 44-35 79-46 79-46 79-82
No. of quadrupoles – 243 114 12 60 154 (70)
Quadrupole G•L prod. (T) 2.6-1.5 1.5-1.0 1.96 – 1.79 1.93 – 2.12 2.25 – 4.39
Synchronous phase (deg) - 90 to -33 - 90 to -30 -30 - 30 to -35 - 30 to -42 -30
Shunt impedance (MΩ/m) – 16-49 24-35
Copper rf losses (MW) 1.26 5.0 6.8
Power to beam (MW) 0.67 8.99 11.48 3.06 26.00 122.86 (55.86)
Power per klystron (MW) 0.77 0.80-0.84 0.81-0.84 512-560 765-840 798-840
Number of klystrons 3 17+6 24+5 6 30 154 (70)
Trans. emitt. (mm-mrad)* 0.16 0.17 0.17 0.16-0.19 0.16-0.19 0.19-0.17
Long. emitt. (MeV-deg)* 0.32 0.33 0.33 0.33-0.32 0.33-0.32 0.32-0.41
Aperture radius (mm) 2.3-3.4 10-17.4 17.4-31.9 65 65 80
Aperture/beamsize ratio – 6.5-10 10-27 28-31 28-31 32-76
* Normalized rms values, 700 MHz. Quantities in parentheses are for a 1030-MeV output energy.
The RFQ is followed by π/2-mode coupled-cavity energy and is free from phase-space transitions after the
accelerating structures, each optimized for maximum rf- RFQ. Beam dynamics analyses and simulations show
to-beam efficiency over a specific velocity range [5]. The these factors to be important in terms of minimizing core
first set of structures, which accelerates the beam to 96.6 emittance growth [6] and the generation of beam halo [7].
MeV, is a 700-MHz CCDTL (coupled-cavity drift-tube As seen in Table 1, both transverse and longitudinal
linac) made up of 2-gap and 3-gap DTL cavities that are emittance growth are negligible. To obtain a current-
embedded in a FODO singlet focusing lattice. The latter independent match between the NC linac and the SC linac
begins with an 8-βλ period and transitions to a 9-βλ (which has weaker focusing), the quadrupole strength is
period at 10 MeV to provide additional space for reduced gradually as the transition energy is approached.
quadrupoles and beam diagnostics. The quadrupoles are The CCDTL and CCL are sectioned into rf super-
external to the cavity structures, separating the focusing modules, which are each powered by 4 to 7 klystrons.
and accelerating functions, and providing easy beam Each klystron distributes power to the accelerating struct-
end of 6-cavity 6-gap
start of 2-cavity 2-cavity 4-gap quadrupole CCL segment
2βλ 4-gap segments module 6
CCDTL segment
3-gap cavity
start of
end of module 2 start of module 3
3 β λ /2
3β λ /2 module 7 3β λ /2
Fig. 2. CCDTL and CCL accelerating structure segments
alignment. Acceleration proceeds to 211.4 MeV in a ure through four coaxial ceramic windows that are tested
700-MHz side-coupled CCL that continues the 9-βλ to 1-MW power levels [8]. The maximum rf power input
focusing period. Fig. 2 displays representative segments to the cavities that is required from any of the klystrons is
of the CCDTL and CCL. 0.84 MW, which allows for 10% control margin as well
The NC linac has a short focusing period that as rf transmission line losses. There are six supermodules
elongates with beta, and the average accelerating gradient in the CCDTL, with 28-57 segments per module. The
is ramped up gradually from 0.77 to 1.2 MV/m. The CCL is divided into five supermodules, with 21-54
result is a linac that has strong focusing at low beam segments per module.
27
2.2 Superconducting High-Energy Linac looks structurally like one-half of the high-β unit. Both
are powered by a single 1-MW klystron. Earlier doublet-
The SC high-energy linac consists of cryomodules lattice medium-β linac designs with 2-cavity cryomodules
containing two, three, or four 5-cell 700-MHz niobium attempted a configuration in which a klystron powered
SC accelerating cavities. Focusing is provided by NC cavities in adjacent cryomodules. In beam simulations
quadrupoles in a doublet lattice located in the warm re- that included machine errors, it was found that this archi-
gions between cryomodules; these regions also contain tecture gave rise to significant emittance growth because
the beam diagnostics. There are two kinds of SC cavity of the large cavity-to-cavity phase/energy errors that were
shapes, each type designed for efficient acceleration in a introduced.
different velocity range. The cavity shape in the medium- Table 1 lists key parameters of the SC linac. The
beta section (211.4 MeV to 471.4 MeV) is optimized for selection of cavity gradients and numbers of cells per cav-
β = 0.64, and in the high-beta section (471.4 MeV to ity were restricted by the need to keep peak surface fields
1700 MeV) for β = 0.82. The shapes are similar to the below a safe level and by the power-coupler
well-established elliptical designs for electron machines, specifications. The rf power distribution is governed by
but are compressed longitudinally in proportion to beta. the need to fully utilize the 840-kW power available from
Because the cavities are short and are driven each 1-MW klystron. The design specification for the
independently, each section of the SC linac has a broad 9
average cavity Q0 is taken as 5x10 . A 2.15 K operating
velocity bandwidth, which allows the gradient profile and temperature for the niobium cavities has been selected to
output energy to be adjusted over a wide range. Because minimize the static and rf heat loads to the LHe
of the high beam current, the major design issue is not refrigerator and cryo-distribution system. Total cryoplant
attainment of high cavity gradients, but high power rf loads are estimated at 14.5 kW at 2.15K and 22.4 kW at
coupler capability. Performance specifications of 140 45K, for a 1700-MeV linac. These loads will be handled
kW and 210 kW have been chosen for the medium-β and by three identical LHe refrigerators that are about 50%
high-β couplers respectively, values that are at the larger than those in service at CEBAF.
advancing edge of the demonstrated technology base.
Each cavity is supplied by two antenna-type coaxial
couplers mounted on opposite sides of the beam tube. 2.3 Beam Dynamics
Dual coaxial (warm) windows are planned, located so that The key beam dynamics [9] goal is to achieve very
they do not see the beam directly. low losses (< 0.1 nA/m at 1700 MeV) in order to assure
Figure 3 depicts the cryomodule, rf, and focusing- unrestricted hands on maintenance for the linac. This is
lattice architecture for the different sections of the SC provided by strong focusing at low energies and
linac. The high-β section contains 77 (35) of the four- avoidance of phase-space mismatches, coupled with
cavity cryomodules shown in the right-hand sketch. Two apertures that are much larger than the rms beam size,
1-MW 700-MHz klystrons are used to power pairs of with the largest aper-tures at high energies where the
1-MW klystron 1-MW klystrons
1/3 2/3 β=0.64 cavity 5-cell β=0.82
cavity
quadrupole
doublets
6.18 m 8.54 m
Fig. 3. Medium-β and high-β cryomodule and rf architecture in superconducting linac.
adjacent cavities. The nominal energy gain per cavity is activation threat is greatest. In the NC linac, the aperture
4.0 MeV. The medium-β SC linac is divided into two increases in steps to 64 mm, while in the SC linac it
sections, both containing β = 0.64 cryomodules. The first jumps to 130 mm at 211.4 MeV, and then to 160 mm at
section, starting at 211.4 MeV consists of six 2-cavity 471.4 MeV. Figure 4 shows 100,000-particle beam
cromodules, and the second, starting at 242.0 MeV, con- simulations for both an error-free machine design, and for
sists of thirty 3-cavity cryomodules. Nominal energy one with a set of randomly chosen imperfections, with
gain per cavity is 2.6 MeV. The first section provides a magnitudes about a factor of two worse than typical
transition between the short focusing period of the NC errors expected in operation. The simulations compare
linac and the longer focusing period of the SC linac, and the linac aperture dimension with both the rms beam size
allows a current independent match to be obtained with and the radius of the outermost particle in the distribu-
minimal emittance growth. tion (the halo). At full energy, the aperture ratio (ratio of
The left-hand sketch in Fig. 3 shows the 3-cavity β aperture to rms-beam-size) is close to 80, providing a
= 0.64 cryomodules; the 2-cavity unit is not shown, but very large clearance for the beam halo. At low energies,
28
8 8
aperture
7 7 aperture
Transverse beam size (cm)
Transverse Size (cm)
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 most extreme 3 most extreme
particle
particle rms beam size (x/y)
2 2
rms beam size
1 1
0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Distance along beam axis (m) Distance Along Beam Axis (m)
Fig. 4. Beam simulations for APT linac design showing rms beam size and radius of outermost particle,
compared with aperture. Left: No machine errors. Right: Standard set of machine errors.
the clearance is less generous, and some small losses may Here the beam is directed either to a tuning beamstop that
occur. can take up to 2% of the full-energy beam power, or into
the beam line serving the T/B assembly. This beam line
2.4 Availability terminates in a raster beam expander, which converts the
small-diameter Gaussian-like beam distribution into a
Because the SC linac operates with short indepen- large-area rectangular (19 cm wide x 190 cm high)
dently-driven accelerating cavities, the linac output uniform distribution at the target. The beam expander
energy may be adjusted over a wide range, providing consists of two sets of four sweep magnets driven with
considerable operational flexibility. Simulations confirm triangular waveforms by IGBT modulators at frequencies
that, because of this feature, the SC linac is insensitive to close to 500 Hz. One set is for the horizontal-plane
a broad range of construction or operating errors and also sweep, and the other for the vertical plane. Because the
can continue to function in a variety of off-normal sweep frequencies are slightly different, the raster system
conditions, such as having single klystrons, cavity pairs, paints the T/B uniformly once per 30 ms. A multiply-
and quadrupole pairs out of service. In order to meet the redundant modulator fault detector system protects the
high annual availability goal for the accelerator (> 85%), T/B from excess beam power density due to degradation
redundancy schemes are used to provide excess rf drive or interruption of the sweep pattern. In the modular plant
in both the NC and SC linacs, but are implemented configuration, the T/B is located near the end of the 1030-
differently in each. The NC linac is divided into MeV linac, following a 10-period drift and a 90-degree
supermodules consisting of 100-150 coupled accelerating bend. If the linac is built to 1700 MeV, the beam returns
cells, with each unit supplied by n klystrons (typically 4 to this target line through a transport system consisting of
to 7), where only n-1 units are need-ed for operation. a 180-degree bend, a straight beam channel parallel to the
When an rf station fails, it is isolated by a waveguide linac, and a reverse 90-degree bend. Beam dynamics
switch and the accelerating structure drive iris is shorted. studies have shown that the insertion of these bends,
Power from the remaining klystrons is increased to which are first-order achromats, have essentially no effect
compensate for the lost unit, and the supermodule on beam loss and on the beam performance on the target.
continues to provide the full energy gain needed in that They do, however, introduce some additional operational
section. In the SC linac, redundancy is achieved by pro- complexity.
viding a modest level of reserve power in each rf station,
above that needed to deliver the nominal output beam
power, allowing increased energy gain in adjacent cryo- 4 ENGINEERING DEVELOPMENT AND
modules to compensate for failed units. The power DEMONSTRATION (ED&D)
reserve is 5% in the high-β section and 9% in the
The APT accelerator design is supported by a broad
medium-β section.
ED&D program that will demonstrate and prototype key
components and systems. The program (Fig. 5) consists of
3 HIGH ENERGY BEAM TRANSPORT 1) a Low-Energy Demonstration Accelerator (LEDA) that
A High Energy Beam Transport (HEBT) system [9] will prototype the APT linac front end up to 20 MeV, 2)
delivers the beam from the end of the linac to the (T/B). development of high-β and medium-β SC-cavity and
The HEBT focusing lattice continues the doublet-quadru- cryomodule prototypes, and several smaller programs.
pole optics in the high-β linac to a magnet switchyard. LEDA [10] will consist ultimately of a proton injector, a
29
6.7-MeV 350-MHz RFQ, and a 20-MeV CCDTL section. tron accelerators. For the APT SC linac, it is necessary to
Its purpose is to confirm beam performance parameters, develop cryomodule prototypes containing the lower-β
demonstrate integrated operation at full CW power, assess cavity shapes needed for a proton accelerator.
overall availability, and identify component failure Development of these prototypes will confirm design
modes. The major stages involve 1) construction and parameters, component integration, and constructibility,
testing of a 75-keV, 110-mA proton injector; 2) addition and will support transfer of the technology to industry for
of a 350-MHz RFQ to accelerate a 100-mA CW proton manufacture of plant cyromodules. The elements of the
beam to 6.7 MeV; and 3) addition of a 700-MHz CCDTL SCRF program include: 1) fabrication and high-field
to accelerate the beam to 20 MeV. testing of single-cell cavities; 2) evaluation of radiation
The LEDA injector has been built and successfully damage to a prototype cavity; 3) fabrication and testing of
+
tested at APT performance specifications (110 mA H , high-power rf couplers; 4) fabrication and testing of
<0.2 mm-mrad emittance). Construction and assembly of multicell SC cavities; and 5) assembly and tests of
the RFQ is well advanced; the eight sections have been complete prototype cryomodules. The first and second of
fabricated, and initial rf tuning of the whole structure is these activities have already been successfully
complete. The injector was recently successfully accomplished.
operated with a 1.25-MeV 267-MHz CW RFQ available Other elements of the ED&D program include: 1)
from another program. Beam output current and development of a prototype 1-MW 700-MHz High-
transmission (100 mA, 85%) were as predicted, a strong Order-Mode Inductive-Output tube, which would offer
validation of the codes used to design the APT RFQ. improved efficiency and reliability (lower operating
A prototype of the highest-energy CCDTL segments voltage) compared with a klystron, 2) construction and
(near 97 MeV) will be built and tested at full rf power to testing of a full scale raster beam expander prototype, 3)
demonstrate RF coupling, manufacturability, and thermal development and testing of high-power rf components
performance of the section of the NC linac that is the (windows, waveguide valve, etc.), and 4) development of
most difficult to cool. prototype diagnostics for measuring beam profiles at
medium and high energies.
5 REFERENCES
[1] P.W. Lisowski, “The Accelerator Production of Tritium
(APT) Project,” Proc. 1997 Particle Accelerator Conf.,
Vancouver (May 1997).
[2] APT Conceptual Design Report, Los Alamos Report
LA-UR-97-1329, April 15, 1997.
[3] G.P. Lawrence and T.P. Wangler, “Integrated Normal-
Conducting/Superconducting High-Power Proton Linac for
the APT Project,” Proc. 1997 Particle Accelerator Conf.,
Vancouver (May 1997).
[4] G.P. Lawrence, et al., “Conventional and Superconduct-ing
RF Linac Designs for the APT Project,” Proc. 1996 Int.
Linac Conf., Geneva, 710 (August 1996).
[5] J.H. Billen et al., "A Versatile High-Power Linac for
Accelerator-Driven Transmutation Technologies, Proc.
1995 Particle Accelerator Conf., Dallas, IEEE No.
95CH35843, 1137 (1995).
[6] S. Nath, et al., “Beam Dynamics Design for the APT
Integrated Linac,” Proc. 1997 Particle Accelerator Conf.,
Vancouver (May 1997).
[7] T.P. Wangler, “New High Power Linacs and Beam Physics
Issues,” ibid.
[8] D. Rees, “Design of 250-MW CW RF System for APT,”
ibid.
[9] R.E. Shafer et al., “Overview of the APT High Energy
Beam Transport and Beam Expanders,” ibid.
[10] D. Schneider, “A Review of High Beam Current RFQ
Fig. 5. ED&D program elements. Top: LEDA injector. Accelerators and Funnels,” Proc. 1998 European Particle
Bottom: β = 0.64 2-cavity cryomodule. Accelerator Conference, Stockholm (June, 1998).
[11] K.C.D. Chan et al., “Engineering Development of Super-
The SCRF ED&D program [11] has as its basis the conducting RF Linac for High-Power Applications,” ibid.
β = 1 cryomodules operating successfully in several elec-
30
HEAVY ION FUSION EXPERIMENTS AT LBNL AND LLNL*
Larry Ahle (presented for the groups at LBNL and LLNL)
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA 94551 USA
Abstract of 1-MV/m through most of the machine. The pulses on
these induction cores are tilted to longitudinally compress
The long-range goal of the US Heavy Ion Fusion (HIF) the pulse from an initial length of ~30-m to ~10-m,
program is to develop heavy ion accelerators capable of which corresponds to a pulser duration of about 100-ns at
igniting inertial fusion targets to generate fusion energy the end of the accelerator. Following this is the drift
for electrical power production. Accelerators for heavy ion compression, final focus, and target chamber section. The
fusion consist of several subsystems: ion sources, drift compression will do the final longitudinal
injectors, matching sections, combiners, induction compression to ~1-m in length. The final focus section
acceleration sections with electric and magnetic focusing, will focus the beam to the target in the chamber reducing
beam compression and bending sections, and a final-focus the radius of the beam to a few millimeters.
system to focus the beams onto the target. We are
currently assembling or performing experiments to address 2 SOURCE AND INJECTOR
the physics of all these subsystems. This paper will
In developing sources and injectors for a driver, high
discuss some of these experiments.
current density is desired because it allows smaller and/or
fewer beams and thus a cheaper injector. The current
1 HEAVY ION FUSION DRIVER
density is limited by voltage breakdown in the injector
In a heavy ion inertial power plant, particle beams are and transport limitations in the accelerator section and not
focused onto a target causing ignition. These targets by the emission limit of the source itself. Currently the
consist of a hohlraum with a Beryllium (or other low Z design goal of an injector for a driver is many beam
ablator material) capsule inside. The capsule surrounds a channels in one single vacuum chamber with a current
frozen spherical shell of D-T, which is heated and density of 8-mA/cm2 Cs equivalent.
compressed by X-rays created from the stopping of the
ions in the holhraum. The accelerator will need to 2.1 Source Development
provide approximately 5-MJ of energy on a time scale of There are many possible types of ion sources for HIF,
~ 10-ns for ignition [1] and at a rate of ~5-Hz for a cost generally producing singly charged ions but higher charge
effective power plant [2]. Further, the range of the ion states are also of interest in some driver designs. Surface
beams should be roughly 0.1-g/cm2 which implies a total ionization sources provide alkali metal ions, while a gas
kinetic energy per beam particle of a few GeV. source is suitable for generating Hg, Xe, Ar and Ne ions,
The target specifications above are now based on and a metal vapor vacuum arc source (MEVVA) would be
sophisticated simulation validation and are generally more appropriate for ions such as Gd and Bi. Most HIF
demanding lower emittance beams than believed necessary induction linac designs have used surface ionization
a few years ago. There also appears to be a trade off sources because their performance already approaches the
between beam current and ion kinetic energy. Higher HIF requirements.
beam current implies a higher technical risk but the LBNL has been working with two types of surface
resulting lower energy may produce a cheaper power ionization sources, contact ionizer and aluminosilicate. In
plant. a contact ionizer, alkali atoms are continuously fed to a
Current conceptual designs for a heavy ion fusion driver heated surface, which ionizes the atoms. This type of
start with ~100 beam 2-MeV injector and ESQ matching source routinely produces low emittance and highly
section providing a initial pulse of 20-µs with uniform beams. It also has the potential for a long
approximately 1-A of current for each beam with radius lifetime source, but since alkali metal vapor deposits can
of several centimeters. This is followed by an accelerator deteriorate the high voltage property of accelerator
section. Whether the initial part of the accelerator is components, it is important to minimize the cesium
electrostatically focused, followed by beam merging, or flow. In a recent experiment [3], the Cs+ beam current
magnetically focused is still being studied, but the end of from a 2-cm diameter contact ionizer was measured to be
the accelerator will be magnetic. The acceleration is > 15-mA/cm2 at 1145°C. In addition, the rate of the
accomplished through magnetic induction cores at the rate cesium neutral current evaporation was measured to be
______________ 1.7x1014/cm2/s or equivalently 0.14 mg/cm2/hr. To test
* Work supported by the US DOE under contract No. these sources in a real application, a Cs+ contact ionizer
DE-AC03-76SF00098 (LBNL) and W-7405-ENG-48 will be installed in the scaled final focus experiment
(LLNL).
31
described in section 4.2. This source will provide a factor determine if the phenomenon is related to non-uniform
of four increase in the current density and a more uniform ion emission.
beam.
For aluminosilicate sources, a layer of aluminosilicate 3 THE ACCELERATOR
doped with an alkali metal, is melted on a tungsten
surface. This tungsten surface is then heated during 3.1 Beam Merging
operation. The neutral current for these sources should be
Transverse beam combining at the transition from
lower than for the contact ionizer [4], but its lifetime for a
electrostatic to magnetic quadrupole transport could lower
driver before ion depletion is about one month [5].
the cost of a multiple beam induction linac driver. The
Current densities of ≈15-mA/cm2 of potassium, 7.9-
cost of induction core material and HV breakdown dictate
mA/cm2 Cs equivalent, have been achieved with a 2-cm
a small aperture in electrostatic quadrupoles, while
aluminosilicate source [3]. For these sources to achieve
magnetic quadrupole transport -- very effective at higher
uniform emission and high current density, a smooth
kinetic energy, favors larger apertures (and fewer beams).
layer must be melted on a large spherical area, which has
The challenge for beam merging is to limit resulting
proven to be a significant technical challenge. Recently,
emittance growth (minimized by closely packing the
a different method to produce the aluminosilicate sources,
merged beams in phase space [8]).
in which a mixture of aluminosilicate and tungsten
The 4-to-1 beam combining experiment [9] is designed
powder is sintered to form an emitter has been adopted [6].
to establish the ability to merge beams with considerable
2.2 2 MeV Injector space charge, and measure the phase space evolution of
the merged beams. The four initial Cs+ beams are
Based on ESQ beam transport considerations, a 2-MeV generated in 160 kV diodes and initially converge at a 6o
driver-scale injector should provide beams with a line angle relative to the combiner center line. Four arrays of
charge density of approximately 0.25x10-6 C/m. A electrostatic quadrupoles (Q1-Q4) followed by the
prototype injector, as shown in figure 1, was built for the combined function dipole-quadrupole element (“wire
Elise/ILSE project. It consists of a 17-cm diameter cage”, QD5) focus each beam and straighten its trajectory
potassium aluminosilicate source as part of a 750-kV to be parallel to the downstream transport line. After the
extraction diode which is in series with a 1250 kV ESQ wire cage, the merged beam is transported and diagnosed at
accelerator. Both diode and ESQ are powered by a Marx several locations along the merged beam transport line
Generator using a resistive divider. The column is (Q6-Q67).
completely enclosed in a steel tank (at 80 PSI compressed We reported earlier [10] measuring 88% transmission
gas atmosphere) for compatibility with using SF6. through the combiner. These data indicated that the beam
edge to beam edge separation was <4 mm at the merge
point, with the 1 mm tungsten rods (of the wire cage) in
between. The measured phase space between Q7 and Q8
(one lattice period downstream of the cage) was in
agreement with the 2D PIC simulations. The initial
beams (4.5-mA) had a factor 1.65 more current than
originally thought compatible with the transport of
merged beams in the (previously existing) downstream
transport lattice. As a consequence of the higher current
there was not enough clearance between the merged beam
Figure 1: Schematic diagram of the 2-MeV injector. and electrodes in the matching quadrupoles (Q6-Q11) to
enable further transport without significant beam loss.
Earlier tests have demonstrated beam current of up to Recently, each initial beam current has been lowered to
0.8 A of potassium ions (space-charge-limited) with a 2.7-mA by altering the Pierce electrodes. This has
ε4rms projectional emittance < 1.0 π-mm-mrad [7]. improved beam matching through the combined function
However, it was also discovered that the beam current element and the 10.4-mA merged beam through the first
density profile at the end of the injector has a hollow downstream lattice period has several millimeters more
shape instead of the calculated uniform shape. In order to clearance to the quadrupole electrodes. Beam loss in the
find out what causes the beam non-uniformity, a movable transport lattice following the merge should also be
Faraday cup array was recently constructed to measure the negligible, allowing a more quantitative interpretation of
beam profile at locations (along beam axis) inside the the merged beam distribution function.
ESQ accelerator. Some preliminary data indicates the Figure 2 shows the phase space measured in the vertical
problem may occur at the extraction diode. At present, a plane between Q7 and Q8. Though the beam distribution
new contact ionizer source of the same dimension is being function has not equilibrated at this point, the rms
prepared to replace the aluminosilicate source in order to emittance, ε n ≈ 0.2 π-mm-mR, has decreased by a factor
32
~0.5 compared to the previous measurements with the emittance for the 90% of full beam current was also
higher beam current reported in [10]. Transport measured at the source injector, 0.021 π-mm-mR, and
measurements through Q67 are currently underway. after 90 degrees, 0.045π-mm-mR in x and 0.068 π-mm-
These results will establish some limits on emittance mR in y. The growth seen is within the design
growth through for this approach to beam merging. specifications.
2.4
2.0
GBI
Current (mA)
V V
1.6
1.2
Data Faraday
0.8 Slit
6µs Pulse cup scanner
0.4
0.0
7.0 9.0 11.0 13.0 15.0
Time (µs) Induction
core
Electric quads Magnetic quads
vv v v
80 vv
keV
K+ Electric
Injector Steering Rotating wire dipoles
diode quads scanner C-probes
0 1 2 3 4 5 meters
Figure 3: Current Recirculator Layout.
Figure 2: Contour plots from two-slit emittance scan of
the merged beams between Q7 and Q8. A network of C-probes (capacitively coupled beam
position monitors) before and throughout the bend section
3.2 The Recirculator has been enabled to measure the transverse beam position
Most designs of a driver are linear machines, but using as a function of time. All four signals from each C-probe
a circular machine may provide significant cost savings. are amplified, digitized, and analyzed through the
Such a machine, a circular ion induction accelerator for computer control system to obtain the charge centroid.
space charge dominated beams, or recirculator, have never Bench tests of the system using a conducting rod to
been built before. Thus, a group at LLNL has been simulate the beam have yielded a resolution of 70 µm.
developing a small recirculator in order to validate the Figure 4 shows the x position measured by the C-probes
recirculator concept for an IFE power plant driver. for various dipole voltages.
In designing this machine, all of the important
Dipole Voltage Scan - X position
dimensionless beam parameters, such as perveance, were 4
kept the same as a full scale driver machine. Each half 3
6525 V
6575 V
lattice period (HLP) of the recirculator consists of a 2 6625 V
permanent magnetic quadrupole for focusing, an
1
electrostatic dipole for bending the beam, and an induction
mm
0
core, or modulator, for acceleration and longitudinal
-1 0 2 4 6 8 10
compression. The dipole plates are designed to provide a
-2
9 degree bend to the beam while the modulators are
-3
designed to provide 500-eV of acceleration.
-4
In the fall of 1997, the machine was extended from a 45 HLP
degree bend to a 90 degree bend section. Figure 3 shows Figure 4: Time averaged X positions as measured by C-
the current layout of the machine. Initially, a 4-µs beam probes for various dipole voltages.
pulse is injected by a source diode with an energy of 80-
keV through an aperture of diameter 1-cm which provides LLNL has developed a new device to measure the
an initial beam current of 2-mA. Upon injection the emittance, the Gated Beam Imager (GBI). The GBI is
beam enters an electrostatic matching section which is based on the pepperpot design in which the beam is
followed by a short magnetic transport section before the incident on a hole with 100 µm diameter holes creating
90 degree bend section. Following the bend section is the many beamlets. Each beamlet is allowed to drift to a
End Tank which houses several diagnostics. As part of micro channel plate(MCP) which is coated with a thin
the upgrade, magnetic induction cores were added to 5 of layer of stainless steel, ~150 nm, to stop the ions and
the 10 HLP’s as shown. produce secondary electrons. After passing through the
The first attempts at beam transport through the 90 MCP, the electrons are proximity focused on to a
degree section were done with no acceleration and DC phosphor screen, and the light generated is focused and
voltages (+/- 6.575-kV) on the bending dipole plates. captured on a CCD camera. Recently, after the analysis
Full current transport was achieved with less than 1% loss of the GBI images was changed to more closely mimic
as measured by Faraday Cups. The RMS normalized the more traditional slit scan, the GBI was fully reconciled
with the slit scanner.
33
Currently the initial implementation of the electronics 1.3 x 10 17 cm-3 at pinch time) provides input to the
necessary for acceleration and ramped dipole voltages, is determination of a plasma conductivity model to be
underway. The first attempts at acceleration should occur implemented in computer simulations.
shortly. For more information about the recirculator, Future experiments include the use of spectroscopy of
please refer to the paper in these proceedings [11]. the plasma's emitted radiation to measure the Zeeman and
Stark broadening, as well as the Faraday rotation
3.3 Induction Core Material technique. These experiments will permit the mapping of
Currently one of the major cost items for a driver is the the channel's magnetic field distribution and time
price of magnetic material for the induction cores. evolution as well as the determination of its electron
Recently, a survey of various commercially available temperature.
material was done [12]. Two type of materials were 4.2 Scaled Focusing Experiment
tested, amorphous alloys and nanocrystalline alloys. The
amorphous alloys cost less, have slightly higher flux Vacuum ballistic focusing is one method to achieve the
swing (about a factor of 1.2), but have a significantly heavy ion beam spot size necessary for an inertial
higher energy loss (about a factor of 5) than the confinement fusion target. Proper scaling of particle
nanocrystalline material. The important figure of merit energy, mass, beam current, beam emittance, and
for selection of material is the final cost of electricity. magnetic field replicates the dynamics of a full driver
Obviously the nanocrystalline material will mean a lower beam in a small laboratory beam. Thus, a one-tenth scale
operating cost, but a higher capital cost. System studies experiment, based on the HIBALL II design, is currently
to determine which of these two materials produces a being assembled at LBNL. This scaled experiment uses a
lower cost of electricity are underway. K+ ion source to send a 120 keV beam through an aperture
and electrostatic matching section. Approximately 80 µA
4 FINAL FOCUS of beam is then sent through a set of six magnetic
There are several proposed schemes, depending on the quadrupoles that comprise the final focus. By expanding
intensities of the beams, for achieving the final spot size the beam and then focusing to a very small spot, the
necessary to hit the target. At low intensities, vacuum effects of aberrations and space charge on this method of
ballistic focusing would suffice, but at high intensities a final focus can be studied. Figure 5 shows the beam
scheme involving charge neutralization or establishing a envelope for the final focus section.
focusing current in a plasma must be invoked. Currently Beam Envelopes
experiments are being performed investigating the .030
QM1 QM3 QM5
ballistic focus scheme and one of the more exotic .025 QM2 QM4 QM6
schemes, plasma channel transport [13]. .020
Horizontal
Envelope
.015
4.1 Plasma Channel Transport .010 Vertical
Envelope
Plasma channel experiments, for heavy ion transport, .005
Beam Drifting Focal
are being conducted at LBNL to measure their time and 0 from Electrostatic Point
Section
space resolved plasma density evolution. These channel -.005
experiments are scaled versions that provide understanding -.010 10 mr
Angle
of the channel’s behavior under different regimes or -.015
parameter space, such as pressure, gas type, and discharge -.020
energy deposition, which directly relate to the transport -.025
(scales in meters)
efficiency. A working reactor ion transport design relies -.030
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
on proper selection of these parameters. Figure 5: Plot of beam envelopes for magnetic focusing
The plasma channel in these experiment are produced section.
by a double voltage discharge technique initiated by the
creation of a preferential discharge path produced by a KrF Two-slit scanners measure beam properties after the
excimer laser. Plasma density space profiles have been electrostatic matching section, as well as after the third
obtained at several times during the first quarter cycle of and sixth magnetic quadrupoles. Measurements of the
channel current (peak current 29 kA). The measured pinch beam have already been made through the first three
occurring (7 Torr N 2, 200 mTorr Benzene, 15 kV magnets with encouraging results, and the second set of
discharge) at t=2.2 microseconds is in agreement with three magnets has just been installed, aligned, and pulsed.
previous experiments. The beam spot size measurement will be made with a
These measurements were made using a Michelson-type single slit probe that will translate along the beam axis as
optical interferometer (1064 nm) with a time resolution of well as in the transverse directions so as to determine the
approximately 20 ns, determined by the probe laser pulse precise nature of the beam waist.
width. The on-axis plasma density time evolution (ne =
34
Subsequently, a separate target injection experiment an up-down counter, the arrival time of the target has been
(section 4.3) may be coupled to the final focus in order to predicted such that the standard deviation in predicted
demonstrate the ability to hit a simulated heavy ion target position along the direction of motion is 0.37 mm.
fusion target “on the fly”. This will require a set of These prediction capabilities are adequate for a heavy ion
steering electrodes that have been designed to provide a driver.
real time correction to the beam to account for the shot-
to-shot variation in target position. The emerging beam 5 OUTLOOK
from the magnetic section will also be suitable for The road to a heavy ion IFE power plant is still a long
studying electron neutralization of space charge, and its one. Before a machine that achieves fusion with heavy
effect on the focus. ion beams can be realized, a scaled facility to test many, if
4.3 Fusion Target Injecting and Tracking not all of the accelerator issues in an integrated way must
be built. We plan on being in a position to propose such
An experiment is being conducted at LBNL to a facility in a few years. To be in that position, the
investigate and demonstrate the engineering feasibility of groups at LBNL and LLNL will continue conducting
accurately injecting and tracking IFE targets into a small experiments to explore issues in HIF.
vacuum chamber [14]. As indicated in figure 6, a gas gun
is used to inject non-cryogenic, aluminum and delrin 6 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
(plastic) target-sized projectiles. These projectiles are
I would like to acknowledge the efforts of Joe Kwan,
optically tracked at three locations using photodiodes to
Peter Seidl, David Ponce, Ron Petzoldt, and Steve
accurately provide real-time transverse and longitudinal
Maclaren of LBNL and Art Molvik of LLNL for
target position prediction. This real-time information
providing the necessary input for this document.
would then be used to trigger the ion beam and control
small beam steering magnets to direct the beam on target.
7 REFERENCES
Position
measuring
[1] M. Tabak et al., Nuclear Fusion 38 (4), 509 (1998).
Photodiode
photodiodes
(timing only)
gas valve [2] R. Moir, “Inertial Fusion Energy Power Plants Based
Revolver
on Laser or Ion Beams,” Proc. of ICENES 98, Tel-
Rotated Targets
Aviv, Israel, June 28 -July 2, 1998, to be published.
Target 90 degrees Target Revolver
[3] J. W. Kwan et al., “High Current Density Ion
Vacuum
Motor Sources for Heavy Ion Fusion Accelerators,” Proc. of
Light Source
pump Part. Accel. Conf., Vancouver, BC, May 1997.
Light
sources
[4] A. N. Pargellis and M. Seidl, J. Appl. Phys. 4 9,
Gun barrel
Target Gas
4933 (1978).
catcher
Rotated 90
Reservoir [5] S. Eylon et al., Il Nuovo Cimento 106A (11), 1509
degrees Gun (1993).
Barrel
[6] K. K. Chow et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 1 0, 256
(1967).
1 2 3m [7] S.S. Yu et al, Fusion Engineering and Design 3 2 -
33, 309, (1996).
Figure 6: Schematic of Target Injector. [8] C. M. Celata et al., Proc. of 1987 Part. Acc. Conf.,
Washington, D.C., 2 1167 (1987).
The position prediction is achieved by sending voltage [9] C. M. Celata et al., Proceedings of the 1995 Part.
data from one photodiode detector near the gun barrel and Acc. Conf., 3220 (1995). C. M. Celata et al., Fusion
another 1 m downstream to a real-time target position Eng. and Design, 32-33, 219 (1996).
prediction circuit. This circuit electronically latches the [10] P. A. Seidl et al., “Progress on the Scaled Beam
voltage as the center of the target passes the second Combing Experiment at LBNL,” Proc. of Inter.
detector, and compares this voltage with that when the Symp. on Heavy Ion Inertial Fusion, Heidelberg,
target is not present. The voltage ratio and the time of Germany Sept. 24-27, 1997, to be published in Nucl.
passage between these detectors are used to predict the Inst. and Meth. A..
transverse position at which the target passes a third [11] L. Ahle et al., “Recent Progress in the Development
detector located 3 m from the gun barrel. The prediction of a Circular ion Induction Accelerator for Space
is in the form of an output voltage that is proportional to Charge Dominated Beams at LLNL,” these
the target's transverse position at detector 3; it is available proceedings.
microseconds after the target passes detector 2. [12] A. W. Molvik et al., “Induction Core Performance,”
Although the standard deviation in projectile position these proceedings.
in each transverse direction is about 2 mm, a standard [13] A. Tauschwitz et al., Fusion Eng. and Design, 3 2 -
deviation of 0.1 mm between predicted and measured 33, 493-502 (1996).
positions in both transverse directions is achieved. Using [14] R. Petzoldt, LBNL Report 41360, (1998).
35
LINEAR ACCELERATORS FOR EXOTIC ION BEAMS
Pierre Bricault
TRIUMF
4004 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 2A3, Canada
Abstract The exotic species are produced using the ion beams
extracted from the INS SF cyclotron. The exotic ions are
One of the new frontiers in nuclear science is the use of
exotic ion beams. In the past, nuclear reaction studies then accelerated to energy ≤ 1 MeV/u through a split-
were restricted to the use of stable projectiles or a few coaxial RFQ (SCRFQ) and an interdigital-H type (IH)
long-lived isotopes. The possibility of producing intense linacs. The project is regarded as a prototype of the more
exotic ion beams opens a wide variety of research ambitious RIB facility for the E-arena in the proposed
opportunities in nuclear astrophysics, nuclear physics, Japanese Hadron Facility (JHF). The main
material sciences, etc. This field has grown considerably accomplishments were:
in the past ten years owing to progress in the production 1) Test off- and on-line of target/ion-source systems,
techniques of isotopic separation on-line and in particular ECR, plasma and surface ion sources;
in the field of heavy-ion accelerators. One of the 2) Off- and on-line beam tests of the ISOL system as
breakthroughs is the possibility to accelerate very low well as the construction of the beam-transport
energy heavy-ions using a low frequency RFQ at the front system;
end of a linear accelerator. 3) Construction and operation of a 25.5 MHz split-
This paper will review exotic ion beam facilities, coaxial 4-rod RFQ;
based on the ISOL method, using or proposing a linear 4) Construction and operation of a 51 MHz IH linac
accelerator as a post-accelerator. composed of 4 tanks;
5) Construction and operation of the stripping and
matching section between the RFQ and the IH
1 INTRODUCTION LINACs.
The opportunities offered by beams of exotic nuclei for 6) Pilot experiments with exotic beams.
research in the areas of nuclear physics, nucleosynthesis
2.1.1 Split-Coaxial RFQ LINAC
and nuclear astrophysics, and for critical tests of
fundamental symmetries, are very exciting. The The split-coaxial RFQ is designed to accelerate ions with
worldwide activity in the installation of different types of charge-to-mass ratio (q/A) ≥ 1/30 from 2 to 172 keV/u.
facilities for exotic nuclei reflects the strong scientific The split coaxial resonant cavity was invented by R. W.
interest in the corresponding physics. Müller[1] and development and investigation took place
The choice of the post accelerator depends on the in several institutes: GSI[2], Frankfurt[3], and
physics program, which defines the energy and mass Argonne[4].
range, duty factor and pulse characteristics of the desired Various kinds of electrode structure have been
ions. This paper reviews only exotic ion beam facilities proposed: modulated vanes, circular rods, drift tubes with
using LINAC’s as post-accelerators. One LINAC has fingers. At INS they selected modulated vanes. In order to
already being built for exotic beam applications, this is achieve easy assembly of the vanes and a stable
the prototype of the JHF E-arena at INS-Tanashi, now, mechanical structure, a multi-electrode cavity is
KEK-Tanashi. Two more LINAC’s are under employed. Two opposite electrodes are fixed and
construction: one at ISOLDE-CERN and the other at electrically grounded at one end of the cavity. The other
ISAC-TRIUMF. Proposals for second generation exotic opposite electrodes are fixed and grounded at the other
ion beams facilities based on the ISOL method which end of the cavity. That is, the electrodes are supported at
have selected a LINAC as post-accelerator are: JHF E- only one point.
arena, Argonne National Laboratory, Oak Ridge National The module length, 0.7 m, was determined so that
Laboratory, Munich and ISAC2 at TRIUMF. A proposed the drop of the vanes due to gravity may not exceed
upgrade of the accelerator of the BRNBF in Beijing will 35µm, with the cavity diameter not exceeding 1m. By
also be mentioned. introducing spacer rods, it was possible to align the vanes
with accuracy better than ± 40 µm before installation into
the unit-cavity tank.
2 EXISTING RIB LINAC FACILITIES
The cavity, comprising 12 module cavities, is 0.9 m
2.1 E-arena Prototype at Tanashi in diameter and 8.6 m long. The measured resonant
A prototype radioactive ion beam facility has been built at resistance is 25.55 ± 0.44 kΩ. The measured unloaded Q-
KEK-Tanashi. The main components are: target/ion value is 5800. The nominal vane voltage is 109 kV for
source, mass separator, RFQ and IH linear accelerators. q/A ≥ 1/30 ions. This corresponds to an input power of
240 kW. The maximum duty factor is 30%.
36
14 +
2.1.2 Medium Energy Beam Transport (MEBT) A N beam test with the ISAC split-ring 4-rod RFQ
The MEBT system between the SC-RFQ and the IH has been successfully completed in June 1998. 7 of the 19
LINAC comprises a charge stripper (Carbon foil of 10 rings were installed for a final beam energy of 54 keV/u.
2
µg/cm ), a rebuncher and two quadrupole doublets. Since The RFQ was operated in continuous wave (cw) mode.
a frequency of 25.5 MHz is required for the rebuncher, a Operation at the nominal peak voltage of 74 kV was
double-coaxial resonator with 6 gaps was developed to achieved in July 1998. This allowed the acceleration of
14
maintain the size of the cavity small and the power low. N2 (q/A = 1/28). The beam transmission was 80% at the
nominal voltage in perfect agreement with PARMTEQ
2.1.3 Interdigital-H type LINAC
calculations. The energy spread of both bunched and
The Interdigital-H LINAC is composed of four tanks. It 14 14
unbunched N and N2 beams was measured and showed
accelerates ions with charge-to-mass ratio ≥ 1/10 from good agreement with PARMTEQ calculations.
172 to 1053 keV/ nucleon. In order to obtain high shunt
2.2.2 Stripper and matching section
impedance, the accelerating mode is π-π, and no
transverse focusing element is installed into the drift The charge-state selector is composed of a symmetric
tubes. The operating frequency is twice the RFQ QQDDQQ section. A four-quadrupole system and a 35
frequency. Each gap length between drift tubes is equal to MHz λ/4 rebuncher provide transverse and longitudinal
one half of the first cell length. Both end structures of the match into the DTL. Provision is also made for
cavity, i.e., the magnetic flux inducer and the gaps installation of a rebuncher between the RFQ and the
between end-wall and ridges are determined stripping foil to produce an upright ellipse for the
experimentally so that the longitudinal field distribution longitudinal emittance at the stripping foil.
becomes flat over the cavity. The synchronous phase is – Several options for the 35 MHz λ/4 rebuncher were
25° to assure a stable longitudinal motion. investigated. It is likely that a spiral λ/4 will be used.
The tuning of the cavities is achieved using three 2.2.3 Drift-Tube Linac
kinds of tuners: a capacitive tuner (C-tuner), an inductive The drift tube linac is required to accelerate, in cw mode,
end-tuner (End L-tuner) and an inductive piston tuner (L- ions with a charge to mass ratio ≥ 1/7 from 0.15 MeV/u to
tuner). The C-tuner is a manually movable disk facing a a final energy variable between 0.15 and 1.5 MeV/u. An
ridge; The L-tuner is moved automatically to compensate IH structure[8] is chosen because of its very high shunt
for the frequency shift. impedance. A separated function DTL concept has been
The first acceleration of an exotic ion beam has been adopted[9]. Five independently phased IH tanks operating
th
carried out successfully on Mach 14 , 1997 at the INS at ΦS = 0º provide the main acceleration. Longitudinal
prototype E-arena. focusing is provided by independently phased three-gap
2.2 ISAC-TRIUMF split-ring resonator structures positioned before the
second, third and fourth IH tanks. When operating at full
2.2.1 RFQ voltage the beam dynamics resembles that of a so-called
A cw radio-frequency quadrupole provides the initial ‘Combined 0° Synchronous Particle Structure’[8]. To
acceleration of the ion beam delivered by the ISOL. The reduce the final energy, the last IH tanks may be turned
total length of the vane-shaped rods is 7.60 m. Given that off while voltage and phase of the last powered tank are
the radioactive ion beam intensity will be small, space varied. The split-ring resonators are all designed for β =
charge can be neglected. A truncated Yamada-style recipe 0.023 and are effective over the whole DTL velocity
was used for the vane profiles. Due to a requirement from range. They also permit the beam to be kept well bunched
the experimenters for 86 ns time structure, beam over the entire energy range.
bunching is achieved in an external, quasi-sawtooth pre- The first ISAC-IH-DTL tank has been built and is
buncher. The shaper and gentle buncher portions of the waiting for copper plating. Cooling channels are
RFQ are omitted, leading to substantial shortening. The machined in bulk copper material to assure efficient
pre-buncher is located in the LEBT section ~ 5 meters cooling.
from the RFQ. A 4-rod split-ring RFQ structure has been
chosen because of its relatively high specific shunt
2.3 REX-ISOLDE
impedance, its mechanical stability, and the absence of REX-ISOLDE is a first generation RIB project aimed at
voltage asymmetries in the end region[6]. It is a variation exploring the possibility of an efficient post acceleration
of the 4-rod RFQ built by Schempp[5]. The thermal and of exotic ions based on LINAC after charge breeding with
dynamic stability have been measured and are well within a trap-EBIS system.
tolerance[7]. The final RFQ will be composed of 19 The LINAC complex is composed of a 4-rod RFQ,
modules, but in order to test the beam dynamics and the an IH-structure and three seven-gap spiral resonators. To
injection of a bunched beam into the RFQ a 7-ring-RFQ match the phase spread of the ion beam out of the RFQ to
section has being built installed in the 8 m long tank and the longitudinal phase acceptance of the IH-structure a
tested first.
37
three-gap split ring resonator is used. The maximum duty quadrupole triplets. The three-gap split-ring rebuncher
cycle is 10% with a maximum repetition rate of 50 Hz. operates at the RFQ’s frequency with a gap-voltage of 50
To reduce the cost of the LINAC a charge-to-mass kV.
ratio of 1/4.5 was chosen. Highly charged ions can be 2.3.4 REX-IH LINAC
produced using an Electron Cyclotron Resonance Ion The IH-structure is a short version of the GSI HLI-IH-
Source (ECRIS) or an Electron Beam Ion Source (EBIS). structure[12]. The energy gain required is about 0.9
For a RIB facility it is essential to get high efficiency MeV/u, which corresponds to 5 MV absolute voltage. The
charge state breeding from 1+ to n+ ions and in a short IH-structure uses the “Combined Zero Degree Structure”
time compared to the half-life of the nucleus considered. beam dynamics concept developed by Ratzinger[8]. A
2.3.1 REX-ISOLDE charge breeding scheme new approach of the REX-IH resonator is the possibility
In the REX-ISOLDE scheme a Penning trap is used for to vary the final energy between 1.1 and 1.2 MeV/u by
accumulation, cooling, and bunching[10]. The Penning adjusting the gap voltage distribution via two capacitive
trap is however limited in the number of particles which plungers and by adjusting the RF-power level in the
can be trapped. The maximum ion density for the REX- resonator[13].
Penning trap is estimated for A = 140 at 10 6 ions/mm3, 2.3.5 REX-7-Gap Resonators
which correspond to some 108 ions per accumulation
The final energy of 2.2. MeV/u at the target is achieved
cycle.
by three 7-gap spiral resonators. These type of resonators
The Penning trap is located on a high voltage
platform an the same potential as the singly charged ion were developed and built first at the Max Plank Institute
source at the ISOLDE target. The transfer line consists of in Heidelberg for the High-Current-Injector[14]. The
two electrostatic benders and two electrostatic quadrupole resonators have a single resonance structure, which
doublets. The confinement time required to reach a consists of a copper half shell and three arms attached to
charge-to-mass ratio larger than 1/4.5 is less than 20 ms. both ends of the shell. The resonators are optimized for
The EBIS magnet has a magnetic field of 2 T with an synchronous particle velocities of 5.4%, 6.0% and 6.6%.
homogeneity of about 2.5‰ along the confinement length The total resonator voltage is about 2 MV for a power
of 0.8 m. The ions ejected from the EBIS are mass consumption of 90 kW. The output of the IH structure is
analyzed with a magnetic achromat composed of two 90° matched with a triplet lens to the first 7-gap resonator.
dipoles. Between the first and second 7-gap resonator there is a
doublet for transverse focusing.
2.3.2 The 4-rod RFQ
The ions are accelerated from 5 to 300 keV/u by a 4-rod 3 PROJECTS AND PLANNED UPGRADES
RFQ. This RFQ is similar to the one used for the High-
Current -Injector at Heidelberg[11] and the GSI HLI- 3.1 Japanese Hadron Facility E-arena
RFQ[5]. The results from these two RFQ show that about The E-arena is a second-generation exotic ion beam
a quarter of the power is dissipated on the ground plate of facility based on ISOL and post-accelerator scheme. It
the resonator. The new REX-RFQ will have additional aims at new regions in nuclear physics and related fields
cooling of the ground-plate, which must have a better of science by supplying high-quality intense RIB of
electrical contact to the stems along the entire structure. energies from nearly zero to 6.5 MeV/u for ion mass up
Furthermore, for the cooling of the electrodes a new stem to 240.
design has been made at Hiedelberg. The main The RIB facility will utilize 10 µA from the 3-GeV
characteristic of the new design is that channels for proton booster synchrotron for the production of unstable
cooling water are now completely inside the stem. nuclei. A wide variety of intense exotic ion beams can be
Regarding the particle dynamics, they add to the produced via spallation, multi-fragmentation and/or
present design a so-called “matching out section” at the fission process of target nuclei. After selection the exotic
high-energy end of the RFQ. The focusing strength is ion beam can be accelerated through a heavy ion linac,
reduced stepwise at the last cells of the accelerator. This consisting of a split-coaxial RFQ (SCRFQ), and two IH
leads to decreased beam divergence at the exit of the RFQ type linacs, IH1 and IH2. The maximum output energy at
and thus reduces the required field gradients of the each stage being 0.17, 1.05 and 6.5 MeV/u, respectively,
following matching section between the RFQ and the IH with a duty cycle of 30% for q/A equal to 1/30.
LINAC. The proposed E-arena is a natural extension of the
2.3.3 REX-MEBT RIB facility at the Institute for Nuclear Study (INS) of
Tokyo. The new merits of the E-arena are:
The beam dynamics concept of the 0° synchronous phase
1) Primary accelerator: 3-GeV protons are known to
of the IH structure requires a small longitudinal phase
produce exotic nuclei with large probability, while
spread and a converging beam in both transverse
reaction residues produced with low-energy beams
directions at the entrance of the IH-LINAC. Thus, the
available from the K=68 cyclotron, are limited to
matching section includes a rebuncher and two
nuclei close to the stability line.
38
2) The secondary beam energy: this would be increased, 3.4 ISAC2 at TRIUMF
by adding a new IH linac, from 1 to 6.5 MeV/u.
The aim of ISAC-II is a final energy of 6.5 MeV/u for a
Nuclear reactions become therefore possible over the
mass range up to A = 150[21]. The energy increase can
whole region of target nuclides.
be achieved by adding cavities at the end of the present
3.2 ANL Exotic-Ion-Beams Facility LINAC. However, the mass limitation comes from the
stripping at 0.15 MeV/u. The optimum stripping energy
Argonne National Laboratory proposes a two-accelerator
for mass 150 is 400 keV/u. To take these ions from 0.15
ISOL-type facility to provide intense exotic ion beams at
to 0.4 MeV/u requires a new LINAC, very similar to the
energies required for nuclear structure research and for
ISAC1 DTL. To reach 6.5 MeV/u from 0.4 MeV/u with
reactions of astrophysics interest[15]. The heart of the
A/q = 7 requires a total voltage gain of 42.7 MV.
exotic-ion-beam accelerator is the present ATLAS
Independently phased superconducting cavities similar to
superconducting LINAC[16] which can accelerate ions
the ones developed at ANL for ATLAS[16] or LNL for
from protons through Uranium to an energy range from 6
ALPI [22] will be used. The maximum energy of particles
to 15 MeV/u. The ATLAS accelerator complex can
with q/A > 1/3 will be around 15 MeV/u.
presently accelerate ions of q/A ≥ 1/6.6. The new front
A charge state breeder based on an ECRIS will be
end has to accelerate ions of low charge-to-mass ratio ≥
placed upstream of the 35 MHz RFQ to increase the
1/132 to the energy necessary for efficient stripping to
charge to mass ratio to 1/30 or greater.
higher charge state, while maintaining excellent beam
The plan is to build and install superconducting
quality to match the actual ATLAS beam characteristics.
modules downstream of DTL1 as they become available.
The new front end accelerator can be divided into
This would allow higher energy-experiments (~ 5 MeV/u)
three distinct sections. A short RFQ1 operating at low
to start before the end of 2003.
frequency will be installed on a high voltage platform.
After gas stripping the ions of q/A ≥ 1/70 will be 3.5 LINAC for the Munich Fission Fragment
accelerated by a combination of a second RFQ and a 48 Accelerator
MHz superconducting LINAC. After a second stripper,
A Linear accelerator is proposed for the new Munich high
which will increase the q/A to over 1/6.6, a 72 MHz
flux reactor, FRMII. This LINAC is based on a charge
superconducting LINAC module which match the
state breeding of singly charged ions coming from the
velocity profile to the present ATLAS LINAC will be
ISOL system. The required charge-to-mass ratio from the
installed.
CSB is q/A>0,16. The LINAC will operate with a duty
Work started on the room temperature cw RFQ at
cycle of 10% and the final energy will be between 3.7 and
low frequency. Ions with q/A ≥ 1/132 call for a 12 MHz
5.9 MeV/u. The LINAC complex will be composed of an
frequency range. The selected Split-Coaxial RFQ-
RFQ, three IH structures similar to the Lead LINAC at
structure is a modified version of the MAXILAX built at
CERN and two 7-gap IH-resonators for the variation of
GSI[1].
the final energy[20].
The status of the RFQ development is the following;
a 2 m prototype section has been constructed and 3.6 Beijing LINAC
operated cw at the design voltage (100 kV). They are The Beijing Radioactive Nuclear Beam Facility (BRNBF)
currently preparing a prebuncher and LEBT section for proposal consists of three accelerators, a compact
beam tests scheduled for end of August 1998[17]. cyclotron which would deliver 70 MeV proton for the
3.3 ORNL Facility production of radioactive nuclei, an existing Tandem (13
MV) and a superconducting LINAC which will boost the
ORNL operates the Hollifield Radioactive Ion Beam final energy. The superconducting LINAC will use
Facility based on the ORIC cyclotron and on the 25 MV Niobium-sputtered Copper quarter-wave-resonators,
tandem accelerator as a post-accelerator. A second- currently developed at Peking University[19].
generation ISOL facility based on the utilization of the
driver of the Spallation Neutron Source (SNS) is
4 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUDING
proposed [18]. A decision on the construction of the SNS
is expected by late 1998. The scheme for the post- REMARKS
accelerator is not yet finalized; but a low frequency RFQ With the new exotic ion beam facilities based on the
would be utilized to accelerate low charge-to-mass ratio ISOL method it will be possible to have access to new
exotic ions ≥ 1/140 to an energy suitable for stripping. extreme neutron-to-proton ratios to identify new
The second stage would used superconducting quarter- phenomena and improve our understanding of nuclei,
wave resonators similar to the ones developed at their origin and their properties.
Argonne[16]. These opportunities are possible because of the
Three take-off points are foreseen at 1, 6 and 15 development of efficient accelerating structures for very
MeV/u, which will cover most of the nuclear physics low velocity heavy-ions. All sorts of linear accelerating
studies. structures are used or proposed. Both room temperature
39
and superconducting Drift-Tube LINACs are envisaged, 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
see Table 1.
The author would like to thank all the colleagues from
The injection scheme can vary from very low to
other laboratories who provided information for the
very high charge-to-mass ratio using Charge State
preparation of this talk, Dr. S. Araï, Dr. M. Tomizawa,
Breeders (CSB). We can highlight four major schemes:
Dr. O. Kester, Dr. J. Nolen, Dr. K. Sheppard, Dr. J.
1) High-charge state breeding as used by REX-ISOLDE
Garrett, Dr. J. Staples. And from TRIUMF we would like
for experiments with neutron rich isotopes of Na,
to thank, Dr. G. Dutto, Dr. R. Laxdal Dr. R. Poirier, and
Mg, K and Ca. The charge-to-mass ratio required is
Dr. P. Schmor for helpful comments.
1/4,5.
2) Medium-charge state breeding as proposed for
ISAC2 and E-arena for nuclear physics up to the
6 REFERENCES
Coulomb barrier (6.5 MeV/u). The charge-to-mass [1] R. W. Müller et al, GSI-report 79-7, May 1979,
ratio required are 1/7 and 1/10, respectively. Such a R. W. Mueller, GSI Report GSI-90-25, ISSN 0171-4546 (1990).
[2] R. W. Müller et al, Proc. Of the 1984 Inter. LINAC Conf.
charge-to-mass ratio remove the need for the medium
Seeheim, Germany (1984) p. 77.
energy stripper.
[3] H. Klein et al, GSI-Report 82-8, 1982.
3) Low-charge state breeding as proposed for ISAC2 for [4] A. Moretti et al, Proc. Of the 1981 Inter. LINAC conf. Santa
nuclear physics with masses lower then 150 up to the Fee, NM, USA, p. 197.
Coulomb barrier (6.5 MeV/u). The charge-to-mass [5] A. Schempp, et al., Nucl. Instrum. And Meth., B 10/11,
ratio required is 1/30. In that case a medium energy (1985).
stripper is required. [6] P. Bricault et al, “Simulation of the TRIUMF Split-Ring 4-
4) Low-charge-state LINAC injector as proposed by rod RFQ with MAFIA” Proc. of the 1995 Particle Accelerator
ANL and ORNL for nuclear physics with masses up Conf. Dallas, (1995) p. 1125.
to 140. Low frequency RFQ and two strippers are [7] R. Poirier et al, “The RFQ prototype for the Radioactive Ion
used to reach Coulomb barrier energies. Beam Facility at TIUMF”, Proc. Of the 1996 Int. LINAC Conf.
From the available information on the intensity out of the CERN, Geneva, (1996). P. 405.
R. Poirier et al, “Construction criteria and Prototyping of the
CSB for a given charge state we can say that the fourth
ISAC RFQ accelerator at TRIUMF”, Proc. 1997 Particle
option will give a larger final exotic ion beam intensity on
Accelerator Conference.
target. However, this may also be the most costly option. [8] U. Ratzinger, “Interdigital IH structures, Proc. 1990 Linear
Acc. Conf., Los Alamos, 525 (1990) and U. Ratzinger, PAC’91,
Table 1: Summary of the LINAC for Exotic Beams San Francisco, 1991, p. 567.
[9] R. Laxdal and P. Bricault, “Design of the Drift Tube LINAC
q/A Type Type Mass E range for the ISAC project at TRIUMF”, Proc. Of the 1996 Int.
range MeV/u LINAC Conf. CERN, Geneva, (1996).
KEK- .≥ 1/30 SCRFQ IH (RT) 6≤A≤ 0.172 to [10] D. Habs, et al., Nucl. Phys. A 616, 29c (1997)., D. Habs,
Tanashi (RT) 30 1.05 et al., Nucl. Intrum. Methods B 139 (1998) p. 128.
REX- ≥ 1/4.5 4-rod IH, 7-gap 6≤A≤ 0.3, 0.8 - [11] C. M. Klefffner, et al., EPAC-1992, p.1340.,
ISOLDE CSB RFQ (RT) 60 2.2 [12] U. Ratzinger, N. Angert, J. Klabunde, GSI scientific report,
(RT) 1987.
ISAC-I ≥ 1/30 Split- IH, 3-gap 6≤A≤ 0.15 – 1.5 [13] D. Habs,et al, Nucl. Instrum. And Meth. B 139 (1998), p.
ring 4- Split-ring 60 128.
rod (RT) [14] R. von Hahn, et al., Nucl. Instrum. Methods, A 328, (1993)
RFQ p. 270.
(RT) [15] Concept for an Advanced Exotic Beam Facility based on
ISAC-II ≥ 1/30 Split- IH(RT), 6≤A≤ 0.15 – 1.5 ATLAS, Working paper, Argonne Nat. Lab., 1995.
ring 4- QWR 150 0.4 – 6.5
[16] K. W. Shepard et al, Proc. Of the 1990 Inter. Linear
rod (SC)
Accelerator Conference, p 510., L. M. Bollinger and
RFQ
K. W. Shepard, Proc. Of the 1984 Inter. Linear Accelerator
(RT)
Conference, p. 217.
E-arena ≥ 1/30 SCRFQ IH (RT) 6≤A≤ 0.17 – 6.5
[17] K. Shepar et al, “Low charge state CW RFQ”, This
(RT) 238
conference.
ANL ≥ 140 SCRFQ QWR, 3- 6≤A≤ 0.1 – 6.5
[18] Jerry Garrett, private communication.
(RT) gap Split- 238
Ring(SC)
[19] Jiankui Hao et al, Proc. Of the First Asian Particle
Accelerator Conference, March 1998, KEK, Tsukuba, Japan.
ORNL ≥ 140 SCRFQ SC-QWR 6≤A≤ 0.1 – 6.5
(RT) (SC) 238
[20] O. Kester et al, “The LINAC for the Fission Fragment
Accelerator”, This conference.
BRNBF Tandem QWR A ≤ 70 ≤ 6.5
(SC) [21] R. Baartman et al, “Long Range Plan Proposal to ISAC”,
FRMII ≥ 1/6.5 IHRFQ IH A ≤ 100 ≤ 6.5
this conference.
CSB (RT) (RT) [22] G. Fortuna et al, Nucl. Instr. And Meth. A328 (1993) p.
236.
40
µ+-µ- COLLIDER: µ+-µ- GENERATION, CAPTURE AND COOLING
David Neuffer
Fermilab, P. O. Box 500, Batavia IL 60510
Abstract requirements, a rapid acceleration system, and a high-
A µ -µ collider requires a high-intensity proton luminosity collider ring for the collision of short, intense
+ -
µ -µ bunches.
+ -
source for π-production, a high-acceptance π-µ decay
channel, a µ-cooling system, a rapid acceleration system, In Table 1, nearly identical proton source parameters
and a high-luminosity collider ring for the collision of are shown for each collider case. This is based on an
short, intense µ -µ bunches. Critical problems exist in assumption that a single new high-intensity source is
+ -
developing and compressing high-energy proton bunches developed and is used to drive different colliders. Also in
for producing π's, in capturing π's and their decay µ's, and developing parameters for different energy colliders, we
in cooling µ's into a compressed phase-space at which have assumed that the cooling system can cool in 6-D
high luminosity collisions are possible. These problems normalized phase space to a fixed emittance, which can
and some possible solutions are discussed; the current µ - then be distributed betweeen transverse and longitudinal
+
µ collider research program is described for differing collider requirements. (Lower-energy
-
colliders require smaller longitudinal phase-space, and a
1 INTRODUCTION Higgs Collider should have very small energy spread.)
Considerable interest has developed in the possibility Greater variations in p-source and cooling scenarios are
possible.
of a high-energy high-luminosity µ -µ collider [1,2,3,4],
+ -
The critical property of muons in a collider is that the
and a multi-laboratory collaboration has been formed to
study this concept [4]. Initially the concept of a 4 TeV muons decay, with a lifetime of τµ = 2.2 (Eµ/mµ) µs. This
collider with a luminosity of L = 10 cm s was
35 -2 -1 is sufficient for multiturn acceleration and storage, but
only a few hundred turns can be allotted to the µ -µ
+ -
developed [1]. Recently the research has concentrated on
developing a design concept for a lower-energy first µ -µ
+ - collection, cooling, and acceleration, which means that
collider at ~100GeV, and in developing the new obtaining high luminosity requires frequent production of
technologies needed for that and any µ -µ collider [5].
+ - high-intensity µ-bunches and compressing and cooling
Particle physics has identified some clear physics the bunches to high densities.
goals for µ -µ collider technology. Recent LEP and SLC
+ -
Table 1: Parameter lists for µ -µ Colliders
+ –
results imply that the Higgs mass is in the 100-170 GeV
Higgs Factory Top Source
range. A small energy spread µ -µ Collider at that energy
+ -
Parameter (Small-LargeδE) 4TeV
would be uniquely capable of precise Higgs studies [6]. Collision Energy (2Eµ) 100 400 4000 GeV
Also, ν-oscillations have been recently reported. These Energy per beam 50 200 2000 GeV
could be checked by ν-beams that are produced through (Eµ)
Luminosity 1031-1032 1033 1035 cm-2s-1
µ -µ collider methods of intense π production, µ
+ -
2 2
(L=f0nsnbNµ /4πσ )
collection and cooling, with the ν-beams produced by µ- Source Parameters (4 MW p-beam)
decay in a storage ring [7,8]. Proton energy(Ep) 16 16 30 GeV
The first µ -µ collider would be a low-energy
+ -
Protons/pulse(Np) 4×2.5×1013 4×2.5×1013 4×3×1013
machine (possibly at 50×50 to 70×70 GeV), designed Pulse rate(f0) 15 15 15Hz
µ acceptance(µ/p) 0.2 0.2 .2
both to test the basic concepts as well as to provide
µ-survival (Nµ/Nsource) 0.4 0.4 .4
significant physics at the Higgs mass, and may be at Collider Parameters
somewhat lower intensity. This machine would be Collider mean radius(R) 50 150 1200m
particularly valuable if it could deliver high luminosity at µ /bunch (Nµ±) 4×1012 2×1012 2.5×1012
very small energy spreads, matched to the expected Higgs Number of bunches(nB) 1 2 2
width of δE ~ 1.5 KeV. Later, higher-energy machines Storage turns(2ns) 1000 1500 1800
Norm. emittance(εN) 0.028-.01 10-2 5×10-3cm-rad
could probe energy frontiers beyond that accessible to µ-beam emittance (εt =εN/γ) (5.6-2) ×10 -5
5.3×10 -6
2.5×10-7
existing technology. cm-rad
Table 1 shows parameters of possible µ -µ colliders,
+ -
Interaction focus βo 13-4 1 0.3 cm
including a ~100GeV Higgs factory, a 400 GeV and a 4 IR Beam size σ =(εβo)½ 270-90 23 2.1 µm
TeV machine, and Fig. 1 shows a layout view of a 100- δE/E at collisions 0.003-0.12 0.12 0.12%
GeVcollider facility. The collider requires a high-intensity
proton source for π-production, a high-intensity π- In this paper we discuss the key technologies which
are needed to develop these high intensity µ -µ beams,
+ -
production target with a high-acceptance π-µ decay
channel, a µ-cooling system to cool the beams to collider identify the critical difficulties, and describe the current
41
and planned research program on these topics. We also A key limitation is transverse space charge and the
discuss the remaining unsolved problems and challenges. design goal is to keep the space-charge tune-shift δν =
rpN/(4εnβγ B) less than ~0.25-0.4 throughout the cycle,
2
Proton Source
50 GeV recirculator
where rp is the classical proton radius, N the number of
Collider protons, B the bunching factor(average/peak current), and
Cooling εn is the normalized rms emittance. This is minimized by
higher injection energies, and large emittances, and larger
B. εn is increased to ~ 33 mm-mrad (rms) by painting the
beam across the foil in multiturn injection. B is
100 m
conservatively set at 0.25 at injection into the prebooster,
Figure 1. Overview of a 100 GeV µ -µ Collider facility
+ -
which is initially filled with 4 bunches (large B). The
showing p-source, µ-Cooling, recirculating-linac beam bunches as it accelerates, and is transferred to the
acceleration (RLA) and collider. larger ring at 3 GeV, at δν≅ 0.25 (small B but larger γ),
with minimal bunch lengths at the extraction bunch
2 PROTON SOURCE rotation.
The collider requires an intense source of protons for The beam transports of both rings consist of rapid-
π⇒µ production. Present studies indicate that a proton cycling separated-function magnets. The peak dipole
beam at energies of 16-30 GeV at a beam power of ~4 field is set at 1.3 T in both lattices, and the transition
2
MW is optimal. This is an intensity comparable to that energy (γtmpc ) is set above extraction so that the beams
proposed for a KAON factory [9] or a spallation neutron are always below transition, which avoids instabilities due
source [10], but with the significant difference that the to “negative mass” and at transition crossing, and
beam is extracted in short bunches to set up rf rotation (i. maintains a stable natural chromaticity. The high-γt is
13
e., bunches of 2.5×10 p of ~1 ns). Strategies to reach this obtained by use of a “flexible-momentum-compaction”
intensity are being developed [5], and considerable lattice, which gives a tuneable γt [12]. The large
variation is possible, as long as the high beam power in a emittances imply large apertures (13cm for the 3 GeV
bunch structure suitable for development of intense µ- ring and 10cm for the 16 GeV ring). To minimize eddy
bunches is obtained. currents from rapid-cycling, a high-impedance beam pipe
Table 2 shows parameters of a possible proton driver, using Inconel or ceramic with conducting wires/strips is
which consists of a 1 GeV linac, a 3 GeV prebooster and needed.
a 16 GeV booster. The parameters are from a Fermilab- Griffin has developed an acceleration scenario with rf
based plan for a multipurpose proton source upgrade (K-ν system designs for each ring [13]. The rf cavities are 1m
factory/µ-collider/Tevatron, etc.), which would replace long units with ceramic accelerating gaps and metal-alloy
the existing Fermilab booster [11]. A new booster tunnel tape-wound cores, with outboard inductive tuners
would be required, and the linac would be either extended containing NiZn ferrite rings with bias current windings
from its current location or moved. for tuning from 6.6 to 7.4 MHz during the acceleration.
The 1 GeV Linac is based on the Fermilab 400MeV Power amplifiers for cavity excitation and transient beam
linac, which consists of a 18 kV magnetron ion source loading compensation are coupled directly to the
which feeds a 0.75 MV Cockroft-Walton column, accelerating gaps. 10 such cavities can generate up to 200
followed by a 100 MeV 201 MHz linac, and a 300 MeV kV in the prebooster, and 40 cavites can produce 1.5 MV
805 MHz side coupled linac. The upgrade requires a in the booster. Bunches injected with ~100ns full-width in
magnetron source which can provide 100 mA of beam in the prebooster are compressed to ~20ns after booster
14 -
250µs pulses (~1.2×10 H ions). The additional 600 acceleration, and rotated to ~6ns (σrms• 1ns and δE = ±200
MeV structure is an extension of the 805 MHz linac, MeV) at booster extraction. An inductive insert to cancel
using 11½ additional modules (131.3m). space charge is helpful in the final compression.
-
The H ions are multiturn injected through a foil Simulations of this acceleration and bunching have been
stripper into the 3 GeV prebooster (500 turns), where they performed [14].
are captured in 6.64 MHz buckets and accelerated as 4 Some critical experiments testing elements of the
13
bunches of 2.5×10 protons to 3 GeV in 33ms. The four proton source design have been performed. A set of
bunches are then transferred into matched buckets in the inductive ferrite modules was placed in the LANL Proton
16 GeV booster for acceleration to full energy. At full Storage Ring. Longitudinal space charge effects were
energy, the bunches are compressed to minimal lengths reduced without generating instability, and the results
(σz ~ 0.3m) and extracted to the π-production target. The supported the use of inductive inserts to cancel space
16 GeV ring circumference is matched to that of the charge [15]. At the BNL AGS experiments in bunching
existing Fermilab booster for compatibility with existing the beam near transition were performed, at parameters
Fermilab accelerators. similar to the post-acceleration bunching of the proton
source. The rms bunch length of the 3 MHz, 8 GeV
42
bunches was reduced from 6.7 to 2.1 ns [16]. The results the target should be ~2-3 interaction lengths of a high-
support the proposition that initially long proton bunches density, relatively high-Z material. Optimal proton energy
can be accelerated and compressed to ns lengths, as is was in the 10-30 GeV range. A target radius of ~1cm
required for the µ -µ collider.
+ -
appears optimal, maximizing secondary production while
minimizing absorption. Tilting the target by
3 π-PRODUCTION AND µ-COLLECTION 100-150mrad was found to minimize absorption of low-
The purpose of the production target and subsequent energy π's, which follow helical trajectories through the
transport is to produce the maximum number of muons magnetic region. π-yield is maximal for longitudinal
which can be subsequently accepted and cooled into momenta of the same order as the rms transverse momen-
collider bunches. From recent studies, maximal capture is tum (~200 MeV/c). The magnetic field (20T, r=7.5cm) is
obtained by immersing the production target in a high- designed to capture these momenta in helical orbits [21].
field solenoid, with sufficient aperture such that most π’s About 400 kW of energy is deposited in the target
are trapped (a 20T solenoid with 7.5cm radius is and handling that is a serious problem. Cooling with a
proposed). This is followed by a solenoid transport which thermal bath would lead to large π-absorption and thermal
accepts most of the low energy µ’s (100-600 MeV/c) radiation is insufficient. Moving solid metal and flowing
produced by π-decay. (see Fig. 2) An rf system within liquid jet targets are under consideration. Conducting
that decay transport reduces the energy spread by “rf liquid jets may be distorted by the magnetic fields;
rotation”, in which the faster particles decelerate while however, nonconducting jets are considered. A moving
slower ones accelerate. This transforms the short-bunch cable or "band-saw" target is possible.
beam on target producing a large momentum spread in Following the target, the magnetic field is
µ’s to a longer µ-bunch with reduced δp/p. adiabatically decreased and the beam size is increased,
2
following Br = constant to B=5-1.25T (r=15-30cm). The
Table 2: Parameters of 16 GeV Proton Source magnetically confined transport continues through a
Parameter Linac PreBooster Booster sufficient length for π-decay. This transport also contains
Final kinetic energy (Ep) 1 3 16 GeV a multiharmonic ~30-150MHz rf system embedded in a
Pulse rate(f0) 15 15 15Hz short-period solenoid transport. In studies rf rotation
9 13 13
Protons/pulse(nB×Np) 40000×3 10 4×2.5 10 4×2.5 10
section solutions with lengths of 40-80m containing a
Length/circumference +134 158 474 m
Emittance (95%, 6×rms) 6 200 240πmm-mrad total of 200-500 MV of rf cavities. In simulations ~0.35
Dipole packing factor (1.3 T peak field) 0.39 0.575 µ's (of one sign)/proton are captured from 16-30 GeV
Aperture 13 10 cm protons within an acceptance window of a bunch length
Tunes(νx,νy) 3.9,2.4 9.4,4.9 of ~6m and δE ~±100 MeV. This is roughly half the
Transition γ (γT) 7 25
number of initially produced π's [1,22,23]. Energy
rf Parameters
rf frequency(fRF) 201→805 6.6-7.4 7.4-7.5MHz selection in the µ-decay can be used to select a relatively
rf harmonic - 4 12 high polarization in the µ-beams [24].
rf voltage /turn 0.2 1.2 MV Significant problems exists in designing the rf +
rf length 10 40 m focusing system, since it requires combining large low-
frequency, relatively high-gradient cavities with relatively
high-field superconducting solenoids. Several design
iterations have been considered; a recent one (see Fig. 2)
uses low-field 1.25T magnets completely outside the
cavities; a previous one uses 5T magnets placed in the
cavity irises.
An experiment is proposed at the AGS on targetry
related issues, which will test some of these systems [25].
It would include tests of liquid jet and other targets,
placed within magnets, and then with beam, measuring π-
production. An rf cavity with solenoid would be added to
Figure 2. Capture solenoid and match to transport for test rf rotation components.
π→µ decay + rf rotation (from ref. 5). 4 µ-COOLING
Extensive simulations on π-production as a function After rf rotation the beam still has both a large
of proton energy, target material and geometry within a momentum spread (δp/p ≅ 10%) and transverse phase
capture geometry have been performed, using Monte
space (εT ≅ 0.015 m-rad). The µ -µ collider concept relies
+ -
Carlo codes such as MARS [17] (and DPMJET [18] and
on ionization cooling to compress the beam phase-space
ARC [19])and these codes have been verified by
volume to obtain high luminosity. In ionization cooling
comparison with experiments, particularly the recent pion
[2,3], the beam loses transverse and longitudinal
production experiment 910 at BNL [20]. They show that
43
momentum while passing through a material medium, and extending their capabilities to include a complete
regains only longitudinal momentum in acceleration description of µ-material interactions and beam optics.
cavities. Cooling by large factors requires successive These tools will be used to develop and optimize
stages of energy loss and reacceleration (20 to 50 stages) complete cooling systems.
[1]. Since ionization cooling does not directly cool the An experimental collaboration called MUCOOL has
beam longitudinally, these stages must include wedge been formed in order to establish and demonstrate the
absorbers at non-zero dispersion to exchange longitudinal technologies needed for effective µ-cooling [32]. In
and (cooled) transverse phase-space. MUCOOL, a muon beam line will be built which would
The differential equation for rms transverse cooling is: include equipment for precision measurement of muon
dε T 1 dE β E2 trajectories entering and leaving a cooling system test
=− 2 ε T + 3 ⊥ 2s channel. Beam cooling sections will be inserted into the
ds β E ds 2β m µ c L R E
test channel, and measurement of muon beams entering
where the first term is the frictional cooling effect and the and leaving the channel will determine the degree of
second is the multiple scattering heating term. Minimal cooling effectiveness. The cooling sections consist of
heating requires that β⊥, the betatron focusing amplitude arrays of absorbers within focusing systems with
at the absorber, be small, and that LR,, the absorber reacceleration rf. As an initial example a cooling system
radiation length, be large (light elements; i.e. Li or Be or which includes H2 cooling elements within strong (15T)
H). The energy loss mechanism also causes energy-loss solenoids and 800MHz rf cavities has been designed.
straggling, which naturally sets rms δp/p at the ~4% level, Detailed designs of rf systems, solenoids and detector
even with longitudinal cooling. components have been developed, and construction of a
The beam dynamics problems in µ-cooling include prototype rf cavity with Be windows has begun [33].
the beam-material interactions intrinsic to the cooling MUCOOL will also include development of Li lenses for
process, the single-particle beam transport problems cooling, with construction and testing of a 1m long, 1cm
associated with obtaining strong foci at the absorbers, the radius, 10 T lens.
chromatic effects of ~4% δp/p, dispersion and transverse
matching at wedge absorbers, as well as longitudinal
motion control with rf reacceleration, and the
multiparticle constraints imposed by space-charge and
wake-fields in the short intense bunches, where the beam
intensifies as it is cooled.
Lattices for cooling have been developed and a
favored design includes sequences of solenoid cells with
rf cavities and LiH or H absorbers at low-β of the lattice
[26]. Another desirable focusing situation is obtained by
confining the cooling beam within a high-current Li rod
which both focuses and cools the beam [27]. The
transport must include arc segments with wedges for
cooling longitudinally; obtaining large δp/p acceptance
configurations with cooling and transport stability is Figure 3. Transverse phase space (px-x) before and after a
nontrivial. Li lens cooling channel which reduces εT from 0.01 to
An outline design scenario for µ-cooling has been 0.00009 m-rad.
developed, and critical sections of the cooling section
have been simulated [28,29]. Figure 3 displays transverse
phase space before and after a cooling section which
cools transverse phase space by 10 ×. However an
4
integrated design including the full complexity of the
beam transports, reacceleration and bunching, and
including nonlinear beam dynamics coupled with the
ionization interactions, has not yet been fully developed.
Initial cooling experiments verifying cooling efficiency
must also be developed. Because effective µ-cooling has Figure 4. Schematic view of 2 cells of an alternate
not yet been demonstrated and because of its importance solenoid cooling system, with H2 absorbers and 1.3m
in establishing the feasibility of a µ -µ collider, an
+ -
multicell Cu copper cavities with Be windows. Simulation
extensive R&D program has been established. tracks through the transport are shown.
Simulation efforts have been intensified, by
developing the codes ICOOL [30] and DPGeant [31] and
44
5 µ-ACCELERATION AND COLLISIONS [3] D. Neuffer, Fermilab Note FN-319, July 1979, D. Neuffer,
Particle Accelerators 14, 75 (1983), D. Neuffer, Proc. 12th
Acceleration must be completed before µ-decay. Int. Conf. on High Energy Accelerators, 481 (1983), D.
This constraint can be written as the equation: Neuffer, Nucl. Inst. and Meth. A350, 27 (1994)
mµ c2 [4] D. Neuffer and R. Palmer, Proc. 1994 EPAC, p. 52
eVrf ' >> ≅ 016
. MeV/m , (London, 1994).
Lµ [5] C. M. Ankenbrandt et al., "Status of Muon Collider
where eVrf’ is the acceleration rate, and Lµ is the µ decay Research", submitted to Phys. Rev. Special Topics (1998).
length (660m). Relatively fast acceleration is required, [6] V. Barger, M. Berger, J. Gunion, and T. Han, Nucl . Phys.
B (Proc. Suppl.) 51A, 13 (1996)., Physics Reports 286, 1
and two alternatives have been developed: recirculating
(1997).
linacs (RLAs) or very rapid-cycling synchrotrons (RCS). [7] D. Cline and D. Neuffer, AIP Conf. Proc. 68, 856 (1981).
In both cases significant challenges exist in obtaining [8] S. Geer et al., unpublished report, 1998.
acceleration without phase-space dilution. Simulations [9] KAON Factory Study, Accelerator Design Report
show that longitudinal matching is relatively TRIUMF, Vancouver BC, Canada. (1990)
straightforward [34], and transverse matching is possible. [10] 5 MW Pulsed Spallation Neutron Source, Preconceptual
However precise matching in rapid-cycling systems may Design Study, BNL-60678, 1994.
be difficult, and beam decay within the transport and [11] S. D. Holmes, ed.."A Development Plan for the Fermilab
acceleration must be tolerated. Proton Source", Fermilab-TM-2021 (1997).
After acceleration to full energy, the µ -µ beams are [12] S. Y. Lee, K. Y. Ng, and D. Trbojevic, Phys. Rev. E48,
+ -
inserted into a storage ring for multiturn collisions at full 3040 (1993).
[13] J. Griffin, “rf System Considerations for Muon Collider
energy until µ-decay. The number of storage turns before
Proton Driver Synchrotrons.”, unpublished, April 1998.
decay is ~300B, where B is the mean ring bending field in
[14] I. Kourbanis and Z. Qian, unpublished (1998).
T, or ~2000 turns at B=6.7 T. High luminosity requires [15] J. E. Griffin et al. "Passive Compensation of Space Charge
that the beams be focussed to small spots and short in the LANL PSR”, FN-661 (1998)
bunches at the interaction points (IPs). It also implies high [16] C. Ankenbrandt et al.,"Bunching Near Transition in the
beam densities and that could allow multiparticle AGS", Phys. Rev. Special Topics AB 1, 030101 (1998).
instabilities. The small focus at the IP with the geometric [17]N. V. Mokhov, The MARS Code System Users Guide,
and chromatic acceptance requirements is a significant Fermilab FN-628 (1995).
design challenge [35]. [18]J. Ranft, DPMJET version II.3 and II.4, INFN-AE-97045
(1997).
6 CURRENT R&D PROGRAM [19] D. Kahana and Y. Torun, BNL-61983 (1995).
[20] Experiment 910 at BNL-AGS (1997).
Following initial studies presented at Snowmass, the [21] N. V. Mokhov and A. Van Ginneken, FNAL-Conf-98/041
high-energy physics advisory panel recommended expan- (1998); N.V. Mokhov and S. I. Striganov, FNAL-Conf-
ded research including simulations and experiments to 98/053 (1998).
determine the feasibility of µ -µ colliders [36]. In
+ -
[22] W. Turner and H. Kirk, Proc. New Directions for HEP -
response the µ -µ collaboration is expanding its efforts,
+ -
Snowmass 96, 242 (1996).
including experiments on targetry/production at BNL and [23] D. Neuffer and A. Van Ginneken, submitted to NIM A
cooling at Fermilab. (discussed above) Much research (1998).
and innovation is needed toward obtaining complete and [24] R. Palmer and J. Gallardo (unpublished) 1997.
optimal solutions to the difficult problems in developing a [25] BNL targetry experiment proposal (1998)
practical µ -µ collider.
+ - [26] R. Palmer, (unpublished) 1997.
[27] G I. Silvestrov ,AIP Conf. Proc. 372, 168 (1996)
We acknowledge the assistance of the many th
[28] R. C. Fernow et al., to appear in Proc. 8 workshop on
contributors to the µ -µ collider studies, based at BNL,
+ -
Advanced Accel. Concepts, Baltimore, MD (1998)
Fermilab, LBL, and other universities and laboratories, [29] A. Van Ginneken, Nucl. Inst. and Meth. A362, 213 (1995);
including R. Palmer, S. Geer, A. Tollestrup, A. Sessler, J. D. Neuffer and A. Van Ginneken, Nucl. Inst. and Meth. A
Gallardo, D. Cline, K. MacDonald, R. Noble and many 403,1 (1998); and paper 4W.31, Proc. PAC 1997.
others. [30] R. Fernow, ICOOL (unpublished) 1998.
[31] P. LeBrun and P. Spentzouris, DPGeant simulations
REFERENCES (1998).
[1] µ µ Collider - A Feasibility Study, BNL-52503, Fermi-
+ - [32] S. Geer, spokesperson, et al. FNAL proposal P904(1998).
Lab-Conf.-96-092, LBNL-38946 (1996), presented at the [33] A. Moretti et al., these 1998 Linac Conf. Proc. , Chicago
Snowmass 96 workshop (1997). (1998)
[2] A. N. Skrinsky and V.V. Parkhomchuk, Sov. J. Nucl. [34] D. Neuffer, Nucl. Inst and Meth, A384, 263 (1997).
Physics 12, 3(1981), E. A. Perevedentsev and A. N. [35] A. Garren et al., Nucl. Physics B, Proc. Suppl., 51A,
Skrinsky, Proc. 12th Int. Conf. on High Energy Accel., 485 148(1996).
(1983). [36] F. Gilman, et al., HEPAP subpanel report on Planning the
Future of US High-Energy Physics (1998).
45
BEPC INJECTOR UPGRADE
-For-
Electron Linac Division
Pei, Guoxi
Institute of High Energy Physics, Academia Sinica, Beijing 100039,China
Abstract so that the average output power of the klystrons can be
BEPC is a 2.2×2 GeV electron- positron collider with increased from 19MW to 22MW. By all measures
luminosity of 2×1030cm-2s-1. Its injector is a 1.3GeV mentioned above, it is hopeful to increase the positron
electron Linac. As a part of BEPC upgrades for higher energy to 1.75GeV as shown in Table 1.
luminosity, the Linac energy will be increased to 1.55
GeV of J/• physics energy region, and further to 1.75 Table 1: Energy Upgrade
GeV or higher. The main measures we took are: 1) to use Before After
4 sets of high power RF sources, including newly upgrade Upgrade
RF Power Source 11×19MW 8×22MW
designed 65MW klystrons and 150 MW modulators; 2) to
3×45MW
rebuild local control system for more stable operation.
RF pulse width 3.2µS 3.7µS
After a few years effort with collaborating companies,
EMF of SLED 1.4 1.5
main upgrades and relevant improvements (15 dB high
Injector Energy 1.3GeV 1.75GeV
power directional coupler, high power vacuum valve, RF
pulse widening to increase the multiplication factor of Besides energy upgrade, another important upgrade is to
SLED etc.) are completed. Now the machine can be rebuild the local control system. The old one was
operated stably at 1.55GeV. manually operated, complex and inconvenient, especially
in our case, both electrons and positrons use the same
Keywords: BEPC injector, high power RF source, Linac beam line. When we made mode change, say from e - to e+,
control system a lot parameters should be changed. Computer can do it
very easily.
1 INTRODUCTION In what follows, the author will present the technique
issues underneath the energy upgrade and the local control
Full energy injection is necessary for any high system rebuild.
luminosity storage rings, such as PEP-II• KEKB etc.,
because it can avoid beam loss during ramping or omit
2 TECHNIQUE UPGRADE
ramping process to shorten the injection time. For BES,
the most important physics is J/• of 1.55GeV. So, to
increase BEPC injector energy from 1.3GeV to 1.55GeV 2.1 65MW klystron
for J/• and further to 1.75GeV for other physics is Table 2: 65MW Specifications and Test Results
significant. Parameters Design 1st Tube 2nd Tube 3rd Tube
BEPC injector [1], built in 1987, was a 1.3GeV• 200- Frequency (MHz) 2856 2856 2856 2856
meter electron Linac. HK-1 klystrons (35MW) were the Cathode Dispenser Dispenser Dispenser Dispenser
Heater Volt.(V) 22 20.5 23 21.6
RF power sources. The standard acceleration unit consists Heater Curr.(A) 36 38 41 38
of four 3-meter constant gradient accelerator tubes, Pulse Volt.(KV) 350 330±5 342 350
driven by one klystron with SLED. The energy gain can Pulse Curr. (A) 415 406 401 444.1
Microperv. (•P) 2.0±0.1 1.91∼2.13 2.0 2.145
be expressed as W (MeV) = 20 M P , where M is the PPS 50 12.5 12.5 12.5
multiplication factor of SLED, and P the klystron output Pin •W• 600 ∼600 ∼800
Pout •MW• 65 50.4 58.5*,66** 63*,76**
power. It is clear that higher energy can be obtained by RF Width (•s) 3.5 3.0 3.3∼3.35 2.5∼3.0
both increasing the klystron output power and enhancing Efficiency (%) 45 37.6 42.6*,48**
multiplication factor. There are 12 such acceleration units Gain (dB) 51 ∼50
Lifetime (Hrs) •15000 3500 8000 Alive
downstream of BEPC positron production system. If we
replace three of them with 65MW klystrons (operating at *Measured by thermocoupler
45MW at the first stage), we can hope to get 200MeV **Measured by peak power meter
energy gain. For the rest RF power supplies, we are going The new high power klystron[2] was designed in 1992,
to make some modifications. Widening the pulse width the prototype was SLAC 5045 tube. After many trials, we
from 3.2•s to 3.7•s by adjusting the modulator PFN, we got the first tube in 1995, manufactured by 4404 company
can increase the multiplication factor of SLED from 1.4 to in Wuhan. The output power on the test stand was about
1.5. Using higher ratio of 1:14 pulse transformer, we can 50MW, not bad for the first tube. In succession, we totally
arise the pulse voltage a little bit from 260KV to 270KV, got three 65MW klystrons from the company. Their test
49
results and operation records at the gallery are listed in modulators. The control PC inspects the PLCs through the
Table 2. From this table we can see, the output power is RS-232 port. The DC voltage, charging current, external
acceptable both on the test stand and at the gallery, but the failure signal and filament current are sent to the control
lifetime is too short. Now we are trying to open the two room. DC voltage can be remotely controlled.
failure tubes and analyse the problems with company
people.
2.2 150MW modulator
Referring to high power modulator techniques of world
class labs, such as SLAC, KEK, DESY, etc., and our own
80MW modulator experience, we designed the 150MW
modulators [3] for 65MW klystrons. The specifications
and pulse voltage output waveform are listed separately in
Table 3 and Figure 1. We have made four 150MW
modulators, two of them are now working at klystron
gallery for a few years, very stable and low noise.
Figure 1: 150MW Modulator Output Waveforme
Table 3: Parameters of New and Old Modulators
Old New
Output Power 80MW 150MV
b. Magnet power supplies
Output High Voltage 260KV 350KV There are 88 sets of DC power supplies used for
Repetition Rate 12.5Hz 25Hz quadrupoles, steering coils and focusing solenoids. Now
Anode Voltage of Thyratron 42KV 44KV the adjustment can simply be done by the PCs. Good
Anode Current of Thyratron 3240A 6500A data are saved on the hard disk for further analysis and
Pulse Transformer 1:12 1:15
reference.
Pulse Width 3.0•s 3.5•s
Rise Time 0.7•s 0.9•s
PFN Impedance 6.2• 3.3• c. Vacuum
PFN Total Capacitance 0.34•f 0.9•f A PC is used for inspecting the status of the Linac
Charging Current 3.7A 2.53A vacuum. All parameters can be shown on the screen with
Charging Time 5.5ms 2.6ms proper colours. When there is any trouble, a sound and
Charging Inductance 10H 30H
red colour warning will appear.
2.3 Local control system d. Mode change and RF phase
Linac control system[4] reconstruction includes following As mentioned above, in our Linac e- and e + beams
parts as illustrated in Fig.2. use the same beam line. When changing modes, we need
switch the stepping motor to arise or put down the target,
a. RF power source and adjust the capture section RF phase and all the optical
A new local control system based on the PLC was parameters downstream. In order to get the highest
installed and the communication between the control room energy, the RF phases of the klystrons are controlled. All
and modulators was accomplished. PLC was used to these are now accomplished by a PC.
replace the original relay control logic circuits of the
Figure 2: Linac Control System
50
2.4 High power vacuum valve[5]
Between klystron window and the downstream RF
structure, there is an valve for vacuum separation. The one
used for HK-1 klystron is SLAC old design, which is
Indium sealed and only can bear 35MW power. For 65MW
klystron, we must use new one. The new design is a two
part U type waveguide. These two parts can be set apart a
little bit to let seal plate with fluorine O ring insert into the
gap to separate vacuum.
2.5 15dB high power coupler
In our system, the first klystron is driven by an RF
amplifier. The following tubes are driven with part of the
power from No.1 tube by directional coupler. In order to
ensure enough driving power for 65MW klystrons, 15dB
directional coupler was designed and used to replace the
original 20dB one.
3 CONCLUSION
Except the lifetime of 65MW klystron need to be further
studied, all other upgrades have reached the design targets.
They are working smoothly on the machine, especially the
modulators and local control system. Because only two
65MW klystrons were installed ( including one SLAC 5045
tube) at the gallery, not four as planned ,the linac can only
work at 1.55GeV.
4 REFERENCES
[1] Wang Jin, Han Qian, Ling Dachun. The status of
BEPC 1.3GeV Linac, LINAC 94.
[2] Hong Bo, Dong Dong. Improvements of BEPC Linac
klystrons, APAC 98.
[3] Chi Yunlong et al., BEPC Pulse modulator Upgrade,
98CATC ( in Chinese )
[4] Gu Pengda et al., The status of BEPC Linac control
system, ICALEPCS 97
[5] G. Li et al., Design and Test of WV1 High Power
Waveguide Valve, Internal report ( in Chinese )
51
DEMONSTRATION OF TWO-BEAM ACCELERATION IN CTF II
R. Bossart, H.H. Braun, G. Carron, M. Chanudet, F. Chautard, J.P. Delahaye, J.C. Godot,
S. Hutchins, I. Kamber, C. Martinez, G. Suberlucq, P. Tenenbaum*, L. Thorndahl, M. Valentini,
I. Wilson, W. Wuensch, CERN, 1211 Geneva 23, Switzerland
Abstract 3. To study the dynamics of a high-charge, multibunch
The second phase of the Compact LInear Collider drive beam.
(CLIC) Test Facility (CTF II) at CERN has demon- 4. To test the active alignment system in a realistic
strated the feasibility of two-beam acceleration at accelerator environment.
30 GHz using a high-charge drive beam, running parallel 5. To test CLIC beam monitoring equipment.
to the main beam, as the RF power source. To date The layout of CTF II with its two beam lines is shown
accelerating gradients of 59 MV/m at 30 GHz have been in figure 1. The drive beam generates 30 GHz power,
achieved. In CTF II, the two beams are generated by while the main beam probes the accelerating field in the
3 GHz RF photo-injectors and are accelerated in 3 GHz 30 GHz accelerator. Both beams are generated by S-
linacs, before injection into the 30 GHz modules. The band RF-photo-injectors. The RF-photo-injectors have
drive beam linac has to accelerate a 16 ns long train of photo-cathodes illuminated by a common short pulse
48 bunches, each with a nominal charge of 13.4 nC. To (8 ps fwhm) laser. The cathodes and the laser system are
cope with the very substantial beam-loading special described in [3].
accelerating structures are used (running slightly off the The main beam operates with a single bunch of 1 nC
bunch repetition frequency). A magnetic chicane charge. A second bunch, with a variable delay relative to
compresses the bunches to less than 5 ps fwhm, this is the first, can be added later to allow wakefield studies in
needed for efficient 30 GHz power generation. The the 30 GHz structures. Before being injected into the
30 GHz modules are fully-engineered representative 30 GHz accelerator the main beam is accelerated to
sections of CLIC, they include a 30 GHz decelerator for 46 MeV in an S-band travelling wave structure. This is
the drive beam, a 30 GHz accelerator for the main beam, necessary to obtain a small enough geometric emittance
high resolution BPM’s and a wire-based active align- to fit into the small acceptance of the 30 GHz
ment system. The performance achieved so far, as well accelerating structures which have a beam aperture of
as the operational experience with the first accelerator of only 4 mm diameter. Magnetic spectrometers before and
this type, are reported. after the 30 GHz accelerator are used to measure the
beam energy. The details of the 30 GHz accelerator are
1 INTRODUCTION described in [4].
After successfully completing the first phase of CTF in The drive beam RF-photo-injector is a 3-cell design
1995 [1], the construction of CTF II was launched in optimised for high charge acceleration [5]. The nominal
1996 with the following goals: charge is 640 nC in 48 bunches with a bunch spacing of
1. To demonstrate the feasibility of the CLIC two-beam 10 cm. The photo-injector accelerates these bunches to
accelerator scheme [2] and its associated 30 GHz 6 MeV. The photo-injector is followed by two short
technology. travelling wave S-band structures optimised for high-
2. To build and test prototypes of the 30 GHz modules charge acceleration [6]. These structures are also used
Figure 1: Layout of CTF II (TWS=travelling wave structure)
*
Present address: Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, Stanford, California
85
for beam-loading compensation, as described in below. 50
As a result of the counteracting longitudinal RF focusing
and space-charge defocusing forces, the bunch length
Energy [MeV]
after acceleration is about 8 ps fwhm for the nominal
charge. A magnetic chicane, together with proper
phasing in the accelerating structures, compresses the
bunches to 5 ps; this is needed for efficient 30 GHz
power production. The first magnet of the chicane is also
used as a spectrometer magnet. After bunch compres- 47
sion, the beam is injected into the 30 GHz decelerator 10 20 10 20
Bunch Number
[4] where a part of its energy is converted into 30 GHz
Figure 2: Longitudinal phase space with beam loading
power. A downstream spectrometer magnet measures the
compensation. Left side: measured; right side: predicted.
energy of the beam after power extraction.
2 DRIVE BEAM ACCELERATION AND 3 TWO BEAM ACCELERATION AT 30 GHZ
BEAM LOADING COMPENSATION In June and July of this year two-beam acceleration
The nominal drive beam train of 640 nC during 16 ns was tested by simultaneously passing the drive beam
extracts 2.2 GW of power from the two 3 GHz through the 30 GHz decelerator and the main beam
accelerating sections. The related energy has to be through the 30 GHz accelerator. At present two power
provided by the energy stored in the accelerating extraction structures are installed in the 30 GHz
structures. For this reason, the structures are operated at decelerator. Each power extraction structure is con-
a high field (design 60 MV/m, achieved 36 MV/m) and nected to one 30 GHz accelerating structure of the main
their geometry is optimised for a low r'/Q (2.2 k:/m) to beam. One of the power extraction structures is an older
maximise the stored energy. Nevertheless the energy prototype (soon to be replaced) and gives about half the
drop due to transient beam-loading would be 17.5 MeV power of the other. The numbers quoted below for power
at nominal charge. Since such an energy spread is and accelerating field refer to those measured with the
neither acceptable for the bunch compression nor for the newer structure. The following quantities were
transverse matching into the 30 GHz decelerator, a two- measured: drive beam charge before and after the
frequency beam-loading compensation is used. The two decelerator, drive beam bunch length [7], main beam
accelerating structures operate 7.8 MHz below and above charge and bunch length, drive beam momentum before
the drive-beam bunch repetition frequency of and after the decelerator, 30 GHz power (input, reflected
2998.6 MHz. This introduces a change of RF phase from and transmitted) for each of the two accelerating
bunch to bunch which allows an approximate structures and main beam momentum. Table 1
compensation of the beam-loading. Due to the curvature summarises the performance achieved in comparison
of the RF wave, a residual energy spread remains, with the design goals. As already experienced in CTF I,
leading to somewhat lower energies of the early and late no RF breakdowns were observed in either the 30 GHz
bunches compared with bunches at the center of the waveguide networks or the structures. The 30 GHz
train. This effect is visible in figure 2, which shows a power production is limited for the moment by the drive
longitudinal phase-space image of a 24 bunch train with beam charge which can be transported through the
a total charge of 120 nC. This is taken with a streak decelerator.
camera from a transition radiation screen in the first design achieved
drive beam spectrometer. A plot of the calculated energy
maximum acceler- 640 nC 755 nC
distribution is shown for comparison. For a 48 bunch
ated charge
train the total energy variation from bunch to bunch due
acc. charge giving 640 nC 475 nC
to this effect is 7%. Without beam loading compensation
drive max. 30 GHz power
it would be 30% for the nominal charge. By using two
beam max. charge through 640 nC 374 nC
frequencies, the single bunch energy spread introduced in
decelerator
the 1st structure is compensated by the 2nd structure.
However, using correct phasing and a slight reduction of number of bunches 48 48
the field amplitude in the 2nd structure, it is possible to bunch length fwhm 5 ps 5 ps
introduce a correlated energy spread in the individual 30 GHz power at output of 71 MW 27 MW
bunches which is approximately equal for all bunches. power extraction structure
This is essential for bunch compression in the magnetic 30 GHz power pulse length 14 ns 14 ns
chicane. Adding a correlated energy spread to allow for mean accelerating field in 95 MV/m 59 MV/m
bunch compression, the energy spread with beam loading 30 GHz acc. structure
compensation increases to 14%.
Table 1: Nominal and achieved performance.
86
produced and accelerated. Effects leading to emittance
growth in the magnetic bunch compressor were studied
experimentally [8]. The single bunch mode of operation
is also used for beam monitor testing [9].
5 CONCLUSION AND OUTLOOK
The CTF II has demonstrated the principle of two-
beam acceleration at 30 GHz. Although not all the
design specifications have been met until now, the
accelerating gradients achieved are already well above
those in more conventional electron accelerators, and the
charge and beam current obtained from the drive beam
Figure 3: Momentum spectra of the main beam meas- accelerator are unprecedented for RF-photo-injectors.
ured with drive beam on and off. For the coming year it is planned to add two more
power extraction and accelerating structures. A test with
a special power extraction structure of considerably
higher shunt impedance is foreseen, which will allow to
generate even higher power than with the standard
structures. This power will be used to explore the as yet
unknown gradient limits of 30 GHz structures.
To improve the quality of the drive beam a new RF-
photo-injector [10] and an idler cavity are under
construction. The new gun will improve the drive beam
quality while the idler cavity will reduce the residual
energy spread of the beam loading compensation
scheme.
Figure 4: Drive beam momentum spectra measured
REFERENCES
before and after the 30 GHz power extraction structures. [1] H.H. Braun and 16 co-authors, “Results from the
CLIC Test Facility,” EPAC, Sitges 1996
Possible reasons for the still unsatisfactory [2] J.P. Delahaye
+ -
and 30 co-authors, “CLIC, a 0.5 to
5 TeV e /e Compact Linear Collider,” EPAC,
transmission at high charges include the gradient in the Stockholm 1998
drive beam accelerator which is still below the design [3] E. Chevallay, J. Durand, S. Hutchins, G. Suberlucq,
value, transverse matching problems and various H. Trautner, “Photo-Cathodes for the CERN CLIC
problems with the laser system. Test Facility,” this conference
Figure 3 shows energy spectra of the main beam [4] I. Wilson, W. Wuensch, W. Coosemans, C. Achard,
measured downstream of the 30 GHz accelerator with “The CLIC 30 GHz Two-Beam Test Accelerator,”
and without 30 GHz acceleration. The larger energy this conference
spread of the accelerated beam is caused by laser energy [5] R. Bossart, H.H. Braun, M. Dehler, J.-C. Godot, “A
3 GHz Photoelectron Gun for High Beam Intensity,”
jitters and by the bunch-length of the main beam, which FEL Conf., New York 1995
is 6 ps fwhm corresponding to a phase extension of 65o [6] G. Bienvenu, J. Gao, “A Double High Current, High
at 30 GHz. Figure 4 shows the drive beam energy Gradient Electrons Accelerating Structure,” EPAC,
spectra before and after passage through the 30 GHz Sitges 1996
decelerator. These spectra were measured with a drive [7] C. Martinez and H.H. Braun, , “Non-Intercepting
beam charge of 400 nC and a transmission of 85% in the Bunch Length Monitor for Picosecond Electron
Bunches,” EPAC, Stockholm 1998
decelerator. The measured power and acceleration are
[8] H.H. Braun, F. Chautard, R. Corsini, T.O. Rauben-
compatible with the values expected from theory. heimer, P. Tenenbaum, “Emittance Growth during
However, the precision of this comparison is presently Bunch Compression in the CTF II,” submitted to
limited by the beam losses in the decelerator. Physical Review Letters
[9] T. Kamps and 9 co-authors, “Design and Tests of a
4 SINGLE BUNCH EXPERIMENTS new microwave beam position monitor for the Un-
dulator of the TTF-FEL,” EPAC, Stockholm 1998
The drive beam accelerator of CTF II can also be op- [10]R. Bossart, M. Dehler, “Design of a Gun for Heavy
erated in single bunch mode. This mode of operation Beam Loading,” EPAC, Sitges 1996
allows the study of the dynamics of single bunches with
high charges. Recently a single bunch of 112 nC was
87
RESULTS FROM HARDWARE R&D ON C-BAND RF-SYSTEM
FOR e+e- LINEAR COLLIDER
T. Shintake, N. Akasaka and H. Matsumoto, KEK, 1-1 Oho, Tsukuba, 305 Japan
J.-S. Oh, PAL POSTECH, Pohang, Kyungbuk, 790-600, Republic of Korea
M. Yoshida, ICEPP, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
K. Watanabe, Tohoku University, Sendai, 982 Japan
Y. Ohkubo, H. Yonezawa, TOSHIBA Co., Tokyo, Japan
H. Baba, NIHON KOSHUHA Co., Ltd., 1119 Nakayama, Yokohama, 226 Japan
Abstract accelerating structures, 3500 klystrons and their pulse
modulators. Therefore, the hardware has to meet the
Hardware R&D on the C-band (5712 MHz) RF-system followings:
for an electron/positron linear collider started in 1996 at (1) Highly reliable,
KEK. During two years R&D, we have developed two 50- (2) Simple,
MW C-band klystrons (TOSHIBA E3746 #1, #2), the (3) Low construction cost,
"Smart Modulator", the traveling-wave resonator (TWR) (4) Reasonably power efficient and
and the cold model of the rf-pulse compressor [1,2]. A C- (5) Operationally ease.
band accelerating structure, which uses the choke-mode The above list provides a guideline and boundary
cavity, is under development. Its HOM-damping conditions to our R&D works. Among the system
performance will be tested at ASSET beam-line in this parameters, the choice of the drive rf-frequency plays the
year. Since the C-band system is designed to accelerate most important role concerning to the system performance
high-current beams at a high accelerating gradient of 36 as well as the hardware details. We proposed the C-band
MV/m, there are various applications in the future beside frequency as the best choice to meet all of the demands
the linear collider. For example, we can build an injector listed above [1].
for the SR-ring in a limited site-length. Additionally, since
the C-band components are compact, it has a big 2 SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
potentiality to be widely used in various medical and
industrial applications, such as an electron-beam Figure 1 shows a schematic diagram of one unit in the
radiotherapy machine, or a compact non-destructive X-ray main linac rf-system. The deigned value of the
imaging system. accelerating gradient in ref. [1] was 32 MV/m. It is now
36 MV/m, which has been increased by a new idea
1 INTRODUCTION concerning the RF pulse compressor (see later) and
improved shunt impedance in the accelerating structure.
The e+e− linear collider is a large-scale project. In the The required number of unit for 500 GeV c.m. energy was
main linac for two beams, we need more than 7000 reduced to 1800 units (it was 2040 units).
C-band LINAC RF-SYSTEM LINEAR COLLIDER C-band LC 3 PROGRESS ON
AC POWER LINE
5712 MHz, =S500 GeV FOR TWO LINACS
HARDWARE R&D
SMART MODULATOR 47kV, 37kJ/s
RF-SYSTEM : 1789 UNITS
3 3
PFN
MODULE
MODULATORS
KLYSTRONS
:
:
3560
3560
3.1 Waveguide Components
) )
01 01
ACC. STRUCTURES : 7120
2
'
8
/
2
'
8
23.5 kV
H.V. pulse ACTIVE LENGTH : 12.8 KM Since this is the first project to use
/
( (
WALL-PLUG POWER : 130 MW the C-band frequency as the beam
HV INVERTER POWER SUPPLY BEAM LOADING COMPENSATION USING PHASE -TO-AMPLITUDE MODULATION acceleration, no high-power
50 MW KLYSTRON 0:
V ø1
PM ø2
waveguide component of vacuum-
ø1
V1
tight design was available in the
1:15 100 MW 1:15 Klystron V2
2.5 µs 350 kV AM ø2
market. We newly developed various
317 A
5)38/6(
&2035(6625
0:V
100 pps
m P = 1. 53
h = 45% COMPRESS
waveguide components, including a
x 4.0, h = 80%
PULSE COMPRESSOR INPUT
PHASE SHIFT
WAVEGUIDE WR-187 Rectangular
TO STRUCTURES 100 MW, 2.5 µs
0°
ceramic window, at EIA-WR187
LOSS ~5%
95 MW, 0.5 µs TIME
size (Fig.2). [3] We assembled a
ACCELERATOR 40$*1(7 180°
traveling-wave resonator (TWR),
OUTPUT RF-POWER
(D 09P
Beam
P/21* $&&(/(5$725
%30
400 MW,
0.5 µs and tested it up to 90 MW of the
GIRDER 8m
accumulated power with 2.4 µsec
pulse-width. No difficulty
ACTIVE MOVER 3 p 4, a l = 0.13~0.17, vg=0.012~0.035c, r=60 MOhm/m, Tf=286 ns, t = 0.53 ACTIVE MOVER
s
$/,*10(17725(/$1&( aP6758&785(
TIME concerning to the high-power
Linear Collider
By T. Shintake (KEK)
operation was found at this power
0DUFK +0$7680272 76+,17$.(.(.
level.
Fig. 1 One unit of the C-band RF system.
94
Gp = 3.25 )ODWWRS
QVHF
500 nsec/div
Fig.2 C-band waveguide component (Bethe holecoupler). Fig. 4 Flat-top rf pulse compression
using 1-m long 3-cell delay-line.
3.2 RF Pulse Compressor 2.5 µsec at 50 pps. The power efficiency was improved to
44%. Fig. 6 shows the output waveform from the second
The authors have proposed a new type RF pulse klystron. Details are reported at this conference [9].
compressor in 1996 [4]. It can generate a flat output pulse Recently we have developed an advanced calorimetric
from an energy-storage cavity of 1 meter long. It method for the absolute rf-power measurement. To
eliminated the long pipes required in SLED-II type eliminate uncertainty in flow-rate measurement of cooling
compressor. To compensate ringing response associated water, we introduced an electric heater in the cooling
with the multi-cell coupled cavity, the amplitude water system. Since we can accurately determine the
modulation is applied on the input RF power. In 1997, we dissipation power on the heater by VI product, this method
demonstrated generation of a flat pulse using a cold model enables to determine the absolute power accurately.
pulse-compressor cavity (Fig. 3, Fig. 4). The energy gain
of 3.25 was obtained [5]. 3.4 Smart Modulator (Klystron Power Supply)
To improve the power gain, we started a study on a new The C-band klystron uses a high-voltage pulse of –350
idea: recovering rf-energy from the front part of the
kV peak and 3.5 µsec width. The conventional PFN line-
modulator pulse. A phase modulator is used to compensate
type pulse-modulator is suitable to generate this pulse, and
a phase slip in the klystron. Since the pulse-compression
no essential difficulties are expected. Therefore, R&D
cavity acts as the energy storage, the rf-energy in the front
work was focused on reducing cost and improving
part is accumulated and
reliability. In 1993, Prof. M. H. Cho and Prof. H.
contributes to the output
energy.
A tentative test showed
enhancement of the power gain
of 1.3 [6]. To apply this idea in
the practical accelerators, we rf
need to develop a RF feedback
module (IQ-modulator and
demodulator, a microprocessor
and a solid-state RF amplifier
of 500 W output level). This π/2 Mode
18
Beam
28
RF feedback module will be
also useful in various
accelerators to compensate the
beam loading effects, such as
in a beam buncher system or a
Fig. 3 Three-cell pulse rf-gun to generate a stable rf
compression cavity. beam into FEL oscillators. Fig. 5 The C-band klystron: TOSHIBA E3746 #2, and
its traveling-wave output structure..
3.3 C-band Klystron R&D 0:
mVHF
In 1996 FY, we developed the first tube E3746 #1, which 5)2XWSXW
SSV
3RZHU
employed conventional design: the single-gap output
structure and the solenoid focus. It generated 50 MW
power into 1 µsec width at 20 pps repetition [7,8]. We
continuously operated the klystron at C-band test-lab until
the second tube being ready.
In 1997 FY, we developed the second tube E3746 #2.
This is an upgrade version of the first klystron, in which
the single-gap output structure was replaced with a newly +9 N9 mVGLY
developed 3-cell traveling-wave output structure shown in Fig. 6 RF output power of the second
Fig. 5. The second tube generated 54 MW peak power in E3746 C-band klystron.
95
Matsumoto proposed a concept of “Smart Modulator”, 4 FUTURE R&D
which is an ideal modulator: simple, compact, reliable and
low cost. As the first step, we developed a prototype of the The first stage of the R&D was successful. For the next
smart modulator, which is step, in order to examine the system performance under a
1. Direct HV charging from an inverter power supply. realistic situation, one-unit of the C-band system has to be
2. No deQ-ing circuit. installed and tested with beam in an existing machine,
3. Much smaller size than conventional modulators. such as KEK-B injector. Daily operation will tell us what
4. Uses existing reliable circuit components. we should do next.
The developed smart-modulator is shown in Fig. 7. The
main cabinet size is 1600x2000x1200 mm only, which is ACKNOWLEDGMENT
now running daily driving the 50 MW klystron [10,11,12]. We thank Mr. Kazuharu Nishitani for his various
contributions to build the experimental equipment. We
thank Profs. H. Sugawara, G. A. Loew, W. Namkung and
Prof. G. A. Voss, for their encouragement to our work.
We also thank all contributors to this project.
REFERENCES
[1] T. Shintake et al., “C-band Main Linac RF System for Linear
Collider”, LINAC96, KEK preprint 96-122, Sep. 1996 A
[2] T. Shintake et al., “C-band RF-system Development for e+e-
Linear Collider”, APAC98, KEK preprint 98-30, April 1998 A
[3] H. Matsumoto et al., "Development High Power Waveguide
Components..", PAC97, KEK Preprint 97-50, June 1997
[4] T. Shintake et al., "A New RF Pulse-Compressor using
Multi-Cell Cavity", EPAC96, KEK Preprint 96-71, July 1996
[5] T. Shintake et al, "Development of C-band RF Pulse
Fig. 7. The smart-modulator (white box at upper- Compression..", PAC 97, KEK Preprint 97-48 June 1997 A.
[6] M. Yoshida et a, “Efficiency Enhancement of RF-pulse
right), the C-band klystron (middle), and the C-band
Compressor for C-band RF-System”, this conference.
members. [7] T. Shintake et al., "Development of C-band 50 MW Pulse
Klystron..", PAC97, KEK Preprint 97-47, June 1997 A
3.5 Accelerating Structure [8] H. Matsumoto et al., “Operation of the C-band 50 MW
A C-band accelerating structure is under development at Klystron..”, APAC98, KEK preprint 98-31, April 1998 A.
MITSUBISHI heavy industry [13]. It uses a special rf [9] Y. Ohkubo, “C-band 50 MW Klystron using Traveling-wave
cavity called the choke-mode cavity, which strongly Output Structure”, this conference.
damps all higher-order-modes using microwave absorbers [10] J. S. Oh et al., “Efficiency Issue in C-band Klystron-
made by SiC [14]. The rf power for the beam acceleration Modulator...”, PAC97, KEK Preprint 97-51, June 1997 A
is confined in the main cavity by means of a choke-filter. [11] J. S. Oh et al., “Efficiency Analysis of 111-MW C-Band
Figure 8 shows the structure under fabrication. It uses Modulator…”, APAC98, KEK preprint 98-32, April 1998 A.
Matsumoto-coupler for symmetric field at input/output [12] H. Baba et al., “Pulsed Modulator for C-band Klystron”,
APAC98, KEK preprint 98-33, April 1998 A.
coupler. To align beams on its center, two RF-BPMs will
[13] H. Matsumoto et al., “Fabrication of The C-band Choke
be mounted at both ends, and one HOM pickup will be Mode-type Damped Accelerating Structure”, this conference.
used at middile. The basic performance of the RF-BPM [14] N. Akasaka et al., “Optimization of Wakefield Damping in
was tested at FFTB-beam line, and 25 nm of resolution C-band Accelerating Structure”, this conference
was measured [15]. The RF-BPM in Fig. 8 is the upgraded [15] T. Slaton et al. “Development of Nanometer Resolution C-
version, which does not have the common-mode leakage. band Radio Frequency Beam Position Monitors in the Final
The HOM damping performance will be tested at ASSET Focus Test Beam” , this conference
beam line of SLAC in this year.
Fig. 8 C-band accelerating structure fabrication.
(left)choke-mode cell with SiC ring, (middle) Matsumoto-coupler and (right) common-mode free RF-BPM.
96
THE DRIVE BEAM DECELERATOR OF CLIC
A. Riche, D. Schulte, CERN, Geneva, Switzerland
Abstract 2 MODULE LAYOUT
In the Compact Linear Collider (CLIC) a high-current, To simplify the longitudinal matching of the drive beam
low-energy beam will be decelerated in a chain of power decelerators and the main linac they both consist of mod-
extraction structures to produce the RF-power necessary ules of equal length. A main linac module contains up to
to accelerate a low-current, high-energy beam in the main four structures—one to four of which can be replaced by
linac. The transverse dynamics of the decelerated beam quadrupoles if necessary. A drive beam decelerator module
is discussed, based on results of the programs WAKE [1] consists of two structures, quadrupoles and beam position
and PLACET [2]. The very large energy spread and strong monitors (BPMs) forming a FODO-cell. Each drive beam
transverse wakefields as well as the high group velocity of structure has an active length of 0:8 m and feeds two main
these fields and the considerable length of the bunch train linac structures, its total power is 512 MW.
are important factors. Static and dynamic imperfections are In modules where main linac structures are replaced
considered including ground motion. The choice of param- by quadrupoles, decelerator structures will be replaced by
eters for the structures is investigated. A promising beam- drifts or special types that feed one structure only.
based alignment technique is presented that makes use of a
low emittance beam. 3 STRUCTURE MODEL
Here, only on the so-called four-waveguide structure [7] is
considered. The inner bore of the structures is cylindrically
1 INTRODUCTION symmetric, except for the four longitudinal waveguides that
are cut into the surface.
CLIC [3] is based on a two-beam scheme. The RF power The longitudinal and transverse wakefields can each be
used to accelerate the main beam (at 30 GHz) is produced described very well by a single mode. These modes have
by a second high-current low-energy beam (drive beam) almost the same frequency—longitudinally it is 30 GHz,
running parallel to the main one [4], which is decelerated transverly it is 24 MHz lower.
in power extraction structures, to produce the RF power. In contrast to most structures in accelerators, the group
Each drive beam decelerator is on average 767 m long velocities of the longitudinal and transverse modes k;? are
and contains 550 power extraction structures. The train comparable to the speed of light—e.g. k ? 0:44c.
producing the power consists of 1824 bunches. Along the The maximum, minimum and mean energy of each
train the bunch charge increases over the first 320 bunches bunch is shown in Fig. 1 at the end of the decelerator.
and then stays constant (at 17:6 nC). This charge ramp
is necessary to compensate the beam-loading in the main
1.2
linac [5]. In the following simulations, the charge of the mean
first bunch is assumed to be half of the charge of a bunch 1 minimum
maximum
E [GeV]
on the flat top. Within the ramp the bunch charge increases 0.8
linearly with the bunch number. 0.6
Depending on the beam-loading compensation in the 0.4
drive beam accelerator, the ramp may be different from the 0.2
model used and the flat top may be followed by a tail of
bunches with decreasing charge. However, first simulations 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
indicate that the different ramps have little influence. Bunch no
The bunches are separated by a distance of 2 cm, have
a length of z = 400 m and have normalised transverse Figure 1: The final minimum, maximum and mean energy
emittances of
x =
y = 150 m. The initial energy is of each bunch as a function of the bunch number. Only the
E = 1:2 GeV and the initial energy spread is assumed to first 400 bunches are shown, on the flat top the values are
be E =E 1 % RMS [6]. During deceleration the energy constant.
spread increases to about 90 % of the initial energy.
118
4 LATTICE lead to a more stable beam. For very small values of Q, the
envelope is larger at large radii, just because the emittance
The lattice consists of simple FODO-cells with a
quadrupole spacing of half a girder length or 1:115 m. Ig-
is larger due to the smaller energy.
The maximum charge per bunch is fixed by the drive
noring the additional drifts or special structures, each de-
beam injector to about 20 nC. The parameters are thus cho-
celerator consists of 275 modules supporting 550 struc-
sen to be a = 12 mm corresponding to R=Q = 31
=m.
tures. For the same normalised emittance the maximum
The necessary output power of P = 512 MW can then be
provided by q 17:6 nC. The achievable Q is 50 [5].
envelope in a periodic lattice is given by the particles with
the lowest energy [8]. The lattice is scaled to have constant
beta-functions for the lowest energy. The dependence of 125 112.5 100 87.5 75
30
the final envelope on the final energy is shown in Fig. 2. A
phase advance of = 88 per cell was chosen. Larger
maximum envelope [mm]
25 62.5
phase advances reduce the sensitivity to transverse wake-
20
fields but increase the maximum transverse beam size. The
three-sigma envelope of the beam is shown in Fig. 3. It 15 50
shows the adiabatic undamping due to the decreasing en-
10 37.5
ergy.
25
5 12.5
x-envelope [mm]
5
0
4.5 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
4 R/Q
3.5
Figure 4: The maximum envelope of a three sigma beam
3
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 with an initial offset of one sigma for different four-
E [GeV] waveguide structures. The radius was varied to achieve dif-
ferent values of R=Q. The curves correspond to different
Figure 2: Final beam size versus final energy in the drive Q-values.
beam.
6 NON-UNIFORMITY OF THE FIELD
x-envelope [mm]
6 The waveguides lead to a variation of the longitudinal field
5
4 with the transverse offset r and . This in turn gives rise to
X1 4
3 a transverse kick
2
1 r4k,1
0 p? (r; ) = pz;0 k
a4k 2
sin(2s=)
0 100 200 300 400 500 k=1
Quadrupole no ck [,~er cos(4k ) + ~e sin(4k )]
Figure 3: The envelope of a three-sigma beam along the Here, = 0 lies in a symmetry plane in the centre of a
decelerator in the focusing and defocusing quadrupoles. waveguide.
In the simulation only k = 1 and k = 2 are taken into
account. The higher-order terms will cause a significant
5 STABILITY field only at large radii due to the (r=a)4k dependence.
In order to find the optimum iris radius a of the decelerating 12
structures a scaling law for the longitudinal and transverse 3 sigma
x-envelope [mm]
10 3 sigma, rot
wakefields was derived using three different structures with
a = 10; 12 and 20 mm. The wakefields were found to 8 4 sigma
scale as W^ ? / a,5 and W^ L / a,3 . The group velocity 6
4 sigma, rot
5 sigma
remains about constant. 4 5 sigma, rot
Simulations were performed for different values of a and 2
Q, ignoring the field non-uniformity. The layout of the de- 0
celerator was kept constant. In order to achieve the same 0 100 200 300 400 500
power and initial-to-final energy ratio, the charge per bunch quadrupole no
and initial energy were adjusted. Figure 4 shows the maxi-
mum amplitude reached by a three-sigma particle. The ini- Figure 5: The envelope of an on-axis beam with and with-
tial beam offset was x = x . As can be seen, larger radii out rotating the structures at the focusing quadrupoles.
119
Figure 5 shows the envelopes for on-axis beams for beam is steered into the last BPM of the bin using a correc-
particles with Courant-Snyder invariants A2x = c2 x and tion coil. The centres of the other BPMs are then shifted
A2y = 0. In this symmetry plane the forces are purely ra- onto the beam trajectory—either using software or hard-
dial. The three-sigma particles barely pass. The situation ware. In the second step the quadrupoles are switched on
improves significantly if every second structure is turned and a few-to-few steering is performed. In this method, the
by 45 to get a cancellation of focusing and defocusing de- beam has to be transported over some distance without fo-
flections. Here, the term with k = 2 may become important cusing. This is not possible with the large emittance drive
since it is not cancelled, but even the five-sigma particles beam without major beam loss. Therefore it is necessary to
turn out to be stable. use a low emittance beam such as, for example, the main
beam after the damping ring. This beam has a bunch length
8 of z = 300 m and an energy of E = 1:98 GeV. Its
7 case 1 emittance is less then
x 2 m in the horizontal plane.
x-envelope [mm]
6 case 2
After aligning the BPMs, a simple one-to-one steering can
5
4 be performed using the whole bunch train. The resulting
3 envelope in a test case—not taking the non-uniformity into
2 account—is shown in Fig. 7.
1
0 8 CONCLUSIONS
0 100 200 300 400 500
Quadrupole no For a given type of power extraction structure it was found
that increasing the aperture, and simultaneously decreasing
Figure 6: The envelope for a three sigma beam with an the initial beam energy and increasing the bunch charge,
initial offset of x = x with (case 2) and without (case 1) improves the stability. Therefore the maximum beam cur-
taking into account the non-uniformity of the field. rent achievable by the injector has been chosen. The re-
quired output power then defines the structure aperture.
To see the effect of the non-uniformity in the pres- The non-uniformity of the longitudinal field effectively
ence of beam jitter, the envelope for particles starting with reduces the available aperture since particles at large radii
A2x = 32 x and A2y = 0 for a beam with an initial offset are lost rapidly. Rotating every second structure improves
x = x is calculated, with and without taking the non- the situation considerably, using a structure with a higher
uniformity into account. If the structures are rotated as de- order of symmetry solves the problem. For example six-
scribed before, the difference is negligible, see Fig. 6. The waveguide and eight-waveguide structures are under inves-
same behaviour is expected for A2x =x + A2y =y 32 , but tigation.
this needs more investigation. With the present parameters a three-sigma beam is ex-
pected to pass the whole decelerator even if it has an un-
7 ALIGNMENT AND STEERING corrected offset of one sigma at the beamline entry.
Further studies are necessary to understand the effect of
the field non-uniformity on the correction scheme.
8
7 lattice only
x-envelope [mm]
6 corrected case 9 REFERENCES
5 [1] A. Riche, To be published.
4
3 [2] D. Schulte, to be published.
2 [3] J.-P. Delahaye and 30 co-authors, “CLIC a 0.5 to 5
1 TeV Compact Linear Collider.” EPAC 1998.
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 [4] H.H. Braun and 14 co-authors, “The CLIC RF Power
Quadrupole no Source.” to be published in CERN/PS 98-011 (LP).
[5] L. Thornadahl, private communication.
Figure 7: The envelope along the beamline after applying
the ballistic correction. [6] D. Schulte, “The drive beam accelerator of CLIC.”
This conference.
Beam-based alignment is used to reduce the effect of the [7] G. Carron, A. Millich, and L. Thorndahl, “Trans-
initial position errors of the beamline elements. One such fer structure for the CLIC study.” To be published at
method is the so-called “ballistic correction” [9], in which ICAP 1998.
the beamline is divided into bins containing a number of [8] A. Riche, “Maximum energy transfer efficiency in
quadrupoles and BPMs. The bins are aligned one after an- CLIC drive beam. CLIC-Note 266, 1994.
other in two steps that can be iterated if necessary. In the [9] D. Schulte, to be published.
first step the quadrupoles in the bin are switched off. The
120
OPTICS ELEMENTS FOR MODELING ELECTROSTATIC LENSES
AND ACCELERATOR COMPONENTS IV. ELECTROSTATIC
QUADRUPOLES AND SPACE CHARGE MODELING
George H. Gillespie
G. H. Gillespie Associates, Inc., P.O. Box 2961, Del Mar, CA 92014, U.S.A.
Abstract velocity of the particle. The hard-edge ES quad model [2]
in TRACE 3-D simply calls the hard-edge magnetic
Optical models for a variety of electrostatic elements quadrupole subroutine using a gradient given by (1).
have been developed for the computer code TRACE 3-D.
TRACE 3-D is an envelope (matrix) code that includes a 2.2 ES Quadrupole with Fringe Field
linear space charge model and is primarily used to model
Electrostatic quadrupoles with fringe fields are often
bunched beams in magnetic transport systems and
modeled in terms of a potential function of the form:
radiofrequency (RF) accelerators. New matrix models have
been developed that allow the code to be used for modeling (x,y,z ) = + V(z ) (x 2 - y 2)/a2 , (2)
beamlines and accelerators with electrostatic components.
These new models include a number of options for where V(z) is a smooth function used to model the
simulating: (1) einzel lenses, (2) dc accelerator columns, longitudinal variation of the quadrupole strength. The
(3) electrostatic deflectors (prisms), and (4) electrostatic electric field is given by the gradient of φ: E = -∇φ.
quadrupoles. A prescription for setting up the initial beam However, this electric field does not, in general, satisfy
appropriate to modeling 2-D (continuous) beams has also Maxwell's equation ∇•E = 0. For the special case in
been developed. The models for (4) are described in this which V (z ) is a piece-wise linear (or constant) function of
paper and examples of their use are illustrated. The z, then ∇•E = 0 almost everywhere. The fringe field ES
relationship between the 3-D (bunched beam) and 2-D (dc quadrupole uses a function V (z ) which rises linearly from
beam) space charge modeling is discussed and comparisons zero to a maximum value Vo over an entrance length d , 1
of numerical results to other calculations are presented. remains constant at Vo for a distance given by the effective
electrode length l, and then decreases linearly to zero over
1 INTRODUCTION an exit length d .
2
The TRACE 3-D program [1] is one of the standard
codes used in the design of standing wave radiofrequency 2.3 R-Matrix Elements and Example
linacs and transport lines for high-current bunched beams. A first-order 6×6 transfer matrix (R-matrix) is used to
Considerable work has been done on extending the describe particle optics in the paraxial approximation.
program to model a new array of accelerator problems, The elements of the R-matrix are computed directly from
including wakefields [2], traveling wave structures [3], and the electric fields using standard methods [4,5]. For the
electrostatic lenses [4]. This paper describes recent work at fringe field ES quadrupole, the region over which the
further extending the capabilities of TRACE 3-D. fields act is divided into small steps of length ∆z and four
R-matrices are computed for each step: a drift matrix [1]
2 ELECTROSTATIC QUADRUPOLES of length ∆z /2, a lens matrix which computes the
Two electrostatic (ES) quadrupoles models have been quadrupole impulse, another drift matrix of length ∆z /2,
developed for use in TRACE 3-D. One is a hard-edge and a space-charge impulse matrix to model the linear
model where the magnitude of the quadrupole field is space-charge forces (described in Section 3).
constant over the quadrupole length and zero elsewhere. The non-trivial elements of the quadrupole lens R-
The second models fringe fields as linear functions that act matrix at location z are:
over specified fringe field entrance and exit distances. R21 = - R43 = - 2q∆z V(z )/(a2β2γmc2) . (3)
2.1 Hard-Edge ES Quadrupole Table 1 summarizes test TRACE 3-D
calculations carried out for the hard-edge and fringe-field
The first order optics for a particle moving in the models with short fringe lengths, which are compared to
field of an ES quad are the same as those for the motion in magnetic quadrupole results. The fringe-field ES quad
a magnetic quad using an equivalent field gradient B': calculations required a maximum step size of ∆z = 0.1 mm
B' = 2Vo/(a2βc) , (1) to obtain the results shown, whereas accurate results were
obtained for the magnetic and hard-edge ES quads with ∆z
where V is the electrode voltage of the ES quadrupole, a
o = 2.0 mm. Using the relation (1), the agreement is good
is the radial aperture of the ES quadrupole, and βc is the between all cases.
150
Table 1. Comparison of quad fitting (matching) results (Example B of reference [1] without RF elements) for hard-edge
ES quads, fringe-field ES quads (small d and d ), magnetic quads, and expected ES values from Eq. (1).
1 2
-6
Quad Model MMF (10 ) Quad 1 (V or B') o Quad 2 (V or B')
o Quad 3 (V or B')
o Quad 4 (V or B')
o
Magnetic 2 - 20.2647 T/m 22.4726 T/m - 19.6900 T/m 18.3534 T/m
Equation (1) - - 14.0189 kV/cm 15.5463 kV/cm - 13.6213 kV/cm 12.6967 kV/cm
Hard-Edge ES 17 - 14.0189 kV/cm 15.5464 kV/cm - 13.6214 kV/cm 12.6967 kV/cm
Fringe-Field ES 55 - 14.031 kV/cm 15.559 kV/cm - 13.629 kV/cm 12.706 kV/cm
3 2-D SPACE CHARGE MODELING Ib = (4/3)(rz /βλ) Idc . (12)
Space charge is treated in TRACE 3-D as a linear The longitudinal electric field (11) varies very slowly
force using the equivalent uniform beam model. The (logarithmically) with the transverse beam dimensions,
electric field components inside a uniformly charged 3-D and becomes small for large rz. The bunch length rz will
ellipsoid, with semiaxes given by rx, ry and rz, are [1]: not change due to the longitudinal space charge force if the
total beamline length L over which the envelope equations
Ex (x,y,z ) = (κ/γ2) [(1-f(p))/(rx (rx +ry )rz )]x , (4)
are integrated is small compared to the initial rz.
Ey (x,y,z ) = (κ/γ2) [(1-f(p))/(ry (rx +ry )rz )]y , (5)
Therefore, two conditions on the initial bunch length need
and E z(x,y,z ) = κ [f(p)/(rx ry rz )]z , (6) to be satisfied so that the bunched beam space charge
fields reduce to those for a continuous beam:
where κ=3λIb/(4πεoc), γ is the relativistic energy factor
of the beam, and f(p) is the 3-D ellipsoidal form factor. rz >> (rx ry )1/2 / γ and rz > L . (13)
Ib is average beam current, where each bunch passes a
Both conditions are achieved in the normal situation
given point once per RF cycle (wavelength is λ). The
where the transverse dimensions are small compared to the
form factor depends on p=γrz /(rxry)1/2: for p>1, f(p) is: beamline length, and one selects an initial value for the
f(p) = [pln [p+(p2+1)1/2]/(p2+1)3/2] - 1/(p2+1)1/2 . (7) bunch length greater than L. The longitudinal emittance
and Twiss parameters are:
Equations (4)-(6) for the bunched beam electric fields
can simulate dc beam fields by taking appropriate limits. εz = rz (∆p /p) π-meter-radian , (14)
αz = 0 , (15)
3.1 Space Charge for Continuous Beams
and βz = rz / (∆p /p) meter/radian , (16)
For rz much larger than rx and ry, the 3-D ellipsoidal
beam bunch becomes elongated and the shape near the where rz is in meters and ∆p /p is the momentum spread.
center approaches that of a 2-D beam with an elliptical Using the formulas (12) and (14)-(16), the TRACE 3-
cross section whose semiaxes are given by rx and ry. The D space charge fields reduce to those for a 2-D continuous
electric fields in this case are obtained in the limit where p beam when the conditions (13) are satisfied.
becomes very large. In the limit of large p, the 3-D 3.2 Comparisons to Semi-Analytic Calculation
ellipsoidal form factor becomes:
The accuracy of the 2-D simulation has been verified
f(p) = [ln((2p) - 1] / p2 , for p>>1. (8) using TRACE 3-D by comparing the space charge radial
expansion of cylindrical beams with results for the semi-
The electric field becomes:
analytic solutions. Table 2 summarizes one comparison.
Ex (x,y,z ) = (κ'/ γ2) [1/(rx (rx +ry ))]x , (9) The space charge expansion of a zero emittance,
Ey (x,y,z ) = (κ'/ γ2) [1/(ry (rx +ry ))]y , (10) cylindrical beam can be expressed in terms of Dawson's
E z(x,y,z ) = (κ'/ γ2) [[ln((γrz /(rxry)1/2 ) - 1]/(rz2)]z , (11) integral. For a beam with radius ro and no divergence at
z=0, the downstream r and z are related by [7]:
where κ'=(κ/rz). The field components (9) and (10) are of (z/ro) = (2/K)1/2 (r/ro) D [ln((r/ro)1/2] , (17)
the same form [8] as those for a continuous uniformly
charged, 2-D elliptical cross section beam, with semiaxes where D [ξ] is the value of Dawson's integral at ξ, and is
rx and ry, when the parameter κ'=Idc /(πεoβc). Idc is the available in tabulated form [9]. K=2(Idc/Io) β -3 γ -3 is the
current for the continuous (dc) beam. Consequently, the generalized beam perveance and Io is the Alfven current.
transverse electric fields computed by TRACE 3-D are the
same as those for a dc beam if the bunched beam current is
related to the continuous beam current by:
151
Table 2. Comparison of the simulated beam radius, for the space-charge expansion of 10 keV, 2 Ampere, dc (2-D
uniform) e-beam, with the semi-analytic radius. The beam's initial phase space parameters are given in the text.
Length Drift Drift ln(r /ro)1/2 Radius (mm) Radius (mm) Deviation
z (mm) Number Length Semi-Analytic TRACE 3-D (%)
1.6368 2 1.6368 0.02 10.00400 10.00400 0.00000
3.2750 3 1.6382 0.04 10.01601 10.01603 0.00020
8.2104 4 4.9354 0.10 10.10050 10.10057 0.00069
16.5869 5 8.3765 0.20 10.40811 10.40850 0.00375
119.6891 6 103.1022 1.00 27.18282 27.19945 0.06118
332.4853 7 212.7963 1.50 94.87736 94.94152 0.06763
548.5548 8 216.0694 1.70 179.93310 180.04664 0.06310
724.5571 9 176.0023 1.80 255.33722 255.49130 0.06034
976.9775 10 252.4205 1.90 369.66053 369.87306 0.05749
Gillespie Associates, Inc. The fringe-field ES quad model
The Alfven current Io=4πεo[mc3/q]=0.03335641 was developed using PowerTrace™ [10].
×[mc2(MeV)/q(e-)] amps. The values ξ=ln((r/ro)1/2 shown
REFERENCES
in Table 2 were selected so that tabulated entries for D [ξ]
could be used to determine the corresponding values of z/ [1]K. Crandall and D. Rusthoi, “TRACE 3-D
ro. The perveance used (K=0.02986778) corresponds to a Documentation,” third edition, Los Alamos National
2 amp, 10 keV beam with particle mass 0.511 MeV. A Laboratory Report LA-UR-97-886 (1997) 106 pages.
beamline of drift elements was constructed [10], whose [2] W. P. Lysenko, D. P. Rusthoi, K. C. D. Chan, G. H.
lengths correspond to the intervals between the values of Gillespie and B. W. Hill, “Wakefields in the TRACE
z/ro. For a beam radius ro = 10 mm, the resulting drift 3-D Code,” Proc. XVIII International Linear
lengths and accumulated length z are given in Table 2. Accelerator Conf. (Geneva), Vol. 2, 845-847 (1996).
The initial transverse phase space used values of [3] M. C. Lampel, “A Self-Consistent Beam Loaded
εx= εy=0.04 π-mm-mrad, βx=βy=2500 mm/mrad and Traveling Wave Accelerator Model for Use in TRACE
α x= α y=0. For the longitudinal parameters (14)-(16), 3-D,” to be published in the Proc. 1997 Particle
initial values of ∆ p/p =5×10-4 and rz=100 meters were Accelerator Conf. (Vancouver), 3 pages.
used. Simulations using Ib=0 confirmed that no beam [4] G. H. Gillespie and T. A. Brown, “Optics Elements
expansion occurred due to finite transverse emittances. for Modeling Electrostatic Lenses and Accelerator
The TRACE 3-D results shown in Table 2 used a Components I. Einzel Lenses,” to be published in the
radiofrequency of 2.998 MHz (λ just under 100 meters). Proc. 1997 Particle Accelerator Conf., 3 pages.
Then, from Eq. (12), I =13.676 amps. The TRACE 3-D [5] G. H. Gillespie and T. A. Brown, “Optics Elements
b
radii computed for this current agree with those from the for Modeling Electrostatic Lenses and Accelerator
semi-analytic calculation to better than 7 parts in 10,000. Components II. Acceleration Columns,” to be
Other simulations to confirm the Eq. (12) scaling, and to published in Nuclear Instruments and Methods in
explore limitations imposed by (13), were also performed Physics Research B (1998) 4 pages.
[6] G. H. Gillespie, “Optics Elements for Modeling
with different λ, rz, Ib, and with equal perveance beams.
Electrostatic Lenses and Accelerator Components III.
4 SUMMARY Deflector Prisms,” in preparation.
[7] M. Reiser, Theory and Design of Charged Particle
Optical elements for electrostatic quadrupoles have Beams, J. Wiley & Sons, New York (1994), p. 199.
been developed for use in the TRACE 3-D code. A [8] D. C. Carey, The Optics of Charged Particle Beams,
prescription for using TRACE 3-D to accurately simulate Harwood Academic Publishers (1987), p. 284.
dc space charge effects has also been developed. Together [9] M. Abramowitz and I. A. Stegun, Handbook of
with einzel lens [4], acceleration column [5], and deflector Mathematical Functions with Formulas, Graphs and
prism [6] models, TRACE 3-D has been expanded to Mathematical Tables, Ninth Printing, Dover
model a spectrum of electrostatic systems. Publications, New York (1972), p. 319, Table 7.5.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS [10] PowerTrace™ is available from AccelSoft Inc.,
www.ghga.com/accelsoft.
The hard-edge ES quadrupole model was implemented
by W. Lysenko [2] under CRADA number LA95C10203
between the Los Alamos National Laboratory and G. H.
152
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE ACCELERATOR DESIGN CODE
PARMILA*
H. Takeda and J. H. Billen
Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545 USA
Abstract PARMILA input file. At junction between structures, the
program keeps track of the ending state of beam
The PARMILA code, which originated in the 1960s for characteristics in the linac. For typical room-temperature
designing drift-tube linacs (DTLs), now designs and linacs, the inter-structure spacing is corrected so that the
simulates the performance of many types of rf linear particle enters next structure with a correct phase. While
accelerator. The structure types include the DTL, the code designs the linac, it automatically creates a file of
coupled-cavity drift-tube linac (CCDTL) [1], TRACE 3-D [3] elements which can be used for beam
conventional coupled-cavity linac (CCL), and several matching or optical element adjustment. For a multiple
types of superconducting linac. This new code can handle structure run, the sequence of rf structures follow the
multiple types of linac structures in a single run. This same order in the accelerator. Each structure is terminated
code features a more logically organized input sequence as specified by a cell number on the “structure” line. Also,
for the different linac structures and their properties. A the particle distribution snapshots are stored in a file for
PARMILA run can include sequences of beam-transport later viewing with the DTLPROC postprocessor.
elements. In this paper, we describe the new user
interface, highlighting the implementation of multiple rf Linac : global parameters
structures. Also, we discuss the algorithm used for
Startphase
designing superconducting linac structures.
Readdist or Input : starting particle distribution
1 LINAC STRUCTURES
Structure 1 : first transport section up to
In designing a linac system, one first determines the the drift-tube linac
Transport
types of linac (DTL, CCDTL, CCL, etc.). If a linac uses
Quad
different rf structures, for example, one part of the linac
requires a different number of cavities between focusing Drift …
magnets then another, then we assign a new linac structure Structure 2 : DTL structure, including
for that portion of linac. Starting from the low-energy end DTL transit-time-factor tables
of the linac toward higher energy, up to 30 structures are
SFdata
allowed in an input file. The PARMILA code also
calculates the beam-dynamics performance of the Structure 3 : another transport section
designed linac. Transport between the DTL and the
Each line of the PARMILA input file starts with a CCDTL
Quad
keyword, which in this paper we write in lower case
Drift …
letters in double quotes. At the beginning of the input file,
we specify the global parameters on the “linac” line. : CCDTL structure with its
Structure 4
Included parameters are: starting beam energy, bunch own transit-time-factor data
CCDTL
frequency, beam current, the beam particle mass and
SFdata
charge state. We specify whether the simulated particle
distribution is read from a file created by another code Structure 5 : first CCL structure
(e.g. PARMTEQ [2] or a previous PARMILA run) with a CCL
“readdist” line, or if the distribution should be created SFdata
anew by PARMILA according to data on the “input” line.
After the global parameters for the whole linac are Structure 6 : second CCL structure
specified, each rf structure type starts with a “structure” CCL
line. SFdata
Figure 1 shows schematically the sections of a •
•
• : other structures, as needed
________________
End : end of the PARMILA run
*This work sponsored by the Division of Materials
Sciences, US department of Energy, under contract Figure 1. Schematic of a typical PARMILAi input file.
number DE-AC05-96OR22464 with Lockheed Martin
Energy Research Corporation for Oak Ridge National
Laboratory.
156
structure, the user can specify the starting design phase , if
2 INDIVIDUAL STRUCTURES necessary.
The keyword “structure” identifies and delimits the
current linac structure. It includes the structure 4 CCDTL AND CCL STRUCTURE
identification number, particle-dynamics termination cell The “ccdtl”, or ”ccl” line defines an rf structure of the
number, frequency of the linac and the frequency used for same name. Both lines include data that specify the design
the transit-time factors calculated by SUPERFISH [4]. All termination energy, starting design phase angle, starting
the phase coordinates of the initial particle distribution cavity field E0, number of drift tubes per cavity (for the
can be displaced by a specified amount if the rf module is CCDTL), number cavities per segment, segment spacing,
driven by a separate power supply. Normally, one designs default quadrupole-lens parameters and other transverse
each linac structure one or more segments beyond the focusing lattice settings. Other input lines (“extquad,”
point where the beam-dynamics simulation ends. “change”) appearing after the “ccl” line or “ccdtl” line can
(Segments refer to contiguous sections of rf cavities, be used to modify these default settings for specific rf
usually separated by focusing magnets.) This approach cavities or magnets. There is considerable flexibility in
allows the code to calculate the distance between the methods for defining the focusing magnet layout. For
structures correctly. This can be specified by a design end example, singlet or doublet quadrupoles can be placed a
energy parameter. For a CCDTL or CCL, one can design fixed distance from the end of each cavity segment, or
linac segments either with individual cell lengths each magnet location can be set individually. Also, their
proportional to particle velocity βc or with each segment positions can be gradually moved within successive
made of cavities of identical length. In the latter case, the magnet spaces according to the beam velocity. The cavity
cell lengths are designed for a particle having the velocity field and amplitude can be set globally or automatically
βgc, where the subscript g stands for geometrical. ramped using the “setramp,” “e0ramp,” and “phaseramp”
One may specify several rf structure types such as lines. If one wants to maintain a constant real estate E0T
“ccdtl”, “ccl”, “sc1”, and “sc2”. These keywords define (accelerating field averaged over a transverse focusing
parameters of a coupled-cavity drift-tube linac (CCDTL), period) across the segments, the “etfixed” line will
a conventional coupled-cavity linac (CCL), or two compute the required acceleration.
particular types of superconducting cavity layout. For After quadrupole and rf cavity definitions in the input
each of these structure types, PARMILA requires one or file are the transit-time-factor tables. These tables list as a
more tables of transit-time-factor data headed by one of function of beam velocity βc several integrals computed
the keywords “sfdata,” “sfdatae,” or “sfdataq.” The three by the SUPERFISH postprocessor SFO for a number of
tables correspond to different boundary conditions representative cavities. The “sfdata” table corresponds to
imposed upon the fields in the bore tube at the edge of the symmetric cells, the “sfdatae” table is for cells at the edge
cavity. The “scheff” keyword (for space-charge effects) of an internal cavity facing another cavity operated in the
specifies the initial space charge mesh size in each rf π mode, and the “sfdataq” table is for cell at the end of a
structure section. Once the particle dynamics starts (after segment where the electric field penetrates into the bore
a “begin” line), PARMILA adjusts the mesh size tube. The presence of these tables completes the linac
automatically to fit the extent of the particle distribution. design.
An “output” keyword directs the code to store particle Once the linac is designed, one can modify the
distribution snapshots at specified cell positions. The operating phase, amplitude, or quadrupole settings for a
multiple structure run stops after encountering an “end” dynamics calculation. The “linout” line writes details of
keyword. the designed linac to the output file. The “start” and
“stop” lines tell the program the cell numbers on which to
3 TRANSPORT STRUCTURE start and stop the beam-dynamics simulation. The
The “transport” structure type contains only beam “output” line specifies cell numbers for storing beam
optical elements. The code does not design an rf cavity snapshots for later display by the DTLPROC
layout for this sections an input file. A file can contain postprocessor. If one simulates a well-matched 0-mA
several “transport” sections, for example to match the beam and saves the pseudo-particle coordinates at the
beam’s phase-space properties between accelerator center of each quadrupole magnet of a FODO lattice or a
sections. The user specifies transport elements such as doublet lattice, the postprocessor DTLPROC can use the
“drift” and “quad” elements. After a “begin” keyword the data to calculate the phase advance per focusing period
code does the beam dynamics simulation through the along the linac.
specified optical elements. To assist designing the linac,
PARMILA includes the transport elements in the TRACE 5 SUPERCONDUCTING
3-D input file that it automatically creates for the entire STRUCTURES
linac. A PARMILA run can consists only of a transport The “sc1” line defines a particular type of
structure to simulate the beam dynamics. For a “transport” superconducting linac structure, which is characterized by
157
a missing segment at regular intervals. The “sc1” line equal the design energy gain for the segment, and 2) the
includes number of cells per segment, missing segment average phase must equal the design phase. This iterative
interval, the energy gain per segment, the design end process is performed by a two-dimensional optimization
energy, design phase, segment separation and default routine in PARMILA. After calculating the amplitude of
quadrupole settings. The “sc2” line defines a rf electric field applied on one segment, and the entry and
superconducting linac structure, which is characterized by the exit phases of that segment, the code can compute the
groups of cavity segments with quadrupole magnets rf drive phase for the next cavity segment based upon the
between groups. The “sc2” line includes the energy gain distance between segments and the difference between the
per segment, segment spacing, number of segments exit phase of the upstream segment and the entry phase of
between quadrupoles, and the lattice type: either a the downstream segment.
“singlet” lattice or “doublet” lattice. Like the room-
temperature structures, the quadrupole settings for both 7 SUMMARY
superconducting layouts can be customized by “extquad” Format of PARMILA code input file was upgraded.
lines. The transit-time-factor tables used in the The code can design and perform beam dynamics
superconducting cavities are calculated by the simulation of multiple linac structures in a single run
SUPERFISH code for a number of beam particle including DTL, CCDTL, CCL, and superconducting
velocities βc for the cavities with an identical cell length linacs. Each linac structure is logically separated in the
βgc/2. input file and the state of the beam at the end of each
structure is transferred automatically to next structure type
6 SUPERCONDUCTING LINAC in the beam-dynamics simulation. Currently, a
DESIGN ALGORITHM comprehensive PARMILA code documentation is in
There are important differences between conventional preparation.
room-temperature linacs and superconducting (SC) proton
linacs now being proposed for some projects. In a SC 8 REFERENCES
linac of the type being designed for the Accelerator [1] J. H. Billen et al., “A New Rf Structure for
Production of Tritium project, multiple segments driven Intermediate Velocity Particles,” Proceedings of the
by the same power supply deliver equal power to the 1994 Linear Accelerator Conference (August 21-26,
beam. Thus, each equally powered segment gives the 1994 Tsukuba, Japan).
same energy gain. Also, the segment spacing is fixed for [2] K. R. Crandall et al., RFQ Design Codes, Los
large portions of the linac. Many cavity segments have Alamos National Laboratory report LA-UR-96-1836
identical lengths so that only a few different cavity shapes (Revised May 20, 1998).
are manufactured for the entire linac. Unlike the [3] K. R. Crandall and D. P. Rusthoi, TRACE 3-D
conventional CCL, most cell lengths in the SC linac will Documentation, Los Alamos National Laboratory
differ considerably from βλ/2 (the distance traveled by a report LA-UR-97-886.
particle of velocity βc in one rf period). Instead of the [4] J. H. Billen and L.M. Young, “POISSON
usual phase difference of 180 degrees from cell to cell SUPERFISH,” Los Alamos National Laboratory
seen in a CCL, the phase changes may be tens of degrees report LA-UR-96-1834 (Revised April 22, 1997).
larger or smaller than 180 degrees. By using active phase
shifters, the rf power for each SC cavity segment can be
driven independently. Within a segment, which consists of
a series of coupled cells operated in the π mode, the
relative rf phase between cells is fixed. Because of the
usual large bore diameter in SC cavities, the fields in the
end cavities extend out into the bore tube. This field
penetration results in an effective shift of the electrical
center from its geometrical center. The shift can be as
large as ~2 cm for a 700-MHz cavity. These phase shifts
are all included in the PARMILA code.
Because the lengths and positions of the of the SC linac
cavities are predetermined, the design of the linac in
PARMILA means finding the correct rf phase and the rf
power at which to operate each segment. Because of the
large phase slip from cell to cell, we trace a test particle
through each segment recording the center-of-gap phases
and energy gains of the particle. The code then requires
two conditions simultaneously: 1) the energy gain must
158
COMPARISON OF BEAM SIMULATIONS WITH MEASUREMENTS
FOR A 1.25-MeV, CW RFQ✝
H. Vernon Smith, Jr., Gerald O. Bolme, Joseph D. Sherman, Ralph R. Stevens, Jr.,
Lloyd M. Young, and Thomas J. Zaugg
Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM 87545
Abstract 6.8-mm-diam ion source emitter, for an unneutralized
current Ieff = 1.825 mA, α = 0.411, β = 0.215 mm/mrad,
The Low-Energy Demonstration Accelerator (LEDA) and ε N = 0.146 π mm mrad (Table 1). Using these
injector is tested using the Chalk River Injector Test TRACE parameters as SCHAR* [9] input, and scaling
Stand (CRITS) radio-frequency quadrupole (RFQ) as a them using α new = α old[εold/εnew] and βnew = βold[εold/εnew],
diagnostic instrument. Fifty-keV, dc proton beams are gives the measured εN to within 0.1% after two iterations.
injected into the 1.25-MeV, CW RFQ and transported to a The resulting SCHAR-predicted input beam (Table 1) has
beamstop. Computer-simulation-code predictions of the ε N = 0.134 π mm mrad. When SCHAR transports the
expected beam performance are compared with the beam parameters in Table 1 through the 2.1-m LEBT, the
measured beam currents and beam profiles. Good approximate phase-space shape at the 10% contour (Fig.
agreement is obtained between the measurements and the 1) and beam profile at the video diagnostic (Fig. 2) result.
simulations at the 75-mA design RFQ output current. Although the beam-profile data in Fig. 2 were obtained
three days earlier than the phase-space data in Fig. 1, the
1 IN T R OD U C T IO N source parameters were nearly identical for both data sets.
To test the LEDA injector [1] under operating conditions, Table 1. TRACE and SCHAR input H+ beam parameters.
the ion-source extraction system is altered from a tetrode
at 75 keV to a triode at 50 keV [2]. The rest of the 2.54-
m-long LEDA injector is about the same as it will be TRACE (Ieff = 1.825 mA) SCHAR (Ieff = 1.825 mA)
when the initial tests of the LEDA RFQ [3] are made. E = 50 keV vo = 3.095 x 106 m/s
We match the LEDA microwave-driven source H+ beam α = 0.411 r12 = -0.4131
(50 keV, 70-100 mA, >90% H+ fraction) to the CRITS β = 0.215 mm/mrad xmax = 4.271 x 10-3 m
RFQ [4] using the two-solenoid, gas-neutralized low- εN = 0.146 π mm mrad v x max = 6.117 x 104 m/s
energy beam transport (LEBT) [5] described in Ref. [6].
Two steering-magnet pairs provide the desired beam pos- 2.29 E+04
ition and angle at the RFQ match point. Beam neutral-
Vx , m/s
ization of 95-99% occurs in the LEBT residual hydrogen 0
gas [7]. The RFQ accelerates the beam to 1.25 MeV and a
simple HEBT transports that beam to the beamstop. The -2.29 E+04
10% contour
RFQ transmission and spatial profiles are measured as a -3.5 0 3.5
X, cm
function of injected current and LEBT solenoid excitations
[2]. The expected beam performance is calculated using Fig. 1. The SCHAR-calculated phase space (crosses) at
the computer codes TRACE [8] and SCHAR [9] to model the EMU for the LEDA prototype LEBT. The solid line
is the 10% phase-space contour measured with the EMU.
the LEBT [10], PARMTEQM [11] to model the CRITS
RFQ, and PARMELA [12] to model the HEBT. 120
100
2 INPUT PARAMETERS
Counts
80
60
The input H+ beam parameters are determined from meas- 40
urements on the prototype LEDA injector (Fig. 3 of Ref. 20
1) using a procedure described in [10]. A beam with 90- 0
mA total current, proton fraction >90% (H+ current >81 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
mA), rms normalized emittance ε N = 0.146 π mm mrad, Y, cm
and α = -0.546 and β = 8.254 mm/mrad at 10% threshold Fig 2. Hydrogen beam profile 42.9 cm from the source
is measured at the emittance-measuring unit (EMU). measured with a video camera (line) and predicted by
SCHAR (squares).
Using TRACE [8] to drift the beam back along that 2.1-
m long LEBT, from the EMU to the ion source, gives a 3 LEDA LEBT SCHAR SIMULATIONS
predicted 6.98-mm-diam H+ beam size, close to that of the The LEBT (Fig. 3) is simulated with the non-linear space-
____________ charge computer code SCHAR. These simulations use a
✝
Work supported by the US DOE, Defense Programs. 4-volume distribution and the line mode with 999
* vo= [2E/mpc2]1/2c, r12 =-α/[1+α2]1/2, x max =[βε(6rms)]1/2,
vx max = [γε(6rms)]1/2vo
174
Fig. 3. The CRITS RFQ experiment beamline. The LEDA injector, ion source plus LEBT, is at the left. The CRITS
RFQ is in the center, and the LEDA prototype ogive beamstop is at the right. The locations of the two LEBT
solenoids (Solenoid #1 and Solenoid #2), RFQ exit quadrupole singlet, three Bergoz dc current transformers (DC1,
DC2, and DC3), and three videocamera diagnostics (VD1, VD2, and VD3) are indicated.
lines. The LEBT dimensions are extractor to solenoid 1, 74.4, and 68.5 kV for Cases 1-4, respectively [14]). The
89.8 cm; solenoid 1 to solenoid 2, 138.4 cm; and predicted CRITS RFQ output current for other measured
solenoid 2 to RFQ match point, 25.6 cm. A beam input beam currents [2] and RFQ vane voltages are given
neutralization of 98.0% (Ieff = 1.825 mA) is used. in Table 2. The SCHAR input parameters in Table 1 for
SCHAR predicts no proton beam loss in the LEBT. a 90-mA beam (measured just in front of the EMU) are
Using SCHAR input files, PARMTEQM predicts that used for all of the simulations summarized in Table 2.
the best match to the RFQ (Fig. 4) is obtained for Bsol 1 = Although RFQ output currents of up to 100 mA were
2100 G and Bsol 2 = 3675 G, giving ε N = 0.169 π mm measured [2], we limit our analysis to just those cases
mrad at the RFQ match point. The actual Bsol 1 setting for that have a complete set of beam currents and profiles.
the measurements, 1940-2010 G, is close to the SCHAR
prediction whereas the actual Bsol 2 setting, ~4000 G, is
10% higher than the SCHAR prediction. The Bsol 2 setting 5 HEBT PARMELA SIMULATIONS
is underestimated because of the absence in the SCHAR
model of the un-neutralized section of beam transport just The PARMELA [12] model of the HEBT uses the CRITS
in front of the RFQ. Most of the SCHAR-calculated RFQ PARMTEQM output files for input. PARMELA,
emittance growth (26.2%) is due to spherical aberrations
in solenoid #1 (6.0%) and solenoid #2 (15.1%). The non- 4.0 E+05
linear, space-charge-induced emittance growth is low
(3.4%). 2.0 E+05
Vx , m/s
0
To obtain the 75-mA design RFQ output current requires
operating the proton source at ~1200 W microwave -2.0 E+05
power, 50% higher than used to obtain the SCHAR input
parameters given in Table 1 (~800 W). The result is a -4.0 E+05
larger-diameter beam at VD1 (Fig. 5) than in the case of
the prototype LEBT measurements. At the ~1200 W -4 -2 0
X, mm
2 4
power level the measured beam profile at VD2 (152.6 cm
from the source) is also larger than SCHAR predicts. Fig. 4. SCHAR-calculated phase space (crosses) at the
RFQ match point and the RFQ acceptance (curve) at 90-
mA and 0.20-π mm mrad.
4 CRITS RFQ PARMTEQM SIMULATIONS
160
The SCHAR output file is used to generate a 5,000
particle input beam for the PARMTEQM computer code 120
Counts
to calculate the RFQ transmission and output ε N . The 80
proton fraction can be as high as 95% [13], but plasma
40
effects caused by beam interactions with the beam-pipe
walls [2] reduce the observed DC2 current by ~5%. These -4 -3 -2 -1
0
0 1 2 3 4
effects offset each other, so we use the measured DC2 Y (cm)
current for the PARMTEQM input current. The result
Fig. 5. Measured Hydrogen beam profile at VD1 (42.9
(Case 2, Table 2) is transmission = 75.1% and output εN cm from the source) for case #2 in Table 2 compared
= 0.207 π mm mrad (Fig. 6) for 97.5 mA input beam with the SCHAR prediction calculated using the
current and known RFQ intervane voltage (70.4, 72.6, parameters in Table 1. Note the increase in the measured
beam size over that in Fig. 2 as discussed in the text.
175
the beam input parameters in Table 1 are not as accurate a
representation of the ~140 mA output beams (DC1) as
they are for the ~120 mA beams. The measured and code-
calculated RFQ transmissions are larger than those in [4]
because of the steering and focussing flexibility of the
LEDA LEBT (Fig. 3), features missing in the no-
steering-magnet, single-solenoid LEBT employed in [4].
a) 50
40
Counts
30
20
10
Fig. 6. PARMTEQM-calculated RFQ input (top) and 0
output (bottom) phase space for Case 2 (Table 2). -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
set up to transport H+ ions, predicts the beam
X, cm
b) 80
transmission from the RFQ to the dc toroid (DC3 in Fig.
3), 57.5 cm downstream from the RFQ vanes, and also
the x and y beam profiles at video diagnostic #3 (VD3 in 60
Counts
Fig. 3), 87.7 cm downstream from the RFQ, for the
known fields in the quadrupole singlet, located 7.8 cm 40
downstream from the RFQ vanes. Table 2 lists the
PARMELA predictions (note that the predicted beam 20
loss between the RFQ and DC3 is small) along with the
measured DC3 currents. Figure 7 shows the predicted x
and y beam profiles at VD3 for Case #2. 0
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Table 2. Results of the LEBT, RFQ, and HEBT simula- Y, cm
tions with SCHAR, PARMTEQM, and PARMELA,
respectively. The measured LEBT beam currents at DC1 Fig. 7. PARMELA-predicted x (a) and y (b) beam
and DC2, the assumed PARMTEQM RFQ input current, profiles (squares) and the measured x and y beam profiles
the PARMTEQM-predicted RFQ output current, and the (lines) at VD3 for Case #2.
PARMELA-calculated and the measured HEBT current at
DC3 are given in columns 2-7, respectively. REFERENCES
[1] J. Sherman et al., Rev. Sci. Instrum. 69 (1998) 1003-1008.
Meas. Meas. PARM- PARM- PAR- Meas. [2] J. Sherman et al., “Development and Test Results of the Low
LEBT LEBT TEQM TEQM MELA HEBT Energy Demonstration Accelerator (LEDA) Proton Injector on a
current current RFQ in RFQ out HEBT current 1.25-MeV CW Radio Frequency Quadrupole,” this conf.
[3] D. Schrage et al., “CW RFQ Fabrication and Engineering,” ibid.
Case (DC1) (DC2) current current current (DC3) [4] G. M. Arbique et al., Proc. 1992 LINAC Conf. (AECL-10728,
No. mA mA mA mA mA mA November, 1992) 55-57.
1 123 94 94.4 70.33 69.95 74 [5] R. R. Stevens, Jr., “High-Current Negative-Ion Beam Transport,”
2 124 98 97.5 73.18 73.16 76 AIP Conf. Proc. No. 287 (1994) 646-655.
3 123 96 96.0 75.11 74.96 75 [6] L. D. Hansborough et al., “Mechanical Engineering for the
LEDA Low-Energy Beam Transport System,” to be published.
4 138 102 102.1 71.98 71.61 90 [7] R. Ferdinand, et al., “Space-Charge Neutralization Measurement
of a 75-keV, 130-mA Hydrogen-Ion Beam,” Proc. PAC97
6 DISCUSSION (Vancouver, 12-16 May 1997), paper 6W010 (in press).
[8] K. R. Crandall “TRACE: An Interactive Beam-Transport
There is good overall agreement between the measured Program,” Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory report LA-5332
beam currents and those predicted by the simulations for (October, 1973).
the 3 cases that have measured HEBT currents near the [9] R. J. Hayden and M. J. Jakobson, “The Space-Charge Computer
Program SCHAR,” IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. NS-30 (1983) 2540.
75-mA CRITS RFQ design output current. These 3 [10] H. V. Smith, Jr. et al., “Simulations of the LEDA LEBT H+
cases are for the RFQ exit quadrupole singlet defocussing Beam,” Proc. PAC97 (Vancouver, 12-16 May 1997), paper
in x (Case 1), focusing in x (Case 2), and off (Case 3). 6W022 (in press).
The best agreement between the predicted current and the [11] K. R. Crandall et al., "RFQ Design Codes," Los Alamos National
Laboratory report LA-UR-96-1836 (revised February 12, 1997).
measured current is Case 3, but the best agreement [12] L. M. Young, “PARMELA,” Los Alamos National
between the predicted profiles and measured profiles is Laboratory report LA-UR-96-1835 (revised May 11, 1998).
Case 2. The simulation of the 90-mA exit beam from the [13] J. H. Kamperschroer et al., “Doppler-shift Proton Fraction
RFQ gives much lower beam transmission (DC2/DC3 = Measurement on a CW Proton Injector,” this conf.
70%) than the measured value (88%). It is likely that [14] G. O. Bolme et al., “Proton Beam Studies With a 1.25 MeV, CW
Radio Frequency Quadrupole LINAC,” ibid.
176
STUDY OF COMPENSATION PROCESS OF ION BEAMS **
A. Jakob*, H. Klein, A. Lakatos, J. Pozimski, L. Wicke
Institut für Angewandte Physik, University of Frankfurt, 60054 Frankfurt, Germany
Abstract
kinetic energy of the residual gas ions corresponds to the
For investigation of space charge compensation process beam potential at the point of production under the
due to residual gas ionization and the experimentally assumption of negligible start energy. Hence the residual
study of the rise of compensation, a Low Energy Beam gas ions energy distribution contains all necessary
Transport (LEBT) system consisting of an ion source, two information about the radial distribution of the beam
solenoids, a decompensation electrode to generate a
potential and thus about the degree of compensation [2].
pulsed decompensated ion beam and a diagnostic section
For investigation of the space charge compensation
was set up. The potentials at the beam axis and the beam
process a time resolved residual gas energy analyser with
edge were ascertained from time resolved measurements
a channeltron was used [3].
by a residual gas ion energy analyzer. A numerical
Calculated beam potential by self-consistent numerical
simulation of self-consistent equilibrium states of the
simulations [4] were compared with the potentials yielded
beam plasma has been developed to determine plasma
from the measured spectra. The combination of simulation
parameters which are difficult to measure directly. The
and measurement allows the determination of all relevant
temporal development of the kinetic and potential energy
of the compensation electrons has been analyzed by using beam plasma parameters [5].
the numerically gained results of the simulation. To
investigate the compensation process the distribution and 2 MEASUREMENT AND CALCULATION
the losses of the compensation electrons were studied as a
function of time. The acquired data show that the Time resolved measurements of ions repelled radially by
theoretical estimated rise time of space charge the beam potential passing an energy analyser [6] with an
compensation neglecting electron losses is shorter than the inserted channeltron were done to investigate the rise time
build up time determined experimentally. To describe the of compensation of a periodically decompensated 10kV,
+
process of space charge compensation an interpretation of 3mA DC He ion beam [7].
the achieved results is given. The simulation of the self-consistent equilibrium states
of the beam requires the temperature and the relative
1 INTRODUCTION density of the compensation electrons at the beam axis as
Space charge forces within ion beams lead to a notable varying free parameters and radial distribution of the
divergence of the beam ions and to a disadvantageously beam ions as input data. A CCD-camera was used to
emittance growth. To enhance the maximum transportable investigate the radial distribution of the beam ions by
current and reduce the increasing emittance during the observing the light emitted by the intersection of the beam
transport of the ion beams in a Low Energy Beam ions with the residual gas atoms (photon emission). In fig.
Transport (LEBT) line, it is essential to reduce the space 1 a CCD-camera profile measurement I(x) of an 3.9 mA
charge forces. Therefore space charge compensation of He+ ion beam is shown, the corresponding density profile
positive beam ions by electrons [1], which are produced ρ(r) can be calculated via Abel inversion.
by residual gas ionization, enhance the maximum Significant advantages of this profile measurements in
transportable ion current. comparison to measurements by a flying wire beam
Measurements by use of a residual gas ion energy profile monitor [5] are the high time resolution and that
analyser based on the detection of residual gas ions the CCD-camera is an undisturbing diagnostic instrument.
produced by the interaction between beam ions and Therefore there is no disturbance of the equilibrium state
residual gas atoms. The produced residual gas ions are of the compensated ion beam due to the production of
radial expelled by the beam potential. Therefore the secondary electrons. In addition to the residual gas ion
_________________ energy analyser the CCD-camera was used to estimate the
** Work supp. by BMFT under contract No. 06 OF 841 rise time of compensation in the present experimental set
up.
198
CCD-camera profile measurement Development of the electron line charge density
2150 5e-9
4e-9
LCDE LCDBI = 4.3 ∗ 10-9 [Cb/m]
intensity[cts/pixel]
2100
LCD [Cb/m]
3e-9
2050 470 µs
2e-9
2000
1e-9
1950
0 10 20 30 40 0e+0
x [mm] 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
time [µs]
Fig. 1: Beam profile measurements by a CCD-camera. Fig. 2: Line charge density of compensation electrons and
The exposure time was 2.5 s. beam ions.
The minimum rise time of compensation τ can be Fig. 3 shows the evolution of the electron charge
estimated by a simple expression [5, 8], which is valid for density (CDE) during the compensation. The straight line
idealized conditions (cylinder symmetry, electron losses indicates the CDE on the beam axis, the dashed line is the
neglected). Although the rise time of compensation CDE at the beam edge. Fig. 3 clarify that the
determined by CCD-camera measurements are in good compensation process continues over the estimated
agreement with the calculated minimum rise time of minimum rise time of compensation τ of 220 µs. The
compensation the evaluation of the residual gas ion energy minimum rise time indicates the time, which is needed to
analyser measurements shows that the compensation produce enough electrons (without consideration of
process is not finished at the minimum rise time electron losses) to compensate the space charge of the
mentioned above. beam ions. With decreasing space charge forces during
The following figures illustrate results gained from the compensation the electron losses increases
measurements for a residual gas pressure of 5*10-5 hPa, continuously until an equilibrium state of electron losses
accordingly the calculated minimum rise time of and electron production is reached. The increasing
compensation is 220 µs. electron losses yields to a prolongation of the
The determination of the plasma parameters, like the compensation process up to 470 µs. Furthermore fig.3 and
temperature of the compensation electrons (CE), the line fig. 4 illustrate that redistribution processes are finished
charge density of the CE, the kinetic and potential energy not until 1000 µs.
of the CE by comparison of the simulation with the
Development of the electron charge density
measured data reacts sensitive to fluctuation of the 2.0e-5
measured record. Therefore the measured data are fitted 1.8e-5 470 µs
mathematically to smooth fluctuations of the measured 1.6e-5 ECD on the beam axis
data. The smoothed curves in the following figures show
1.4e-5
the appraisal of mathematically fitted measured data.
ECD [Cb/m ]
3
1.2e-5
Fig.2 shows the development of the electron line charge
1.0e-5
density during the compensation process. The rise time of
8.0e-6
compensation is determined by the intersection point of
6.0e-6
the increasing electron (LCDE) and the beam ion line
charge density (LCDBI) and is given by 470 µs. 4.0e-6 ECD at the beam edge
The rise time of compensation estimated by the residual 2.0e-6
gas ion energy measurements exceeds the minimum rise 0.0e+0
time compensation τ by a factor of two due to electron
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
time [µs]
losses, which is not taken into account in the above
mentioned theoretical estimation.
Fig. 3. Development of the electron charge density.
199
Fig. 4 shows the development of the kinetic (dotted 3 SUMMARY
line), potential (straight line) and total (dashed line)
energy line density of the CE. The kinetic energy The compensation processes of a periodically
decreases continuously due to the dominant effect of +
decompensated 10 keV DC He ion beam has been
decreasing temperature. The electron temperature investigated by usage of a time resolved ion energy
decreases due to cooling processes by losses of „hot“ spectrometer with installed channeltron. By application of
electrons. The maximum of the kinetic energy curve at an appraisal procedure of time resolved measurements
320 µs, represented in an antecedent presentation [5], using self-consistent calculations the rise time of
which has not cleared till then, is an effect of the above compensation can be determined. A derivation by a factor
mentioned fluctuations of the measured data. A new of two was found between the experimentally detected rise
execution of the represented appraisal with smoothed time of compensation and the minimum rise time
measured records do not show this maximum. calculated for idealized conditions. The rise time of
From 80 µs on the potential energy exceeds the kinetic compensation was experimentally determined and has a
energy, hence the compensation electrons are trapped in value of 470 µs.
the beam potential, this shows that the used theory and In the future work the time resolved residual gas ions
simulation is valid. Up to the maximum at 220 µs the measurements will perform on a pulsed ion beam, instead
potential energy increases, due to accumulation of of a pulsed decompensated ion beam. For this
produced compensation electrons in the beam potential, investigation the gas discharge of the ion source will be
then electron losses and the decrease of the beam potential pulsed directly.
causes the progression of the energy. All three curves
saturate after 1200 µs, then all redistribution-, production-
and loss-processes reach an equilibrium state. The total
REFERENCES
curves shows clearly, that the energy still decreases,
[1] A.F.T. Holmes, “Theoretical and experimental study
although the compensation process is complete. This of space charge in intense ion beams”, Phys. Rev. A.
effect is attributed to the above mentioned cooling process 19, 1979, pp.389
and redistribution within the ion beam, without a further [2] J. Pozimski et.al., “Determinarion of Electron
accumulation of compensation electrons. Temperature in Partial Space Charge Compensated
High Perveance Ion Beams”, Proc. International
Development of the kinetic, potential and total energy Symposium on Heavy Ion Inertial Fusion, Il Nuovo
1.4e+12
Cimento 106A N.11, Frascati, Italy, May 1993,
pp.1713[2]
1.2e+12
[3] K. Reidelbach et al., “Development of a Time-
energy line density [eV/m]
Resolving Ion Energy Spectrometer for Investigation
220 µs total energy of Space Charge Compensated Pulsed Ion Beams”,
1.0e+12
ANNUAL REPORT 1993, GSI-94-10 REPORT,
8.0e+11
June 1994, pp.36
potential energy [4] J. Pozimski et.al., “Numerical calculations of charge
6.0e+11 density distributions in space charge compensated ion
470 µs beams”, ANNUAL REPORT 1992, GSI-93-17
4.0e+11 REPORT, Darmstadt, GER., May 1993, pp.38-40
kinetic energy [5] A. Jakob et.al., “Investigation of the Rise of
2.0e+11 Compensation of High Perveance Ion Beams Using a
Time Resolving Ion Energy Spectrometer”, Proc.
0.0e+0 Sixth European Accelerator Conference, EPAC’98,
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 Stockholm, 22-26 June 1998
time [µs] [6] P. Bryce, r. Dalglich, J.C. Kelly, “The 127°
Electrostatic Analysor: Performance as a
Spectrometer”, Can. J. Phys. 51, CAN., 1971, pp.574
Fig. 4: Comparison of the development of kinetic, [7] K. Reidelbach, et al., ANNUAL REPORT 1994,
GSI-95-06 REPORT, Darmstadt, GER., May 1995,
potential and total energy line density of the CE. The pp.31
kinetic energy has a maximum at 220 µs. After 470 µs the [8] P.K. Janev, W.D.Langer, K.Evans Jr., De Post Jr.,
compensation process is completed, after 1200 µs the “Elementary processes in hydrogen-helium-plasmas”,
development of the kinetic, potential and total energy line Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, GER. ,1987
density saturates.
200
DESIGN, ANALYSIS AND TESTING OF A HIGH THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
WAVEGUIDE WINDOW FOR USE IN A FREE ELECTRON LASER *
T. Schultheiss, V. Christina, M. Cole, J. Rathke, Q. Shu**,
Northrop Grumman Corp, Bethpage, NY.
T. Elliott, V. Nguyen, L. Phillips, J. Preble, Jefferson Lab, Newport News, Va.
Abstract shown in Table 1, resulted in low thermal gradients, and
therefore low thermal stress within the window.
Design, Analysis, and testing of a waveguide window
Table 1: Comparison of Thermal Conductivity’s at 25C
with a goal of propagatin g greater than 100 kW average
Material W/mK
power operating at 1500 Mhz has been performed. This
is made possible by the favorable material properties of Copper 380
Beryllia (BeO). Brazing the window to a soft copper Beryllia 300
frame and then brazing the frame to a KOVAR flange SiC 270
provides the vacuum seal. RF analysis combined with AlN 240
thermal/structural analysi s shows the benefits of the Al 230
material. The KOVAR flange with a CTE, coefficient of Mo 140
thermal expansion, that matches that of BeO enables a Alumina 20
strong braze joint. RF testing to 35 kW has been
successful, and higher powers will be tested in the near To match the thermal expansion of beryllia, KOVAR
future. The basics of this design can be expanded to was chosen as the flange material , minimizing thermal
applications with lower frequencies and higher average stresses in the beryllia during the braze cycle. A thin
power. OFHC copper frame, .010 inches thick, between the
beryllia window and the relatively stiff flange was added
1 INTRODUCTION for strain relief. Hig h thermal conductivity of the copper
is also a benefit. Figur e 1, shows a solid model of the
The Free Electro n Laser Facility being developed at window, the copper frame and the KOVAR flange. The
Jefferson Lab requires much higher RF power throughput KOVAR flange included a copper plating for high
than is needed for their main facility. Much of the electrical conductivity.
accelerato r technology for the free electron lase r is taken The preferred BeO window geometry was an ‘off the
from the main facility which uses a two window design. shelf’ flat piece of Thermalox 995, .100 inches thick,
The window design for the FEL consists of a room from Brush Wellman. The thickness was chosen to keep
temperature warm window and a 2 K cold window like the the stress due to pressure lo w while using a stock size of
main facility. The warm window design from the main standard grade material, ensurin g repeatable material
facility does not work at the power levels required for the properties. Presently there is no multipacting coating on
FEL, therefore, Jefferson Lab initiated th e development of the window.
a warm window using the cold window design as a
baseline. In a corroborating effort, Northrop Grumman
Copper frame
began developing a backup warm window design to enable Kovar flange
greater than 100 kW average power operating at 1500
Mhz. The design was developed as a direct replacement in
the FEL warm window location.
2 MECHANICAL DESIGN
The design evolved with the primar y consideration to
develop a backup warm window that would fit in the BeO RF window
TJNAF envelope. Preliminar y comparisons between
alumina and beryllia windows showed that for standard Figure 1: BeO RF Window, Flange and Frame
grade material th e high thermal conductivity of beryllia,
______________________________
* Work supported by CRADA between NGC and Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility SURA 95-S003 CRADA
** Q. Shu now at AMAC, LLC, Newport News Va.
240
3 BRAZE PROCESS
IRIS,’Wings’
A two step braze process was used, first the copper
frame was brazed to the BeO window then the copper
frame was brazed to the KOVAR flange. The following
steps were used to attach the frame to the BeO window:
- Molymanganese metallization 1/4” wide around the
surface to be brazed. Silk screen technique was used then
fired at 1450 C.
- Nickel plate metallized area then sinter at 1000 C
- Nicoro ribbon is used with a (apprx. 15 lb.) weight
on fixture brazed at 1050 C
- A nioro wire (20 mil O.D.) braze around the outer
edge between the BeO and copper and fired at 970 C
- Helium leak check 1x 10-8 std cc/sec
- Light blasting was done with aluminum oxide
particles
The second step of the process was to braze the copper
frame to the KOVAR flange. IRIS,’Wings’
- Incusil-10 wire in a vacuum braze oven and fired to Figure 2: RF window and Iris(’wings’) and flange
750 C
- Mask the copper plated KOVAR and apply a light After this configuration was selected, the power
blasting with aluminum oxide particles to clean beryllia deposited into the ceramic and the fields in the waveguide
surface were calculated. Contours of the heat deposited in the
window are shown in figure 3 after scaling to a loss
tangent of .0003 and 100 kW of through power.
4 RF DESIGN Loss Tangent .0003
70 W/in 3
RF analysis was used to determine the S parameters for
the structure and to optimize the structure within the
requirements set by the envelope and mechanical design.
Table 2 compares the electrical properties of BeO with
other standard grade candidate materials.
Table 2: Comparison of Electrical Properties
Material Dielectric Loss Tangent
C o ns t
(1MHz) 100 kW Power through
Beryllia
(Thermalox 995) 6.7 .0003
5.288 e-6 35. 70.
AlN 9.0-10.0
Alumina 9.0 .0003 Figure 3: Heat loss contours determined by MAFIA
To optimize the structure with a .100 inch thick BeO
window, metal “wings” forming an iris were added to the 5 THERMAL ANALYSIS
flange. These wings were added to both sides of the The power loss distribution calculated in MAFIA was
window as shown in figure 2. Results for wings on just then mapped into an ANSYS finite element model. This
one side were not acceptable. The following MAFIA RF model was used to determine thermal gradients and
analysis results were obtained for a wing width of .750”, stresses in the window. Figure 4 shows the resulting
and a wing thickness of .100”. temperature contours in the window, the frame, and the
Table 3: S Parameter Results flange. On the edge of the flange a boundary temperature
S11 S11 S21 S21 of 20C was set. The results show very small gradients in
amplitude phase amplitude phase the window and a temperature rise of 29C between the
.0066 87.30 .99956 -2.740 window and the flange edge. These small thermal
gradients result in small stress in the window.
241
Edge set to 20C was 28C. The vacuum pressure increased to 9.4x10-8 torr
Kovar flange Copper frame at 35 kW and no electron current was detected.
20
23.259
Table 4: Temperature Rise In BeO Ceramic
26.518 Power (kW) BeO Temp T(BeO)-27.7
29.777
33.037 C ∆T C
36.296 0 27.7 0
39.555
42.814 5.04 35 7.3
46.073
49.332 10.1 40.8 13.1
15.1 45.7 18
BeO RF window 20.2 51.2 23.5
25.2 58.2 30.5
35 70.9 43.2
Figure 4: Temperature contours from ANSYS
The temperature rise between the coolant and the BeO
6 RF TESTS window was much higher than expected from analysis.
This could be from high losses in the braze material
Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility and/or poor thermal contact between the coolant line and
(TJNAF) provided the facility and manpower to test the the flange. This will be looked at more closely as
window. Figure 5 shows the layout of the high power additional tests are run.
test. The space between the PN001 JLAB window and the
BeO test window was evacuated by a 160 l/s Vac-Ion 7 CONCLUSIONS
pump while the waveguide between the BeO window and
the load was at atmospheric pressure. The window Analysis shows that for the expected power lost in the
flanges were water cooled. The baseline pressure prior to window the goal of 100 kW of through power at 1500
testing was 1.4x10-9 torr. Temperatures at different Mhz is achievable. The high thermal conductivity of BeO
locations of the waveguide and window flanges were results in low thermal gradients within the ceramic.
monitored by thermocouples. Temperature of the BeO Further tests are planned for 50 kW of through power.
ceramic was measured by an infrared thermometer through Modifications to the design which would include coolant
a viewing port on the waveguide elbow. The waveguide nearer the ceramic would ensure lower ceramic
between the two windows was equipped with a pick-up temperatures. BeO as an RF window material shows
probe to monitor the electron current. A vacuum promise based on the analysis and tests to date.
interlock and an arc detector interlock were used to prevent
a catastrophic destruction of the ceramic. During the test, 8 REFERENCES
the incident and reflected powers, the vacuum pressure, the [1] E. Chojnacki, et al., “Design Of A High Average-
electron current, the temperature of the BeO ceramic and Power Waveguide Window”; Proceedings of the
the temperatures of the window flanges were continuously Particle Accelerator Conference, 1997, Vancouver,
monitored and recorded. Canada.
[2] M. Neubauer, et al., “High-Power RF Window and
Load
Coupler Development for the PEP-II B Factory”;
Presented at 16th IEEE PAC 95 Conference and
Jlab Window BeO Window International Conference on High Energy
Accelerators, Dallas, Texas, May 1-5, 1995.
[3] D. Proch, et al., “Measurement of Multipacting
35kW Currents of Metal Surfaces in RF Fields”;
klystron Proceedings at the 16th IEEE PAC 95 Conference
RAYTEK and International Conference on High Energy
Thermometer Accelerators, Dallas, Texas, May 1-5, 1995; pp
Vac-Ion
1776-1778.
Pump
[4] Conversations with Brush Wellman.
Figure 5: RF window test set up
Prior to applying high CW power, the windows were
first submitted to high pulsed power (pulse length .01 ms
- .1 ms, with a repetition rate of 100 Hz). Table 3 shows
the temperature rise of the BeO ceramic as the power is
increased. The temperature of the ceramic at zero power
242
THE DIPOLE WAKEFIELD FOR A ROUNDED DAMPED
DETUNED LINEAR ACCELERATOR WITH OPTIMISED
CELL-TO-MANIFOLD COUPLING
R.M. Jones†, N.M. Kroll†‡, R.H. Miller†, T. Higo¥, K. Ko†,
Z. Li†, R.D. Ruth†, V. Srinivas†, and J. W. Wang†
†
Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, M/S 26, P.O Box 4349, Stanford, CA 94309
‡
University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0319.
¥
KEK, National Laboratory for High Energy Physics, 1-1 Oho, Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki-ken 305, Japan
Abstract set of four manifolds which are located along the
circumference of the accelerator structure.
A redesign of the basic cell configuration of the Damped In order to obtain the maximum efficiency of
Detuned Structure has been briefly reported in [1] where interaction, the shunt impedance is required to be
the cells are referred to as ellipsoidal cavities, and maximised. The shunt impedance, Rsh is defined in terms
accelerator structures incorporating them are designated of the potential across the structure V and, the power
DDS 5 and DDS 6. This new structure type has been dissipated within the structure, Pd
renamed RDDS 1, and the first of this series, RDDS 1, is
R sh = V / Pd
2
presently under design and fabrication. The carefully
sculpted cell profile (fabricated on computer controlled In our current design, we maximise the Rsh/Q =
|V| /(2ωUE), where ω is the angular resonance frequency
2
lathes at KEK incorporating diamond point machining)
provides a 20% increase in shunt impedance which, when and UE is the energy stored within the electric fields, so
combined with other parameters, allows for a dramatic that we obtain a value that is 10% larger than that
reduction in the RF power required for the NLC (Next obtained over a set of pillbox cavities and, we enhance
Linear Collider). The detuning profile, damping manifold the Q value by 10%, both achieved by carefully shaping
taper, and the cell to manifold coupling contant profile the contours of the irises and cavities. This together with
have all been carefully optimised so as to permit a larger klystron pulse length, led to our initial design for
decoupling the cells at the ends of the structure from the RDDS with elliptical features having a 30% more
manifolds while still adequately minimising the efficient source-to-beam, or “wall plug”, efficiency. In
transverse wake. The decoupling is required in order to this design the average a/λ was approximately 0.171 (a
fit adequately matched terminations into the structure. being the radius of a particular iris). However, short
range wakefield considerations has led to the iris being
The single structure analysis has been supplemented with
widened considerably in order to reduce the wake and,
studies of wake degradation arising from systematic
this leads to a 6% degradation in the overall efficiency.
fabrication errors and wake improvement obtained by
In this design the average a/λ is approximately 0.18.
combining manifold damping with structure interleaving. Furthermore, our initial design incorporated elliptically
1 INTRODUCTION shaped cavities and irises. However, driven by
mechanical engineering considerations, all shapes have
In the design of the NLC (Next Linear Collider) the heart been made circular. This reduces the efficiency by 1% or
of the system will consist of 4,752 X-band accelerator so, and at the same time it facilitates more rapid
structures, each indiviual structure being 1.8025m in verification between the specified design and the
length. Any misalignment in the structure, or transverse fabricated cell.
motion of the structure over time, or beam misalignment Here we calculate the wakefield for the accelerator
from the electrical center of the structure will give rise to with a 30% improvement in efficiency the elliptical
a transverse wakefield which will result in the beam being RDDS and, the RDDS with circular cells and cavities,
kicked off axis and can lead to a beam break up which has an efficiency enhancement of approximately
instability (as originally observed on the Stanford Linear 20%.
Collider). In order to mitigate these effects, which may
seriously degrade the beam emmitance, and hence reduce 2 WAKEFIELDS FOR CIRCULAR AND
the luminosity of the beam, the transverse wakefield must ELLIPTICAL RDDS
be carefully controlled and damped. The method The wakefield in each 206 cell structure cannot be
described herein, incorporates both detuning by gently computed accurately, with a finite difference or finite
tapering the iris parameters such that they follow an Erf element code as at present the memory and time
function distribution and, damping the long range wake requirements required to run the code are prohibitive and
field, by coupling the wakefield out of the structure to a thus, we utilise a circuit model [3] and spectral function
282
Spectral Fn (V/pC/mm/m/GHz)
Wake Function (V/pC/mm/m)
100.
80 RDDS 1
10. RDDS 1
60
1
40 0.1
20 0.01
0.001
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
14.75 15 15.25 15.5 15.75 16 16.25 16.5
Freq. (GHz) s (m)
Spectral Fn (V/pC/mm/m/GHz)
Wake Function (V/pC/mm/m)
80 3 Interleaving of RDDS 1
100.
60 10. 3 Interleaving of RDDS 1
40 1
20 0.1
0.01
0
14.75 15 15.25 15.5 15.75 16 16.25 16.5
0.001
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Freq. (GHz)
s (m)
Spectral Fn (V/pC/mm/m/GHz)
3 Interleaving of RDDS 1
Wake Function (V/pC/mm/m)
80
VSWR =1.05 100.
60 3 Interleaving of RDDS 1
10. VSWR =1.05
40 1
20 0.1
0 0.01
14.75 15 15.25 15.5 15.75 16 16.25 16.5
0.001
Frequency (GHz) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
100
s (m)
Spectral Fn. (V/pC/mm/m)
80
Wake Function (V/pC/mm/m)
100. 100.
60 10.
10. 1
40 0.1
1 0.01
0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2
20 0.1
0 0.01
14.5 15 15.5 16 16.5
Frequency (GHz.) 0.001
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
s(m)
Figure 1: The spectral function and its integral for RDDS 1 for
an initial design. The uppermost is the spectral function for a
structure with perfectly matched HOM (Higher Order Mode) Figure 2: The wake function and its integral for RDDS 1. All
couplers and all cells coupled. The second is for series of three wakes are the counterparts of the spectral functions given in fig.
interleaved structures in which the synchronous frequency of 1. The dots are located at the bunch locations. One
each structure differs form its neighbor by 3.8 MHz. The third V/pC/mm/m is indicated as beam emmitance considerations
curve is for the case of three interleaved structures with six cells dictate that the transverse wake function, at the bunch locations,
decoupled and a HOM load with a VSWR of 1.05. The fourth may not be larger than this value. The lowetmost curve is for
is for the most up-to-date design, RDDS1 with circular RDDS1 with cicular features to the irises and cavities. The load
contours. has is assumed to have a VSWR = 1.
283
method [2] expressly developed for this purpose. The However, this significant modulation has little effect
model we use assigns 9 parameters to each cell and this on the long-range wake function (Fig. 6). Although, for
allows the dipole band of the brillioun diagram to be the first few bunches the wake field is slightly enhanced,
accurately described. The structure geometrical it is a very small effect. We also consider random errors
parameters have been designed to vary slowly in an and, for a Gaussian spread in the synchronous frequencies
with a σ of 10 (corresponding to approximately 1.5
-4
adiabatic manner and thus we interpolate between, 5 cells
to obtain the behavior of all 206 cells. The model we use MHz) the wakefield is largely unaffected.
incorporates many features present in the real structure as
fabricated, viz., the non-perfect terminations of the
Spectral Fn. (V/pC/mm/m)
80
manifolds in the higher mode loads and, the details of the
coupling of the cells to the manifold (the modal 60
composition of the accelerator is mainly TE at the low
energy end and, it becomes progressively more TM 40
towards the higher end of the structure). The spectrum
function for a single elliptical structure is calculated and 20
the coupling of the manifold to the structure is carefully
optimised. The result of a final optimisation for the 0
14.75 15 15.25 15.5 15.75 16 16.25 16.5
design with an a/λ = 0.171 is shown in Fig.1 for perfectly
matched HOM couplers (higher order mode) and the Frequency (GHz)
wakefield corresponding to this spectral function is Figure 3: Spectral function for RDDS1 with all cells coupled
shown in Fig. 2. By interleaving the structures with and a perfectly matched HOM coupler. A systematic error in
structures whose central frequency is slightly shifted from the fabrication is assumed to occur leading to a sinusoidal
their neighbours the wakefield is forced to decohere perturbation in the cell dimensions and the synchronous
successively more so than a single structure. In Fig. 1 the frequencies. The synchronous frequency perturbation has
spectral function is shown for three structures whose amplitude of 2 MHz.
central dipole synchronous cell frequencies differ by 3.8
Wake Function (V/pC/mm/m)
MHz from their neighbours, both with matched 100.
{, }
terminations to higher mode couplers and with 100.
10.
10.
terminations with a VSWR of 1.05 and with six cells 1
decoupled either end of the accelerator structure. 1
0.1
0.01
0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2
The magnitude of the oscillations imposed on the
spectral function is seen to be significantly reduced, 0.1
particularly in the upper end of the spectral function. And,
0.01
the wakefield is seen to be 3 times smaller in the region 0
to 30 m or so. Furthermore, the system is considerably 0.001
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
stablised with respect to oscillations in the spectral
function, on decoupling the last few cells. The last s(m)
lowermost curve in Fig. 1 corresponds to the present
RDDS with circularly shaped irises and cells. The Figure 4: Wake function including the effects of a systematic
fabrication error which results in a sinusiodal deviation in the
spectral function corresponding to this latest design, is
synchronous frequency in the middle of the frequency band of
shown lowermost in Fig. 1. In this design, all ellipses
the structure. Shown inset is the short-range wake in the range
have an eccentricity of 1 and the VSWR =1 of all loads in 0 to 2m.
this preliminary realisation.
4 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
3 EFFECT OF SYSTEMATIC ERRORS
ON THE WAKEFIELD This work is supported by Department of Energy grant
‡
number DE-FG03-93ER40759 and DE-AC03-
In the fabrication of the RDDS cells systematic, or †
76SF00515 .
repeatable errors, in the machining of the cells us likely to
occur and in this section we consider the effect of such
5 REFERENCES
errors on the transverse wakefield. We consider a [1] R.M. Jones., N.M. Kroll, R.H. Miller, R. Ruth and J.W.
specific case, viz, a sinusoidal perturbation of amplitude Wang, Advanced Damped Detuned Structure Development at
2MHz in the synchronous frequencies, in the central SLAC, Proc. Particle Accelerator Conference, Vancouver,
region of the structure (cells 75 through 125). The Canada, 1997. http://www.cern.ch/accelconf
spectral function, illustrated in Fig. 5 is seen to be [2] R.M. Jones., N.M. Kroll and R.H. Miller, A Spectral
Function Method Applied To The Calculation Of The SLAC
significantly modulated in the central region.
Damped Detuned Structure. Proc. Intl. Linac Conf. Geneva
Switzerland, 1996 (SLAC-PUB 7287).
284
BASIC RESEARCH ON HORIZONTAL ASSEMBLY METHOD OF
SC CAVITIES WITH HIGH Q AND HIGH GRADIENT
K.Saito, P.Kneisel*, E.Kako, T.Shishido, S.Noguchi, M.Ono, and Y.Yamazaki,
High Energy Accelerator Research Organization (KEK)
1-1, Oho, Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki-ken, 305-0801 Japan
* : Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility
12000 Jefferson Avenue, Newport News, Virginia 23606 USA
Abstract 2.2 Degradation of cavity performance
The fabrication technology of the high gradient After the horizontal assembly, the cavity pair was
superconducting(sc) cavities has been made much progress evacuated and cold tested. The unloaded Q value (Qo) was
in the last 10 years. As a next issue, one has to develop a scattered after the horizontal tests and degraded in average
horizontal assembly method of sc cavities which makes as: 2.7 x 109 (vertical)➝1.7 x 109 (horizontal).
no performance degradation in order to exhibit the This means that a surface resistance of 60 nΩ was added.
excellence in the accelerator. Among many candidates of Eacc,max was also decreased as:
the cause with the degradation, here, the influence of 10 MV/m (vertical)➝7 MV/m (horizontal).
breaking cavity vacuum after the vertical test and indium However, the cavity performance in the accelerator did not
contamination effect are investigated. change from the horizontal test.
1 INTRODUCTION 2.3 Possible causes for the degradation
By the R&D of high gradient sc niobium cavities done The degradation happens in the future application of sc
at KEK so far, its technology level has come to the high cavities like a sc proton linac or TESLA, the influence is
gradient of 30 - 40 MV/m. Our next R&D target is to very serious. For instance, JAERI is considering a sc
realize the excellence in the horizontal cryomodule. proton linac (600 MHz) for an intensive neutron source
Performance of the sc cavity is very sensitive to the for the neutron science and nuclear waste transmutation.
surface contamination, so generally speaking it is hard to For this machine, electric power efficiency in the
reproduce the performance of the vertical test in a real operation is an important issue, therefore 2 K operation
accelerator. Really in the TRISTAN sc project, we will be applied. In this case the typical surface resistance
observed a degradation in both Q value and the maximum of the cavities is about 10 nΩ. Adding 60 nΩ by the
accelerating gradient (Eacc,max) by the horizontal horizontal assembly, Qo value takes a figure down so that
assembly. If the same degradation happens in the future there is no meaning of the 2 K operation. The field
advanced sc applications, the effect is very serious because degradation is also very serious for the machine. It is to be
the machines will be operated at 2K. The study of operated at Ep = 16 MV/m (surface peak field). The field
assembly method of cryomodule is an essential R&D limitation of 7 MV/m corresponds to 14 MV/m in Ep.
issue. There is no way for the operation.
One has to take a cure to prevent the degradation if he
2 HORIZONTAL ASSEMBLY use the same assembly procedure. The possible causes of
2.1 Horizontal assembly the degradation will be followings: 1) influence of
In the TRISTAN sc project, after the vertical test of breaking cavity vacuum, in other words particle
individual cavities, the cavity vacuum was broken contamination, or oxidation of niobium surface while the
introducing pure(6-N) and particle free ( > 0.01 µm ) horizontal assembly, 2) indium contamination, 3)
nitrogen gas into the cavity for one night, then end absorption gas, 4) contamination problem from RF
flanges at the beam tubes were opened in the class 100 accessories like input coupler or HOM couplers, 5) field
clean room and the remained scraps of indium used for the emission, 6) multipacting so on. In this paper we
vacuum sealing on the flanges were carefully cleaned up. investigate qualitatively used L-band single cell cavities
Two cavities were paired at the end flange of the beam with higher sensitivity on the issues 1) and 2) among
tube with indium seal again. Blanket extension tubes these candidates.
were joined to each cavity at the other beam tube. After
that, blanket flanges on the HOM ports were taken off and 3 INFLUENCE OF BREAKING
cleaned up indium scraps on the ports, then put on HOM CAVITY VACUUM
couplers on them. The paired cavities were installed in the 3.1 Effect of introducing N2 gas
helium vessel of the horizontal cryostat outside of the A concerning of breaking cavity vacuum is the particle
clean room, then input couplers were put on the each port contamination from the vacuum system or in the used N2
under a clean environment which was produced by a
gas. As a result the residual surface resistance (Rres)
portable small clean booth. While this work, nitrogen gas
might increase or field emission happens. The faster N2
was flowed the pair to prevent particle contamination from
gas flow may bring the more particles into the cavity. In
the outside. Then all the parts were assembled on the
this experiment, flow rate of nitrogen gas was changed
cryostat.
from 1.5 cc/min. to 900 cc/min. We used the vacuum
294
evacuation system presented in figure 1. The flow rate is surface to be exposed to the air. In this case, oxidation of
adjusted by the valve(V2). Particles bigger than 0.01 µm niobium surface is concerned. A cavity once exposed to
size in the gas are eliminated by the final filter. By the nitrogen gas in the experiment of 3.1 was exposed to the
particle counter measurement, manipulating of the final air by the same method as 3.1 for one day to one week
valve V2 produces particles, so it has to be handled -6
carefully. The vacuum pressure of the sealed cavity is 10
worse than 2-3 x 10-5 torr after the cold test ( while cold Rs
testing the cavity vacuum is also sealed.). Prior to open
the cavity valve V6, the space between V1 and V6 is -7
10
evacuated to less than 1.5 x 10-5 torr, then V6 is opened.
By opening V4 very carefully, it is checked whether the
cavity was fully filled with N2 gas. Vacuum evacuation -8
10
Rs: Before
N2 Cavity K-8 N2 Leak 21.5 cc/min Rs: After
Gas 10 -9
Filter (0.01 µm)
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Cavity 1/T [1/K]
Inlet valve (V1) Outlet valve valve
(V2) (V6) Figure 2: Effect on Rres with N2 leak.
V3 11
10
TMP
V5 Qo
Flow
RP meter IP
V4 10 10
Figure 1: The used vacuum system for N2 gas leak. Qo Before
Qo after
was started as soon as it was filled. Typical results of
breaking cavity vacuum are shown in figure 2 on residual K-8 N2 leak (21.5cc/min)
surface resistance and in figure 3 on field gradients. The 10 9
summary is presented in Table 1. The concerned increase 0 10 20 30 40
of Rres is not observed in the measurement error up to the Eacc [ MV/m ]
flow rate of 900 cc/min. A clear field emission was
observed from 20 MV/m at the flow rate 5 cc/min. but the Figure 3: Effect on the Eacc with N2 leak.
other cases were not significant. That might be a mistake
in manipulating the valves. Eacc,max decreases a little : 8 Table 2: Summary of the effect of air exposure.
- 18%. This influence are too small to explain the Exposed Rres Eacc,max F.E. onset
degradation in the TRISTAN horizontal assembly. time [nΩ] [MV/m] field
[MV/m]
Table 1: Summary of influence of breaking cavity vacuum
0 7.4 32.4 29
with N2 gas.
< 45 min. 8.3 34.2 29
Flow rate of Rres [nΩ] Eacc,max F.E at Eacc <
N2 [cc/min.] before / after [MV/m] 25 MV/m 1 day 12.5 32.2 23
(difference) before / after before / after 3 days 12.3 28.9 23
(difference ) 7 days 16.2 28.0 22
1.5 14.0 / 11.3 31.3 / 31.8 No / No
(-2.7) (+2%)
5.0 7.7 / 4.8 36.3 / 29.7 No / Yes without disassembly. The results are summarized in Table
(-2.9) (-18%) from Eacc = 20 2. Only introducing the air into the cavity has no
21.5 7.7 / 7.2 40.3 / 34.2 No / No influence on Rres and Eacc,max but the exposure for one
(-0.5) (-15%) week produces the additional Rres of 8 nΩ and reduces the
120 12.1 / 14.4 30.9 /28.4 No / No gradient by 9 % due to field emission. The onset point of
(+2.3) (-8%) field emission becomes lower with increased air exposure
900 5.4 / 7.4 31.8 / 32.4 No / No time. The exposure time of one day is enough for the
(+2.0) (+2%) horizontal assembly procedure. The resultant Rres of 5.1
nΩ and Eacc,max reduction of 0 % are too small to
3.2 Influence of air exposure explain the degradation in the horizontal assembly.
Especially the additional Rres is out of sight in the
Even nitrogen gas was flowed into the cavity while the
measurement error at 4.2 K because BCS surface
horizontal assembly, there is a chance for the cavity inner
resistance (100 nΩ at 500 MHz) is dominate in this
295
temperature, however, this additional Rres is very serious 14
in the 2 K operation. It reduces the Qo value to about one
12
Eacc,max [MV/m]
half. Some cure might be need for this degradation with
the 2 K operation. 10
8
4 INFLUENCE OF INDIUM
CONTAMINATION 6
KEK has used indium wires or ribbons for the vacuum 4
sealing of sc cavities. It has a high reliability but has a
contamination problem by its scraps in disassembly. An 2
experiment to see qualitatively the influence was carried 0
out at CEBAF using a 1.5 GHz single cell cavity. In this 10 015 5 20 25 30 35 40
experiment a flat indium fragment was attached Indium Size [mm2 ]
intentionally on the cavity inner surface at the place 25
Figure 6: Limitation of field gradient with indium size.
mm inside from the iris. The size was changed by four
kinds : 35, 1.5, 0.5 mm2 and no indium. After every fragment and the thermal conductivity of niobium
measurement, the cavity was disassembled, soaked with determines the Eacc,max. Therefore the Eacc,max does not
nitric acid to eliminate the indium, then taken BCP(1:1:1)
depend on the frequency of the microwave. On the other
with a 30 µm material removal. The indium fragment was
hand, the sensitivity of the additional Rres of the eq. (1)
attached in the class 100 clean room after the surface
depends on the rf frequency. For instance, from the
treatment. The results are presented in figure 4 with the
definition and the scaling of rf frequency Qo value of 0.5
Eacc vs. Qo, in figure 5 on Rres and in figure 6 on the
GHz cavity is presented by the Qo of 1.5 GHz cavity for
Eacc,max. Indium produces a big influence on both Rres
the same Eacc as following:
and Eacc,max . The additional Rres and reduction of the
Qo(0.5GHz) = ω1.5U1.5/(Pc1.5 + 1/9·Ploss(indium)).
E acc,max with the indium size (S; mm2 ) are estimated Here, U is a stored energy in the cavity, ω the angular
from this experiment as follows: velocity of microwave, Pc the intrinsic wall loss of the
∆ Rres (1.5GHz) =1.12 µΩ/mm 2 · · ·(1), cavity, and Ploss(indium) the heating power at the
∆ Eacc,max = 1 - exp(-S/1.75) · · ·(2). indium. The 0.5 GHz cavity has the larger surface 9 times
The thermal valance between a heating at the indium than the 1.5 GHz cavity, so the indium effect becomes
10
11 small relatively to 1/9. Addition to it, the TRISTAN sc
cavity is a 5 cell structure. The indium effect of eq. (1)
should be changed for the TRISTAN sc cavities as follows:
Qo
∆ Rres(0.5GHz) = 1.12/(9x5) µΩ/mm2,
= 25 nΩ /mm 2 (3).
10
9 Suppose the reduction of 30% in Eacc,max by the
In=35mm
2
TRISTAN horizontal assembly comes from the indium
In=1.5 mm
2
2
contamination, the size is about 0.6 mm2 from eq. (2).
In=0.5 mm
2
Even if such an indium or scraps entered the cavity during
In=0.5 mm
After proccessing
cleaning the cavity flanges in the assembly work, it is
No indium not strange. The indium adds an additional Rres of 15 nΩ
7 from eq. (3) and finally brings to field emission as
10
0 5 10 15 presumed from figure 4 (▲ and ❐ ). A possible
Eacc [MV/m] explanation of the performance degradation in the
TRISTAN horizontal assembly is the indium
Figure 4: Indium size effect on Qo and Eacc,max. contamination and the resultant field emission.
x 10-5
6 5 SUMMARY
Surface Resistance [Ohm]
y = 8.8056e-07 + 1.1197e-06x
Among possible causes of the cavity performance
degradation in the TRISTAN horizontal assembly, the
4 influence of breaking cavity vacuum and the effect of
indium contamination are investigated. The former is not
guilty with the 4.2 K operation but some cure is needed
2 for the 2 K operation. The later has a serious effect on
both Qo and field gradient. The degradation can be
explained the indium contamination with the size about
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
0.6 mm 2 , however, the other possibility should be
Indium size [mm 2 ] investigated like contamination from cavity accessories or
multipacting. The research program is now under going at
Figure 5: Increased surface resistance with indium
KEK.
size.
296
SIMULATION OF HIGH-AVERAGE POWER WINDOWS
FOR ACCELERATOR PRODUCTION OF TRITIUM*
L. D. Daily, C. C. Shang, C. M. Gooch, D. J. Mayhall, S. D. Nelson
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California 94551 USA
K. A. Cummings
Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos , New Mexico 87545 USA
J. Salem
NASA Lewis Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio 44135 USA
Abstract and wear properties than conventional structural materials,
the output of the continuum, thermomechanical, Finite
Development of a robust, high-average-power (210 kW, Element Analysis (FEA) will be coupled to a Weibull
CW) microwave transmission line system for the statistics code. Weibull analysis is performed with
Accelerator Production of Tritium (APT) facility is a CARES (Ceramic Analysis and Reliability Evaluation of
stringent engineering and operational requirement. One Structures) [1], a finite element probabalistic software
key component in this RF transmission system is the developed by NASA. Probability of Failure (POF) is
vacuum barrier window. The requirement of high-power inferred from calculated Weibull parameters using data
handling capability coupled to the desirability of good from four point bending tests on AL300 (97.6% alumina
mean time to failure characteristics can be treated ceramic).
substantially with a set of microwave, thermal-structural,
and Weibull analysis codes. In this paper, we examine 2 PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION
realistic 3-D engineering models of the ceramic windows.
Two RF waveguide geometries are presented in this
We model the detailed cooling circuit and make use of
paper: (1) a generic, single window, design that has been
accurate heat deposition models for the RF. This input
used in experiments, and (2) one of the competing designs
and simulation detail is used to analyze the thermal-
for the power coupler on the APT linac (courtesy of CPI
structural induced stresses in baseline coaxial window
Communications & Power Industries).
configurations. We also use a Weibull-distribution failure
Electric fields from microwave transmission produce
prediction code (CARES), using experimentally obtained
heat loads from imperfections in the electrical properties
ceramic material failure data and structural analysis
of copper and alumina. For the test geometry, there is
calculations, to infer probability of failure.
active cooling from air flowing through the inner
conductor and out across the window surface. The walls
1 INTRODUCTION
of the inner conductors, outer conductors, and t-bars are
The Accelerator Production of Tritium (APT) project is plated with copper (for electrical properties) and are
a Department of Energy (DOE) sponsored investigation otherwise aluminum and stainless steel. For the CPI
into the feasibility of using linear accelerator technology geometry, the active cooling circuit is a more aggressive,
(as opposed to traditional reactors) to produce tritium. A water cool, in the inner conductor coupled with airflow
major technical issue is the design of vacuum barrier between the ceramics. The conductors are copper and
ceramic windows inside the RF transmission system. copper-plated stainless steel. The windows are kept in
Specifications call for material transparent to microwaves place by a brazed joint.
at as much as 700 MHz and 500 kW, CW (actual
operation will be at half that power). Compromise of the 3 FINITE ELEMENT MODEL
system results in vacuum breach and costly down time for
The single window Finite Element (FE) model is built
the accelerator.
using 8-node bricks and 4-node shell elements and the CPI
The objective of this analysis is to develop a
model is built as a 2-D axisymmetric simulation with 4-
simulation that will model the thermal and structural
node quads. Using a 2-D axisymmetric simulation for the
effects of transmission inefficiencies coupled to an
CPI geometry (as opposed to the 3-D implemented in the
atmospheric load to determine if, and more appropriately,
single window test case) is assumed from the observation
when the ceramics will fail.
that very little problem insight is gained from the addition
Since ceramics have much higher deviations in strength
_________________________________________________
* The work was performed under the auspices of the U.S. Department of Energy by LLNL under contract
W-7405-ENG-48.
297
160
of 3-D effects. There is geometric axisymmetry of the
problem (in the region that we are interested) and our 140
main concern is the stress state of the windows, not the
Maximum Principal Stress (MPa)
entire system. 120
The heat deposition as a result of the electric field 100
calculation along the walls of the inner and outer
conductor and the ceramic is conservatively approximated 80
to be axisymmetric with the maximum azimuthal values 60
represented. The values of the electric field are calculated
using a 3-D direct Maxwell equation solver. The values 40
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Heat Transfer Coefficent LOG10(W/m2−K)
for power deposition are determined from the calculated Figure 1: Maximum principal stress at various flow
electric field averaged over a RF cycle for the perfectly rates inside the inner conductor (window cooling held
matched case. constant).
Convective cooling is accounted for by computing heat
transfer coefficients from correlations for fluid flow [2]. Conventional heat transfer rule-of-thumb would suggest
Enclosure radiation is accounted for in the vacuum the opposite, that less cooling will result in higher
cavities (in the 2-D axisymmetric case) using gray diffuse thermal stress. Further analysis shows that the magnitude
view factors. Natural convection and radiation exchange of the face cooling is just as important. Figure 2 shows
with the surroundings are accounted for on all outside the variation of stress when the flow rates across the
surfaces. window are varied.
The simulation is performed in two steps: (1) solution 80
of the thermal profile from the given power load (using 75
TOPAZ [3]) and (2) solution of stress contours
throughout the window from the sum of thermal stress 70
Maximum Principal Stress (MPa)
and mechanical stress from the vacuum pull (using NIKE 65
[4] ). These combine to give the thermal stress result. 60
4 RESULTS 55
50
There are three significant results presented here and
each allow insight into to the fundamental physics of the 45
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Heat Transfer Coefficent (W/m2−K)
problem. Figure 2: Maximum principal stress at various flow
4.1 Single Window Geometry rates across the ceramic windows (inner conductor cooling
held constant).
An experiment was performed at Argonne National
Laboratory (ANL) [5] (using an EEV/WESGO AL300 This geometry provided the first look of the effects of
ceramic) and is used for comparison with the test FE RF shields on the resultant heat load on the ceramic.
model. This experiment provides the temperature at the These shields are place in the transmission line before and
outer radius of the window and a temperature profile after the ceramics to prevent significant loading on the
across the vacuum surface courtesy of an infrared camera. brazed joint. In preventing this build-up, the shield
These experiments were done in the range of 1000 kW, creates high electric fields at the same radial location in
CW at 350 MHz. The test FE model has been run and the ceramic (off the conductor walls). The resultant
benchmarked to these experiments. This model helps us temperature peak, at a distance out from the inner
understand the significance of the cooling circuit in the conductor, results in high thermal loading in that
stress distribution of the window. Running 1000 kW at position. This has been a significant influence in the
350MHz, the effects of too aggressive an inner conductor temperature gradient driven thermal stress, because the
cooling without adequate attention to the air cooling peak temperature occurs away from the inner conductor
across the window could be disastrous. It is discovered wall, rather than directly at the wall, as theory would say.
from varying the heat transfer coefficients (effectively Couple that to the fact that the inner conductor is cooled
changing the flow rates of air and water in the system) the to low temperatures, creates a strong temperature gradient
stress is significantly effected. The results are seen in right at the inner radius.
Figure 1.
It can be seen that as the heat transfer coefficient value 4.2 Dual Window Geometry
on the inner conductor is decreased, the maximum The CPI geometry includes a feature on the inner
principal stress in the window actually decreases. This is conductor that mitigates the aforementioned cooling issue
an important result - that less cooling results in less
(especially when using high flow rate water-cooling).
stress.
The design features a thin-walled sheet of Oxygen Free
298
Electronic Copper (OFE-Cu) that the ceramic is directly cooling flow rates are changed. Thus, we are able to
brazed to. This plate is supported only at the ends, recommend optimum values to mitigate premature
allowing the ceramic to expand, unconstrained, under a breakage due to thermally induced stresses. We also
thermal load. The resultant stresses decrease by a factor of discovered that implementation of flexible boundaries for
three over the ridged body assumption. Table 1 shows a the ceramic vacuum barrier windows proved an excellent
comparison of the ridged and flexible support models with means of preventing thermal stress buildup.
inner conductor and window cooling set at 60,000 W/m2- Future analysis will be focused on continuing
K and 50 W/m2-K respectively. refinement of the current simulations to assure accuracy,
Table 1: Resultant principal stresses. as new experimental data becomes available in the coming
Maximum Principal Ridged Flexible months. More effort will be put on the interpretation of
Stress (MPa) support support CARES results for fast-fracture as well as the failure time
(σmean~250 MPa) 92.9 28.7 as a result of sub-critical crack growth (static fatigue).
The implementation of flexible boundaries, although Other emphasis will be placed on the EEV design for the
quite clever, leaves many questions lingering about the APT power coupler that was not treated here. A major
integrity of the brazed joint. Stresses in the copper plate feature of the EEV design is the use of an expanding outer
are approaching the yield strength of the material and conductor, rather than a shield, to protect the brazed
could create some fatigue problems in the long run. joints. Preliminary results also suggest that the EEV
design may not be plagued by the same cooling concerns
4.3 CARES Predictions because of the smooth distribution of power absorption in
CARES is a probabilistic, public domain software the ceramic (from the absence of shields) and the more
program that was developed at NASA Lewis Research than adequate use of air cooling across the window faces.
Center. CARES calculates the POF for brittle ceramic More future analysis will examine the structural
materials from Weibull parameters and fatigue parameters response to the perfect mismatched case in the
for sub-critical crack growth. These parameters are transmission (when the RF wave effectively encounters a
calculated by CARES from test sample data. short and is reflected back down the line) for both the CPI
Using data for WESGO AL300 ceramic [6], the and EEV designs.
probability of failure is calculated for extreme stress.
6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Figure 3 shows the POF (as calculated by CARES) is
only significant above 189 and below 273 MPa. Since Completion of this analysis would not have possible
our problem is the 30 MPa range (see Table 1), without the contributions of colleagues at LLNL and
preliminary results suggest that the probability of failure LANL. The authors acknowledge stimulating discussions
with Dr. A. Shapiro and Dr. C. Landram at LLNL, and
will be quite low.
Dr. B. Rusnak at LANL.
1
0.9 7 REFERENCES
0.8
[1] Baker, E., L. Janosik, J. Gyekenyesi, N. Nemeth,
0.7 and L. Powers, “CARES Users and Programmers
Guide-Preliminary Draft,” 3/10/97.
Probability of Failure
0.6
[2] DeWitt, D. and F. Incropera, “Fundamentals of Heat
0.5
and Mass Transfer,” 4th ed., John Wiley & Sons:
0.4 New York (1996).
0.3 [3] Shapiro, Arthur B., “TOPAZ3D: A three-dimensional
0.2
finite element heat transfer code,” LLNL UCID-
20484, Livermore, CA (1985).
0.1
[4] Maker, Bradley N., “NIKE3D: A non-linear, implicit,
0
180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280
three dimensional finite element code for solid and
Fast−Fracture Stress (MPa)
structural mechanics,” LLNL UCRL-MA-105268
rev. 1, Livermore, CA (1995).
[5] Cummings, K., “EEV RF Window experiments,”
Figure 3: Probability of Failure in AL300 as a function
LANL Memo L-5:97-028, 3/20/97.
of Stress State.
[6] Cummings, K., “Theoretical Predictions and
Experimental Assessments of the Performance of
5 CONCLUSION / WORK IN
Alumina RF Windows”, Ph.D. Dissertation, UC
PROGRESS
Davis, June 1998.
The analysis thus far has given much insight into the
physics of the problem, significant design features, and
their contribution to failure. From the aforementioned
analysis we are able to infer trends in stress state when the
299
LINAC LUE - 200 TEST FACILITIES
S. Dolya, W. Furman, K. Goldenberg, A. Kaminsky, A. Krasnykh* ,
**
E. Laziev , V. Shvets, A. Sumbaev, V. Zamrij
Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR), Dubna, Russia;
N. Dikansky, P. Logachev, V. Skarbo
Budker Institute of Nuclear Physics (BINP), Novosibirsk, Russia;
E. Begloyan, E. Gazazian, Yu. Nazarian, V. Nikogossian, G. Oksuzian
Yerevan Physics Institute (YerPhI), Yerevan, Armenia;
V. Senyukov
Moscow Engineering Physics Institute (MEPhI), Moscow, Russia
Abstract facilities is also presented. Note that the possibility to
provide the necessary accelerating gradient as well as the
The Intense REsonant Neutron Source (IREN) [1] with determination of the dark current are the principal
200 MeV driver electron linac LUE-200 is being created problems for us.
at JINR by JINR, BINP and MEPhI. The average power
of the electron beam will be 10 kW. For optional 2 FULL SCALE TESTING OF THE
decision of a lot of problem we are planning to use a few ACCELERATING SECTIONS
test-installations (test-facilities). One of them is the Full
Scale Test Facility (FSTF) [2] and the second one - the For full scale testing of the LUE-200 accelerating
Electron Gun Test Facility (EGTF) at JINR. The JINR’s sections we are planing to use the special facility (FSTF)
operable installation (LUE-40 + IBR-30) [3], along its (see Fig. 1) at JINR (under construction [2]), as well as
direct aim, also being used as the IREN’s test-facility. The the BINP’s available test-facilities. Since the BINP is the
Electron Linacs of the Yerevan Physics Institute being designer and producer of both - the accelerating sections
planned to use as the IREN’s test-facilities too. The and the SLED cavities - it is expected that the sections
description of the specified test-facilities is presented. and cavities will be tested at the suitable BINP test-
facilities in cooperation with the JINR representatives and
get certificate of quality originally. At the FSTF the M-
1 INTRODUCTION
350 modulator for the 5045 klystron [4] was already
The Intense Resonant Neutron Source (IREN) was installed, and klystron is being installed now. The M-350
designed and is being created at JINR by JINR, BINP and modulator was created using of the M-250 modulator of
MEPhI. The IREN includes three main parts: the 200 the OLIVIN klystron station. This station was developed
MeV Electron Linac LUE-200 (beam average power will and created for the YerPhI linac and supplied to the JINR
be 10 kW), tungsten target and plutonium booster- according to the agreement between JINR and Armenian
multiplicator [1]. On account of the IREN installation government. All jobs on putting the modulator in
must be placed instead of the presently operating neutron operation are completed. The thermostat, cooling,
source (IBR-30 and its driver - 40 MeV Electron Linac), monitoring and emergency systems are under
the designed value of the accelerating gradient of the construction. The vacuum system’s equipment produced
LUE-200 is chosen relatively high (35 MV/m) for by the Vacuum Praha is ready for installation, and some
providing the necessary energy and power of electron of it is already installed.
beam. The main problems to study at this facility are the
So far as the IREN must be instead of the operable obtaining of the expected accelerating gradient and
facility (IBR-30 + LUE-40) it is reasonable to test, using measuring of the dark current. Along the accelerating
test facilities, the most part of the IREN’s equipment, and section the scintillation detectors will be placed for
first of all the LUE-200 equipment, before its installation. measuring X-radiation induced in the section body by the
For this purpose is expected to create some of those dark current. Energy spectrum of the dark current and
facilities at JINR and use existing facilities in BINP and accordingly accelerating gradient will be measured in the
YerPhI as well. The description of those facilities is given usual way by magnet spectrometer. Moreover the RF-
below. The program of works to be carried out at those
*
Also SLAC
**
Also YerPhI
52
VV VV
Q Q SD RFL Q Q
FC MM MS FC
W B
AS
RPL WF WF
RFL WF
MO P Kl FC
Fig. 1. Schematic layout of the full scale LUE-200 IREN test facility.
AS - accelerating section, B - buncher, Q - quadrupole lenses, FC - Faraday cup, Kl - klystron, MO - master
oscillator, P - preamplifier, MS - magnetic spectrometer, RFL - RF-load, VV - vacuum valve, SD - scintillation
detector, WF - waveguide feeder, MM - measuring module, RPL - reference phase line.
power multiplier system, the waveguide elements, the SLED system, and two waveguide feeds. The each
LUE-200 control, monitoring and protection systems are waveguide feed provides incident and reflected power
expected to test at the FSTF. Note the another no less monitoring, RF-pulse envelope monitoring, phase
important role of this facility. It is expected that all the monitoring (of the buncher and the accelerating sections
LUE-200 elements will be tested and get the certificate of RF channels relative to the reference phase), control and
quality on it before installation in the standard place. protection (on RF breakdown and VSWR in the
waveguide feeds or the sections). The LUE-200 RF
3 ELECTRON GUN (EG) TESTING AND
SETTING-UP FACILITY.
Electron gun (EG)
In Fig. 2 the EG test - facility layout is presented. The
LUE-200 electron gun is under construction at JINR
now. It was designed on the basis of the prototype created Vacuum
earlier at BINP for the F-factory. EG products the valve (VV)
electron beam having the parameters: 200 KeV energy; 5
Position monit.(PM)
A pulse current at 0.25 µsec pulse duration. At the present Emittance
time most of the EG parts are produced and its assembly tester (ET)
being carried out. In addition to the electron gun the Profile monitor (PRM)
facility includes the following equipment: Magnetic lens (ML)
• 100 cm length beam transport channel equipped
Beam corrector (BC) Current
with two focusing solenoid lenses and beam
position correctors (transverse magnetic field monitor (CM)
coils); ML
• beam current monitor;
• beam position monitor; BC
• beam profile monitor; VV
PRM
• beam emittance monitor;
• magnet analyzer; ET
• auxiliary technological equipment. PM
The research program involves: cathode emission
characteristics measurement, beam energy (total energy Magnet
and energy spectrum) and space-angular (profile, FC spectrometer
emittance) electron beam characteristics measurement
Faraday
4 TEST RESEARCH OF THE LUE-200 cup (FC)
ELEMENTS AND RF SYSTEM DEVICES
The LUE-200 RF-system is based on two 5045
klystrons produced by SLAC. The RF-system includes Fig. 2. Schematic layout
the master oscillator, reference phase line, preamplifier, of the EG test facility
53
system also includes high-power matched RF loads
placed at the outputs of the sections. The RF system 7 REFERENCES
elements (except the SLED’s cavities and the loads) were
designed at MEPhI and produced by the ISTOK
specialized manufacture. Some monitoring and RF-
KPA1 KPA2
system control devices were designed at YerPhI and are dB
MDC
being tested at the test facilities in Yerevan. When the
testing will be finished that devices will be placed in own ϕ dB
RFL
positions at the FSTF and at the LUE-200. Fig. 3 shows
MDC PP
the layout of the IREN RF test-facility at YerPhI. WPD MDC MD
C
dB RPL P
5 IREN MONITORING DEVICES
ϕ MO
Within the project realization a number of basic
principles on the IREN monitoring are being tested at the MDC
MDC MDC
operable installation (LUE-40 + IBR-30) which is used as MS FC
AS 1 AS 2
the IREN’s test-facility. We try to build a stabile and
reliable control system using free software base: FreeBSD EG B
MDC MDC
and Linux operating system, free implementation of SQL
server, HTTP server, etc. The use of the software which RFL RFL FC
source codes are open gives us some advantage in Fig. 3. The IREN test facility at YerPhI.
comparison with commercial (and closed) software.
Such a monitoring system of the (LUE-40 + IBR-30) MO - master oscillator, P - continuous signal
was created and put in experimental operation during the preamplifier, PP - pulse signal preamplifier, MDC -
1997-98. A set of pulse and continuous parameters are coupler, RPL - reference phase line, WPD - waveguide
measured and stored with a real repetition rate 100 Hz. power divider, EG - electron gun, B - buncher, RFL - RF
All the functions of the control systems (measuring, load, AS - accelerating section, KPA - klystron pulse
database storing, public access providing) are distributed amplifier, MS - magnetic spectrometer, FC - Faraday
between different UNIX workstations. Main attention is cup.
paid to provide a stability of the control system at
emergency situations, such as AC power shutdown,
[1] A.Kaminsky et al., "Lue200 - Driver Linac For
network cable tearing, etc.
Intense Resonant Neutron Spectrometer (IREN)",
We also try to develop a software to provide an
Proceedings of LINAC96 Conference, CERN,
effective communication between personnel and users of
August 26-30, 1996, 508-510 (1996).
the existing facility. All the information interesting for the
[2] V. Antropov, et al., "IREN Test Facility At JINR",
users are available from the WWW, and WWW to SQL
Proceedings. of LINAC96 Conference, CERN,
interface is used to access the databases.
August 26-30, 1996, 505-507 (1996).
[3] I. M. Frank. Particles and Nucleus, Vol. 1, Part 2,
6 CONCLUSION 805-860. Dubna, 1972.
The IREN project aimed to create the new JINR’s base [4] A. A. Kaminsky et al, "The M350 Modulator for
installation for fundamental research is being realized in JINR Intense Resonant Neutron Source (IREN)"
the rigorous of the total crisis, caused by economic, Proceedings of the XV International Workshop on
political and social cataclysms of the recent years all over Charged Particle Linear Accelerators, Kharkov,
the territory of the Former Soviet Union. In spite of all the September 16-21, 1997; Publeshed in "Voprosy
difficulties the IREN team does not lose hope to complete Atomnoi Nauki i Tehniki", Issue 2,3(29,30), 131-
the project in the foreseeable future. 134, Kharkov, 1997.
Work supported by .JINR Facilities Development Plan
under contract .#0993. and partially by ISTC under
contract A 087 at YerPhI.
54
CONSTRUCTION OF THE 8-GEV e- / 3.5-GeV e+ INJECTOR LINAC
FOR KEKB
A. Enomoto, KEK e-/e+ Injector Linac Group*, and Linac Commissioning Group**
KEK, 1-1 Oho, Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki-ken, 305-0801, Japan
Abstract 2.1 Energy Upgrade of the accelerator module
In order to increase acceleration gradient, the rf source
The KEK/PF 2.5-GeV linac has been upgraded since
of the old accelerator modules has been upgraded from the
1994 by upgrading the existing linac as well as extending
downstream to the upstream using summer and winter
it towards the upstream site. It has been almost
shutdown terms. For increasing the rf peak power, the
completed and commissioned during May and June, 1998.
klystron modulator power was increased by twice, the
This paper summarizes the construction status and the
30-MW klystrons replaced by 50-MW klystrons, and rf
beam performance of the new injector.
pulse compressors (SLED: SLAC energy doubler) used.
Including newly fabricated ones, 58 upgraded accelerator
1 INTRODUCTION
modules were so far constructed and the number of the
KEKB includes an 8-GeV electron (e-) ring and a 3.5- remaining modules to be installed is only one.
GeV positron (e+) ring, which has been under construction
since the TRISTAN accelerator was removed. KEKB summer winter annual
aims at a luminosity of 1 x 10 34 cm-2s-1 with collisions -FY1994 5
between 1.1-A electrons and 2.6-A positrons. FY1995 7 7
One of the requirements of the injector linac is to FY1996 12 15 27
deliver full-energy beams for both rings. The other is to FY1997 12 6 17
increase the positron beam intensity to 0.64 nC (4 x 109 FY1998 1 1
particles) /bunch with a repetition rate of 50 Hz. This total 58
positron intensity is ten-times as much as what the old
linac produced, and when the beam could be injected Among 58 accelerator modules, the SLEDs are not
without any beam loss, it takes 13.5 minutes to used in the most upstream module (pre-injector) and the
accumulate from 0 to a maximum charge of 26 µC, since accelerator module just after the positron radiator, in order
the KEKB ring has a circumstance of about 3 km. to avoid any troubles due to electric breakdown.
In order to achieve these requirements, the linac has
been reconstructed and expanded [1]-[3]. For the energy 2.2 High-power klystrons and modulators
upgrade, the number of accelerator modules was increased The newly developed 50-MW klystrons are compact,
from 40 to 57, as well as the acceleration gain of each size-compatible with the old 30-MW klystrons. They
module from 70 to 160 MeV. The old positron generator have been satisfactorily fabricated and installed according
was moved to a higher energy point of about 3.7 GeV to the schedule described above.
from 0.25 GeV in order to increase the positron intensity. Forty-seven klystron modulators were improved to
double the pulse energy and 11 modulators were newly
2 CONSTRUCTION produced. The high-voltages applied to the klystrons were
The KEKB injector has been constructed since FY tuned so that the pulse width is 3.7 µs with ripples less
1994 as a five-year program. Reconstruction of the old than 0.3%. The high voltage control and the interlock
linac was finished by the end of FY1996; the linac monitor are made using programmable logic controllers.
expansion was constructed during FY1997 and the During the linac commissioning in May and June
combination with the old linac was completed by the end 1998, the klystrons were operated at 25 pps and the output
of FY1997 (March, 1998). power was 38.6 MW in average of 55 modules with
SLEDs; and corresponding calculated no-load accelerator
gain was 164 MeV /module.
________________________________________________________________________________________________
*1: K. Nakahara (head), I. Abe, S. Anami, A. Enomoto, S. Fukuda, K. Furukawa, H. Hanaki, H. Honma, H. Iijima, M. Ikeda,
K. Kakihara, N. Kamikubota, T. Kamitani, H. Katagiri, H. Kobayashi, T. Matsumoto, S. Michizono, K. Nakamura, K. Nakao,
Y. Ogawa, S. Ohsawa, T. Oogoe, T. Shidara, A. Shirakawa, T. Suwada, T. Urano, S. Yamaguchi
*2: N. Akasaka, A. Enomoto, J. Flanagan, H. Fukuma, Y. Funakoshi, K. Furukawa, N. Iida, T. Kamitani, M. Kikuchi,
H. Koiso, K. Nakajima, T.T. Nakamura, Y. Ogawa, S. Ohsawa, K. Oide, K. Satoh, M. Suetake, T. Suwada
55
All the accelerator modules had been conditioned up to needle using solenoid. The radiation from the SLEDs is
about ten-percent higher peak power, and the trip rate was sufficiently low and the shielding is not necessary, though
low during the beam commissioning, ex., 0.31 there are several SLEDs with relatively higher radiation.
times/klystron.hour during June 7 to 13. Since the The tuners and the detuners are also well working.
operation started, two klystrons has been replaced owing
to trouble in the output window and the gun cathode, 2.4 Accelerator sections
respectively; and 4 more klystrons are to be removed About seventy 2-m sections, which are 2π/3-mode
during this summer shutdown in order to tune the traveling-wave structures, were fabricated using electro-
focusing field again. plating method. One of them was tested up to 36 MV/m
(21 MV/m is operational), where any limitation was not
2.2 Low-power rf systems
found. By the linac commissioning, all of the new
The low-power rf systems have been extensively sections were conditioned without any problem up to
changed for the KEKB injector [4]. In order to more than the operational gradient.
synchronize the linac beam with the ring rf buckets within An accelerator section used just after the positron
a requested precision of +-30 ps, the common factors radiator is one meter long; the input coupler has two
between the linac and the ring rf frequencies were searched symmetric coupling holes in order to reduce electric field
under the condition that the linac frequency was fixed and around the coupler and the input waveguides. This section
considering the ring rf bandwidth. The highest common is operated in the solenoidal magnetic field of 0.5 T and
factor was consequently chosen to be 10.38545 MHz, fed by an rf of about 30 MW, 1 µs without a SLED,
which is the 275 (11 x 5 x 5) -th subharmonic of the linac producing an acceleration gradient of 17 MV/m. Rf
rf as well as the 49 (7 x 7) -th subharmonic of the ring rf conditioning for the accelerator sections used in the
(508.8872 MHz). This means the linac beam and the ring magnetic field was carefully performed. Consequently the
rf bucket are synchronized at 10.38545 MHz. klystron trip due to electric breakdown was hardly
The subharmonic bunchers (SHBs), which produce experienced during the commissioning for the positron
single bunch beams from the gun beam pulses with a beam in June. This was a drastic change from the four-
width of about 2ns, are to be operated at the fifth (571.2 meter sections which had been used in the old positron
MHz) and the 25-th subharmonic (114.24 MHz). For the source.
former rf, a 10-kW solid-state amplifier was newly
fabricated, however, for the latter, an old amplifier using 2.5 Pre-injector
vacuum tubes was still utilized with slight improvement. The KEKB injector requires the pre-injector to produce
The frequency of a master oscillator was chosen to be single bunches with a bunch length of about 10 ps
the fifth subharmonic (571.2 MHz). Using an optical (FWHM) and a charge of more than 10 nC. The gun is
fiber cable, the linac fundamental rf (2856 MHz) is able to emit pulsed beams with a pulse width of about 2
transferred from a main-booster to sub-booster stations ns (FW) and a peak current of about 10 A. In order to
located at the upstream of every 8 accelerator modules. compress the gun beam to the single bunch beam, a
For the SLED system, the sub-booster rf drive 114.24-MHz SHB and a 571.2-MHz SHB were installed
systems were improved so as to inverse phase at the latter before the 2856-MHz bunchers. The gun beam energy
part of the rf. The switching time is changeable. During was increased up to 200 kV (100 kV in the old electron
the rf conditioning, it was set around 200 ns in order to linac) for suppressing space charge effect on the basis of a
avoid the rf breakdown. computer simulation. The pre-injector showed a good
Sub-booster klystrons were replaced by newly beam performance in the commissioning.
developed 60 kW klystrons in order to drive 8 klystrons
instead of 4 klystrons in the old linac case. These 2.6 Positron production
klystrons are water-cooled. During the commissioning, The main improvement for the positron source was to
the correlation between the rf phase shift and the cooling- replace 4-m accelerator section by shorter sections. In the
water temperature was studied and measured 1 deg /0.1 KEKB injector, two 1-m sections and two 2-m sections
deg.C. The temperature stability for the rf systems has were installed and rf pulses with shorter width are to be
been improved to be around 0.2 deg. by changing cooling- fed. This improvement was very effective for stable
tour fan switching to continuous control of a 2-way valve. operation of the positron beam. The electron-to-positron
2.3 SLEDs conversion rate normalized by the incident electron energy
was about 3.3%/GeV at the end of the linac.
So far 55 SLEDs has been operated. These SLEDs
are of two-hole coupling type and are modified in order to 2.7 Beam Instrumentation and control
facilitate handling in the existing linac: the tuner with One of the great progress of the KEKB injector from
smooth adjustments with the necessary resolution (2 kHz the old injector is to have developed a beam instrumenta-
in resonant frequency); the drive mechanism of the detuner tion system based on beam position monitors (BPMs)
56
which were installed at every location of quadrupole 3 BEAM PERFORMANCE
magnets [5]. The BPMs were widely utilized to tune linac
beam in such cases as orbit correction and dispersion The linac commissioning was carried out as scheduled
correction of the linac beam transport system. in May and June and the results near to the design were
The BPMs comprises stripline-type beam position obtained as follows:
monitors and associated signal analyzing systems. For
solving man-power problem to develop a data acquisition electron positron
system, 17 digital sampling oscilloscopes, which are of 5 dsgn achvd dsgn achvd
GHz, 2 ch, and communicated with a VME computer, energy (GeV) 8 >8 3.5 >4
were distributed every half of the linac sector (typically charge (nC/bunch) 1.2 1.5 0.64 0.6
38.4 m). The signals are combined by combiners so that energy width (% FW) 0.5 ---- 0.5 0.8
each peak is not overlapped and their peaks are measured emittance (1σ, mm) 1.1 ---- 1.6 2.3
using the oscilloscope functions and analyzed by VME.
The position signals for one beam pulse are measured by a A remarkable feature of the linac commissioning was
beam-trigger signal distributed to the monitor station. use of the beam instrumentation system and SAD
The position information from all BPMs is renewed every (strategic accelerator design) computers in various stages
1.4 second at present. of the beam tuning. Especially it was indispensable to
The other important monitor is a streak-camera system tune high-current electron beams for positron production
to observe the bunch structure of the linac beam [6]. The while suppressing emittance growth.
streak-camera system was also used in the old linac.
However, it was not so easy to handle, because it 4 SUMMARY
consisted of separate devices, such as an optical system, a (1) A linac upgrade was almost completed. A total energy
trigger and its delay system, a synchronization circuit of more than 8 GeV and average module gain of more than
between the trigger and the rf to reduce trigger jitters, as 160 MeV (20 MeV/m) were obtained.
well as a streak camera proper. Further, air-Cherenkov
light emitted by a beam was used as a light source into a (2) A positron beam near to the design quality has been
streak camera; therefore, it has for a long time been used achieved.
only for experiments. (3) To achieve a complete performance in the KEKB
Newly developed streak-camera systems are more commissioning, the remaining issues, such as the linac
simply arranged, computer controlled, and they utilize alignment check, replacement of the old devices, and
optical transition light (OTR) emitted from a metal mirror preparation for the 50-Hz operation, is to be still
which can be easily inserted to the beamline. Thus four continued during this summer.
streak-cameras were installed after the pre-injector, after
the linac arc, after the positron radiator, and the linac end. REFERENCES
So far they were frequently used at the pre-injector as a 1) J. Tanaka, et al., "Operation of the KEK 2.5 GeV Electron
real time bunch tuner. Linac", Proc of the 1984 Linear Accelerator Conference,
2.8 Linac Alignment Darmstadt, Germany, May 7-11, 1984.
2) I. Sato, et al. edited, “Design Report of PF Injector Linac
All the buncher system are operated in the Helmholtz Upgrade for KEKB” (in Japanese), KEK Report 95-18.
coil of about 0.1 T. In this low energy region, the 3) A. Enomoto, “Upgrade to the 8-GeV Electron Linac for
alignment of the equipment was carefully checked; by KEKB” , Proc. of LINAC96, Geneva, Switzerland, 26-30
changing the gun beam energy, the position change on August, 1996, pp.633-637.
beam screens was investigated. However the alignment 4) H. Hanaki,et al., "Low-Power RF Systems for the KEKB
has been still checked in this summer shutdown, because Injector Linac", Proc. of APAC98, Tsukuba, Japan, 23-27
it was essential to use steering coils before the buncher March, 1998, to be published.
during the commissioning. 5) T. Suwada, N. Kamikubota, K.Furukawa: "NEW DATA
The linac alignment has not been sufficient at present. ACQUISITION SYSTEM OF A BEAM-POSITION
One of the reason is the girder slide rollers were MONITOR AND A WALL-CURRENT MONITOR FOR THE
superannuated. They have been replaced during this KEKB INJECTOR LINAC", Proc. of APAC98, Tsukuba,
summer shutdown. And the linac alignment will be Japan, 23-27 March, 1998, to be published.
selectively improved upstream of the positron radiator in 6) Y. Ogawa, et al.: "NEW STREAK-CAMERA SYSTEM FOR
order to increase the primary electron beam intensity. THE KEKB LINAC", Proc. of APAC98, Tsukuba, Japan,
23-27 March, 1998, to be published.
57
SINGLE BUNCHED BEAM TESTING FOR SPRING-8 LINAC
T. Kobayashi, T. Hori, H. Yoshikawa, H. Sakaki, T. Asaka, K. Yanagida, A. Mizuno, S. Suzuki,
T. Taniuchi, H. Abe and H. Yokomizo
Japan Synchrotron Radiation Research Institute, SPring-8, Kamigouri, Ako, Hyogo 687-1298
Abstract system is connected with a coaxial rotary switch
controlled remotely from the control room. The emission
A new grid pulser for a short pulse was installed in the test was carried out with the 1ns pulse length of the
electron gun system. The emission pulse length can be single-mode grid pulser.
changed from 250ps to 1ns with the peak current of 1.6A.
The single bunch operation in the storage ring was High Voltage Station
successfully achieved with the purity of 10-6 order. 1nsec pulser(Kenteck) Impedance
Converter
10-40nsec pulser(Kenteck)
1 INTRODUCTION 1-2µsec pulser(MELCO)
The SPring-8 is a third generation synchrotron radiation
200keV electron
X-ray facility with a 1GeV linac, 8GeV booster O/E Constant Fraction
Discriminator
Level
Converter
12Ω Transmission Line
synchrotron and 8GeV storage ring. We succeeded in the
Electron Gun EIMAC Y796
acceleration to 1GeV by the linac in August 1996, and in 500m Fiber Cable
acceleration to 8GeV by the booster synchrotron in Trigger Pulse
December 1996. In March 1997, the storage ring was E/O
accumulated the 20mA beam current with long life time.
In May 1998, the storage ring was stored the electron
beam with maximum current of 100mA. Figure 1: Schematic drawing of the grid pulser system.
SPring-8 linac with maximum energy of 1GeV is
consisted of 13 high power klystrons(E3712,80MW) and
26 acceleration tubes[1,2]. The preinjector of the linac is
composed of 200kV thermionic gun[3], two single-cavity
prebunchers, a standing wave buncher and a high-gradient
acceleration tube. The emission current from the linac has
been produced various kinds of the pulse length from 10ns
to 1µs and an energy of 60MeV, which are requested by
the operation modes of the storage ring. We have been
planned the 1ns emission of the linac for the efficient
injection to the storage ring. Since this autumn, 1GeV
storage ring(so called New SUBARU) which is under
construction in SPring8 site will be also injected the 1ns
emission from the linac. However, the 1ns emission have
not been supplied in the 8GeV storage ring. Recently,
the single bunched beam operation of the storage ring was
achieved by using the new grid pulser(three fixed outputs
250ps,500ps,1ns).
2 PERFORMANCE OF GRID PULSER
FOR SINGLE BUNCH EMISSION
The grid pulser system is shown in Fig.1. This system
has three grid pulsers; a single-mode grid pulser(less than
1ns), a short-mode grid pulser (10-40ns) and long-mode
grid pulser(1µs). The single-mode pulser has three outputs
with the fixed pulse length of 250ps, 500ps and 1ns
through the front panel N-type connectors, and the rise Figure 2: Waveform of three fixed outputs of single-mode
time of each pulse is about 200ps. These grid pulser are grid pulser(250ps,500ps,1ns)
installed on the gun high-voltage deck. In order to
achieve rapid exchange of the grid pulsers, the grid pulser
58
The external grid pulser trigger was transmitted through an 1GeV beam dump was 95%. Using the chicane after
a single-mode optical fiber, which has low dependence on the last acceleration tube, the energy spread and the beam
the room temperature, developed by Sumitomo electric energy was measured. The energy spread of beam was
industries. This fiber has a thermal coefficient for a delay observed by the profile of screen monitor at the chicane
of less than 0.4ppm. We use circuits made by ORTEL center point(dispersion function 1m). The x-direction
Co. as electrical-to-optical(E/O) and optical-to- distribution of screen monitor at the chicane center point
electrical(O/E) converters, with a jitter of less than was 7mm. Consequently, energy spread of beam was
2ps(rms) and a maximum frequency of 10GHz. The within 0.7%.
external trigger of grid pulser is synchronized both
508MHz(synchrotron, storage ring) and 60Hz(line
frequency).
The waveform of the three fixed outputs of the single-
mode grid pulser is shown in Fig.2. The peak-to-peak
time jitter of three fixed output(250ps,500ps and 1ns) is
26ps, 28ps and 25ps, respectively. The relationship
between pulser control voltage and pulser output voltage
is shown in Fig.3. The output voltage of grid pulser is
changed from 120V to 300V at the port of 1ns output.
Control voltage vs Grid pulser output voltage (250ps,500ps,1ns)
400
350
286mA/div. , 2ns/div.
Figure 4: Waveform of 1ns emission
Grid pulser output voltage(V)
300
250
1.8
250ps
500ps condition
1ns bias voltage -60V
200 1.6
heater power 36W
gun mod. voltage 180KV
1.4
150
1.2
SCM output(A)
100
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 1
Control voltage(V)
0.8
Figure 3: Control voltage vs grid pulser output voltage 0.6
3 EMISSION & ACCELERATION 0.4
TESTING
0.2
The waveform of the emission current from Y796 280 300 320 340 360 380 400
electron gun is measured by the SCM(wall current Grid pulser output(V)
monitor) as shown in Fig. 4[4,5]. The m a x i m u m
emission current is 1.6A with pulse length of 1ns. Figure 5: Relationship between grid pulser output and
Fig.5 shows the relationship between emission current emission current
and the output voltage of the single-mode grid pulser. The
1ns emission current shows the good linearity. We 4 SINGLE BUNCH OPERATION OF
measured the characteristics of the 1ns beam which was STORAGE RING
accelerated up to the maximum energy of 1GeV. The We tried single bunched beam operation which
beam position and shape were adjusted by checking screen accumulated the 1ns beam from the linac at the 21
monitors and the beam current was measured by wall buckets of the storage ring. Because Y796 cathode
current monitors. After fine adjustment of the beam assembly was used for last 3 years, the grid was coated
transport, the transmission efficiency of the bunching with Ba so that the grid emission has been increased. The
section of linac was about 60%, and the transmission current of the grid emission of 10-4 compared with the
efficiency of the whole linac from the bunching section to peak current of 1ns electron beam. By kicking the satellite
59
beam by the RF-KO of the synchrotron, the pure single
bunched beam was obtained. The purity of the single
bunched beam was observed by the technique of the
optical measurement as shown in Fig.6. The purity of the
single bunched beam was achieved to be the order of 10-6.
Figure 6: Measurement of single bunched beam of
storage ring
5 CONCLUSIONS
We succeeded for accelerating the 1ns electron beam and
accumulating the single bunched beam at the 8 G e V
storage ring. The grid emission was observed to be order
of 10-4 compared with the electron beam. The purity of
the single bunched beam of the storage ring was obtained
to be order of 10 -6 by means of eliminating the satellite
beam by RF-KO of synchrotron.
6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge K.Nakajima, S.
Nagasawa, H.Akimoto, SPring8 engineering service(SES)
for their continuous support.
7 REFERENCES
[1] H. Yokomizo et al.,"Construction of SPring-8
Injector System",Proceedings of 10th Symp. Acc.
Scie. and Tech.,14-16(1995)
[2] S. Suzuki et al.,"Initial data of Linac Preinjector for
SPring-8",Proceedings of 93 PAC, Washington
D.C., May 1993.
[3] H. Yoshikawa et al., "Bunching System of the Linac
for SPring-8",Proceedings of 8th Symp. Acc. Scie.
and Tech., November 1991,304-305(1991)
[4] K. Yanagida et al.,"Performance of Beam Diagnostics
for SPring-8 Linac",Proceedings of 9th Symp. Acc.
Scie. and Tech.,1993
[5] T. Kobayashi et al.,"Beam Monitors for SPring-8
Injector Accelerators",Proceedings of 14th Internatioal
Conference,Application of Accelerators in Research
and Industry",761-763(1997)
60
PERFORMANCE OF AN AccSys Technology PL-7 LINAC AS AN INJECTOR
FOR THE IUCF COOLER INJECTOR SYNCHROTRON
D.L. Friesel and W. Hunt, Indiana University Cyclotron Facility, Bloomington, IN, 47408
Abstract 1010 protons to 240 MeV by May 1998. Beam extraction and
Cooler injection development will begin during the last
An AccSys Technology Model PL-7 Linac is used to pre- quarter of 1998 and CIPIOS will deliver polarized H- beam to
accelerate H- ions to 7 MeV for strip injection into a new 2.4 CIS and the Cooler in the first quarter of 1999. The CIS lattice
T-m injector synchrotron now being commissioned at IUCF. design [4], beam performance goals [5,6], and initial H- beam
The Cooler Injector Synchrotron (CIS) is designed to inject strip injection and acceleration commissioning results were
over 1010 polarized protons or deuterons per pulse at 5 Hz previously reported [7,8,9].
into an existing electron cooled synchrotron-storage ring
(Cooler) for nuclear research [1]. The linac, a 3 MeV RFQ 2 LINAC DESCRIPTION
coupled directly to a 4 MeV Drift Tube Linac, is designed to
transmit over 1 mA of 7 MeV H- ions to the CIS injection Design specifications for the IUCF Model PL-7 Linac are
beam line with 85% transmission, 1 π mm mrad normalized listed in Table I, and were determined from modified versions
emittance and 1% energy spread. Two 350 kW, 425 MHz rf of the linac design codes PARMTEQ and PARMILA. Beam
amplifiers power the linac which accelerates variable pulse measurements made during the last year, described below, are
width H- ions at duty factors up to 0.2%. We discuss the beam compared with these predictions. A layout of the PL-7
performance of this unique linac after a year of service as a RFQ/DTL pre-accelerator is shown in Fig. 1, and details of
synchrotron injector, and compare measured beam properties the 4 vane RFQ and 22 cell DTL accelerating structures and
with calculations made during design and fabrication. 350 kW amplifier systems are provided in Ref.[7]. The RFQ
TABLE I
1 INTRODUCTION
PL-7 Linac Performance Specifications and Parameters
Negative ion strip injection into the CIS booster
RFQ/DTL Operating Frequency 425 MHz
synchrotron is required by the relatively low intensities (≤ 5
Input Energy (H-) 25.0 keV
mA) of polarized proton and deuteron beam ion sources. Strip
Output Energy (H-) 7.0 MeV
injection and accumulation calculations for H- ions on thin
Duty Factor ≤ 0.2 %
Carbon foils (2 – 8 µgm/cm2) predict that a minimum energy
Repetition Rate (variable) 0.1 – 10 Hz
of 5 MeV is required to achieve the intensity goals desired for
Pulse Width (Variable) 35 – 350 µs
Cooler injection, with higher energies yielding higher intensity
Maximum RFQ and DTL RF Power 0.35 MW
gains [2]. This led to the selection of an AccSys Technology
Model PL-7 Linac as the H- pre-accelerator for CIS. The PL- Normalized RFQ Acceptance (90%) ≤1.0 π µm
7 linac design consists of a modified AccSys Technology 3 Normalized DTL Output Emittance (90%) 1.0 π µm
MeV RFQ directly coupled to a 4 MeV, 22 cell drift tube Output Energy Spread ±75 keV
linac. Beam matching from the RFQ into the DTL is done Guaranteed Beam Transmission ≥80 %
internally at the RFQ exit and the DTL entrance. Indiana
University and AccSys technology entered into an “Industrial A) RFQ Parameters:
Partnership” agreement whereby AccSys designed and built Overall Length: 228.4 cm
the accelerating structures and power amplifiers. IUCF -Matching: 1.0 cm
supplied the source, LEBT, RFQ vacuum vessel, commercial -Shaper: 22.3 cm
hardware and some manpower support. Fabrication of the -Bunching: 17.1 cm
IUCF 7 MeV H- linac, the prototype of the present AccSys -Acceleration: 190.1 cm
Model PL-7 design (serial No. 001), began at AccSys in June, Ave. Bore Radius: 0.248 cm
1995 and was completed by December, 1996. Vane Voltage: 71 kV
Construction of a booster synchrotron (CIS) to replace the Cavity Q: 7547
IUCF cyclotrons as an injector for the Cooler [1] began in late Peak Operating Power: 295 kW
1994. Beam commissioning of the H- linac pre-accelerator
and the ring strip injection system began in January 1997 with B) DTL Parameters:
a 25 keV unpolarized H- beam and resulted in the injection, Overall Length: 153.7 cm
accumulation and capture of both 3 and 7 MeV protons in No. Cells: 22
CIS. Construction of an intense pulsed H- polarized ion source Quad Length (SmCo Perm Magnets): 2.54 cm
(CIPIOS) [3] also began in January 1997. Beam acceleration Cavity Q: 30,000
studies beginning in Nov. 1997 resulted in the acceleration of Peak Operating Power: 285 kW
61
for these measurements is designed for q/A=1 particles (H+, the linac with the DTL turned off as a function of cavity field.
H-). To accelerate deuteron beams, this structure can be Typically, beam transmission through the linac is 80%,
replaced in the RFQ with a separate q/A = ½ structure through although transmissions as high as 90% have been observed.
a removable lid on the RFQ vacuum vessel. Beam time-of-flight pickups in the 7 MeV transfer beam line
are used to monitor the energy and energy stability of the beam
3 MeV RFQ 4 MeV DTL
92.1 60.1
from the linac. The orbit period of the strip injected proton
beam in the CIS ring is also used to independently verify the
energy of the H- beam extracted from the DTL. At the
measured DTL threshold diode voltage of 3.57 V, the rf
153.7
capture frequency of an optimally stored proton beam in CIS
is 2.09730 MHz (h=1), corresponding to a circulating proton
beam energy of 6.990 MeV. The 7 MeV H- beam emittance
was measured to be between 0.6 and 1.0 π µm.
The FWHM energy spread of the H- beam was measured to
LEYBOLD
LEYBOLD RW4200
COMP.
NESLAB UNIT
RW4200
SYSTEM III
be ± 85 keV via elastic scattering from a 2.5 mg/cm2 Au foil
ALCATEL
LEE HEE with planar Si surface barrier stopping detectors at 30o
scattering angles. This slightly larger than the predicted value
Figure 1. AccSys Technology Model PL-7 7 MeV Linac of ±75 kV by AccSys was caused by our inability to close the
DTL amplifier cavity field amplitude loop. This is illustrated
3 LINAC PERFORMANCE in Fig. 2. The upper trace is an oscilloscope display of the
TOF energy measurement of a single 200 µsec long, 7 MeV
For all measurements reported here, a ≤ 1.0 mA peak, 25 H- beam pulse from the linac. The two initial peaks in this
keV unpolarized H- beam from a duoplasmatron source is trace are instrumental “turn-on” noise, while the energy fall off
focused at the entrance of an AccSys Technology model PL-7 (≈200 keV) during the last 40 µsec is real and mimics the
Linac. Beam is matched to the Linac (RFQ) acceptance DTL cavity field amplitude fall-off with pulse length. The
requirements (symmetric 1.3 mm beam radius and 125 mrad vertical scale for this trace is 100 keV/div. The lower trace is
convergence half angle, normalized emittance of 1.0 π µm) via the intensity of strip injected proton beam in the CIS ring (0.2
a Low Energy Beam Transport (LEBT) system consisting of mA/div), which exhibits a similar decrease with pulse length
three Einsel lenses, an x/y steering magnet and an electron that is not evident on the H- beam stop prior to injection.
beam sweep magnet. Diagnostics including a multi-wire harp, When amplifier upgrades allowed the amplitude loops to be
an emittance scanner and a beam stop were designed into the closed, the TOF energy fluctuations were reduced to 25 keV,
LEBT. Measurements of the 25 keV H- beam properties at the which reduced intensity fluctuations for strip injected beams.
RFQ entrance are ε ≤ 0.6 π µm, α = 0.62 and β = 0.012, well These data illustrate the importance of stable linac cavity
within the AccSys specifications. The small source emittance fields on the injection efficiency of protons into the CIS ring.
is not necessarily an advantage for the PL-7 linac, which was The TOF energy monitor is continuously displayed during
designed for an acceptance of 1.0 π µm. The new polarized routine CIS operations to diagnose and correct linac (DTL)
source, however, will have a beam emittance more closely stability problems. Even with the DTL amplitude loop open,
matched to the PL-7 emittance requirements. injection stability is quite acceptable for long running periods
The 425 MHz three stage power amplifiers for the linac when the Linac is properly tuned and has reached thermal
must provide the required RFQ and DTL cavity fields with equilibrium after startup. With the loop closed, accumulated
amplitude and phase stabilities of ± 0.5% and ± 0.2o
respectively to achieve the 7 MeV H- beam properties listed
in Table I. Significant improvements to the frequency, phase
and amplitude loops were required at IUCF to meet these
specifications, which are critical to the injection performance
goals for CIS. The frequency and phase loops operate to
specification. Until recently, however, the cavity amplitudes
were run open loop to achieve the RFQ and DTL required
threshold fields because the amplifiers, based on the EIMAC
YU-176 triode tube, had insufficient power to maintain
stability with these loops closed. The amplifiers must typically
run above 295 kW.
The performance of the linac was characterized by
measuring the properties of the 7 MeV H- beam using several
diagnostic systems in the 9m transfer beam line between the
linac and the CIS ring. The RFQ cavity field threshold (Vo)
was determined to be 4.35 V on a diode attached to a small Figure 2. Scope displays of the 7 MeV H- beam TOF energy
pickup loop by measuring the transmission of beam through (upper) and first turn proton beam intensity in CIS (lower).
62
and stored beam intensity typically varies by less than a few as little as 30 µsec after the DTL cavity reaches full field. The
percent from cycle to cycle. RFQ pulse width must reside within the bounds of the DTL
The focussing properties of the 7 MeV H- beam exiting the field anyway to insure that only 7 MeV H- ions enter the
linac were determined to be very close to the predictions transfer beam line, since 3 MeV H- ions transmit through the
provided by AccSys, which were used to design the transfer Linac with equal efficiency as 7 MeV ions when the DTL
beam line optics that match the linac beam to the synchrotron cavity field is turned off.
acceptance. The beam line focussing elements and measured
beam envelope are within 5 % of the values predicted using 5 CONCLUSIONS
the optics code TRACE 3D, and beam transmission from the
linac to the stripper foil in the ring is better than 85%. The PL-7 linac has been used for over 1400 hours during
the last year to inject 7 MeV protons into the new IUCF
4 BEAM INJECTION & RF CAPTURE Cooler Injector Synchrotron. While some development of the
RF amplifiers was required to achieve the guaranteed beam
The linac delivers a 300µsec H- beam pulse on a 4.5 properties reported here, this linac has proven to be a reliable
µg/cm2 stripper foil in the CIS at up to 5 Hz repetition rates and stable source of 7 MeV H- ions for strip injection into
for the injection and accumulation of 7 MeV protons. Two CIS. When delivered, the PL-7 linac was yet another new
bumpers displace the ring equilibrium orbit onto the foil for accelerator type introduced into the IUCF inventory. With
strip injection and proton accumulation. Typically, an continuous support from AccSys Technology, we have
equilibrium accumulation of 8 x 1010 protons occurs in 200 undertaken the effort to upgrade the amplifiers at IUCF
µsec, after which the bumpers are turned off and adiabatic ourselves to facilitate our understanding and maintainability of
turn-on of a 1st harmonic rf cavity is started. Only about 2 x this system. The accelerating structures have proven to be
1010 protons are rf captured and stored 2 msec latter because rugged and reliable while the beam properties from this
of the short 1/e beam lifetime (< 0.5 sec) in the 0.2 µTorr accelerator are reproducable to the point where no tuning of
average ring vacuum. The captured beam bunch factor is 2.5 the transfer beam line and little tuning of the ring injection
for an rf cavity voltage of 250 volts. parameters are required to routinely achieve optimum strip
A schematic diagram of the RFQ, DTL and bumper fields, injection performance. Turn-on during startup is usually
the linac H- beam pulse and the injected proton beam quick (30 minutes), and once tuned up, the linac performs
accumulation relative timing required for optimal strip reliably for long periods of time, becoming invisible during
injection is shown in Fig. 3. We were surprised to find that other ring development activities such as beam acceleration
the DTL cavity field must be at threshold before the 25 keV H- and extraction studies. We are confident that these accelerator
beam from the source is injected into the linac or the DTL properties will be maintained as the CIS ring moves from
cavity field clamps to zero. This phenomenon was not developmental to operational status.
observed when testing the linac at AccSys with protons. It is
likely that stripped electrons produced in the RFQ cause 6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
multipactoring in the DTL which prevent its’ rise to full field.
This inconvenience was resolved by pulsing the source The work reported here was made possible by the skill and
extraction HV in time with the RFQ cavity field, delayed by dedication of the technical and profession staff of IUCF, who
were involved in all phases of this construction and
Initial Lifetime: 0.22 ACCUMULATED commissioning effort. Clearly, this report could not have been
BEAM
(bumpers
) made without the expertise and generous support of the
Equil. Lifetime: 1.7 professionals at AccSys Technology, Inc.
7 REFERENCES
ACCUMULATED
BEAM
(not bumped off
f il)
[1] R.E. Pollock, IEEE 89CH2699-0, 17 (1989).
500 10.0 [2] K. Hedblom et al., IEEE95CH35843, 336 (1995).
[3] V. Derenchuk et al., PAC97, Vancouver, BC, to be
400 8.0
published.
Bumper
300 Fi ld 6.0 [4] D. Li et al., IEEE 95CH35843, 357 (1995).
H- Source Beam
Beam Fields [5] D.L. Friesel et al., IEEE 95CH35843, 336 (1995).
DTL Cavity
I (uA) Fi ld (Volts)
200 4.0 [6] D.L. Friesel & S.Y. Lee, EPAC’96 Spain, 548 (1996).
RFQ Cavity Field
100 2.0 [7] D.L. Friesel et al., PAC97, Vancouver, BC, to be
published.
0.0 [8] D.L. Friesel & R. Hamm, PAC97, Vancouver, BC, to be
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Time (msec) published.
1
2
[9] D.L. Friesel & G.P. Berg, EPAC98, Stockholm, SE, to be
Figure 3. PL-7, bumper, and beam timing diagram. published.
63
A 100 MeV SUPERCONDUCTING PROTON LINAC:
BEAM DYNAMICS ISSUES
M. Comunian, A. Facco, A. Pisent
INFN Laboratori Nazionali di Legnaro, Legnaro, Padova 35020 ITALY
Abstract
2 THE ISCL
Proton linacs with beam intensities between 10 and
The linac was designed taking the main beam
120 mA in CW are under study in various laboratories,
parameters used for TRASCO, the INFN-ENEA
for applications that go from fundamental physics to
feasibility study for a waste transmutation Accelerator
energy production and nuclear waste transmutation. The
Driven System (ADS). In Tab. I we list the main
majority of the projects consider, for energy above 100
specifications and the beam characteristics from the 352
MeV, the use of a superconducting linac, which is
MHz 5 MeV RFQ, with some emittance dilution in the
particularly convenient for "moderate" currents (10-50
matching line[4]. In the last two rows we specify the two
mA). For the low energy part the situation is unclear,
main constraints of the independently phased resonators:
and the advantages of a superconducting structure have
the surface field and the beam loading per cavity. In
not been generally recognized yet. In this paper we
particular the second constraint is specific of high
consider a possible architecture for a 100 MeV linac
current machines: in our case we want to feed each
based on independently phased resonators, and we give a
cavity with a single solid state amplifier and the
first analysis of the beam dynamics issues, and the
limitation to 15 kW seems consistent with the present
resulting cavity specifications. The flexibility of such a
technology.
linac, for the use with different charge over mass ratios
and beam currents, will be underlined.
Table I: Main specifications of the linac.
Particle species p
1 INTRODUCTION Input energy 5 MeV
The interest for a superconducting proton linac Output energy 100 MeV
covering the traditional DTL energy range has recently Beam Current 30 mA
Duty cycle 100%
grown, in connection with various high intensity linac
Input Trans (norm) 0.4 mmmrad
studies. We considered in this paper an Independently
RMS Emittance Long. 0.2 MeVdeg
phased Superconducting Cavity Linac (ISCL) similar to Frequency 352 MHz
those used for low energy heavy ions in many nuclear Maximum beam loading/cavity 15 kW
physics laboratories like ours, but at much higher beam Maximum surface field 25 MV/m
intensity, and in a wider beta range. Development of
cavities for this kind of applications has been done 3 THE REENTRANT CAVITIES
mainly at ANL[1], and other studies can be found in
literature[2]. The high power coupler design and the Various kind of superconducting resonators were
beam losses control are specific problems related to the developed or proposed for this β-range. Among them an
high beam power. attractive choice is a modified version of the reentrant
We show here a preliminary analysis at 352 MHz. Our cavities developed at Stanford [5]; in this early work the
attention is centered on beam dynamics issues: we feasibility of low-β, single-gap niobium structures with
determined a preliminary set of parameters that could good RF performance and no serious multipacting
help in cavity development. The classical chain of problems was demonstrated [6]. At the frequency of 352
LANL programs (PARMTEQM, PARMILA…) was MHz and in the presence of a relatively large bore, these
adapted to this specific problem so to have results based cavities present many advantages: the axially symmetric
on well proven codes (especially for what space charge shape avoids dipole field components; the single gap
and initial distributions are concerned). We checked guarantees the widest velocity acceptance and the
various approaches, like single and double gap cavities, possibility of covering the full interval from 5 to 100
176 MHz and 352 MHz [3]. MeV with only one type of resonator; the simple
The most promising design for 30 mA beam current is geometry, which requires very few electron beam welds,
based on the so-called “reentrant cavities”, that are allows for a low construction cost in the view of mass
modified pillbox, cylindrically symmetric and therefore production. The maximum field achievable in
theoretically dipole free. superconducting cavities is usually limited by the onset
of field emission; single gap structures, then, could
64
appear less attractive than multigap, high shunt
Table III: ISCL Parameters (30 mA).
impedance ones. However the relatively low energy gain
Total length 65 m
per cavity which is required in our linac design and the Synchronous phase -30 deg
low surface electric field ratio Ep/Ea of reentrant cavities Average acceleration 1-1.8 MeV/m
make them perfectly adequate to the aim. The ISCL Number of cavities 253
resonator characteristics, calculated by means of the Cavity bore radius 1.5 cm
program SUPERFISH, are listed in Tab. II. In fig.1 the Quadrupole gradient 30 T/m
shape of the new resonators and the design of the Quad aperture/length 2/5 cm
Stanford cavity are shown. Output Trans. (nor) 0.6 mmmrad
10 15 RMS Emittance Long. 0.2 MeVdeg
-4
Current limit (losses<10 ) >50 mA
*
RF dissipation (Rs=100nΩ) 890 W(@4.5)
Beam loading 2.85 MW
RF sys. pwr. cons. (ηRF=50%) 5.7 MW
Static cryo. losses (10 W/m) 650 W
Cryo. sys. cons. (ηcryo=1/500) 0.8 MW
10 256 Quadrupoles and ancillaries 0.5 MW
190 Mains power 7 MW
Pwr conversion efficiency 41%
Table IV: ISCL Structure.
Energy Cavities/p # of # of
30 [MeV] eriod Periods Cavities
40 15 5 ÷ 12.5 1 23 23
67.5 12.5 ÷ 28 2 30 60
28 ÷ 30 3 4 12
Figure 1: Reentrant cavity: the Stanford cavity (430 MHz 30 ÷ 55 3 18 54
[6]) and the proposed ISCL geometry (352 MHz). 55 ÷ 100 4 26 104
Total 101 253
Table II: Main cavity parameters (SUPERFISH).
Effective length 80 mm The linac has been simulated with PARMILA
Effective gap 53 mm (standard PC version), using 10000 macro particles and
Ep/Ea 3.01 about 700 elements (concatenated runs). Each cavity is
Hp/Ea] 32 Gauss/(MV/m) represented by an accelerating gap. The structure of the
Γ=Rs×Q 82 Ω linac, following the scheme of Tab. IV, is generated by
R’sh /Q 18 kΩ/m an EXCEL workbook that writes the input files for
PARMILA and reads the results preparing automatically
several plots.
4 BEAM DYNAMICS In Fig. 2 (upper part) the most significant parameters
are plotted as a function of length. The transit time
We have chosen a FODO focusing structure with
factor is in the range 50-98%. The voltage per cavity is
period 6βλ. As the period becomes longer, a larger
chosen as to maintain a constant energy gain per linac
number of cavities can be installed between the
length in the two linac parts; from the W plot the first
quadrupoles. This design gives the advantage of an
(about 1 MeV/m) and the second (about 1.8 MeV/m)
almost constant quadrupole gradient and beam envelope
part of the linac can be distinguished. The plots of the
in the whole energy range. The zero current transverse
surface field and of the energy gain per cavity show that
phase advance per period is about 55 deg and the initial
the constraints are fulfilled.
depressed one 45 deg. Moreover the adiabatic increase
In Fig. 2 (lower part) we plot the RMS envelopes, less
of the period makes the beam matching easier at the two
then 1/7 of the aperture, and the emittances. Due to the
extremes, with the RFQ and with the main linac.
non adiabatic change of the period structure some
The quadrupole parameters can be reached both by
residual mismatch cannot be avoided. The emittance
normal conducting and superconducting quads.
increase is acceptable, and can be partly seen
Nevertheless, due to the lack of space, it is necessary to
heuristically as an exchange of energy (equipartitioning)
use superconducting quadrupoles installed inside the
between the longitudinal and the transverse degree of
same cavity cryostat. A cost-effective design of such
magnets is an open point.
The preliminary power consumption figures in Table
*
III are rather conservative. The BCS resistance is 58 nΩ.
65
freedom. The transverse degree of freedom is colder 4. A moderate current of particles with q/A= ½ can be
because the ISCL period is 6 times the RFQ period. accelerated up to a final energy of 70 MeV/u.
We have simulated currents up to 50 mA , and we did
Table IV: ISCL Operation modes (CW).
not see losses (10000 macro particles). Smaller losses
Particles p p d
must be investigated by other means. Peak Current 30 1 <1 mA
Final energy 100 140 70 MeV/u
100 1.00 Beam Power 3 0.14 <0.15 MW
90 TTF 0.90 Mains Power 7 2 2 MW
Efficiency 41 7 7 %
Energy [MeV],Es [MV/m]
TTF,En. gain/cav. [MeV]
80 0.80
70 W 0.70
60
∆W
0.60 6 CONCLUSION
50 0.50
40 0.40 We have designed a 352 MHz superconducting linac,
30 0.30 able to accelerate a 30 mA CW beam up to 100 MeV, to
20
Es
0.20 be injected in the superconducting linac of a waist
10 0.10 transmutation driver, but also able to accelerate, with
0 0.00 good efficiency, 1 mA up to 140 MeV CW, as required
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Length [m] for exotic beams production. Single gap axially
symmetrical cavities (with a single design in the whole
0.30 X rms [cm] energy range) have been used. Many points of this
Y rms [cm] design work are preliminary, but can be used as a base
0.25
for cavity R&D.
0.20
X [cm]
0.15 7 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was developed within the TRASCO-A
0.10
project. We thank G. Fortuna, A. Lombardi, A.
0.05 Porcellato, G. Bisoffi, and G. Bassato for many
illuminating discussions.
0.00
5 15 25 35 45 55 65 75 85 95
Energy [MeV] 8 REFERENCES
Emit. X N(RMS) [cm*mrad]
0.10 Emit. Y N(RMS) [cm*mrad] 0.25 [1] J.R. Delayen, W.L. Kennedy and C.T. Rohe,
Emit. L (RMS) [MeV*deg] Proceedings of the 1992 Linac conference, Ottawa,
E m itt. T rasv. [c m m rad
E m itt. L ong . [M eV de g
0.08 0.20
AECL-10728 (1992) 695.
0.06 0.15 [2] Y. Tanabe, T.Ota, Y. Wachi, C.Yamazaki,
0.04 0.10
S.Kawatsu and A.Miyahara, Proceedings EPAC 96
conference, Sitges (1996), Institute of Physics
0.02 0.05 Publishing Bristol and Philadelphia, (1996) p. 569.
0.00 0.00 [3] A. Pisent, M. Comunian “Beam dynamics issues of
5 15 25 35 45 55 65 75 85 95 a 100 MeV superconducting proton linac.” The
Energy [MeV] eight workshop on RF superconductivity Abano
Terme (Padova) Italy,1997.
Fig. 2: Linac parameters as a function of position, RMS [4] A. Pisent, M. Comunian, G. Fortuna, A. Lombardi,
envelopes and Beam Emittance as function of energy. M.F. Moisio “The DTL approach for a 100 MeV
CW linac” LNL internal note LNL-INFN(REP)
5 DIFFERENT MODES OF OPERATION 111/96 (1996).
The ISCL, in addition to a lower power consumption, [5] P.H. Ceperly, I. Ben-Zvi, H.F. Glavish and S.S.
has, with respect to a traditional DTL, the advantage of a Hanna, “ Superconducting re-entrant cavities for
considerable flexibility. It allows (see Tab. IV): heavy ion linacs”, IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. NS-22,
1. The compensation of the lack of performance of N.3, June 1975, p. 1153-1156.
some cavities with the adjacent ones; [6] P.H. Ceperly, J.S. Sokolowski, I. Ben-Zvi, H.F.
2. The use of the linac, with reasonable efficiency, at Glavish and S.S. Hanna, “Beam test of a
lower intensity keeping the CW characteristic of the superconducting niobium cavity for a heavy ion
beam; accelerator”, Nuclear Instruments and Methods 136
3. If the linac is used as stand alone at low current (~1 (1976) 421-42.
mA) the field can be increased so to get almost 140
MeV of final energy (Exotic Beam production);
66
STATUS OF THE SUPERCONDUCTING HEAVY-ION
TANDEM-BOOSTER LINAC AT JAERI
S. Takeuchi and M. Matsuda
Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute, Tokai Research Establishment
Tokai, Naka, Ibaraki 319-1195 Japan
Abstract in them were cooled down across the precipitation zone of
An independently phased superconducting linac has 130K to 90K, and sequentially switched to others.
been used over four years as the heavy ion booster for the The first four linac cryo-modules which contain the
JAERI Tandem accelerator at Tokai since its completion resonators ill of Q-disease belong to seven cryo-modules
in 1994. This report describes the status of the resonator cooled by a cryogenic system. We tried two modes of a
performances, especially the relief of Q degradation of three-modules-by-three-modules sequence and a two-
hydrogen-polluted resonators by applying a sequential fast modules-by-two-modules sequence. The cooling rates
precooling method and other possible methods. A big air obtained by the two modes were 17 -27 K/h and 21-48
leak which happened to cold resonators is also reported. K/h, respectively. The reason that the rates were spread
wide is that the four resonators are cooled in series in a
1 INTRODUCTION cryo-module.
The low-field Q values of the 20 resonators measured
The superconducting heavy ion booster for the after the two precooling modes as well as the normal
JAERI Tandem accelerator at Tokai is an indepependently precooling mode are shown in Fig. 1. Resonators of
phased linac composed of 46 superconducting quarter no.1 to no.16 are the ones in the first four cryomodules.
wave resonators, which are made of solid niobium and The Q values were recovered to 65 - 80 % of the off-line
niobium-clad copper, and all of which optimum velocities test results by the two-modules-by-two-modules mode,
are 0.1c1). There has been no resonator troubles resulting except the two severely sick resonators no. 2 and 4.
in cryomodule opening since the completion in 1994. Those two resonators may need a treatment of hydrogen
Heavy ions of Ni, Ge, Se, Zr, I, Au and etc from the outgassing to recover satisfactorily.
20UR folded type pelletron tandem accelerator were Figure 2 shows the accelerating field gradients of the
boosted at accelerating fields of 3 - 5 MV/m per resonator first 20 resonators measured at rf input of 4 watts after
and transported to the targets for experiments of nuclear or normal precooling in 1995 and after the two-modules-by-
solid-state physics.
8 off-line / 40K/h
We have a problem called Q-disease that the x 10
resonators in the first four linac cryomodules suffer from 100 all together/10-12K/h
hydrogen Q-degradation, which is due to significant 3-by-3/ 17 - 27 K/h
hydrogen absorption during the electro-chemical surface 2-by-2/ 21 - 48 K/h
treatment and precipitation of hydrides on the resonator
surfaces during slow pre-cooling by the cryogenic system.
A sequential precooling method was applied to the 10
resonators to increase cooling rates across the
temperatures from 130K to 90K in order to suppress the Q
Q-degradation.
Recently, a big air leak happened in the linac due to a 1
beam hit. This paper mainly reports the results of the fast
precooling and the air leak accident. Our efforts to extract
hydrogen from the niobium walls are also reported.
2 RESONATOR PERFORMANCES 0.1
0 4 8 12 16 20
2.1 Recovery of Q by Fast Precooling
Resonator number
We found that a severe Q-degradation happened to a
Fig.1 Low field Q of the first 20 resonators measured
resonator after it was cooled taking a long time between
after four different precooling rates across the range
130K and 90K2). The cooling rate of 10 -12 K/h by the of 130K to 90K; in the off-line tests, after the
cryogenic system is too slow and should be increased to normal all-together precooling mode and after three-
20 -40 K/h in order to moderate the Q-degradation. by-three and two-by-two sequential precooling
Fortunately, the cold helium gas was designed to flow modes.
into the cryomodules in parallel. The helium flow could
be concentrated to a few cryomodules while the resonators
67
no. of resonators 95.6 res.no.1-20 resonators were cold. The leak continued for about 12
hours untill the resonators were warmed across 80K. The
(/0.5MV/m) 97.7 res.no.1-20 pressure in the two cryostats were in the range of 10-1
8 Pa. The liquid level and helium pressure in the dewars
7 were fortunately stable. The increase of the heat flow into
6 the cryogenic system was about 23 watts, which was
5 smaller than the refrigeration capacity per cryo-module of
28 watts. The resonators were once warmed up to the
4 room temperature. The bellows had pin holes which
3 seemed to be made by a sharp beam of 180MeV 32S11+
2 of about 1 eµA. The leak rate measured later was 17
1 ml/s. Only from this rate, a lot of gas, as much as 1 kg,
0 is supposed to be deposited on the cold surfaces of the
resonators, the dewars and etc. From an additional fact
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
that a big increase of leak rate have occured during the
Eacc(MV/m) warming-up process, the deposition might be an order of
0.1 kg.
Fig.2 Histograms of the field gradients at rf input of 4 The accelerating field gradients of the resonators in
watts of the first 20 resonators measured in June, the first two cryomodules are shown in Fig.4, in
1995 after normal all-together precooling mode and comparision with the data obtained before the leak(The
July, 1997 after three-by-three module sequential sequential precooling was not applied to that machin time
mode. period, because of no demands for very high energies).
The degradation of the resonator performances was not
two-modules mode sequential precooling in 1997, as a appreciably heavy, fortunately. They did not need heavy
histogram. The mean of the field gradients was recovered rf processing after the cool-down, either. It seemed that
from 4.1 to 5.0 MV/m associated with the Q recovery. the niobium resonator surfaces were well protected from
The other 20 linac resonators which belong to the the gas deposition by the outer cans which have only two
other cryogenic system have Q values between 0.6 and small beam holes of 25 mm in diameter.
1.2 ×10 9 so that the sequential precooling was not
applied to them. In Fig.3, the accelerating field gradients
of all the 40 linac resonators at 4 watts were shown as a Eacc 98.5.28 Eacc 98.6.16
histogram, which were measured at the same time (MV/m)
together with the first 20 resonators. The overall mean 5
value was 5.4 MV/m so that the originally designed
value of 5 MV/m was attained. 4
no. of resonators 3
(/0.5MV/m)
12 2
11
10 1
9
8
7 0
6 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
5
4 Resonator number
3
2
1 Fig. 4 Field gradients at rf input of 4 watts measured
0 before and after an air leak trouble for the
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 resonators on which air was deposited.
Eacc(MV/m) 3 HYDROGEN OUTGASSING
Fig. 3 Histogram of the field gradients of all the 40 It is idal to extract hydroden from the niobium walls
resonators in the linac measured at rf input of 4 by warming them up or by other methods if possible in
watts in July 1997. order to cure the Q-disease. The quarter wave resonators
are composed of a center conductor made of only niobium
2.4 Resonator Performances after Air Leak and an outer conductor made of niobium and copper and
both conductors are welded together. It is, at least,
A big air leak happened to the bellows between the possible to partially heat up only the center conductor.
first two cryo-modules on Sunday, May 31, 1998. The
68
3.1 Partial Heat Treatment 4.3 Beam Transport
A spare resonators which was also ill of Q-disease The beam transmission was 40 - 100 % from the
was used to test the partial heating of the center expectation in the past. After mis-alignment of 0 - 2 mm
conductor. A heater of 1.5 kW was set inside the center was found and fixed, the transmission was improved to
conductor, of which space is evacutated to 10-3Pa. The about 80 - 100 %. An improvement was also given to
top of the resonator was cooled by water. Lower 1/2 - 2/3 the nine quadrupole doublet lenses placed between the
part of the center conductor was warmed up to about cryomodules. They have now alternative focusing(F)-
600°C and hydrogen of an order of 1x10-3 mol was defocusing(D) planes as FD-DF-FD-DF- - -. The first four
outgassed, which corresponded to a decrease of hydrogen of them and the last four of them are simultaneously
content of 1 - 2 wppm in the niobium. The low field Q controlled, respectively, and the center one is turned off
value measured after a slow precooling at a rate of about because there should be a beam waist point near the
12K/h was increased from 1 ×10 8 to 3.3 ×10 8 and the position. It made beam handling easier.
accelerating field gradient at 4 watt rf input from 2.7
MV/m to 4.0 MV/m. It looks worth applying this heat
treatment to heavily hydrogen-polluted resonators such as
the ones no.2 and 4.
3.2 Plan of ECR Plasma Surface Treatment
Resonator
A method of hydrogen extraction without heating is 2.45GHz
launcher
wanted for the resonators made of bi-metals. Any of our
attempts resulted in vain. Our next attempt is a plasma 0.09T Solenoid
surface treatment utilizing electron cyclotron resonance at
a micro-wave frequency. Gaseous elememts such as
hydrogen, carbon and oxigen can be sputtered chemically TMP
from the surface3) . We expect this method as a dry
method of surface treatment for the superconducting
niobium structures; that is, as a final surface treatment of FIG. 5 Set-up plan of ECR plasma surface treatment for
rf superconducting cavities in place of heat treatment or superconducting quarter wave resonators
high pressure water rinsing, or as a non-chemical surface
re-processing method in case of heavy pollution.
A conceptional plan is illustrated in Fig.5. The ECR 5 CONCLUSIONS
condition will be a frequency of 2.45GHz and a magnetic
field of 0.09T. A resonator is co-axially placed in a The superconducting quarter wave resonators in the
solenoid. Investigations will be made with hydrogen, JAERI tandem superconducting booster have a mean field
helium, oxigen or nitrogen gas. gradient of 5.4 MV/m, which is higher than the designed
acceptance value of 5 MV/m, at the rf input of 4 watts,
4 OTHERS after carrying out the sequential fast precooling for the
first 20 resonators. Resonator performances were found to
4.1 Resonator control be stable against a big air leak. Effective methods of
hydrogen extraction from niobium are being investigated.
Every resonator is controlled in a strongly coupled
self-excited loop with phase lock and amplitude feed back REFERENCES
functions. Six control modules made by Applied
Superconductivity Inc. are used, each of which can 1) S. Takeuchi,M. Shibata, T. Ishii, H. Ikezoe and T.
control eight resonators. The rf power amplifiers were Yoshida, Proc. of the 1994 International Linac
recently tuned up from 100 watts to 150 watts and moved Conference, Tsukuba Japan(1994)pp758-761
close to the cryomodules in order to improve the stability 2) T. Ishii, M. Shibata and S. Takeuchi, Nucl. Instr.
at high field gradients. The resonator control is working and Methods A328(1993)pp231-235
well on the whole. 3) S. Kato, N. Noda, H. Oyama, K. Akashi, T. Senju. K.
Kaneko, O. Motojima, Y. Sakamoto and A. Iiyoshi, J.
4.2 Cryogenic System Nucl. Mater. 162-164(1989)pp763-768
The cryogenic system is divided into two identical
systems with refrigeration power of 250 watts. They
have been working well except valve control troubles.
The proportional valves are pneumatically driven and
sometimes did not open as demanded. So that, an
operator must make sure when time comes in a
precooling period.
69
MEBT DESIGN FOR THE JHF 200-MeV PROTON LINAC
T. Kato and S. Fu∗
KEK, High Energy Accelerator Research Organization
1-1 Oho, Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki-ken, 305-0801, Japan
Abstract accelerated to high energy and lost or get into the ring.
Therefore, a fast-chopper design is being pursued in
The medium-energy beam-transport line of 2.7 m order to decrease the number of unstable particles.
long for the JHF 200-MeV proton linac was designed. It The medium-energy beam-transport line (MEBT)
consists of eight quadrupole magnets, two bunchers and between the RFQ and DTL has been designed to
two RF choppers, and has two purposes: matching the accomplish the two tasks: beam matching and chopping.
beam from the RFQ with the acceptance of the DTL; It consists of quadrupoles, bunchers and RF deflectors.
chopping the beam to produce a gap of 222 nsec between To conserve the beam quality, the line should not be too
pulses of 278 nsec for the injection into the following long and the beam needs to be well focused without
rapid-cycling ring. The JHF proton linac is an intense large-amplitude oscillation. The line must also leave
beam accelerator with an average current of 0.2 mA in sufficient space for the beam diagnostics. The RF power
the first stage and of 0.8 mA for the future upgrade. requirement for the RF deflectors should be within the
Therefore, the key point in the MEBT design was capability of the up-to-date solid RF power supply.
focused on the control of the beam emittance growth in In this report, the design details are delineated. At
the beam line and the beam loss during transient times of first, the MEBT design is proposed in the second section.
the chopper. An RF deflector is utilized for the chopper Section three describes the RF cavity of the deflector.
owing to its characteristics of high deflecting field and The fourth section presents analysis of unstable particle.
compactness. The beam edge separation between the Finally conclusions are drawn out.
chopped and the unchopped beams reaches to 6 mm with
a deflecting field of 1.6 MV/m. The field distribution 2 DESIGN OF THE MEBT
(both E and B) of the RF deflector from MAFIA In order to describe the beam-deflection behavior,
calculation is directly read into the modified TRACE3-D TRACE3-D[3] has been modified so as to include a new
for the beam line design. The beam losses during RF element: RF deflector. The field distribution in the
transient times of the chopper, analyzed by both LEBT cavity is calculated from MAFIA[4] and directly read
and PARMILA codes, are less than 0.08% at the exit of into TRACE3-D. In this way, the fringe E&H fields
the 50-MeV DTL. beside the deflecting electrode can be taken into account.
The output beam from the RFQ is assumed to have
1 INTRODUCTION the parameters listed in Table 1. Type A stands for the 30
In the JHF linac the beam intensity is high in terms of mA case and Type B for the 60 mA case for upgrading in
both the pulse current and average current[1]. Therefore, the future. The MEBT design is proposed with a total
beam-loss control is a very essential requirement in the length about 2.7 m (Fig. 1). In the beam-profile plot at
accelerator design. Beam-quality degradation mainly the bottom of the figure, the beam centroid offset in the
occurs in the low-energy sections. It has been realized x-direction by the RF deflectors is depicted by the dark
that beam matching is of great significance for curve. The beam dump will be positioned at the element
minimizing the emittance growth and avoiding beam- 18 for the chopped beam. The design procedure has two
halo formation, which has been recognized as one of the steps. At first, the beam line up-stream of the element 18
major causes for beam losses[2]. is designed aimed at the largest separation between the
The 500 µsec-long macropulses from the ion source unchopped and chopped beams at the element 18. Then,
need to be chopped into sub-pulses for injection into the the unchopped beam is further transferred so as to match
following 3-GeV ring. After chopping, the macropulse with the acceptance of the DTL.
consists of 278 nsec long pulses and 222 nsec long gaps
in between the pulses. The chopped pulses should have a Table 1. Input beam parameters at the MEBT entrance.
clean cut at the head and tail to avoid beam losses during Parameters Type A Type B
injection into the ring. During the rise and fall times of I (mA) 30 60
ε RMS ( πmm-mrad )
x,y
the chopping field, however, there are some unstable 0.187 0.375
ε RMS( πMeV-Degree )
z
particles, which are partially deflected; they may be 0.133 0.266
∗
On leave from China Institute of Atomic Energy
70
30 mA beam was input into the designed beam line. The
result shows that the same beam line is still applicable.
Of course, the edge separation becomes smaller (about
3.6 mm for the input rms emittance of 0.25 πmm-mrad).
But it is still sufficiently large for chopping the beam.
The beam emittance growth for the undeflected beam
has been studied by means of PARMILA[5] simulation
with 10,000 particles. Figure 2 shows the RMS
emittance variation versus the element of the beam line.
The beam has an RMS emittance growth of 7.7%, 9.5%
and 4.8% in the x, y, z directions respectively.
The same beam line can also be used for input beam
Type B. Only a very slight adjustment in the gradient of
the Q magnets and the bunchers is necessary for large
deflection and matching. For Type B, a higher deflecting
field of 2 MV/m is needed to generate a 5-mm beam
edge separation, due to the fact that the beam envelope is
larger than that in Type A. The PARMILA run shows
that the RMS emittance increases by 10%, 6%, 8% in the
x, y, z directions, respectively.
Fig. 1, TRACE3-D output of the MEBT for Type A.
10
The up-left gives the input beam phase spaces and the
9
up-right gives the matched beam with DTL. The bottom
RMS Emittance Growth (%)
8
shows the beam profiles in the z, x and y directions 7
X
respectively. The dark curve traces the beam centroid 6 Y
offset by the two RFDs. The element numbers are 5
Z
denoted under the beam axis. 4
3
The edge separation between the chopped and 2
unchopped beam is 6 mm at the dump, when both of the 1
0
RF deflectors have a deflecting field of 1.6 MV/m. This 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
large separation is contributed from not only the two RF No. of Element
deflectors, but also the fourth quadrupole-element 16. Fig.2. RMS emittance growth vs. the beam line
The deflection is initiated by the two RF deflectors at an elements for Type A.
angle of 6 mrad for each, and is then amplified more
than two times by the quadrupole. Downstream of the
quadrupole, the deflection angle becomes 30 mrad.
3 RF CHOPPER DESIGN
Owing to this reason, the RF deflectors do not require A 324-MHz RF deflector cavity was designed and a
much RF power for an adequate deflection. cold model was tested[6]. The design philosophy is a
The first three Q magnets also contribute to the low power demand from an RF power source and a fast
realization of the large separation. They should be rise time during pulse transient time. To hit the first
adjusted for a small beam profile in the deflecting target, the cavity geometry was optimized for maximum
direction at the fourth Q magnet. Since the deflected Z/Q0 with MAFIA code under the limitation of the beam
beam centroid is more distant from the quadrupole’s axis size; here Z is the transverse shunt impedance and Q0 the
than is the undeflected beam envelope at the Q magnet it unloaded Q value. To reach a fast rise/fall time, the
gives a larger defocusing to the deflected beam, but less cavity is heavily loaded by two coupling loops as
defocusing to the undeflected beam. The first three input/output ports. Simulation with HFSS code shows
quadrupoles should also keep the beam envelope in this the cavity can reach a very low loaded Q of 10 by means
section not too large in the y-direction in order to avoid of two large loops with the size of 75×218 mm in the
any large emittance growth in this direction. In the RFD maximum-flux plane. To generate the deflecting field of
section, the beam size in the x-direction must be smaller 1.6 MV/m in the electrode gap, an input power of 22.2
than the gap between the deflecting electrodes so as to kW is demanded from an RF power source, according to
avoid beam losses on the electrodes. HFSS simulation. If the loaded Q becomes 15, the
In case that the beam emittance from the RFQ is demanded power decreases to 14.8 kW. An additional
larger than the assumed value for Type A, a relatively power is needed to account for the deflection of the
o
larger initial emittance between Type A and Type B for beam bunch with a half phase-length about 25 (see
Fig.1). Therefore 1.2 times of power are required.
71
An aluminum cold model cavity was manufactured When the field is more than 80% of the full value, the
for demonstration of the low loaded Q. The results show particles in a micro-bunch are almost totally stopped by
a good agreement with the simulation: the measured the scraper. On the other hand, when the field is less
QL=9.7. than 30%, the unstopped portion of the particles can be
injected into the acceptance of the DTL, according to
4 ANALYSIS ON UNSTABLE PARTICLES TRACE3-D simulation. Thus only during the field-
variation time from 30% to 80% of the full value, the
It is very crucial for the chopper to have as few
beam will become unstable. However, not all the particles
unstable particles as possible during the RF rise and fall
in the beam become unstable, because some of them can
times. It is noted that the beam will not become totally
still be stopped by the scraper, as illustrated in follows.
unstable particles during the transient times because the
During the rise time, two bunches at field of 10% and
scraper at the element 18 in Fig. 1 can stop some part of
85% amplitude do not become unstable beams. The other
the particles in a beam when the RFD field is not at its
two bunches at 40% and 65% field amplitude partially
full amplitude. To investigate the unstable particles
contribute to the unstable particles. During the fall time
during the transient times, PARMILA simulations with
one bunch is subjected to a field of 50%. Thus, for this
5000 particles in uniform initial phase space were
bunch, only 58% of the particles become unstable.
conducted. A particle scraper with an aperture of 20 mm
Totally, during transient times, the particles in 1.6
in the x-direction is positioned at the element 18. As the
bunches become unstable at the exit of the MEBT.
RFD field increases toward its full value of 1.6 MV/m,
A further investigation concerning the behavior of
the unstopped particle ratio in a bunch declines, as the
the transmitted unstable particles in the following 50-
curve shows in Fig. 3.
MeV DTL is conducted by means of the LEBT and
PARMILA codes. Three scrapers are mounted in
between the three DTL tanks with a slit full width of 6
mm. At the exit of the DTL, the ratio of the transmitted
unstable particles is further reduced to less than 0.08%
by the scrapers, as denoted by the circles in Figure 3.
Also the scrapers do not block the unchopped beam.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The MEBT for the JHF linac is designed for
matching and chopping the beam. The beam line is
compact with a length of 2.7 m, owing to application of
RF deflector. With the help of a quadrupole the chopper
has a high deflection efficiency. The unstable particle
ratio in the RF transient times can be reduced to less
Fig.3 Unstopped particles ratio in one bunch vs. the than 0.08% at the exit of the 50-MeV DTL.
deflecting field variation. The arrows indicate the bunch
distribution during the RF rise and fall times. The curve ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
indicates the ratios at the entrance of DTL and the The authors are very grateful to Y. Yamazaki and F.
circles those at the exit of DTL. Naito for their great support to this work and fruitful
discussions.
In order to obtain a quick rise and fall time, an
improved method was proposed. The initial amplitude of REFERENCES
the incident RF field to the cavity is 1.4 times the [1] T. Kato, “Design of the JHF 200-MeV Proton Linear
required full field. Some time after saturation, it is Accelerator,” KEK Report 96-17, Feb.1997.
adjusted to one time the required full value. A rapid [2] Yamazaki, “Design Issues for High-Intensity, High-
0
phase shift of 180 is added at the time just two or three Energy Proton Accelerators,” Proc. of 1996 Inter.
periods before the power is turned off. These methods Linac Conf., 26-30,Aug. 1996, Geneva, Switzerland.
speed up the rise and fall times in terms of the required [3] K.R.Crandall,D.P.Rusthoi,TRACE3-Documentation,
full field. Even though it needs an rf power two times LA-UR-97-886, May,1997.
higher, the solid RF power source is still within the [4] T.Weiland, Part. Accl. , Vol.17 (1995)227.
commercially available range. Then, there are four [5] LANL accelerator code group, PARMILA
micro-bunches during the rise time when the required Documentation, May,1995.
full-field value is reached. Also only two bunches [6] S. Fu, et al., “ 324MHz RF Deflector Design and
appear during fall time. These bunches meet the field Test,” in these Proceedings.
amplitude, as denoted by the arrows in Fig.3.
72
FIRST BEAM STUDY FOR THE 432-MHZ DTL
F. Naito, K. Yoshino, T. Kato, Z. Igarashi, M. Kawamura, E. Takasaki,
Y. Morozumi, C. Kubota, T. Kubo, M. Ono, S. Anami and Y. Yamazaki
KEK, High Energy Accelerator Research Organization
1-1 Oho, Tsukuba-shi, 305-0801 JAPAN
Abstract 2.1 Ion source, HEBT and RFQ
The first beam extraction from the 432-MHz DTL has The volume-productive ion source [3] supplies the H-
been carried out in the test stand of KEK. Both MEBT and beam of the maximum 16-mA peak current. The
HEBT were assembled in the beam line for the beam test. extraction voltage of the ion source is 50 kV. The LEBT
The DTL has accelerated the 3-MeV H- ion ejected from is composed of two solenoid magnets. The RFQ has the
the RFQ up to 5.47 MeV. The measured ratio of the four-vane type structure. It accelerates the H- ions from 50
beam transmission is 91 %. KeV to 3 MeV. The resonant frequency of the RFQ is
432 MHz. The accelerating field of the RFQ is stabilized
1 INTRODUCTION by the pi-mode-stabilizing loop. [4]
The low-energy part of the 1-GeV linac for the Japanese
Hadron Project (JHP [1]) has been constructed in order to 2.2 MEBT
establish the construction techniques and study the beam
properties. (The scheme of the JHP is different from that The MEBT [5] consists of eight quadrupole
of the Japanese Hadron Facility (JHF [2]) which was electromagnets (Q-magnets [6]), a buncher and two
proposed recently as the modified version of the JHP.) steering magnets. All components of the MEBT are
The test linac system consists of the H- ion source, the aligned on the same table. Thus, the alignment of the
radio frequency quadrupole (RFQ) linac and the short MEBT has been done by tuning the position of the table.
Alvaretz-type drift-tube linac (DTL). The beam-transport The buncher is a single-cell reentrant cavity. The gap
lines connect them. The high-power test of the DTL was length is 8.99 mm. The resonant frequency and measured
completed in summer of 1994. The preparation for the Q0 value of the buncher are 432 MHz and 21700,
beam study of the DTL was started since 1997, because respectively. The maximum rf-power of 10 kW is
the beam study of the RFQ had been completed. supplied by the solid state power amplifier through the
WX39D coaxial waveguide. The buncher is set in the
2 SETUP FOR THE BEAM STUDY middle of the MEBT. Two small steering magnets are
installed between the QD1 and QF2.
The components of our linac system are as follows: 1)
the H- ion source; 2) the low-energy beam-transport line 2.3 DTL
(LEBT); 3) the radio frequency quadrupole (RFQ) linac; 4)
the medium-energy beam-transport line (MEBT); 5) the The DTL has 18 drift tubes (DTs). The total length of
Alvaretz-type drift-tube linac (DTL); 6) the high-energy the DTL is about 1.2 m. A permanent quadrupole magnet
beam-transport line (HEBT). The layout of the linac (PQM) is installed in each DT. The average field gradient
system from the RFQ to the HEBT is shown in figure 1. of the PQM is 211 ± 1.3 T/m, which is about 20 %
stronger than the design field (175 T/m). [7] The observed
Q0 value is 43500. It is about 90 % of the calculated
value. The Q0 value is sufficiently high. The measured
Fig.1 Setup of the DTL beam experiment
73
shunt impedance (Z) is 82 MΩ/m. It suggests a peak RFQ. The rf-power level of the DTL is adjusted to 170
power of 128 kW for the 3-MV/m accelerating field. Thus kW by parameter survey. Figure 2 shows the rf-field
rf-power of about 150 kW is required for the acceleration patterns for the DTL and the buncher
of 10-mA beam. The maximum electric field on the drift
tube corresponds to 75% of Kilpatrick’s limit. [8]
The accelerating field is stabilized by the eight post
couplers. The field distribution stabilized by post couplers Fig. 2 Tank rf-field.
is sufficiently uniform (± 0.3%) and stable. A: RF-field in the Buncher
B: Reflection from the DTL
The current transformers (CT1, CT2) for the beam
C: RF-field in the DTL
current measurement are installed in each end plate of the (Abscissa: 50 µsec/div)
DTL.
2.4 HEBT
The HEBT consists of four Q-magnets, a bending
3.2 Beam Transmission
magnet [9], a profile monitor, a transverse emittance
monitor and two faraday cups. (We did not use the QD2H Figure 3 shows the output signals from CT1 and CT2.
magnet between the bending magnet and the profile The upper line (“A” line) shows the beam current at the
monitor.) The bending angle of the bending magnet is 34 entrance of the DTL and the lower (“B” line) the output
degrees. The momentum distribution is measured by beam current from DTL. One vertical division corresponds
using a set of the bending magnet and the profile monitor. to the current of 2 mA. It shows that the input and the
The effective area size of the profile monitor is 16 mm x output beam currents are 10.7±0.13 and 9.7±0.13 mA,
16 mm. The beam distribution is read by tungsten wires respectively. Thus, the transmission of the DTL is 91 ± 2
(0.1 mm in diameter) of 1-mm pitch. % in this stage. Because the beam current from the ion
The faraday cups (FC1, FC2) measure the total beam source is 13±0.9mA and the transmission of the RFQ is
current. The FC1 works as the beam dump and the FC2 82.5%, the estimated beam current from the RFQ is
measures the beam current of the selected momentum. 10.7±0.7 mA, which consists with the input beam
current in the DTL. The reason for the missing beam of
3 MEASUREMENT about 9 % is still unknown. We will check the
Because this study is the first beam acceleration by the followings in order to find its origin; 1) Transverse
DTL, the average beam current is reduced in order to mismatching at the DTL entrance due to a 21-% excess in
minimize the beam loss. Then, the pulse length of the the strength of the PQM; 2) Alignment of the total
beam is reduced to 50 µsec, which corresponds to the rf- accelerating system, especially, the Q-magnets of the
pulse length of the RFQ. The repetition rate is 10 Hz. MEBT; 3) a fraction of particles other than H- ions.
Thus, the duty factor of the beam is 0.05 %. (The
designed duty factor is 3 %.) The rf-pulse length of the 3.3 Beam Energy
DTL and the buncher are 200 and 140 µsec, respectively.
The peak current of the beam, comes from the ion source,
is about 13mA during the study. The coupling constant of Fig. 3 Current monitor signal.
the input coupler to the DTL tank has been increased from A: Incident beam into the DTL
1.0 to 1.25 (over coupling) against the beam loading by B: Output beam from the DTL
rotating the coupling loop before the beam experiment.
The DTL, MEBT and the HEBT were aligned in the Abscissa: 20 µsec/div
RFQ beam axis by using a laser alignment system. Ordinate: 2 mA/div
3.1 Tuning of the Parameters
The beam momentum is measured on the profile
The main parameters to be tuned are as follows: 1) The monitor by changing the excitation current of the bending
field strength of the Q-magnets of the MEBT; 2) The magnet in the HEBT. The beam momentum has been
level and the phase of rf-field in the buncher; 3) The level calibrated by using the beam from the RFQ without the
and the phase of rf-field in the DTL; 4) The strength of acceleration in the DTL since the beam energy from the
the steering magnets. These parameters were tuned in RFQ was already measured. The results (figure 4) include
order to maximize the beam transmission in the DTL and three kinds of data taken by changing the excitation
minimize the momentum spread of the beam ejected from current of the bending magnet. The abscissa is the energy
the DTL. of the beam. The Gaussian distribution curve has been
The buncher requires the rf-power of 5.6 kW. The rf- fitted to the data in order to estimate the center value and
power in the RFQ was adjusted to about 480 kW, which the width of the kinetic-energy distribution. The averaged
is an adequate power level for the standard operation of the center value and the full width at half maximum of the
74
fitted curves are 5.47 and 0.21 MeV, respectively. The
width of the distribution will be checked by the 4 CONCLUSION
simulation. The first experiment of the beam acceleration by the
432-MHz DTL has been successfully performed in the test
stand of KEK. The DTL accelerates the 3-MeV H- ion
171.9A
173.7A
ejected from the RFQ up to 5.47 MeV. Both MEBT and
6.0
175.4A HEBT, assembled for the beam test, worked well. After
171.9A the survey of the Q-magnet strength and the rf-pulse
173.7A
175.4A parameter for the tanks, the transmission of 91 ± 2 % has
4.0
been obtained. The measurement of the beam emittance
will be done soon.
2.0
5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank Prof. M. Kihara for his
0.0 continuous support. We also acknowledge Dr. A. Ueno
5.2 5.4 5.6 5.8 and Dr. S. Fujimura for their useful suggestions for the
Kinetic Energy (MeV)
operation of the RFQ and the ion source.
Fig. 4 Energy distribution of the beam from the DTL.
Markers indicate the measured data. Gaussian curves are 6 REFERENCES
fitted to the data. The figures (171.9, 173.7 and 175.4 ) [1] Y. Yamzaki and M. Kihara, Proc. of the 1990 Linear
are the excitation current of the bending magnet used for Accelerator Conf., Albuquerque, USA, LA-12004-C,
the data taking. 543 (1990)
[2] JHF Project Office, KEK-Report 97-16, JHF-97-10,
3.3 Phase Dependence of the BeamTransmission KEK, Japan
Figure 5 shows the variation of the beam transmission [3] S. Fujimura and A. Ueno, Proc. of the 1996 Linear
measured by changing the rf-phase of the DTL relative to Accelerator Conf., Geneva, Switzerland, CERN 96-
that of the RFQ. The beam is measured by the FC2 after 07, 343 (1996)
[4] A. Ueno, et al, Proc. of the 1996 Linear Accelerator
the bending magnet, which is adjusted by changing the
Conf., Geneva, Switzerland, CERN 96-07, 293
excitation in order to collect the beam in the faraday cup (1996)
FC2. The ordinate values are normalized at the maximum [5] T. Kato, Proc. of the 1994 Linear Accelerator Conf.,
point. The width of the flat top of the plot is about 30 Tsukuba, Japan, 59 (1994)
degrees. It is reasonable value, because the longitudinal [6] K. Yoshino, et al, Proc. of the 1994 Linear
bunch length of the beam from the RFQ is about 50 Accelerator meeting in Japan (in Japanese), Tokai,
degrees and the acceptable longitudinal phase of the DTL Japan, JAERI-Conf 94-003, 202 (1994)
is about 90 degrees. [7] F. Naito, et al, Proc. of the 1994 Linear Accelerator
Conf., Tsukuba, Japan, 134 (1994)
[8] F. Naito, et al, Proc. of the 1994 Linear Accelerator
1.0
Conf., Tsukuba, Japan, 137 (1994)
0.9 [9] K. Yoshino, et al, Proc. of the 1995 Linear
Transmission ratio
Accelerator meeting in Japan (in Japanese), Osaka,
0.8 Japan, Free Electron Laser Research Institute, 314
0.7 (1995)
0.6
FC2
0.5
0.4
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Relative phase (deg.)
Fig. 5 Relative phase dependence of the
beam transmission.
75
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS AT THE NIRS-HIMAC INJECTOR
Y.Sato, T.Honma, T.Murakami, A.Kitagawa, K.Tashiro, M.Muramatsu, S.Yamada and Y.Hirao
National Institute of Radiological Sciences (NIRS), 4-9-1 Anagawa, 263 Inage-Chiba Japan
T.Fujimoto, H.Sakamoto, M.Yamamoto and T.Okada
Accelerator Engineering Corporation (AEC), Chiba, Japan
Abstract the RF system of the injector are also necessary to stably
accelerate heavy ions with an e/m of around 1/7, which
At NIRS-HIMAC, 473 patients have already been corresponds to the maximum design value.
treated using carbon beams by August, 1998. Therapy is The above-mentioned developments in the injector are
scheduled in the daytime, while basic research is carried mainly discussed from the viewpoint of reliability; also,
out during the nights and on weekends. Various ion the status of some experiments in basic research using
species from Proton to Xenon have been used for basic 6MeV/n beams (from the injector) are briefly reported.
research. Much effort was made to develop a time-
sharing-acceleration system to well utilize the capability
2 TIME-SHARING ACCELERATION
of three ion sources (PIG, 10GHz-ECR, 18GHz-ECR).
Such recent developments in the injector are described in 2.1 Magnet
this paper. Several applications of linac beams with an
energy of 6MeV/n are also briefly presented. As previously mentioned, the purpose of this TSA-
scheme is to simultaneously supply different ion species
from three ion sources to three courses: two synchrotron
1 INTRODUCTION
rings and the medium-energy experimental course. Figure
Since 1994, HIMAC has been routinely used for both 1 shows a schematic drawing of the HIMAC injector. All
clinical trials of cancer therapy and basic research. Details of the DC magnets in the existing injector were replaced
concerning the HIMAC facility and its design philosophy by pulsed magnets by the end of March, 1998. For
have already been reported at linac and accelerator designing these pulsed magnets, a response time of
conferences [1, 2]. 100ms is necessary for the normal TSA operation, in
Taking account of an increase in both the number of which the injector is operated with a repetition rate of
patients and requests for basic experiments, it is necessary 3Hz at maximum and a typical pulse width of 1ms.
to effectively increase the available beam time and the Practical improvements and modifications concerning the
kinds of ion species. During this year 16 themes in beam diagnostic devices are under progress for routine
medicine, 64 in biology, and 47 in physics are actually TSA operation.
being carried out in basic research. To answer these
various requirements, a time-sharing-acceleration (TSA)
scheme has been developed in the injector [3]. By using
this scheme, three kinds of ion species can be
simultaneously delivered from the injector to two
synchrotron rings and a medium-energy (6MeV/n)
experimental cave.
In order to expand the usable ion species, improvements
in the ion sources have also been made. In order to
precisely and actually measure the ion-stopping position Fig.1 Schematic drawing of the HIMAC injector. Under
in a human body, the application of positron emitter TSA operation, one injector works as if it were three.
nuclei with a PET camera is in progress. A secondary-
beam course was installed, and a preliminary test has
11
been made for the production of C by bombarding a 2.2 RF
12
thick beryllium target with high-energy C beams An important point is to stably operate the RF system of
through the reaction process of projectile fragmentation. RFQ and Alvarez cavities (100MHz) under different
11
The production rate of C was around 0.2% and its purity power levels, each of which corresponds to a different ion
97%. A considerable increase in the primary beam is species (e/m). It is generally impossible to quickly control
necessary to obtain sufficient intensity in the secondary the tuning of cavities with mechanical tuners. In our case
beams for medical application; particularly developments the highest power level is chosen; then, the tuning is
in the ion sources are expected. Related improvements in optimized to this fixed condition. Although the cavities
76
are not precisely tuned for the other two power levels, the TABLE Ι. Typical peak intensities at the RFQ, in which
RF operation is now satisfactorily stable for e/m-values the normalized acceptance is 0.6πmm⋅mrad. The
between 1/2~1/6. Careful tests are now under way in transmission efficiency through the RFQ is about 93% for
terms of the stability for the case of very wide e/m-values, the below-listed intensity region.
such as 1~1/7.
Another RF problem was occasional sparks in the final PIG 10GHz-ECR 18GHz-ECR
amplifier for Alvarez at a high power level. This Elements eµA Elements eµA Elements eµA
1+ + 9+
phenomenon seems to mainly originate in the reflected He 550 H2 360 Ar 280
2+ #1 4+ 9+ #2
power from the loop coupler of the Alvarez tank when C 650 C 250 Fe 35
4+ 4+ 15+
sparking occurs, and to be enhanced at the amplifier Ne 500 Ne 350 Kr 60
5+ #1 8+ 20+ #3
output-cavity. It was thus difficult to stably accelerate Si 200 Ar 200 Xe 50
7+
heavy ions with an e/m of around 1/7. Concerning this Ar 300
problem, an idea has been tested, which is to slightly 2+
#1: by sputtering the graphite with (N2+Ne) for C , and
detune the amplifier output-circuit seen by the feedline, in 5+
the silicon single crystal with Kr for Si .
order to make its impedance smaller at 100MHz and to #2: Fe(C5H5)2 powder is used with O2 for Fe .
9+
suppress the amplitude of standing waves (SW). Along 132 84
#3: abundance of Xe is 27% and Kr 57%.
this line, a cold test was carried out by adjusting the
position of a short panel in the output cavity while 3.1 PIG
observing the SW-signal through the directional coupler,
5+
as shown in Fig.2. All of the results, including a high- In the typical production of Si by PIG, the arc power is
power test, show that a frequency shift by 0.32MHz from 6kW in peak (5A, 1200V), and the arc pulse width is
100.93 to 101.25MHz allows the amplitude of sparks to 1.5ms; the duty factor is 0.15%. An extracted intensity of
be reduced down to 30% with no reduction in the RF- 400eµA has been routinely obtained by sputtering the
power transmission. RF-down times due to sparks has silicon single crystal with Kr (~0.15cc/min). The stably-
thus become rare; it is possible to stably accelerate heavy usable lifetime will be on the order of one week,
20+
ions, such as Xe , though small sparks may still occur in depending on the arc power and elements; the recent
5+
the tank. results for Si showed that it is 70hr with no adjustment.
The electron bombardment power (~500W) to the upper
cathode is stabilized in such a way that the error signal is
fed back to the filament current, which is effective for
stable operation in such a low-duty pulse mode. Figure
8+
3(a) shows a pulsed beam-waveform of Ar .
3.2 10GHz-ECR
Fig.2 Schematic drawing between the final amplifier and Usually, carbon beams for radiotherapy are supplied
Alvarez. A network analyzer is connected to a directional from 10GHz-ECR with CH4 (0.07cc/min); this source is
coupler (DC) to analyze the spectra of standing waves. basically maintenance free as long as gas materials are
4+
used. For the production of C , the microwave power is
about 500W with a pulse width of 8ms. An extracted
3 ION SOURCES intensity of around 350eµA has so far been routinely
obtained owing to optimization for the position of the
In the HIMAC injector, three ion sources have been 13 4+
extraction electrode. A few hundred eµA of C and
operated in the pulse mode: PIG, 10GHz-ECR, 18GHz- 36 8+
Ar are also produced for the nuclear physics
ECR. All sources are normally operated at around 1Hz, experiments. Figure 3(b) shows a pulsed beam-waveform
according to the trigger pulses from synchrotrons; of C .
4+
meanwhile the pulse width depends on the sources and
elements. The detailed design of these sources has already
3.3 18GHz-ECR
been presented [4-6]. The present performance for
typically-used ion species is listed in Table Ι. Each The production of heavy-metal ions has just started by
intensity is measured in front of the RFQ. In addition to using a newly-installed 18GHz-ECR with high extraction
Table Ι, several hundred eµA of N and O can also be
3+ 3+ 9+
voltage (~60kV). For producing Fe , Fe(C5H5)2 powder
easily supplied from three sources, though they are not has been preliminarily used with gas-mixing of O2
usually used. Although the transmission efficiency (0.02cc/min). The lifetime is mainly subject to the amount
between the source and RFQ is quite good for 10GHz- of powder (0.15g at most), and the test results suggest that
ECR (~70%), it has not yet been well optimized both for it is on the order of 70~80hr. Under the after-glow mode,
9+
PIG and 18GHz-ECR, depending on the elements. a 45eµA of Fe has been obtained from the source; the
77
Pulse-radiolysis experiments were carried out using
2+
He in order to measure the time-dependent yields of
water-decomposition products by the scavenger method.
The product yields were found to be smaller than those
determined by electron beams.
18+
The energy loss of Ar in a Z-pinch helium plasma has
been observed using a TOF method. The standard Stark-
broadening diagnostics gives an electron density ranging
17 3
from 4 to 5x10 /cm for a helium plasma. The observed
Fig.3 Pulsed beam-waveforms for PIG (a) and 10GHz-
energy loss exceeds the value for cold helium gas, and
ECR (b). In such a low-duty pulsed PIG, the output of
8+ agrees with the Bethe theory modified for the plasma.
Ar (highly-charged ions) is high during the early 6-7ms
4+ The micro-structure of plasmid DNA (pBR322)
[4]. For the production of C in the 10GHz-ECR, a 6+
irradiated with C was analyzed using time-resolved
smooth and rapid rising, and a clear afterglow-peak seem
fluorescence spectroscopy. The molecular behaviors of
to be essential as an indication of stable operation.
ethydium bromide (EB) intercalated between the base-
pairs of DNA showed that the distance between the base
pairs was expanded by 50% with the irradiation. The
microwave power is 1.2kW with a pulse width of 6ms.
24+ anticipated deformation in the double strand of the DNA
After its acceleration up to 6MeV/n, about 6eµA of Fe
23+ has thus been proposed.
or 10eµA of Fe can be obtained by stripping through
2 In order to strongly promote biophysical experiments,
the thin carbon foil (100µg/cm ). In the latter case, the 6+
the dosimetory of C beams has been conducted behind a
usable intensity from the synchrotron is on the order of
8 thin Harvar (metal) foil with a thickness of 2.2µm and a
1x10 pps. The pulse width of the afterglow peak is about
diameter of 20mm. The results showed that the range of
1ms, which is sufficiently long compared to the injection
the beams was 14.2cm in air, and the long-time durability
time (~160µs) of a synchrotron ring. The sextupole
of this foil against the atmospheric pressure was
magnet was optimized in order to expand an ECR zone
satisfactory. A secondary-electron emission-type profile
(size of plasma), which resulted in an improvement of the
monitor (SEEM) has also been developed for irradiating
yield by a factor 2-3 for gaseous ions; hence, 750eµA of
8+ 9+ biological materials, such as cells.
Ar and 400eµA of Ar can be obtained from the source.
Careful cleaning and sufficient aging of the gas-feeding
The authors would like to thank their colleagues at the
quartz tube are essential to well maintain the source
Div. of accelerator physics and engineering of NIRS
operation.
headed by Dr. F.Soga for many friendly discussions
According to the requests from basic research groups,
5+ 7+ 7+ 5+ 5+ concerning injector linacs as well as their application to
Mg , Ca , Ti will be produced by PIG, and S , Cl ,
9+ 3+ 4+ basic research.
Ni by 18GHz-ECR. B and F will also be tested by one
of three sources.
REFERENCES
4 BASIC RESEARCH [1] S.Yamada, et al. "Present Status of the HIMAC
Injector", Proc. 1994 Int. Linac Conf. p768(1994).
Several groups in atomic- and bio-physics have
[2] S.Yamada, et al. "Commisioning and Performance of
conducted experiments using 6MeV/n heavy-ion beams
the HIMAC Medical Accelerator", Proc. 1995 PAC,
from the NIRS-HIMAC injector linac [7].
Dallas, (1995).
The projectile charge (z) dependence on the electron-
2 [3] M.Murakami, et al. "Status of the HIMAC Injector",
emission rate from Al-foil (300µg/cm ) has been
Proc. 1996 Int. Linac Conf. Geneva, (1996).
measured using fully-stripped ions (He~Ar). The forward
[4] Y.Sato, et al. "Heavy-Ion Sources for Radiation
enhancement and its strong dependence on z were
Therapy", J. of Appl. Phys. 76, 3947(1994).
observed; the ratio between the forward and backward
[5] A.Kitagawa, et al. "Development of the NIRS-ECR
was 1.67 for z=18. This would be due to much forward δ-
ion source for the HIMAC medical accelerator", Rev.
electrons pulled by the strong Coulomb field of the
Sci. Instrum. 65, 1087(1994).
projectile in the outgoing projectile direction.
[6] A.Kitagawa, et al. "Development of 18GHz NIRS
Through collisions with fully-stripped ions, the total
electron cyclotron resonance ion source with high-
ionization cross sections have been determined for both
voltage extraction configuration", Rev. Sci. Instrum.
atoms and molecules with a good accuracy by using a
69, 674(1998).
parallel-plate electrode. Another group made a similar
[7] HIMAC Report-020, (NIRS-M-15).
experiment using a secondary-ion mass spectrometer
(magnet type).
78
PARAMETER STUDY FOR A HIGH CURRENT HEAVY ION LINAC*
G. Parisi, A. Sauer, H. Deitinghoff, H. Klein
IAP - Frankfurt University, Robert-Mayer-Str. 2-4, 60054 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
+
about 1.7 mm radius. The ion species is Bi , the final ion
Abstract
energy was fixed to 10 GeV. These requirements deter-
In present scenarios of a heavy ion inertial fusion fa- mine mainly the driver layout and the beam parameters
cility, a combination of linacs and storage rings has been like beam current, beam emittance and pulse duration.
proposed as a driver. After some funnelling steps, the Since the capability of high current acceleration in a rf
main linac has to accelerate and focus an intense heavy linac is limited, an array of rings and bunch compressors
ion beam (e.g. Bi+, 400 mA) to a final energy of 10 GeV. will be needed for the necessary current multiplication
Using well known analytical formulae an attempt has and pulse compression for the final focus. By tracking
been made to find a range of beam and structure parame- back the parameters needed at the final focus, limits on
ters (e.g. frequency, shunt impedance, beam current, output conditions at the linac end are pre-given: beam
emittances, focusing scheme), in which the requirements current of 400 mA in a total transverse emittance of 4 π
on a DTL can be fulfilled. Beam dynamics aspects have mm mrad, and longitudinal maximum momentum spread
been checked by numerical simulations. of ±2×10-4 for 99% of the particles after bunch rotation
for tolerable losses at ring injection. Following the scheme
1 INTRODUCTION of funnelling [6] (already proposed for HIBALL) and
taking some measured values for ion source currents and
Since about 20 years, studies have been performed on
emittances, there are only few degrees of freedom for the
inertial confinement fusion for potential application in
choice of parameters in the layout of the main linac.
energy production. Laser facilities, light and heavy ion
accelerators and storage rings have been investigated as
drivers; one study for a heavy ion driven fusion power
3 LAYOUT OF THE MAIN LINAC
system (HIBALL) was completed in the 1980’s already Existing ion sources are not able to produce a current
+
[1]. Main progress has been achieved during the last years of 400 mA Bi : for a seven hole extraction, values up to
in the understanding of pellet dynamics after ignition, i.e. 70 mA have been recently reported; with a lower extrac-
in the physics of extremely hot and dense matter, leading tion voltage, a 21 mA beam has been achieved within an
to new conditions for pellet ignition which impose also emittance of 0.065 π mm mrad (80% rms, norm.) [7].
new requirements on the layout of the driver accelerator Moreover, RFQs cannot accept such a high current; then
facilities. Progress and changes can nicely be seen in the beams from several sources must be extracted, acceler-
proceedings of the Symposia on Heavy Ion Inertial Fu- ated and merged in a funnel tree as indicated in Fig. 1. In
sion, held every two years at different places, e.g. [2,3,4]. each funnel step the frequency of the linac and the current
are doubled: assuming 3 funnel steps and including some
2 THE HIDIF STUDY losses at beam formation, an ion source current of 60 mA
is required; for 4 funnel steps it is lowered to 30 mA.
A combination of linacs and storage rings has been
The first accelerator will be an RFQ, which is able to
proposed by a European study group as an rf approach of
capture, focus and bunch the beam even at high space
a driver for a Heavy Ion Driven Ignition Facility (HIDIF)
charge forces. Its frequency is chosen with respect to the
[5]. The scheme is shown in Fig. 1.
input ion velocity: an appropriate choice is 12.5 MHz,
For pellet ignition, a beam energy of 3 MJ must be +
since one has about 1.2−1.5 keV/u Bi with a dc post-
brought to the pellet within 5 ns, focused to spot sizes of
acceleration of 250−300 kV after extraction; 60 mA are
still accepted but already close to the RFQ current limit.
In the RFQ the dc current is formed to bunches of
about ±30 phase width. Due to the high space charge
o
forces in the beam, the initial bunch length will nearly
stay constant, i.e. before the frequency can be doubled in
the next step the ion energy should be increased by a
factor of four to avoid dilution in the longitudinal phase
space. With these assumptions one ends up, after 3 fun-
Figure 1: Scheme of the heavy ion driven ignition facility. nel steps, with 100 MHz for the main linac and an injec-
__________________________________________ tion energy of about 3 MeV/u; or, after 4 funnel steps,
* Work supported by BMBF under contract 06OF841I.
79
with 200 MHz and about 12 MeV/u. The standard formu-
lae of Mittag [8] show that in both cases the longitudinal
acceptance is large enough to capture a beam with an
rms emittance of 0.2 π°MeV/u without filamentation in
the following acceleration to a final energy of 50 MeV/u.
Taking into account a 100 MHz DTL structure, the
shunt impedance, which is a measure of the efficiency,
drops already to the end of the linac. To improve the ef-
ficiency, a frequency jump in the main linac would be
necessary, leading to a higher peak current and empty rf
buckets. For a 200 MHz Alvarez type structure the ef-
fective shunt impedance changes only slightly in the
whole velocity range; the technology is well proven in
different laboratories. Therefore a preliminary layout for
a 200 MHz DTL from 10 to 50 MeV/u has been made; Figure 2: Chosen focusing scheme: plot of βx and βy.
the main parameters are summarized in Table 1.
The effective accelerating field EoT is 2.8 MV/m; the
average shunt impedance is 26 MΩ/m. For a total voltage
gain of 8.4 GV, the length of the linac sums up to 3.4 km.
Table 1: Linac and beam parameters.
Mass number 209 (Bi+)
Frequency 200.0 MHz
Current 400 mA
Number of cells 9775
Total length (10-50 MeV) 3383 m
Min. aperture radius 1.6 cm
Max. pole tip field 1.15 Tesla
Electric field amplitude EoT 2.80-2.88 MV/m
Total energy gain 40.0 MeV/u
Peak beam power, 60% chopping 690 kW/m
Peak dissipated power 320 kW/m
Average shunt impedance 26 MΩ/m
Transv. rms norm. emittance 0.176-0.183 π mm mrad
Long. rms norm. emittance 1.66-1.83 π ns keV/u Figure 3: Output distribution at the linac end for 20,000
particles; 6D waterbag input, phase and amplitude errors.
4 BEAM DYNAMICS ASPECTS
Therefore particle dynamics calculations have been
When generating the linac geometry, a drift tube aper- done with a 6D waterbag distribution including rf field
ture of about 1.6 cm radius came up; with a maximum amplitude and phase errors with an rms input emittance
pole tip field of 1 Tesla the transverse focusing turned out of 0.176 π mm mrad, allowing for some more emittance
to be too weak for the FD or FFDD quadrupole configu- growth in the front part. It could be demonstrated that the
ration normally used. Going to a FFFFFDDDDD scheme, requirements for ring injection can be fulfilled [10,11].
as proposed in [9], resulted in a maximum pole tip field As an example, in Fig. 3 the output emittances at the
of 1.16 T and a transverse phase advance of 35 −55 per
o o
linac end are plotted for the nominal design, including rf
period. Schemes from 3F3D to 7F7D seem to be possible phase and amplitude errors. There is only a slight in-
too; no optimization has been done for these. In Fig. 2 the crease of beam size in the real transverse space. The en-
focusing scheme is plotted, showing a low flutter factor. ergy spread in the longitudinal phase space is smaller
The normalized transverse emittance for proper ring than ±4×10 after debunching.
-4
injection of 1.3 π mm mrad is rather small. Assuming a
safety factor of 10 between full and rms emittance, to
5 LINAC OPTION FOR TELESCOPING
reduce the risk of particle losses and structure activation,
the required value of 0.13 π mm mrad has to be compared An additional complication for the layout of the linac
to the value of 0.06 π mm mrad measured directly at the is the need to accelerate ions of different masses to the
ion source. This allows only a factor of 2 for the unavoid- same momentum, to allow for “telescoping” of the dif-
able emittance growth along the whole linac complex. ferent bunches in the final transport line. Telescoping is a
80
non-Liouvillean method: bunches with different ion species Table 2: Change of linac parameters for telescoping.
but same momentum are started with an appropriate delay Mass numbers 187 (Re), 209 (Bi), 232 (Th)
time in a single beam line. The delay time and the velocity Number of new cells 1540
difference have to be chosen in such a way that the bunches Additional length 760 m
fully overlap in real and momentum space at the end of the Electric field amplitude EoT 2.4-3.1 MV/m
final transport, i.e. when hitting the pellet [12]. Momentum at output 64.3 GeV/c
In the present scheme a mass difference of ±10% is re-
187 209
quired, which would correspond to the ions Re, Bi,
232
Th [5]. In Fig. 4 kinetic energy versus momentum is
5 CONCLUSIONS
plotted for different masses for the velocity range of the From the point of view of particle dynamics, a con-
main linac. At the design output energy for Bi (50 MeV/u) ventional Alvarez type DTL can serve as main linac in
the momentum is 64 GeV/c; to get the same momentum, the the present HIDIF scheme. Some critical points exist: the
kinetic energy for Re and Th must be 61 and 40 MeV/u. alignment of drift tubes and quadrupoles in a 3 km long
linac, the acceleration of ions with different masses to
the same momentum at the linac end, the required peak
power of about 1.1 MW/m. A higher beam current, as
discussed for energy production, or a higher acceleration
rate would increase this value. Beam dynamics calcula-
tions including errors and tolerances gave good results
+
for the design ion Bi and the linac layout of Table 1.
The telescoping option must still be reconsidered.
6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge the good spirit
of collaboration present in the HIDIF study group and the
constant readiness for always open-minded discussion.
Figure 4: Energy vs. momentum for different masses.
7 REFERENCES
But a DTL has a fixed velocity profile, accelerating all
ions from the same specific input energy to the same spe- [1] R. Badger et al., “HIBALL - A Conceptual Heavy
Ion Beam Driven Fusion Reactor Study”, KFK
cific output energy when the voltage is scaled accordingly to 3203, Karlsruhe and UWFDM-450 (1981).
the mass ratios. Different velocity profiles can be obtained [2] Proceedings of the Symposium on Accelerator As-
only if the frequency can be adjusted to the change in ion pects of Heavy Ion Fusion, March 29 - April 2,
velocity, to fulfill the condition for synchronous accelera- 1981, GSI-82-8, Darmstadt.
tion. A large frequency variation of ±10% for an Alvarez [3] Proceedings of International Symposium on Heavy
Ion Inertial Fusion, Frascati, Italy, May 25-28, 1993
type structure seems not to be realistic. Therefore the follow- and Il Nuovo Cimento, Vol. 106, Nr. 11 (1993).
ing concept has been investigated: [4] Proceedings of International Symposium on Heavy
• the linac length has to be increased to accelerate the light- Ion Inertial Fusion, Princeton, USA, September 6-9,
est ion to the higher required energy; 1995; Fusion Engineering and Design, 32-33 (1996).
[5] I. Hofmann, “HIDIF - An approach to high rep-rate
• the design mass has to be transported through the addi- inertial fusion”, Proc. of 12th International Sympo-
tional part only, keeping the beam bunched; sium on Heavy Ion Inertial Fusion, Heidelberg, Sep-
• the heaviest ion (which reaches the lower required energy tember 24-27, 1997, Nucl. Inst. & Meth.-A, in print.
already before the linac end) has to be transported through [6] K. Bongardt and D. Sanitz, “Funnelling of Heavy
the rest of the main linac and the additional part. Ion Beams”, in [1]. +
[7] M. Weber, K. Volk et al., “Development of a Bi
For a mass 10% lighter than the design mass (ion energy source for a heavy ion driven ignition facility”, in [5].
difference of 20%) the linac becomes 20% longer; Th must [8] K. Mittag, “On parameter optimization for a linear
be accelerated with a higher electric field EoT of 3.1 MV/m accelerator”, KfK-255, Karlsruhe (1978).
and then transported without loss of beam quality through [9] D.G. Koshkarev, I.L. Korenev, L.A. Yudin, “Con-
ceptual design of linac for power HIF driver”, Proc.
1.6 km. of LINAC96, CERN, August 1-5, Geneva (1996).
Preliminary beam dynamics calculations indicate that [10] G. Parisi, H. Deitinghoff, K. Bongardt, M. Pabst,
the beam can be transported through several DTL cells, “Error effects and parameter analysis for a HIDIF
when single resonators are installed in between the DTL”, Proc. of EPAC98, June 22-26, 1998, Stock-
tanks, acting as rebuncher [11]. The time for switching all holm, in print.
[11] G. Parisi, Ph.D. Thesis, Institut für Angewandte Phy-
parameters between two pulses with different ion species is sik, Universität Frankfurt am Main, in preparation.
0.075 ms. Any reduction in the required mass differences [12] U. Oeftiger et al., “Longitudinal particle dynamics
would simplify also the linac architecture and operation. in a heavy ion driven ignition facility”, in [5].
81
LUMINOSITY MONITOR OPTIONS FOR TESLA
Olivier Napoly y and Daniel Schulte z
y CEA, DSM/DAPNIA/SEA, CE-Saclay, F-91191 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France
z CERN, PS/LP, CH-1211 Genève 23, Suisse
Abstract cross-section is corrected for the finite beam size effect [4].
It can be artificially multiplied by a factor nb which al-
The feasibility of a luminosity monitor based on a radia-
tive Bhabha, beamstrahlung photons or e+ e, detectors, is
lows one, with a single beam-beam simulation, to track the
bremsstrahlung particles and integrate the bremsstrahlung
investigated in the context of the TESLA [1] linear collider.
signal originating from nb bunch-crossings assuming that
the bunch parameters are fixed and their fluctuations can
1 INTRODUCTION be neglected. This is a valid assumption since the bunch
population is about 6 orders of magnitude larger than the
During the normal operation of a linear collider, while the
bremsstrahlung one.
The e+ and e, bunches are replaced by 320 000
beam are in collisions, the detuning of the final focus optics
must be controlled in such a way that the luminosity stays
macroparticles with 6-D Gaussian distributions set by the
maximum. The required on-line tuning procedure should beam parameters given in Table 1. The luminosity for the
be the least invasive in order to lose the least luminosity optimum parameters is about 3:2 1034 cm,2s,1 includ-
up-time. The beam-beam deflection scan method in use ing a factor about 2.0 from the pinch effect. The statistical
relative error on the luminosity is about 7:5 10,5 from nu-
at the SLC [2] allows one to measure the convoluted spot
sizes of both beams with a limited impact on the machine
merical origin. This is small enough to be able to identify,
operation. For TESLA [1] however, the large vertical dis- from the simulations, rate fluctuations of the order of 10,3
ruption of the colliding beams (cf. Table 1), characterised as physical fluctuations.
by the disruption parameter Dy = 33, precludes the mea-
surement of the vertical spot size by this method. However,
2 BREMSSTRAHLUNG MONITOR
Table 1: TESLA parameters at the IP for s = 500 GeV
p Bhabha monitors are a well proven instruments for lu-
minosity measurement at e+ e, and e, p colliders [6].
Beam sizes x ; y [nm] 558 , 5 The radiative Bhabha process e+ e, ! e+ e, , also called
Emittances x ; y [m] 10 , 0.03 bremsstrahlung has a much higher event rate at small an-
Bunch length z [mm] 0.4 gles than the elastic Bhabha process e+ e, ! e+ e, , and
Bunch population Ne [1010] 2.0 is more suitable for on-line monitoring. This rate can be
Number of bunch nb 2820 measured by detecting the low-energy lepton emitted away
Bunch spacing tb [ns] 337
Luminosity L [10
33 cm,2s,1 ] 32
from the intense beamstrahlung cone around the beam axis.
Since they are strongly deflected by the opposite beam,
Beamstrahlung B [%] 2.5 the rate of the outgoing low energy bremsstrahlung lep-
tons deflected at angles usable for a luminosity detec-
tor is enhanced. This more than counterbalances the fi-
the combination of beam-beam horizontal deflection scans nite beam size correction [4] of roughly 1/2 to the total
(Dx = 0:3) and luminosity monitoring is a valid procedure bremsstrahlung rate. Because of its sensitivity to the beam-
to correct both horizontal and vertical aberrations. Lumi- beam effect, the bremsstrahlung signal within a fixed kine-
nosity monitoring, recently re-investigated at the SLC [3], matical acceptance is no longer an absolute measurement
offers the advantage that the beam aberrations can be mea- of the luminosity but it can still be used for measuring lumi-
sured in the vicinity of the optimum head-on collision pa- nosity variations induced by beam parameter changes at the
rameters and that a relative measurement of the luminosity interaction point (IP) such that the horizontal beam sizes
is sufficient for its optimization. which control the beam-beam effect, are unchanged. This
We study three options to provide such a measurement includes the most important vertical aberrations.
based on detecting either the bremsstrahlung leptons, the For this study the luminosity monitor, assumed to be a
beamstrahlung photons or the e+ e, pairs. We use the hollow disk around the beam axis with 24 mm inner radius.
beam-beam program GUINEA PIG [5] to generate these As shown in Fig.(1) its location, 8.5 m from the IP, is op-
processes and track the trajectory of the low energy leptons, timised for detecting about 40 GeV particles. The number
from pair creation or bremsstrahlung, through the coher- of hits is about 550 with about 20 TeV deposited per side
ent e.m. field of the opposite bunch. The bremsstrahlung and per bunch crossing. Integrating over 10 bunch cross-
82
the waist-shift wy at the IP. In this way, a single TESLA
bunch train with 2820 bunches would allow one to mea-
sure the vertical waist-shift, the vertical dispersion and the
coupling of both beams, provided the implementation of
the necessary excitations of the fast quadrupoles is man-
ageable within one pulse.
3 BEAMSTRAHLUNG MONITOR
Figure 1: Bremsstrahlung energy distribution on luminos-
ity monitor The beamstrahlung photons, with a ratio N
=Ne ' 1:65
for TESLA, provide a very strong signal which is directly
related to the beam energy loss but less directly to the lumi-
ings and both sides leads to over 10,000 hits, enough to nosity. In fact, this signal goes through a maximum when
reduce the statistical error to the 1% level. The most impor- the two beams are vertically offset and deflect each other
tant vertical beam parameters to be tuned are the beam ma- strongly. In order to decouple this effect from the lumi-
trix “rotations” which affect the vertical beam size, namely nosity optimization, we select the photons emitted in the
the vertical waist shift wy , the vertical dispersion y and 25 5rad2 forward cones whose intensities decrease
the yx0 -coupling cy . The definition of these aberrations with the beam offset. Fig.(3) shows the dependance of
and the beam matrices associated to them are given in [7]. these intensities in the e, (left) and the e+ (right) directions
Fig.(2) displays the results of luminosity optimisations ob- on the e, -beam vertical waist (up) and dispersion (low).
tained by varying the waist-shift wy of the electron beam Unlike the bremsstrahlung, the beamstrahlung signal is not
matrix, keeping the positron beam constant. The central e, /e+ symmetric and signs which beam matrix is chang-
configuration is such that ing. As can be seen by comparing Fig.(3) to Fig.(2), the
wy(0) = 0:9 y ; y = cy = 0 e, -beamstrahlung is not effective for the e, -waist tuning.
Vertical dispersion, and x0y the coupling as well, can how-
(1)
for both beams. It is also the optimal configuration since, ever be tuned with a resolution better than 10,3 in terms
due to the pinch effect, the luminosity is maximized when of relative luminosity. In these scans, the 1% error in the
both vertical waists are shifted by 0:9 y in front of the IP. intensity is due to the purely numerical limitation in the
The gain in luminosity is about 16% with respect to the number of macro-photons, about 11,000, representing the
configuration where the waists are centered on the IP. In physical photons contained in the forward cones.
this figure, the calculated luminosity (right) is compared
to the number of hits (left) from bremsstrahlung particles
on the luminosity monitors, adding both sides. The scan
involves 11 points and therefore a total of 110 bunch-
crossings. The “optimum” luminosity as determined by
the parabolic fit through the bremstrahlung rate, is less than
10,3 relatively smaller than the maximum of the calculated
luminosity. This optimum can be determined equally well
from the number of hits (counter) or from the energy de-
posited (calorimeter), and similar resolutions are obtained
for the dispersion and coupling scans [7] as well.
In practice, each scan could be implemented with fast
quadrupole pairs in the chromatic correction section (CCS)
[8]. A vertical waist-scan like in Fig.(2) for instance, would
be performed by symmetrically exciting the quadrupoles in
the vertical CCS over 110 bunch crossings and measuring
the luminosity for 110 monotonically increasing values of
Figure 3: Beamstrahlung photon intensity per bunch-
crossing vs. vertical waist (up) and dispersion (low)
4 E + , E , PAIR CALORIMETER
Inside the main mask a combined inner mask and luminos-
Figure 2: Scan of the vertical waist. Parabolic fits are ity monitor will be installed. This inner mask will be hit by
drawn through the data points a large number of pairs deflected by the beams. At small
83
1.04
energy of the photons produced by beamstrahlung. The de-
L
1.02 L, fit flection is however very different in the two cases. The
E beam particles which have emitted bremsstrahlung are still
E, fit
1
relatively high in energy and are focused by the oncoming
0.98 beam. Most of the particles from pair production that hit
L/L0, E/E0
the calorimeter are low in energy and are defocused by the
0.96
same charge oncoming beam. Combining the two methods
0.94 one could thus hope for reducing possible ambiguities.
0.92
5 CONCLUSION
0.9
We believe that a luminosity monitor will be a necessary
0.88 instrument for the fast tuning of the collision parameters
-0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Wy/sigmaz of TESLA. In this study we have shown that a radiative
Bhabha counter or calorimeter can monitor the luminosity
Figure 4: Scan of the vertical waist shift: energy deposited to a 1% resolution by integrating the bremsstrahlung signal
in the calorimeter and luminosity normalised to the maxi- over about 10 TESLA bunch-crossings, that is about 3.3 s.
mal values. The powerful beamstrahlung signal in a very narrow for-
ward cone can also be used for tuning dispersion and cou-
pling. A promising complementary option is a calorimeter
radii it is covered with a low-Z material (graphite) to pre-
in the masking system around the IP to measure the energy
deposited by the pair-created e+ e, particles. The 1% level
vent the backscattering of low energy particles. At larger
radii, where the background due to the deflected pairs is
can then be reached with one bunch-crossing.
small, it will be used to measure the Bhabha events with
With either monitor, scanning the usual vertical linear
larger angles. The rate of these events will be a few per
aberrations with about 10 points should permit to determine
second, much higher than those measured in the main de-
the optimal luminosity to better than 0.1% relative reso-
tector for the reconstruction of the luminosity spectrum but
lution. Implementing such scans within a single TESLA
too low for fast monitoring.
bunch train should be possible: it would reduce consider-
The total energy deposited by the pairs in this mask can
ably the influence of beam jitter on the luminosity measure-
be measured calorimetrically, but details have to be worked
out. This energy is about 12000 GeV
per bunch cross-
ment errors.
ing and per side. This values varies from simulation to
simulation due to physical and numerical effects. Run- 6 REFERENCES
ning 25 cases with the same initial distribution (read from [1] “Conceptual Design of a 500 GeV e+ e, Linear Collider with
a file) but different seeds for the random number genera- Integrated X-ray Laser Facility”, R. Brinkmann, G. Mater-
tors showed an RMS-spread of : and : 1 2% 1 4%
for the two lick, J. Rossbach and A. Wagner Editors, DESY 1997-049
sides. This is in reasonable agreement with the expectation and ECFA 1997-182 (1997).
from the counting rate alone ( : 1 0%
from about 9200 [2] P. Emma, L.J. Hendrickson, P. Raimondi and F. Zimmer-
hits). In practice one can expect significant contributions mann “Limitations of Interaction-Point Spot-Size Tuning at
to the error from energy leaking out at the inner aperture of the SLC” SLAC-Pub-7509 (1997).
calorimeter and from jitter of the beam. [3] P. Raimondi et al, “Recent Luminosity Improvements at the
The scan was performed moving the waist of one beam, SLC” 6th EPAC (EPAC-98), Stockholm June 1998
while the one of the other was about in the right position.
[4] G.L. Kotkin, V.G. Serbo and A. Schiller “Process with Large
For each point only a single bunch crossing was measured. Impact Parameters at Colliding Beams” Int. J. Mod. Phys. A,
The optimal position of the waist was determined by max-
: y = 0 83
4707 (1992).
imising the sum of the two signals, leading to wy
=
(note that y z ). The luminosity thus obtained is lower
[5] D. Schulte, “Study of Electromagnetic and Hadronic Back-
4 10
by a fraction of ,4 than the optimal value, which is
ground in the Interaction Region of TESLA”, Ph.D. thesis,
reached for wy = 0 89
: z . The scan was repeated decreas-
University of Hamburg 1996, and DESY report TESLA 97-
1 5 10
ing the positron bunch charge to : 10 particles, in-
08, April 1997
creasing its horizontal emittance by 50 %
and increasing its
[6] V.N. Baier, V.S. Fadin, V.A. Khoze and E.A. Kuraev “Physics
vertical emittance by 50 %
. In all three cases the luminos-
Reports 78, 3 (1981) 293-393.
[7] O. Napoly and D. Schulte, “Luminosity Monitor Studies
ity for the found optimal waist position were smaller than
the optimal by a fraction of about ,3. 10 for TESLA”, Saclay Preprint CEA/DAPNIA/SEA-97-14 and
TESLA Note 97-17, 1997
In contrast to the bremsstrahlung process where the pro-
duction of particles depends strongly on the luminosity and [8] Following suggestions by N.J. Walker and R. Brinkmann.
only weakly on the other beam parameters, the number and
energy of pairs produced depends also on the number and
84
THE CLIC 30 GHz TWO-BEAM TEST ACCELERATOR
I. Wilson, W. Wuensch, W. Coosemans, C. Achard
CERN, Genève 23,1211 Switzerland
Abstract The test accelerator is shown in figure 2.
Commissioning with beam started in the autumn of 1997.
As part of the experimental effort to demonstrate the A maximum accelerating gradient of 50 MV/m [2] has
feasibility of the CLIC scheme, a 3 m long representative so far been achieved and is currently limited by available
section of the CLIC accelerator has been constructed, drive beam charge.
installed in the CLIC Test Facility (CTF) and successfully
commissioned with beam. Prototype 30 GHz components
developed during the course of the CLIC study including
accelerating structures, power generating transfer
structures, and high power RF loads, have been
successfully integrated with the micron-precision active
alignment system, the vacuum system, the water cooling
system, and the high power RF distribution system to
produce a very compact two-beam test accelerator. This
paper describes the layout and gives details of the
important subsystems.
1 INTRODUCTION
A 3 m long 30 GHz two-beam test accelerator has been
constructed and is presently operating with beam in the Figure 1: Schematic layout of one module of the main
new CLIC test facility (CTF2). The test accelerator layout (lower) and drive (upper) linacs.
follows that currently foreseen for CLIC but has a higher
density of quadrupoles - and consequently a lower RF
filling factor - due to lower beam energies. The test
accelerator is equipped with a prototype active alignment
system in order to gain operating experience in a real
accelerator environment. The bunched electron beams
needed for the drive and main linacs are supplied by two
separate 3 GHz linacs.
Since both CLIC and the test accelerator are composed
of repeated two-beam 'modules', the construction of two
fully equipped modules has enabled many of the
technical difficulties of the full length linacs to be solved.
All necessary subsystems including water cooling and
vacuum have been included. The layout of a test
accelerator module is shown in figure 1. Two such
modules have been installed and a further two will be
installed in 1999.
Prototypes of components developed in the course of
Figure 2: Downstream view of the test accelerator
the CLIC study have been used wherever possible. These
installed in the CTF.
include: accelerating sections, high power RF loads, main
linac beam position monitors, main linac quadrupoles,
support girders and the active alignment system. The
2 RF SYSTEM
power extracting structures are similar to those of CLIC Each two-beam accelerator module has one power
but have a stronger coupling to the beam to compensate extracting structure, shown in figure 3, which feeds two
for the lower drive beam charge. Other components accelerating sections. An extracting structure has four
including waveguides, phase shifters, vacuum and beam output waveguides - opposing pairs are combined to feed
line components were specially developed for the the two accelerating sections. For the moment all four
accelerator. output waveguides are combined to produce a higher
88
accelerating gradient for a given drive beam charge (but section, providing calibrated incident, reflected and
less total energy gain). RF power is combined in 'Y' transmitted power signals. 1 mm diameter ceramic disks
junctions that are split in the magnetic field plane. The brazed into the coupling holes separate vacuum from air
output of each accelerating section is connected to a high- in these couplers. 12 m long WR-28 waveguide runs
power stainless-steel load which is vacuum pumped. The connect the outputs to the signal processing electronics in
area around the accelerating section in the first module is the klystron gallery.
shown in figure 4.
3 BEAM POSITION MONITORS
A prototype 30 GHz resonant cavity BPM [4] with an
integrated phase and charge reference cavity is installed
in each main linac module. Common mode rejection is
made in vacuum-compatible magic Ts. Position signals
pass from vacuum to air-filled waveguide via alumina
windows mounted on the difference ports of the magic
Ts. Signal processing electronics is mounted in the
klystron gallery.
A four-button BPM is mounted in each drive linac
module. Each button electrode is connected directly to a
coaxial vacuum-to-air feed-through. 20 to 30 cm lengths
of standard flexible coaxial cable connect the BPM on the
Figure 3: Installation around a power extracting structure. support girder to fixed semi-rigid coax fixed onto the
concrete block.
4 ALIGNMENT SYSTEM
The entire accelerator is mounted on a concrete block
that is grouted to the floor - a precaution that would only
be meaningful in a proper stable linear collider tunnel.
The block also contains niches where radiation sensitive
alignment control electronics are mounted. All other
components of the alignment system have been designed
to be radiation hard
The test accelerator is actively aligned and held to
within a few microns using a stretched wire system [3].
All beam line components other than quadrupoles are
mounted on 1.41 m long (length of one module) silicon
Figure 4: Installation around an accelerating section. The carbide support girders. The components are directly
view of the section is obstructed by the vacuum supported by r 1.5 Pm precision V blocks. Continuity of
manifolds. the beam axis from girder to girder to a similar precision
is provided by a system of link rods that connect the ends
The upstream ends of the power extracting structure of the successive girders. The link rods create articulation
waveguides are terminated with vacuum compatible loads points at the beam axis intersections. The articulation
containing ceramic absorbing elements. In order to points, and thus the linacs, are aligned by moving the
maintain free movement of the support girders, all RF ends of the girders with 0.1 Pm step linear actuators,
connections between components on the girders and those which are shown in figure 4.
on the concrete support block contain lengths of flexible Actuator movements are calculated from readings of
waveguide. These are made from copper plated the 0.1 Pradian resolution tilt meters and the 0.1 Pm
commercially-available hydro-formed waveguide tube. resolution capacitive sensors of the stretched wire system.
The flexible waveguides also provide vibration isolation. The vertical positions of the ends of the wires are
The waveguide between the power extracting and measured by a hydrostatic leveling system.
accelerating structures contains a phase shifter. Quadrupole doublets and triplets are mounted on
Vacuum-tight high-power RF connections were made independent platforms with their own wire sensors, tilt
using a flange design with a flat face-to-face contact and meters and actuators. The quadrupoles are referenced to
a Helicoflex seal. There are no windows anywhere in the the same stretched wire as the support girders.
high power RF line. Low power signals are extracted The system operates in a closed feedback loop holding
from the high power system via vacuum-to-air 56 dB the linacs within an alignment window of r 2 microns.
directional couplers before and after each accelerating
89
The end-station of the stretched wire system is shown in contains a getter and an ion pump. The manifolds
figure 5. (weighing some 20 kg) are mounted on spring supports
and follow girder movements with little applied force.
Power extracting structures are pumped by a single local
manifold also with a getter and an ion pump.
All of the local manifolds are connected via flexible
tubing to a central roughing manifold, which appears
prominently in all photographs of the test accelerator
such as figure 1. After an appropriate vacuum has been
reached the roughing manifold is isolated from the
manifolds by valves. The accelerator can be isolated from
the rest of the CTF with valves at the ends of each linac.
7 WATER COOLING SYSTEM
With average RF and beam power levels in the test
accelerator a small fraction of those anticipated in CLIC,
Figure 5: End station of the stretched wire system. the water cooling requirement is less demanding.
Nonetheless, the water connections must still remain
5 BEAM LINE COMPONENTS sufficiently flexible when pressurized not to constrain the
alignment system. Hydro-formed thin walled stainless
The internal diameters of the main and drive linacs are steel tubing has been used to connect to the accelerating
4 and 22 mm respectively. The main and drive linac beam sections but the solution is unsatisfactory because the
pipes have been designed to present low transverse tubing is a vibration source. Latex tubing was later
impedances. The drive linac beam pipe must also carry chosen for the quadrupoles and appears to function very
high image currents without arcing or heating locally. well.
Maintaining these design objectives has been most
difficult for the inter-girder articulations, which must also
be flexible and vacuum tight. In the current design, the
8 CONCLUSIONS
articulation points have a 1-2 mm beam pipe gap with a The successful installation and operation of the test
50 mm diameter bellows placed around the gap region to accelerator represents an important step in the
contain the vacuum. demonstration of the feasibility of the CLIC scheme.
Connections between fixed drive-linac beam-line Difficulties of layout and assembly resulting from the
components are made using a flange design derived from high density of components of the 30 GHz accelerator
the vacuum RF flange. The requirements for the RF have been overcome. The active alignment system has
flange, a small impedance mismatch and a high current been successfully integrated with all the other
capability, are identical to those of the drive-linac beam- subsystems, maintains alignment within a r 5 micron
line flange. window and operates reliably in a high radiation
The prototype main and drive linac quadrupoles have environment without any evidence of deterioration. A
internal apertures of 10 and 30 mm respectively. The precise agreement between drive beam, generated power
resulting r 2 mm clearances between the quadrupoles and and main beam energy gain indicates that the RF system
the beam pipes allows the beams to be steered using is functioning correctly.
quadrupole offsets. The field gradient in the main linac
quadrupoles is 100 T/m. 9 REFERENCES
[1] J. P. Delahaye et.al., "CLIC, a 0.5 to 5 TeV er
6 VACUUM SYSTEM Compact Linear Collider", Proceedings of EPAC98,
The primary design challenges for the vacuum system Stockholm (1998).
are to provide adequate pumping to the very low [2] R. Bossard et. al. "Demonstration of Two-Beam
conductance main linac beam pipe and to allow Acceleration in CTFII", These proceedings.
unconstrained movement of the alignment system. The [3] W. Coosemans, J.M. Bouche, R. Pittin, "Active
-8
design level of 10 torr has been achieved. alignment for CLIC modules in CTF2", Proceedings
This vacuum level in the main linac is obtained by of IWAA, Argone (October, 1997).
pumping each accelerating section cell with four 1 mm [4] J. P. H. Sladen, I. Wilson, W. Wuensch, "CLIC Beam
diameter radial holes. It is sufficient to pump only Position Monitor Tests", Proceedings of EPAC96,
accelerating sections since in CLIC they make up most of Sitges (1996).
the main linac length. Each accelerating section is
pumped by a pair of local manifolds each of which
90
BEAM LOADING COMPENSATION
USING PHASE TO AMPLITUDE MODULATION METHOD IN ATF
S. Kashiwagi, The Graduate University for Advanced Studies, Ibaraki, Japan
H. Hayano, K. Kubo, T. Naito, K. Oide, T. Shintake, S. Takeda,
N. Terunuma and J. Urakawa, KEK, Ibaraki, Japan
T. Korhonen, Paul Scherrer Institut, CH-5232 Villigen PSI, Switzerland
S. Nakamura, Yokohama National University, Kanagawa, Japan
Abstract ( )
and E=E i are Lorentz energy factor, beta function, fo-
cusing strength of quadrupole magnet and energy spread
at the i-th quadrupole in the linac, respectively [4]. Since
For future linear colliders, one of the essential techniques
to get a sufficient luminosity is to accelerate multi-bunch
the emittance growth is connected to the energy spread at
beam of small bunch spacing. Beam loading voltage in
each quadrupole according to Eq. 1, energy spread correc-
an accelerating structure generates a large energy spread
along the bunch train. This energy spread is critical for
tion should be done locally at each quadrupole. The T
method which compensates an energy spread in every ac-
the lattice design and, if not properly compensated, in-
duces emittance growth and in turn lowers the luminos-
celerating structure is the local compensation, while F
method compensates it through several quadrupoles in av-
ity. A method to compensate for beam loading effects in
erage. In the low energy part in the linear colliders, the lo-
a multi-bunch beam is under development at Accelerator
cal correction method will be an important method where
Test Facility (ATF) in KEK [1]. We will report the beam
tests for early injection and a phase to amplitude modula-
E=E is not enough small.
tion method using multi-bunch beam of 2.8 ns bunch spac- 2 PHASE TO AMPLITUDE
ing. This energy compensation method compresses energy
spread of multi-bunch beam by changing the input rf wave-
MODULATION METHOD ( , A)
form properly into accelerating structures. The most simple compensation of the beam loading in T
method can be done by injecting the beam before the rf
1 INTRODUCTION pulse has filled the accelerating structure. If we use this
simple early injection method, the beam current at which
A scheme of multiple bunches (87 bunches) being acceler-
the energy compensation acts effectively is limited to some
ated on each rf pulse is adopted in the Japan Linear Col- range, and acceleration efficiency will be poor. We apply
lider (JLC) design [2]. This scheme improves the energy
transfer efficiency from wall plug power to the beam and
φ1 φ2
luminosity of the machine. However, it results in turn sig- 120 Initial phase
°
nificant beam loading. In JLC, an energy spread which is V1+V2
V1
generated by the beam loading has to be reduced to a few SLED
tenth of a percent. V2
120
°
There are several possible methods to compensate the
multi-bunch energy spread with keeping bunch spacing
constant, such as F method [3], T method and so on.
accelerating structure
, A beam loading compensation
accelerating structure
SLED Input phase
Figure 1:
The F method is to use one or more accelerator struc-
thus the amplitude modulation on the input rf pulse for the
tures running at the frequency slightly higher and lower
pulse compression. Therefore in case of using the SLED-I
than the fundamental frequency and roughly in 90 degree
out of phase from the acceleration. The T method is to system [5], we can obtain the desirable slope of unloaded
voltage by changing input rf waveform for SLED cavities.
inject a beam before an rf pulse has filled in an accelerating
structure. Power efficiency of F method is higher than As discussed in Ref. [6], it is not a good idea to directly
T method, however this method is only adaptive in case modulate the amplitude of the driving rf power to klystron.
For a stable operation, a klystron usually needs to be used
that the energy of beam drops approximately linearly as a
result of beam loading. in the saturation condition. Thus, modulating the drive rf
phase of klystron would be a better method. To modulate
On the other hand, the transverse emittance dilution due
to a random misalignment Arms of quadrupole magnets
the amplitude of rf pulse for the SLED-I cavities at con-
X
i iki ( E )i
stant phase, two klystrons are needed. They run in satura-
with respect to the beam is estimated approximately to be
tion, keeping the input rf level constant. Then, we control
A2rms 2 2 their phases and combine the rf power from two klystrons
2
0 0 i E (1)
by using a 3 dB hybrid combiner. Figure 1 shows a scheme
in which the rf phases of two klystrons are rotated into op-
where
0 0 is initial normalized emittance and
i , i , ki posite directions relative to each other. The sum of two
91
phase modulated rf makes amplitude modulated rf with between two rf units (L1,2 and L3,4 structures). Rf power
constant phase, which is fed into the SLED cavities. The is measured by using -70 dB Bethe-Hole coupler at several
phase modulation of the two klystrons effectively realizes points which are each klystron out, the combined point, in-
amplitude modulation using this method ( , A method). put of the SLED cavity and the entrance and exit of the ac-
If bunch population of each bunch is not uniform, thus celerating structure. In the low level rf circuit, the 2856
the energy spread of beam does not drop linearly with MHz phase shifters (No.1) tune the rf phase of the input
time. Even in the case of it, phase modulation to amplitude CW rf to the beam. By using Delay and Pulse Modulator,
modulation ( , A) method can properly compensate by it is modulated into a short pulse with 4.5 s width and
changing the speed of phase rotation. the rf timing to klystron voltage is adjusted. The fast phase
shifters (No.2) using varactor diode are used to rotate the
3 BEAM TEST OF , A ENERGY drive rf phase. A control pulse with 1.0 s width for the
fast phase shifters is generated by an arbitrary waveform
COMPENSATION generator, and changes the rotating speed of drive phase.
To verify that the , A beam loading compensation In this beam test, rotating speed of rf phase was changed at
scheme works as predicted, we performed preliminary constant rate.
beam test in the ATF injector linac of the damping ring.
The ATF s-band linac consists of 80 MeV pre-injector, 8 3.2 Measurement system of the beam energy
regular accelerating units, two units of energy compensat-
ing structure for F energy compensation. Each regular Figure 3 shows the layout of the beam line to measure
unit contains SLED-I pulse compression system and the the energy variation along the bunch train. For energy
compressed rf power is fed into the two accelerating struc- BPM
,,,,,,
,,,,,,Dump
,,,,,,
,,,,,,
,,,,,,
,,,
,,,,,,
,,,
tures. For this experiment, the first and second regular sec- Analyzer Magnet ,,,
Acc. structure Acc. structure Acc. structure Acc. structure
50mm
,, ,, ,, ,, ,, ,,, ,,
tions were used and a chicane to measure the multi-bunch e-
80 MeV
,, ,, ,, L1 ,, L2 ,, L3 ,,, L4 ,,
,,,
,,,
Pre-injector
energy distribution was constructed downstream from this BPM
BPM & Profile Monitor
two regular units. ATF linac accelerates a multi-bunch (to measurethe energy variation)
Figure 3: Beam line layout for energy compensation experiment
beam that consists of 20 bunches with 2.8 ns spacing.
Trigger Trigger 2
(#1 Mod) (#2 Mod.)
V1 [Volt]
V2 [Volt]
O/E O/E
1W Amp. 1W Amp. 1
Phase Shifter Phase Shifter
V1 [Volt]
(No.1) Waveform (No.1)
Generator 0
4 - 4.5 µ s Delay & Pulse Delay & Pulse
,,,,,,,, modulator modulator
,,,,,,,, Amp.
-1
Control Pulse
Fast Phase Shifter Fast Phase Shifter
(No.2) (No.2)
1µs
600 W Amp.
-2
600 W Amp.
#1 Kly. #2 Kly. -3
90 deg. 34 36 38 40 42 44
rf phase
,,, Time [ns]
,,,
,,, - 90 deg.
Figure 4: The beam signal from strip-line BPM and example of
3dB Coupler.
90 deg.
fitting to sample data
,,, SLED
rf phase
,,, ,,,
,,, High power ,,,
- 90 deg. ,,, phase shifter ,,,
,,,
,,,
,,,
,,,
,,,
measurement, the horizontal chicane was installed down
,,, ,,,
,,,
,,, ,,,
,,, stream from the four regular accelerating structures which
SLED
were filled amplitude modulated rf power. This chicane
contains a strip-line-type beam position monitor (BPM)
rf Power
Time
3.0 m Acc. Structure 3.0 m Acc. Structure 3.0 m Acc. Structure 3.0 m Acc. Structure which is mounted at the center of the chicane to measure
Figure 2: Experimental setup for , A beam loading com-
L1 L2 L3 L4
the beam energy. At this BPM, the horizontal dispersion
pensation function x is 50 mm. The multi-bunch beam signal from
the BPM was measured by using a digital oscilloscope of
real-time 5.0 GHz sample and a personal computer. A
3.1 Experimental setup
pulse height of each bunch signal was determined by a
We preliminary tested , A method using two-klystron parabolic curve fitting to the sampled data. In this mea-
combination, Figure 2 shows the rf system of this exper- surement, the position resolution was about 130 m which
iment. It consists of two 85 MW klystron (TOSHIBA was derived from three BPMs correlation and this position
3712), two dual-iris s-band SLED cavities, 3 dB hybrid resolution corresponds to 0.26 energy resolution. The %
combiner, high power wave guides, rf loads and an high position resolution was mainly limited by a systematic er-
power mechanical phase shifter. In this rf set up, rf power ror of the fitting, so it may be improved using other func-
from the two klystrons were combined using 3 dB hybrid tions for the fit. On the other hand, the only horizontal or-
combiner, after that combined power was divided again to bit of all bunches in the same pulse was measured using
avoid a break-down at SLED cavities. High power me- 7 BPMs in the linac, this measurement was free from the
chanical phase shifter was used to adjust the relative phase pulse-to-pulse energy jitter.
92
3.3 Preliminary result of beam test ing speed of drive phase and the two different beam injec-
tion timing to rf pulse which are shown as timing (A) and
In this experiment, the multi-bunch of 19 bunches/pulse
accelerated with intensity of 0.82 10 electrons/bunch at 10 (B) in Figure 6. Assuming that the beam loss at , A
pre-injector exit. At the 80 MeV pre-injector, the energy of
%
compensation region was 10 at the entrance of the first
multi-bunch beam was compensated using the simple T structure, the calculated beam loading voltage was about
2.7 MV/structure. Then the calculated energy spread with
compensation technique (only early injection) to make the
energy flat as an input of , A compensation section. %
90 deg./400 ns rotating speed are about 4.0 at timing (A)
and 1.8 % at timing (B), while in the another case with
90 deg./800 ns rotating speed they are about 2.8 %and
%
0.5 at the each timing. From the Figure 7, the measured
%
energy spread were 4.5 (with timing A) and 1.5 (with %
timing B) for 90 deg./400 ns, 2.6 %(with timing A) and
%
0.5 (with timing B) for 90 deg./800 ns speed. The cal-
culated values and the measured energy spread were con-
sistent, so the amplitude modulation of the input rf acted
Figure 5: Rf waveform at the structure input (up) and to the multi-bunch beam so as to compensate the beam
the combined point (down) in different phase rotating speed. loading. However, the measured energy distribution inside
(right:90 deg./400 ns, left:90 deg./800 ns)
the multi-bunch beam had a fluctuation from monotonous
change. This fluctuation correlated to the intensity of each
bunch. If we can measure the intensity variation along the
bunch train and monitor the rf power correctly, the energy
spread of multi-bunch beam will be minimized by setting
Timing (A)
the rotating speed of rf phase and injection timing as cal-
culated. Its experiment is planed in this fall.
Timing (B)
4 SUMMARY
The beam test of , A energy compensation was per-
Figure 6: Calculation result of unloaded energy gain. Phase formed by using two klystron combination. Phase mod-
rotating speed are 90 deg./400 ns (dashed) and 90 deg./800 ns ulation of two klystrons was used to obtain an amplitude
(solid) Phase rotating speed Phase rotating speed
modulated input for the SLED. The modulation of acceler-
90deg./400ns 90deg./800ns
3 3
ating waveform could be realized by modulating the ampli-
2 2 tude of the SLED input. Energy gain of each bunch along
Energy spread [%]
a bunch train was changed by changing a rotating speed of
Energy spread [%]
1 1
Timing(B) Timing(B)
0 0 an input rf phase, as a result the beam loading was com-
-1 -1
pensated as expected.
-2
Timing(A)
-2
Timing(A)
5 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
-3 -3
0 5 10
Bunch number
15 20 0 5 10
Bunch number
15 20 The authors would like to acknowledge the continuous en-
Figure 7: Measured multi-bunch energy spread with different couragement of Professors M. Kihara, K. Takata, Y. Ya-
phase rotating speed mazaki. This experiment could not be performed without
We observed the difference of compensating voltage the help of Mr. D. Aizawa and E-CUBE corporation. We
along the multi-bunch beam by changing the phase rotating wish to thank these people for their help. The authors also
speed and the relative timing of rf pulse to the beam in the appreciate to Drs. K. Egawa and M. Masuzawa of acceler-
two klystrons. Figure 5 shows rf waveforms at the input ator laboratory in KEK for the reason that they have readily
of accelerator and the combined point in the two cases of lent us the dipole magnets.
different rotating speed of drive rf phase. The calculation 6 REFERENCES
result of unloaded energy gain slope for the previous two [1] F. Hinode et al, ’ATF Design and Study Report’, KEK
different phase speed is shown in Figure 6. In this calcu- Internal95-4 (1995)
lation, klystron output power is assumed to 20 MW which [2] JLC Design Study Group, ’JLC Design Study Report’, KEK
is the same value with the real beam test setup and the pa- Report 97-1 A (1997)
rameters of SLED cavities and structure are also the same.
[3] S. Kashiwagi et al., ”Preliminary Test of F Energy Com-
pensation System”, Proceedings of the 18th Int. Linac Conf.,
The two slopes of the unloaded energy gain curve are dif- Geneva, p.848 (1996)
ferent by phase speed before first filling time of the struc- [4] K. Kubo, Private communication
ture. In the slow rotation case in which the phase speed [5] P. B. Wilson SLAC-TN-73-15 (1973)
is 90 deg./800 ns, the compensating voltage is larger than [6] T. Shintake, ”C-band Linac RF-system for e+ e, Linear Col-
another case (see in Figure 6). Figure 7 shows energy dis- lider”, Proceedings of RF96, April, 1996, Kanagawa, Japan,
p37–46
tribution of multi-bunch beam in the two different rotat-
93
RK-TBA STUDIES IN KA-BAND
S.M. Lidia, S.S. Yu
E.O. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, USA
J. Gardelle, T. Lefevre, J.L. Rullier
CEA/Centre d'Etudes Scientifiques et Techniques d'Aquitaine, BP 2, 33114 Le Barp, France
G.A. Westenskow
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California 94551, USA
J.T. Donohue
Centre d'Etudes Nucleaires de Bordeaux-Gradignan, BP 120, 33175 Gradignan, France
Abstract rf cavity design and measurements of longitudinal
bunching.
It is well established that operating frequencies in the
30-GHz range and higher are required to obtain the high 2 TESTS ON LELIA
accelerating gradients needed by linear collider systems
Since 1995, the induction linac LELIA at the
that wish to probe center-of-mass energies significantly
CEA/CESTA facility has been used to produce a 2-MeV,
higher than 1 TeV. As an rf power source for high-energy
800-A, 60-ns beam modulated at 35 GHz by a free-
linear colliders, relativistic klystron two-beam
electron laser. This work has been conducted with
accelerators (RK-TBAs) have been shown theoretically to
support of CERN to study the generation of a suitable
scale favorably to frequencies higher than X-band. To
drive beam to power CLIC Transfer Structures (CTS). Of
complement our studies of RK-TBA systems at 11.424
equal interest is the possibility of using the modulated
GHz, we are undertaking experimental tests of
beam to drive inductively detuned rf structures in an RK-
components at both 35 and 30 GHz. These studies will be
TBA. In this case, the rf properties of the cavities
conducted at the CEA/CESTA facility using the LELIA
determine the longitudinal beam dynamics. Hence,
and PIVAIR electron linear induction accelerators
measurements of longitudinal phase space bunching are
(LIAs), respectively, and will concentrate on the
important to make. Diagnostics techniques developed at
interaction of the intense, modulated electron beams with
CESTA have, for the first time, enabled us to directly
rf cavity structures, compact induction modules, and
view the electron bunching, and to capture the image with
permanent magnet quadrupole transport lattices. Details
a streak camera [4,5].
of the rf cavity design and the proposed experiments are
discussed.
2.1 Inductively Detuned SW RF Cavities
1 INTRODUCTION
The first set of experiments will study the interaction
To explore center-of-mass energies in the multi-TeV of the modulated beam with standing wave rf cavities.
range with electron-positron linear colliders will require Three different cavities are to be constructed and studied
accelerating gradients of several hundred MeV per meter. sequentially, one idler and two single-output cavities. We
Scaling of conventional, copper-based structure have modeled these structures with the Superfish,
technology shows that this can be considered at operating URMEL-T, and GdfidL codes [6]. The characteristics of
frequencies around 30 GHz (Ka band) [1]. Among the the cavities are listed in Table 1.
myriad ways of producing pulsed, high-power
microwaves to drive accelerating structures, RK-TBA Idler Low Q High Q
technology has been shown theoretically to be one of the
f [GHz] 34-36 35 35
most efficient [2]. As a testbed for RK-TBA physics and
Q 363 6 45
engineering studies, the 11.4-GHz prototype RTA is
R/Q [Ω] 45 45 45
currently being commissioned [3]. To complement these
studies, we will conduct tests of rf output structures and Pout [MW] - 0.7 5.0
bunched beam transport at 30-35 GHz. This work is Epeak [MV/m] 400 7 50
conducted through a collaboration of LBNL personnel
with groups at CEA/CESTA and CERN. This paper Table 1. Parameters of rf cavities.
discusses these upcoming experiments, with emphasis on
97
The idler cavity has been designed to accept variable- The expected performance of these cavities is listed in
radius ‘tuning rings’ in the inner pillbox region. These Table 1. As can be seen, only a modest amount of output
rings adjust the inner radius of the cavity to permit tuning power is expected from these structures. These first
the fundamental mode frequency over the range 34-36 experiments will concentrate mostly on beam dynamics
GHz. The frequency of the cavity can be adjusted so that issues: generation and transport of an intense, modulated
the longitudinal impedance seen by he beam is resonant, beam through a narrow aperture cavity; and observation
or detuned (capacitively/inductively). The idler cavity of the interaction of the cavity upon the beam. Later
assembly is shown in Figure 2. experiments may involve more sophisticated cavity
designs, intended to produce rf output levels sufficiently
high to drive accelerating structures.
15 m m
4 mm
C avity and beam port C o uplin g slot and w aveguide
Figure 2. Idler cavity assembly. Figure 4. Cross-section of output cavity showing
symmetrization of the modal longitudinal electric field.
The tuning rings will be manufactured by wrapping a
layer of stainless steel (304SS) around a narrow spool 2.2 Longitudinal Beam Dynamics Studies
that exhibits a slight taper. Individual rings will then be
cut from this spool. This permits an accurate measure of Optical measurements will be performed to study the
the ring’s inner radius, as well as differences in the radii time-dependent beam-cavity interaction. Bunches will be
between different rings. extracted, and their longitudinal bunching characteristics
The output cavities are designed with only a single measured. This allows us to make a comparison between
output port. This port is attached to a connecting our simulation codes and experiment. The primary
waveguide which is expanded to mate with standard WR- measurement will be of the bunching parameter of the
28 guide. Figure 3 shows a quarter of the geometry. beam before and after it exits the cavity region. This will
be compared with measurements of bunching when the
C a v i ty beam is freely propagating. Simulation results of the
evolution of the bunching parameter along the beamline
W aveg
u id e following the FEL are shown in Figure 5. The cavity is
located 28.5 cm from the end of the FEL. Measurements
5 .5 m m
will also be made of the relative phase of the output rf
power with respect to the FEL output.
B eam tu be
0 .8
B u n c h in g p a ra m e te r
15 m m 0 .7 S p a c e c h a rg e d e b u n c h in g
m
0 .6
m
4
0 .5 R e b u n c h in g fro m
Figure 3. Output cavity quarter-geometry. The beam c a v ity
0 .4
travels vertically through the beam tube.
0 .3
This single output port can introduce an unwanted 0 .2
transverse impulse to the beam as it traverses the 0 .1 B a llistic d e b u n c h in g
structure. The pillbox region of the cavity has been 0
designed slightly off-center from the beamline axis to 0 0 .1 0 .2 0 .3 0 .4 0 .5 0 .6 0 .7
compensate for this. As a result, the linear variation of the
longitudinal electric field has been strongly suppressed. A Figure 5. Evolution of the bunching parameter from
small quadratic variation is still present. However, any the end of the FEL through the cavity.
quadrupole interaction is slight. A cross-section of the
longitudinal electric field distribution in the cavity
midplane normal to the beam axis is shown in Figure 4.
98
TBA studies. PIVAIR operated as a test stand thus will
2.3 Observation Of Bunching Characteristics provide a valuable resource in the effort to examine beam
An optical diagnostic based on Cerenkov emission will dynamics and to test designs of beamline components for
be used to measure the bunching characteristics. The a high frequency RK-TBA. Of particular concern are the
beam is stopped by a movable, fused-silica target. A rf output structures and induction modules in the Main
gated CCD camera and a fast streak camera (2-ps TBA section. Prototypes may be designed and then tested
resolution) will be used to collect and analyze a small part on the PIVAIR beamline, once a modulated beam is
of the visible Cerenkov light. Figure 6 shows an example present.
of the streak camera output, clearly displaying the
bunching. 4 CONCLUSIONS
Current experiments are studying the beam-cavity
interaction in RK-TBAs at frequencies around 30GHz,
ostensibly extending the utility of RK-TBA power
sources to higher frequencies and to higher peak output
power levels. These studies will enable us to more
accurately predict and model beam dynamics in a large
scale driver for a multi-TeV electron-positron linear
collider.
Figure. 6. Streak images of 35GHz bunches. 5 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We wish to thank our collaborators in the CLIC group
3 TESTS ON PIVAIR at CERN, and Colin Johnson and Walter Wuensch in
The PIVAIR induction linac generates a nominal 7.2- particular, for their work in constructing the output
MeV, 3-kA, 60-ns beam. These values make it very cavities. SML also wishes to thank Warner Bruns for the
attractive as an injector for a 30-GHz RK-TBA system to time spent on extra development of the code GdfidL,
power a multi-TeV linear collider. A preliminary point which was used considerably in the cavity design. Work
design for a multi-TeV-scale linear collider system using in the U.S. was performed under the auspices of the U.S.
an RK-TBA driver and operating at 30 GHz has already Department of Energy by LBNL under contract AC03-
been presented [7]. The RK-TBA drive beam 76SF00098, and by LLNL under contract W-7405-ENG-
architecture is shown in Figure 7. 48.
6 REFERENCES
7.2 M eV 10 M eV 10 M eV 2 M eV [1] J.P. Delahaye, et. al., “A 3 to 5 TeV Linear Collider
at 30 GHz”, Proceedings of VII International
Workshop on Linear Colliders, Zvenigorod, Russia,
1.5 kA FEL A d iabatic A fter-
In jector cap ture M ain TBA bu rner Sept. 29-Oct. 3, 1997.
[2] T.L. Houck, et. al., “Scaling the TBNLC collider
In jectio n, M odu lation,
design to higher frequencies”, Proceedings of
P ow er E xtraction B eam LINAC96, CERN, August 1-5, 1996, 396-398
& C ond itio nin g D um p
50 0 M W /m (1996).
[3] G.A. Westenskow, et. al., “RTA Gun Performance”,
Figure 7. 30-GHz RKTBA architecture. these proceedings.
[4] J. Gardelle, et. al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 76, 4532 (1996).
The front end of the drive beam injector for the Main [5] J. Gardelle, et. al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 79, 3905 (1997).
TBA is composed of an electron gun and accelerator [6] K. Halbach and R. Holsinger, Part. Acc. 7, 213
(‘Injector’), a free electron laser (‘FEL’) to provide the (1976); T. Weiland, Nucl. Inst. Meth. Phys. A216,
modulation, and an ‘Adiabatic capture’ section to provide 329 (1983);W. Bruns, IEEE Trans. Magn., 32, n. 3,
for bunch compression, additional acceleration, and other (1996).
pulse conditioning. This latter effect may include shaping [7] S. Yu, “30-GHz, 200-MV/m Relativistic Klystron
of the front-end current profile to provide a ramped Two-Beam Accelerator”, Proceedings of VII
current pulse. Power extraction and reacceleration then International Workshop on Linear Colliders,
occurs in the Main TBA section. Zvenigorod, Russia, Sept. 29-Oct. 3, 1997.
A current proposal [8] seeks to use PIVAIR for TBA- [8] J. Gardelle, et. al., “Proposal to use PIVAIR as a 30-
related studies. An FEL to provide 30GHz modulation is GHz High-Power Generator”, these proceedings.
to be constructed, followed by a beamline to support
99
HIGH CHARGE SHORT ELECTRON BUNCHES FOR WAKEFIELD
ACCELERATOR STRUCTURES DEVELOPMENT*
M.E. Conde, W. Gai, R. Konecny, J.G. Power, P. Schoessow
Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, Illinois 60439 USA
generating low charge short electron bunches
Abstract
synchronized with the drive bunches (witness gun), and
The Argonne Wakefield Accelerator group develops (iii) an experimental section for wakefield measurements,
accelerating structures based on dielectric loaded in which the witness beam is accelerated by wakefields
waveguides. We use high charge short electron bunches generated by the drive beam. We have obtained electron
to excite wakefields in dielectric loaded structures, and a bunches of 10 - 100 nC with FWHM of 10 - 40 ps, which
second (low charge) beam to probe the wakefields left have been used for initial wakefield experiments in both
behind by the drive beam. We report measurements of dielectric loaded structures [1] and plasmas [2]. These
beam parameters and also initial results of the dielectric unprecedented high-charge short-electron bunches, allied
loaded accelerating structures. We have studied with the uniqueness of having two photocathode RF guns
acceleration of the probe beam in these structures and we with adjustable delay between their beams, make AWA
have also made measurements on the RF pulses that are an ideal facility for the study of electron beam driven
generated by the drive beam. Single drive bunches, as wakefield acceleration.
well as multiple bunches separated by an integer number
of RF periods have been used to generate the accelerating 2 AWA ELECTRON GUNS AND LINAC
wakefields. STRUCTURES
Figure 1 shows a schematic of the AWA layout. The
1 INTRODUCTION
half-cell drive gun was designed to have a high
accelerating field (92 MV/m at the photocathode surface)
In order to study and demonstrate the wakefield to allow the extraction of high charge electron bunches,
acceleration scheme and also the two beam acceleration and to produce a 2 MeV beam with the limited RF power
concept, we have designed and constructed a facility available at the design time (1.5 MW at 1.3 GHz) [3]. The
called Argonne Wakefield Accelerator (AWA). The high intensity of the accelerating field in the gun permits
AWA consists of three major components: (i) a the generation and acceleration of short electron bunches,
photocathode based RF electron gun capable of without having to rely on magnetic pulse compression.
producing up to 100 nC (drive gun) followed by two Magnesium was chosen to be the photocathode material
standing wave linac sections for post acceleration, (ii) a -4
for its ruggedness and quantum efficiency (5×10 ). The 2
second photocathode based RF electron gun capable of MeV bunches generated by the drive gun subsequently
S S S
I4 Q Q Q D C6
Witness Gun C7
Q C8
Q
Q Test Section
S S S D D D
C1 C2 Q Q Q C3 Q Q Q C5 I3 Q
I1 I2 C4
Drive Gun Linac Tanks Spectrometer
Figure 1: Schematic of the AWA experimental setup: S, Q, and D indicate solenoids, quadrupoles, and dipoles,
respectively; the four integrating current transformers are labeled I1 through I4; the eight diagnostic ports are labeled
C1 through C8.
________________
*Work supported by the Department of Energy, Division of High Energy Physics, under contract W-31-109-ENG-38.
100
pass through two standing-wave, π/2 mode linac tanks MeV electrons. The light is then reflected by a mirror and
(shunt impedance of 21.5 MΩ/m), increasing the beam leaves the vacuum chamber through a diagnostic view
energy to about 14 MeV. The linac structures have large port.
irises (10.16 cm diameter) to minimize the generation of Figure 2 shows measurements of pulse length as a
wakefields by the propagation of the high charge drive function of bunch charge. In these plots the charge was
bunches [4]. The beam is then focused by quadrupoles measured by the integrating current transformer I1 (see
and bent by three dipoles to allow for the injection of Fig. 1), and the bunch length was measured using the
both the drive beam and the witness beam into the aerogel radiator and the streak camera. In Fig. 2a we
wakefield experimental section. The witness gun [5] is a show a detailed charge scan in the range 15 - 35 nC and
6-cell standing-wave π/2 mode structure that generates 4 the corresponding FWHM of the pulses; many pulses
MeV bunches of 300 pC. Its photocathode material is were measured in this range and then binned in groups of
copper. The witness beam goes through combining 51. The plot shows the average value of charge and
optics and then through the wakefield device (plasma or bunch length for seven bins, indicating that in this charge
dielectric structure) trailing the drive beam, thereby range the pulse length is almost constant, fluctuating
probing the wakefields excited by the drive bunches. between 15 and 20 ps. The plot in Fig. 2b shows a charge
Energy changes of the witness beam are measured by a scan over a much wider range, but each point in this
spectrometer magnet located downstream of the graph is the average of only three pulses. We have plotted
wakefield experimental section. the FWHM of the bunch lengths and also the 95% RMS
The two RF guns and the two linac structures are values (this was calculated taking into account only the
powered by a single klystron (Thomson TH2022D; 24 section of the pulse profile with intensity within 95% of
MW, 4 µs pulses), via necessary power splitters and the peak value, with the purpose of discarding the effect
phase shifters. The laser system is comprised of a dye of the small background noise at the wings of the
oscillator (496 nm) pumped by a tripled YAG, which is distribution). The ratio between the 95% RMS and the
then followed by a dye amplifier, a doubling crystal and FWHM values shows that the pulses are not gaussian.
finally an excimer amplifier. This laser is capable of The large fluctuation in the FWHM of the pulses also
producing up to 8 mJ with 6 ps FWHM at 248 nm. The shows that the detailed shape of the temporal profile
laser beam is then split and a small fraction of it (~ 15%) varies considerably from pulse to pulse. In all of these
sent to the witness gun. There is an adjustable delay bunch length measurements the changes in bunch charge
between the drive gun and the witness gun laser beams. are accomplished by varying the laser pulse energy
This allows us to vary the delay between the drive and the (either by purposely attenuating the laser beam, or due to
witness electron bunches (obviously the RF phases have
to be adjusted accordingly, in order to maintain the same 40
FWHM bunch length (ps)
launching phase).
20
3 DIAGNOSTICS AND BEAM
CHARACTERIZATION
(a)
There are four integrating current transformers (Bergoz 0
ICT - 082-070-20:1) installed on the beamlines to 0 20 40
measure bunch charge at various locations as indicated in bunch charge (nC)
Fig. 1. Bunch length measurements [6] are performed
60
using radiation emitted by the electron beam as it passes FWHM
through a Cerenkov radiator. The Cerenkov light is sent 95% RMS
bunch length (ps)
to a Hamamatsu M1952/C1587 streak camera for pulse 40
length measurements. Insertable quartz or aerogel plates
are used as Cerenkov radiators. The aerogels require a 20
more elaborate holder than the quartz plates, but offer (b)
several advantages. The aerogels need to be in a vacuum- 0
tight holder which is inserted in the beam path. The 0 40 80 120
electron beam enters our holder through a thin aluminum bunch charge (nC)
window (0.15 mm). It then traverses the aerogel (under
atmospheric pressure) and emits Cerenkov radiation, Figure 2: Measurements of electron bunch length as a
which leaves the aerogel holder through a quartz window. function of bunch charge: (a) detailed pulse length
Our aerogels have an index of refraction of 1.009, measurement in the 15 - 35 nC range; (b) measurement
therefore the Cerenkov light is emitted at an angle of over a wider range of charges, each point represents the
7.4° with respect to the direction of propagation of the 14 average of three pulses.
101
the natural fluctuations in the laser power); when the transformer configuration. The drive beam generates an
change in the emitted bunch charge is large, it becomes RF pulse as it passes through one of the structures. This
necessary to readjust the solenoids and RF phases to RF pulse is coupled to the second dielectric structure (via
compensate for the changes in the space charge forces. a waveguide) where the witness beam is accelerated. The
second tube has the same fundamental frequency but
lower group velocity and transverse dimensions, thus
4 WAKEFIELD MEASUREMENTS providing an accelerating field step-up by compressing
the RF pulse. Multiple drive bunches can be used, spaced
We can map out the wakefields in a dielectric loaded
by an integral multiple of the RF period, to provide a long
structure by varying the delay between the drive bunch
accelerating pulse. Another advantage of having two
and the probe (witness) bunch. By measuring the change
separate dielectric structures is that the drive structure can
in energy of the witness beam, we obtain a direct
be designed with sufficiently low transverse impedance to
measurement of the wake potential. This detailed
avoid beam breakup problems.
mapping of the wakefields [1] was performed in a
We have recently been designing and building
structure consisting of a hollow borosilicate glass
dielectric wakefield transformers [7] operating at 7.8 GHz
cylinder (ε ∼ 4) with inner radius of 5.0 mm and outer
and also at 15.6 GHz. We have also succeeded in
radius of 7.7 mm. Figure 3 shows the wake potential as
generating multiple drive bunches, by optically splitting
measured from the energy change of the centroid of the
and appropriately delaying the laser pulse to the drive
witness beam as a function of the delay between the two
gun. Figure 4 shows the envelope of the RF macropulse
bunches. The largest energy shift of the centroid is about
generated by a bunch train consisting of 4 bunches
2.5 MeV/m (for drive bunches of 11 nC). Because the 2.5
separated by 3.077 µs.
mm FWHM length of the witness beam is a significant
fraction of the wavelength of the wakefield (in this 2.5
specific case the wakefield has an RF frequency of 15
GHz), the actual gradient is larger than the gradient 2.0
measured from the witness beam centroid change in
RF power (MW)
energy. By comparing the data with numerical 1.5
simulations convolved with a Gaussian witness bunch
shape, a true gradient of 3.6 MeV/m is inferred. 1.0
Additional optimization of the laser injection phase and
beamline magnet settings resulted in a gradient of 0.5
approximately 6 MeV/m with a 20 nC drive beam
intensity. 0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50
time (ns)
Figure 4: RF macropulse envelope for train of four drive
bunches in a 7.8 GHz structure.
6 REFERENCES
[1] P. Schoessow et al., J. Appl. Phys. 84, 663 (1998).
[2] N. Barov et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 80, 81 (1998).
[3] W. Gai et al., Proceedings of PAC89, Chicago, IL,
612 (1989).
[4] E. Chojnacki et al., Proceedings of PAC93,
Washington, D.C., 815 (1993).
[5] J.G. Power et al., Rev. Sci. Instrum. 69, 1295 (1998).
[6] M.E. Conde et al., submitted to Phys. Rev. Special
Figure 3: Wake potential measurement for a 15 GHz
Topics - Accelerators and Beams.
dielectric structure. Each data point is the change in the
[7] M.E. Conde et al., submitted to Proceedings of
bend view centroid of the witness beam at the
Advanced Accelerator Concepts, Baltimore, MD,
spectrometer 60° port.
(1998).
5 DIELECTRIC WAKEFIELD
TRANSFORMER
There are advantages in building a dielectric wakefield
accelerator with two separate dielectric structures, in a
102
*
LASER SYSTEM FOR A SUBPICOSECOND ELECTRON LINAC
R. A. Crowell, C. D. Jonah, A. D. Trifunac, and J. Qian
Chemistry Division
Argonne National Laboratory,
Argonne, Illinois 60439 USA
Abstract • The UV pump and the probe laser pulses must be
synchronized to the RF of the accelerator to within
At the Argonne Chemistry Division efforts are .5ps
underway to develop a sub-picosecond electron beam • Development of novel, sensitive and specific
pulse radiolysis facility for chemical studies. The target detection techniques to make the fullest use of the
output of the accelerator is to generate electron pulses that potential information.
can be adjusted from 3nC in .6ps to 100nC in 45ps. In
For the photocathode the laser must provide high
conjunction with development of the accelerator a state-
energy UV (~260nm) pulses that can be varied in energy
of-the-art ultrafast laser system is under construction that
from .1mJ to 3mJ. The low UV pulse energy corresponds
will drive the linac’s photocathode and provide probe
to operation of the accelerator in the low charge short
pulses that are tunable from the UV to IR spectral regions.
pulse mode (i.e., 3nC, .6ps), while the high UV pulse
energy corresponds to operation in the long pulse high
1 INTRODUCTION charge mode (i.e., 45ps, 100nC) mode. In addition to
From the start time-resolved investigations of fast variable UV pulse energy the UV pulsewidth must be
chemical processes have been part of radiation chemical made variable from 5ps to 60ps. Some of the laser
studies. Recent advances in accelerator technology are pulsewidth and energy requirements are summarized in
making it possible to generate subpicosecond electron Table 1.
pulses. Additionally, solid state laser development is To make use of the full capabilities of the experimental
making it more routine to generate subpicosecond optical system, the laser must also produce pulses with less than
pulses. A merging of these two technologies will provide 0.1 ps duration with enough energy (~1mJ) to pump a
an invaluable tool for probing ultrafast radiation induced series of widely tunable optical parametric amplifiers that
processes. In this contribution the development of a state- will provide probing wavelengths from the UV to IR
of-the-art laser system that will be capable of both driving spectral regions. The laser is to operate from single shot
the photocathode of a subpicosecond linac and to 60 Hz with a pulse-to-pulse jitter less than .5ps with
simultaneously and provide a widely tunable (UV to mid- respect to a 1.3 GHz master clock. Minimization of the
IR) stroboscopic detection capability will be described jitter is the is the most crucial and difficult aspect of the
laser design.
2 FEMTOSECOND LASER SYSTEM
Table 1: Laser Energy and Pulsewidth Specifications
2.1 Femtosecond Laser System Linac Charge Laser Laser Pulse
In order to generate subpicosecond electron pulses a Pulsewidth Pulsewidth Energy
state-of-the-art laser systems must be developed to drive .6ps 3nC 5ps .1mJ
the photocathode. The accelerator under consideration at
Argonne National Laboratory requires the laser operate 3.0ps 10nC 15ps .3mJ
within very strict specifications[1]. The following key
problems must be addressed: 8.0ps 50nC 45ps 1.5mJ
• Development of an intense (>3mJ) 5ps UV laser
pulse that is needed to drive the photocathode. 45ps 100nC 60ps 3mJ
• A .1ps probe pulse must be derived from the
same laser and be independently tunable from the UV to
the IR.
2.2 Generation of Intense UV Laser Pulses
________________ A block diagram of the laser amplification scheme is
* Work performed under the auspices of the Office of shown on the following page. Briefly, a diode-pumped
Basic Energy Sciences, Division of Chemical Science,
frequency-doubled Nd:YVO laser will be used to pump
US-DOE under contract number W-31-109-ENG-38.
a femtosecond Ti:Sapphire (Ti:S) laser that will produce a
103
81.25MHz pulsetrain of 3nJ 50fs pulses centered at towards the optical parametric amplifiers while directing
800nm. The 50fs pulses will be passed through a grating the third harmonic towards the linac cathode. Before
pulse stretcher which will increase the pulsewidth to illumination of the photocathode the UV will be
500ps. This will reduce the peak power of the laser temporally stretched by passing it through several
pulses enough to prevent optical damage in the following centimeters of suprasil. The pathlength of the suprasil
two stages of amplification (chirped pulse amplification). will be determined by the amount of UV pulse stretching
After the stretcher a polarizer-Pockels cell-polarizer that is required for the desired electron pulse charge and
combination will be used to select pulses out of the pulsewidth (see Table 1).
81.25MHz pulse train at 60Hz (linac repetition rate).
81.25MHz
The first preamplifier stage (AMP1) is a multipass (8 From Ti:S
Oscillator
pass) Ti:S amplifier that will produce ~5mJ pulses at
800nm[2]. AMP1 is pumped with 50mJ pulses from a
high power Nd:YAG laser (HP Nd:YAG). The output of
BBO
60Hz
AMP1 will be used to seed a power amplifier (AMP2)
From AMP2
that will boost the energy up to >100mJ. AMP2 is also a
multipass amplifier (4 pass) and will be pumped by
450mJ from a HP Nd:YAG laser.
Variable Crosscorrelation
Optical Delay Signal
Feedback Detector
Electronics
Fig. 2. Thermal drift compensation of the Ti:S amplifiers
using the crosscorrelation technique. BBO (beta barium
borate) is a nonlinear frequency mixing crystal. See text
for details.
2.3 Minimization of Jitter
To generate .6ps electron pulses from a photocathode
driven linac it is necessary to synchronize the phase of the
RF that drives the photocathode and the UV laser pulses
to within .5ps[1] of each other. The master clock for the
RF will operate at a frequency of 1.3GHz. Expected
sources for loss of synchronization will come from a
variety of sources. Most importantly will be, drifting in
the output frequency of the Ti:S oscillator, slow thermal
drifting in the optical components, mechanical vibrations,
and air currents.
The 16th subharmonic (81.25MHz) of the master
clock will be used as a reference frequency for the Ti:S
oscillator. Using commercially available electronics
(Spectra Physics, Mountain View, CA) it is possible to
reduce the jitter/synchronization out of the Ti:S oscillator
to better than .1ps rms.
During the amplification process the synchronization
Fig. 1. Block diagram of the amplified femtosecond laser will degrade due to the slow thermal drifting of the
system. See text for details. optical components and vibrations that result from
mechanical and audio interference. To reduce effect of
The amplifier output will be compressed in a standard the slow thermal expansion and contraction of the optical
grating pulse compressor to <.1ps and passed through a components the pathlength that the laser pulse travels
series of specially designed nonlinear crystals to generate through the amplifier must be minimized. This dictated
the third harmonic at 260nm. The UV pulse energy is the choice to use a multipass amplifier design rather that a
expected to exceed the required maximum of 3mJ. more efficient regenerative amplifier for AMP1. A
Dichroic mirrors will be used after the harmonic multipass amplifier should reduce the path length by
conversion step to divert the residual fundamental ~20m relative to a regenerative amplifier.
104
Compensation for slow thermal drifts will be actively the role of vibrational dynamics, the structural selectivity
achieved by passing the pulse out of the amplifiers of infrared spectroscopy can be used to follow the
through a stepper motor/piezo driven optical delay that progression of and identification of transient species. To
will compensate for thermal drifts on a shot-to-shot basis this extent we have recently developed a unique optical
(see Figure 2). The error signal for driving the optical parametric amplifier based on potassium niobate that is
delay will be derived from the crosscorrelation between tunable throughout the chemically important 2.5-5.5
the Ti:S oscillator and the output of AMP2 in a BBO micron spectral region.
crystal. This technique has been previously used to Other new types of detection under development
maintain subpicosecond synchronization between a Ti:S include time resolved coherent spectroscopy (e.g., CARS,
amplifier and an infrared optical parameteric amplifier[3]. transient grating spectroscopy, photon echo
Specially designed optical tables and evacuated beam spectroscopy), and time-resolved resonance Raman
tubes will minimize the sensitivity of the system to spectroscopy. Such techniques will provide new
mechanical vibrations. information on energy levels, lifetimes of transient
species, collisional processes, coupling strengths, and
Laser Pulse diffusion processes.
.1ps
Laser Pulse Photocathode
Stretcher
4 SUMMARY
Generation of A femtosecond laser system for driving a
.2-6µm Photons
subpicosecond photocathode electron linac has been
Accelerator
Variable Optical Delay Cavity described. The main design criteria center around the
necessity to achieve .5ps synchronization between the
high energy UV pulses and the phase of the RF that
drives the photocathode. As a consequence of the
synchronization between the linac and the laser a wide
variety of sensitive detection schemes now become
15MeV
.6ps, 3nC
Compression available for probing radiation induced chemical events
Magnet
Sample on fast timescales.
5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Fig. 3. Block diagram depicting a typical electron linac
pump/laser probe experiment. We gratefully acknowledge the input from Drs. Illya
Shkrob, D. M. Bartels, and D. Werst in the preparation of
this manuscript.
3 CONSEQUENCES OF LASER
SYNCHRONIZATION 6 REFERENCES
A significant advantage of this system is that the laser
that “drives” the photocathode is inherently synchronized [1] “Argonne National Laboratory CHM Linac Upgrade
with the electron pulse, with very little jitter in the Study Final Report,” Northrop Grumman, Princeton,
synchronization. This fact translates into considerable NJ, March 30, 1998.
improvements in sensitivity and capabilities for detection [2] P.Georges, F. Estable, F. Salin, “A High-Efficiency
schemes. Figure 3 shows a the setup for a typical Multipass Ti:Sapphire Amplifier for a Continuous
pump/probe experiment in which the subpicosecond Wave Single Mode Laser,” Optics Lett., 16, 144
electron linac acts as pump source to initiate a (1991).
radiological event that is subsequently probed by a laser [3] R. A. Crowell, G. R. Holtom, and X. S. Xie, “A High
pulse. Repitition Rate Femtosecond Optical Parametric
Detection schemes can now be based on laser produced Oscillator-Amplifier System Near 3 Microns,” J.
interrogating light pulses as opposed to linac produced Amer. Optic. Soc. B, 12, 1723 (1995).
light pulses (Cerenkov radiation) that are presently used.
Thus, the intensity and wavelength range will be available
to develop new detection schemes for examination of
transient species that are impossible to study at this time.
A new type of detection that will become available is
transient infrared spectroscopy, which can be used to
determine the role of excess thermal energy and
vibrational energy transfer in radiation chemistry. In
addition to providing a window through which to view
105
FEASIBILITY STUDY OF A 2 GEV SUPERCONDUCTING H– LINAC AS
INJECTOR FOR THE CERN PS
R. Garoby, H. Haseroth, C.E. Hill, A.M. Lombardi, P.N. Ostroumov∗, J.M. Tessier∗∗, M. Vretenar
PS Division, CERN, CH 1211 Geneva 23, Switzerland
(∗: on leave of absence from INR, Moscow, Russia ∗∗: SL Division)
Abstract Other potential applications of this facility at a higher
duty cycle justify the use of SC cavities. They include:
This preliminary feasibility study is based on the 1) neutron production with a spallation target, using the
availability of the CERN LEP2 superconducting RF PS as an accumulator ring; 2) feeding a second
system after LEP de-commissioning. The option that is generation ISOL facility for the production of radioactive
–
explored is to use this system as part of a high energy H ion beams; and 3) any physics application requiring
linac injecting at 2 GeV into the CERN PS, with the aim intense secondary beams.
of reliably providing at its output twice the presently A small study group has concentrated on the main
foreseen transverse beam brightness at the ultimate accelerator technology topics and on the most promising
intensity envisaged for LHC. This requires the linac to be scenario. A first report indicating the feasibility of such a
pulsed at the PS repetition rate of 0.8 Hz with a mean facility is being prepared [6].
beam current of 10 mA which is sufficient for filling the
PS in 240 µs (i.e. about 100 turns) with the ultimate 2 PARAMETERS AND LAYOUT
intensity foreseen for injection for the LHC.
The Superconducting Proton Linac, SPL, (Figure 1) is
The linac is composed of two RFQs with a chopping –
made of an H source, two RFQs with a chopper in
section, a room temperature DTL, a superconducting
between, a Drift Tube Linac up to 100 MeV and a
section with reduced beta cavities up to 1 GeV, and a
superconducting section up to 2 GeV. The main design
section of LEP2 cavities up to 2 GeV. This study deals, in
– parameters are given in Tables 1 and 2.
particular, with the problems inherent in H acceleration
up to high energy and in the pulsed operation of SC
Table 1: Linac Beam Parameters
cavities. Means for compensating microphonic vibrations
13
in the SC cavities are considered, with the aim of Number of Particles / PS Pulse 1.5 10
reducing the final overall energy spread to the tight Mean Linac Current during Pulse 10 mA
requirements for injection into a synchrotron. Other Pulse Length 250 µs
possible applications of such a machine are also briefly Repetition Rate 0.83 Hz
reviewed, that make use of its potential for working at a Filling Factor of Linac Buckets ½
higher duty cycle than required for LHC alone. N. of Linac Bunches per PS Bucket 11
SPL Micropulse (11 bunches) 59.6 ns
Chopping Factor 46 %
1 INTRODUCTION Mean Bunch Current 37 mA
Most of the RF equipment of the CERN LEP-2 will be (in an RF period, for a full bucket)
available after the year 2000. Among the possible re-uses Source Current 20 mA
of this valuable hardware [1-4] the realisation of a 2 GeV Beam Duty Cycle (for PS filling) 0.021 %
Linac injector for the PS is an attractive option with Maximum Design Duty Cycle 5 %
many benefits with respect to the present scheme for Maximum Average Current 500 µA
LHC injection [5]. Transverse Emittance, source exit, rms 0.2 µm
As a result of the smaller emittance of the Linac beam Transverse Emittance, PS input, rms 0.6 µm
and of the higher injection energy into the PS (at present Longitudinal Emittance (5 rms) 3 °MeV
1.4 GeV), the LHC would profit from an increased
brightness of the proton beam delivered by the PS H- RFQ1 RFQ2
DTL SC- reduced β SC - LEP2
injector complex. The peak beam intensity in the PS source chopper
to PS
could be improved as well by filling the entire aperture.
Beam losses would be reduced by the efficient charge
exchange injection in the transverse planes, and by the
chopped beam in the longitudinal phase plane. The 0.05 2 7 100 1000 2000 Energy [MeV]
injectors of the PS could be modernised and re-built with
8m 100m 372m 407m 208m
standardised equipment, with advantages in terms of
reliability and maintenance. Figure 1: Schematic layout of the Linac.
106
Table 2: Linac structure parameters. is accelerated to 2 MeV by a 176.1 MHz RFQ. The beam
is then chopped and injected, filling every other bucket,
Wout Freq. #of Power # of Length into an RFQ at double frequency (352.2 MHz), which
[MeV] [MHz] cav. [MW] klyst [m]
brings the beam energy to 7 MeV. Matching to and from
RFQ1 2 176.1 1 0.45 - 2.3 the chopper is performed by dedicated sections integrated
RFQ2 7 352.2 1 0.5 1 4
in the first and second RFQ respectively.
DTL 100 352.2 29 5.8 6 99
A distance of 1.6 m is provided between the RFQs to
SC - 1027 352.2 152 13 19 372
house a wide-band electrostatic chopper of the BNL
red. β
SC - 2000 352.2 136 14.2 17 407
design [7] and some diagnostics. The chopper voltage
LEP2 required is 1.7 kV, and, to avoid partially filled buckets
Line 2000 352.2 1 - - 208 in the Linac, a 4.2 ns rise time is required: should it be
Total 43 1094 too challenging, a chopper/antichopper line will be
chosen.
The DTL has been divided in two sections. The first
13
The facility is designed to provide 1.4 10 particles at one (7-20 MeV) consists of one standard Alvarez tank,
the exit of the PS, corresponding to the LHC beam-beam with FODO focusing. The second, up to 100 MeV, is of
limit (“ultimate beam”). For a mean linac current of the separated-focusing DTL type, made of 28 8-cell tanks
10 mA, this number of particles can be obtained by separated by 3 βλ drifts containing a quadrupole triplet.
injecting 110 turns into the PS, with a linac pulse length This structure offers higher shunt impedance and simpler
of ~250 µs. For the PS repetition period of 1.2 sec, the mechanical construction than a standard DTL. Triplet
resulting linac beam duty cycle is only 0.021%. The focusing is preferred because of the resulting round beam
injection energy into the PS, 2 GeV, has been chosen to inside the tank, which minimises the emittance growth
use most of the existing LEP equipment, to improve due to RF defocusing. The transmission of the room
transverse beam stability in the PS and to profit from the temperature part is 99% (without taking into account
high accelerating efficiency of the LEP cavities at high stripping losses after the source) and the transverse
energies. emittance increase is 10%.
The LEP RF frequency of 352.2 MHz is also used for
most of the room temperature section. A significant 4 SUPERCONDUCTING SECTION
number of klystrons with their power distribution systems
The superconducting part of the Linac consists of four
can therefore be recovered, and a standard RF system can
different sections, with cavities optimised for beta 0.48,
be used throughout the linac.
0.6, 0.8 and 1. LEP-2 standard cavities (β=1) and
Due to the low duty cycle, the SC cavities need to be
cryostats are used between 1 and 2 GeV, while 5-cell
pulsed to minimise heat dissipation and wall plug power.
cavities optimised for β=0.8 would be built and installed
The linac is foreseen for a beam duty cycle of 5%: up to
in the existing LEP-2 cryostats to cover the energy range
this value the cryogenic system is dimensioned mainly to
between 450 MeV and 1 GeV [3]. Two additional
handle static losses and RF pulsing has no impact on the
sections of 4-cell cavities optimised for β=0.48 and
cryoplant. The main additional investment for this duty
β=0.625, arranged in shorter cryostats, cover the energy
cycle comes from the shielding needed to cope with the
range between 100 MeV and 200 MeV, and between 200
higher activation due to losses in the linac.
and 450 MeV respectively. A development program is
The relative particle loss at 2 GeV and 5% duty must
–6 underway at CERN for the production of reduced-β
be smaller than 10 /m to allow hands-on maintenance;
(β=0.5 to 0.8) cavities with the niobium on copper
this is not a strong design constraint as a large fraction of
technique [8]. In case the sputtering is not be feasible, the
the halo particles are transported through the large
lowest beta cavities would be made of bulk niobium and
aperture of the SC cavities (>20 cm) and can be properly
the DTL energy increased up to 150 MeV. The layout of
removed before PS injection.
the superconducting part is given in Table 3.
An important design constraint is the high beam
brightness needed by the LHC: this requires an emittance
Table 3: Layout of the superconducting section.
of 0.2 µm from the source because a factor 3 blow-up
between the source and the PS has been conservatively Sec. Cryo klyst Cavi cells output length RF
assumed to account for space-charge, mismatch, and stats rons ties / energy power
misalignment effects. cav. [MeV] [m] [MW]
1 8 4 32 4 191 58 1.3
3 ROOM TEMPERATURE SECTION 2 14 7 56 4 452 126 3.7
3 16 8 64 5 1027 188 8.0
The room temperature section is composed of a front- 4 34 17 136 4 2041 407 14.2
end (source, RFQs, chopper) injecting into a Drift Tube
tot. 72 36 288 779 27.2
Linac (DTL). The 20 mA beam coming from the source
107
This layout makes use of 34 LEP2 4-cavity modules the rms energy variation is 0.3% (6 MeV). The energy
with their cryostats, i.e. 53% of the 68 installed in LEP. jitter can be reduced to ± 3 MeV (total), by an energy-
Including the cryostats used for the β=0.8 cavities, only correcting cavity placed 200 m downstream, resulting in
50 cryostats would be re-used, leaving some margin for a good match to the PS bucket.
reaching a higher linac energy if needed.
40
Due to the pulsed mode of operation, static cryogenic
losses will dominate. Assuming a static loss of 180 W per 30
4-cavity module as in LEP [9], the 72 cryostats of the
20
SPL would have an overall static loss of 13 kW, i.e.
slightly more than the cooling capacity of a LEP-type 10
∆W (MeV)
cryoplant (12 kW).
0
The mean field used in this design is 6 MV/m although -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
operation at a higher gradient should be possible in -10
pulsed mode. The focusing for the superconducting -20
section is provided by a doublet (two 400-mm long
quadrupoles spaced by 100 mm) placed outside each -30
cryostat. It has so far been optimised for zero current. For -40
40 mA the emittance increase is 45%, coming from the
∆φ (deg)
long focusing period at low (<1 GeV) energy and from
mismatches between the different sections. A new layout Figure 2: Relative position of the bunch centre in the
for the low energy part and a more accurate matching longitudinal plane at 2 GeV for 500 random error
should reduce the emittance blow-up. distributions.
5 ENERGY STABILITY 6 REFERENCES
Mechanical vibrations in the SC cavities change their [1] R. Corsini, A. Hoffmann, “Considerations on an FEL
resonant frequency, leading to oscillations of the bunch based on LEP superconducting cavities”, CERN/PS
in the longitudinal phase plane and finally to a pulse-to- 96-04.
pulse jitter in the mean bunch output energy. The effect [2] C.Rubbia, J.A.Rubio, “A tentative program towards
of the vibrations can be greatly reduced by a self-excited a full scale energy amplifier”, CERN/LHC 96-11.
loop and an RF feedback of the cavity voltage. For the [3] D. Boussard, E. Chiaveri, G. Geschonke,
SPL, a feedback scheme and calculation tools originally J. Tuckmantel, “Preliminary Parameters of a Proton
developed for the TESLA project [10] have been adapted Linac using the LEP 2 RF System when
for a proton beam. Since the correction is applied at the Decommissioned”, SL-RF Technical Note 96-4.
klystron input, the beam motion cannot be compensated [4] C. Pagani, G. Bellomo, P. Pierini, “A high Current
completely when the klystron feeds several cavities as is Linac with 352 MHz SC Cavities”, Proceedings of
the 1996 Linac Conference, Geneva, p. 107.
the case in the SPL (8 cavities per klystron). In the
[5] R. Garoby, M. Vretenar, “Proposal for a 2 GeV
simulations, the gains of the regulation loops are set to
Linac Injector for the CERN PS”, PS/RF/Note 96-27.
100 and 500 respectively for the amplitude and for the [6] G. Bollen, D. Boussard, R. Cappi, R. Garoby,
phase. 20 % extra power is required for the amplitude H. Haseroth, C.E. Hill, P. Knaus, A. Lombardi,
loop and 20% for the phase loop. M. Martini, P.N. Ostroumov, J.M. Tessier,
The effect of the Lorentz detuning at 6 MV/m field is M. Vretenar, “Report of the Study Group on the
very small: the cavity phase can be cancelled by the Superconducting Proton Linac as a PS Injector”,
feedback loops when the beam is injected, and the CERN/PS, in preparation.
corresponding peak-to-peak energy error at 2 GeV is only [7] J.M. Brennan, L. Ahrens, J. Alessi, J. Brodowski, J.
0.006 MeV. Kats, “A Fast Chopper for Programmed Population
The effect of mechanical vibrations has been studied of the Longitudinal Phase Space of the AGS
assuming a pessimistic maximum cavity-to-cavity Booster”, Proc. of the 1988 EPAC, Rome, p. 1003.
variation in resonant frequency of ± 40 Hz. The motions [8] C.Benvenuti, D.Boussard, S.Calatroni, E.Chiaveri,
of the beam centre and the energy and phase errors at J. Tückmantel, “Production and Test of 352 MHz
Niobium Sputtered Reduced-Beta Cavities”, CERN-
linac exit have been calculated for 500 uniform random
SL 97-63 RF.
distributions of frequency errors. The scatter in the [9] G.Geschonke, “Superconducting Structures for High
position of the beam centre in the longitudinal plane at Intensity Linac Applications”, Proceedings of the
2 GeV is shown in Figure 2. 1996 Linac Conference, Geneva, p. 910.
Inside the single pulses, energy and phase are very [10] J.M. Tessier, “Field Stabilisation in Superconducting
stable (the period of the mechanical vibrations is much Cavities in Pulsed Mode”, Ph.D. Thesis, Paris XI,
longer than the pulse length), while from pulse to pulse Orsay 1996.
108
RECENT PROGRESS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF A CIRCULAR ION
INDUCTION ACCELERATOR FOR SPACE CHARGE DOMINATED
BEAMS AT LLNL*
L. Ahle, T. C. Sangster, D. Autrey, J. Barnard, G. Craig, A. Friedman, D. P. Grote,
E. Halaxa, R. L. Hanks, M. Hernandez, H. C. Kirbie, B. G. Logan, S. M. Lund,
G. Mant, A. W. Molvik, W. M. Sharp
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA 94551 USA
D. Berners**, S. Eylon, D. L. Judd, L. Reginato
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720 USA
A. Debeling, W. Fritz
Bechtel Nevada Corporation, Las Vegas, NV 89193 USA
Abstract
2 THE RECIRCULATOR
The Heavy Ion Fusion Group at Lawrence Livermore
In order to validate the recirculator for an IFE power
National Laboratory has for several years been developing
plant driver, coordinating bending and acceleration of the
the world’s first circular ion induction accelerator. This
beam while maintaining transverse and longitudinal
machine has recently been extended to 90 degrees, or 10
control beam brightness must be demonstrated [5]. Table
half-lattice periods(HLP) with full beam transport. In
1 lists some important characteristics of the recirculator.
addition, induction cores have been installed on five of the
In designing this machine, all of the important
HLP’s, each with an independent arbitrary waveform
dimensionless beam parameters, such as perveance, were
pulser. An arbitrary waveform pulser for the bending
kept the same as a full scale driver machine. Each half
electrostatic dipoles has also been enabled. Together, they
lattice period(HLP) of the recirculator consists of a
have allowed the first attempts at coordinated bending and
permanent magnetic quadrupole for focusing, an
acceleration of the beam. The results of these first
electrostatic dipole for bending the beam, and an induction
attempts will be reported on in the paper by examining
core, or modulator, for acceleration and longitudinal
the output of various diagnostic devices, such as the
compression. The dipole plates are designed to provide a
capacitive Beam Probes(C-probes), slit scanners, and the
9 degree bend to the beam while the modulators are
Gated Beam Imager(GBI).
designed to provide 500-eV of acceleration.
1 INTRODUCTION
Table 1: Recirculator Specifications
Currently, heavy ion beams are being pursued as a Circumference 14.4m
candidate for a driver of an Inertial Fusion(IFE) power Beam Species K+
plant. In such a power plant, ion beams would provide # of laps 15
the input energy necessary to ignite small D-T capsules
Max. Beam Radius 1.5 cm
[1]. The accelerator for such a driver would need to
Beam Statistic Lap 1 Lap 15
accelerate space charge dominated ion beams to a total
kinetic energy of a few GeV while providing pulse Beam Energy 80 keV 320
compression and be able to operate at a rate of ~5-Hz keV
[2,3]. Usually the conceptual design of such a machine is Pulse Duration 4 µs 1 µs
linear, but an alternative concept, which may provide Beam Current 2 mA 8 mA
significant cost savings [4], is a circular machine, or Undepressed Phase Advance 78° 45°
recirculator. However, a space charge dominated, ion Depressed Phase Advance 16° 12°
induction, circular machine has never been built before.
Thus, the HIF Group at LLNL has been developing a In the fall of 1997, the machine was extended from a 45
small recirculator in order to investigate the validity of degree bend [6] to a 90 degree bend section. Figure 1
such a concept. shows the current layout of the machine. Initially, a 4-µs
________________ beam pulse is injected by a source diode with an energy of
* This work has been performed under the auspices of the 80-keV through a 1-cm diameter aperture which provides
US DOE by LLNL under contract W-7505-ENG-48. an initial beam current of 2-mA. Upon injection the
** Present Address: Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA beam enters an electrostatic matching section used to
94305, USA convert the uniformly expanding beam to an AG focused
109
beam. A short magnetic transport section follows which probe immediately after the nth dipole plate. The different
then leads to the 90 degree bend section. Following the curves represent different applied voltages on the dipole
bend section is the End Tank which houses several plates. From the y position plot, the shot to shot
diagnostics (a Faraday cup, parallel slit scanner, and a repeatability of the measurement is clearly seen, while the
gated beam imager) to measure beam quality. Also as x position shot demonstrates the sensitivity of the system
part of the upgrade, magnetic induction cores were added to small perturbations. From tests characterizing the
to 5 of the 10 HLP’s as shown. digitizing electronics, a systematic error of ~700-µm is
estimated for each point. That systematic error should
2.4
2.0
GBI decrease upon adding some refinements to the algorithm
Current (mA)
V V
1.6
1.2
that calculates the position.
Data Faraday
0.8 Slit
6µs Pulse cup scanner
0.4
Dipole Voltage Scan - X position
0.0 4
7.0 9.0 11.0 13.0 15.0 6525 V
Time (µs) Induction 3 6575 V
core
Electric quads Magnetic quads 2 6625 V
vv v v
80 vv
1
keV
mm
K+ Electric 0
Injector Steering Rotating wire dipoles
diode quads scanner C-probes
-1 0 2 4 6 8 10
0 1 2 3 4 5 meters
-2
Figure 1: Current Recirculator Layout and Faraday cup -3
data at 90 degrees. -4
HLP
Figure 2: X positions as measured by C-probes for
The first attempts at beam transport through the 90 various dipole voltages.
degree section were done with no acceleration and DC
voltages (+/- 6.575-kV) on the bending dipole plates. Dipole Voltage Scan - Y position
Full current transport was achieved with less than 1% loss 4
6525 V
as measured by Faraday Cups. The RMS normalized 3 6575 V
emittance,
( )
2 6625 V
2 = 4γβ x 2 x 2 − xx 2
ε rms ′ ′ 1
mm
for 90% of full beam current was also measured after 90 0
degrees. In the bend plane (x), the measured value is -1 0 2 4 6 8 10
0.045π-mm-mR while the out-of-plane (y) emittance is
-2
0.068π-mm-mR. This compares to 0.021π-mm-mR
measured directly after the source aperture. The growth -3
seen is within the design specifications. -4
HLP
3 CAPACITIVE BEAM PROBES Figure 3: Y positions as measured by C-probes for
various dipole voltages.
In order to monitor the beam as it travels through the
accelerator, a capacitive beam probe (C-probe), which 4 GATED BEAM IMAGER
measures the transverse beam position as a function of
In addition to beam position, the emittance growth of
time, was also installed in each HLP as part of the
the beam as it travels through the bend section is of
upgrade. The C-probe [7] is a ceramic cylindrical shell
critical importance. In a full scale driver, the final beam
whose inside is coated by copper. The copper coating is
pulse must be compressed to ~10 ns and a final spot size
divided into four equal areas by divisions parallel to the
of a few mm. If the emittance is growth is too large, this
cylinder axis. The C-probe is placed inside the beam pipe
final focus on the target will not be possible.
and as the beam passes through it, a charge is induced on
Traditionally, a parallel slit scan has been used to measure
each pad. The induced charge is a function of the charge
the emittance of space charge dominated beams, but
centroid and the total current of the beam. Each signal is
LLNL has developed a new device to measure the
amplified and digitized through the computer control
emittance, the Gated Beam Imager [8].
system and analyzed to obtain the charge centroid. Bench
The GBI uses a pepperpot design in which the beam is
tests of the system, using a conducting rod to simulate
incident on a hole with 100 µm diameter holes creating
the beam, have yielded a resolution of 70 µm [6].
many beamlets. Each beamlet is emittance dominated and
Figures 2 and 3 show the x position and y position as a
is allowed to drift to a micro channel plate(MCP). The
function of HLP number. HLP 0 corresponds to a C-
MCP is coated with a thin layer of stainless steel, ~150
probe in the straight section while HLP n refers to the C-
110
nm, which stops the ions and produces several few eV enabled and has allowed for accurate beam position
electrons per ion. After passing through the MCP, the monitoring throughout the bend section and, the GBI has
electrons are proximity focused on to a phosphor screen. been fully reconciled with the more standard slit scanner.
The light generated is focused and captured by a CCD Initial test for the pulser to do the necessary ramping of
camera that sits outside of vacuum. The image can then the dipole voltage during acceleration have been
be analyzed to determine the emittance in both transverse performed. Currently we are performing the initial test of
directions. The MCP also allows time gating of the GBI the electronics for the modulators. In the next month, we
to measure emittance as a function of time. expect to make the first attempts at coordinating bending
As of fall of 1997, the functionality of the GBI had and acceleration.
been achieved, but there was still some slight discrepancy
in direct comparisons between slit scanner data and GBI Repeatability of Dipole Pulser
data [6]. After the analysis of the GBI images was 3
changed to more closely mimic the slit scan, agreement
2
between the two devices was achieved. At 90 degrees, the
slit scan measurement yielded εx=0.045 and εy=0.068 π- 1
mm-mR while the GBI yielded εx=0.043 and εy=0.065 π-
X (mm)
0
mm-mR. Both of these comparison are well within the
0 2 4 6 8 10
estimated 15% systematic error associated with each -1
measurement.
-2
5 ACCELERATION -3
HLP
In order for the acceleration of the beam to be controlled
Figure 4: C-probe X positions for three consecutive
throughout the bend section, the voltage on the dipole
pulses with dipole plates in HLP 6 through 10 connected
plates need to be ramped up. For the full ring, the dipoles
to pulser.
need to ramped from approximately 7-kV to 28-kV in
~240-µs. To meet this challenge, LBNL has developed a 7 REFERENCES
prototype dipole pulser [9]. This pulser delivers only the
positive polarity, but the design can be used with only [1] R. O. Bangerter, Nuovo Cimento 106A (11), 1445-
slight modifications to build a pulser for the negative 1456 (1993).
polarity. Bench tests of the pulser system indicate that it [2] M. Tabak et al., Nuclear Fusion 38 (4), 509 (1998).
delivers the necessary voltage ramp. [3] R. Moir, “Inertial Fusion Energy Power Plants Based
Currently, we are in the process of enabling the pulser on Laser or Ion Beams,” Proc. of ICENES 98, Tel-
on the 90 degree bend section. When connected the pulser Aviv, Israel, June 28 -July 2, 1998, to be published.
provide voltages for the positive plates in HLP 6-10. The [4] W. R. Meier et al., “An Integrated Systems Model for
rest of the plates are operated with DC voltages. The Heavy Ion Drivers,” Proc. of Inter. Symp. on Heavy
initial test of the system has shown that is does not yet Ion Inertial Fusion, Heidelberg, Germany, Sept. 24-
have the desired shot to shot repeatability at the low 27, 1997, to be published in Nucl. Inst. and Meth. A.
voltage level necessary on the initial lap. Figure 4 shows [5] A. Friedman et al., Fusion Engineering and Design
C-probe data from three successive pulses taken within a 32-33, 235-246 (1996).
minute of each other. This clearly shows the variance [6] T. C. Sangster et al., “Status of Experiments Leading
from pulse to pulse. From the DC voltage data presented to a Small Recirculator,” Proc. of Inter. Symp. on
in figure 2, the pulse to pulse variance is less than 2%. Heavy Ion Inertial Fusion, Heidelberg, Germany,
Currently, we are exploring ways to modify the feedback Sept. 24-27, 1997, to be published in Nucl. Inst. and
loop of the pulser to obtain the necessary repeatability. Meth. A.
Presently the electronics for the modulator are just [7] F. J. Deadrick et al., “Development of Beam Position
going through their initial implementation on the bend Monitors for Heavy Ion Recirculators,” Proc. of
section. While the bench tests are very encouraging, there Particle Accelerator Conference, Dallas, TX, May
is no data to show at this time. 1995, 2557 (1995).
[8] L. Ahle and H. S. Hopkins, “Gated Beam Imager for
6 CONCLUSION Heavy Ion Beams”, Proc. of Beam Instrumentation
Workshop, SLAC, May 4-7, 1998, to be published.
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory is currently
[9] D. P. Berners and L. L. Reginato, “Arbitrary
developing the world’s first circular ion induction
Waveform Generator for Electrostatic Dipoles ina
accelerator, the recirculator. This machine has been
Heavy Ion Recirculator,” Proc. of Particle Accelerator
extended to 90 degrees with full current transport. The
Conference, Vancouver, B.C., Canada, May 12-16,
emittance growth in this bend section is well within the
1997, (1997).
design requirements. The C-probe system has been
111
THE LINAC OF THE MUNICH ACCELERATOR FOR
FISSION FRAGMENTS (MAFF)
O. Kester, D. Habs, R. Rao, T. Sieber, H. Bongers, A. Kolbe, M. Gross, P. Thirolf, J. Ott
LMU München, Garching, Germany
U. Köster, TU München, Garching, Germany
A. Schempp, J.W. Goethe-Universität, Frankfurt, Germany
U. Ratzinger, GSI, Darmstadt, Germany
special interest for the production of very heavy elements.
Abstract
Fig.1 shows the calculated lifetimes for the elements
A linear accelerator for the new Munich high flux Z=104 to Z=114 in dependence on the number of
reactor FRM-II is under design [1,2]. This LINAC will be neutrons in the nuclei. The calculations are compared to
able to deliver intense beams of very neutron rich fission measurements, which fit very well to the theoretical
fragments from a target ion source located inside a values.
through going reactor tube for the production of very
R. Smolanczuk, "Decay Properties of Heaviest Atomic Nuclei",
heavy elements [3]. In order to obtain an efficient to be published in Acta Phys. Pol. B.
Yu.A. Lazarev et al., Phys. Rev. Lett 73, 624 (1994)
F.P. Hessberger et al., Z. Phys. A321, 317 (1985)
acceleration in the LINAC, charge breeding of the 1+ ion G. Münzenberg et al., Z. Phys. A322, 227 (1985)
G. Münzenberg et al., Z. Phys. A324, 489 (1986)
F.P. Hessberger et al., Z. Phys. A359, 415 (1997)
beam from the reactor to a q/A > 0.16 is required. The L.P. Somervillw et al., Phys. Rev., C31, 1801 (1985)
S. Hoffmann et al., Z. Phys. A350, 277 (1995)
S. Hoffmann et al., Z. Phys. A354, 229 (1996)
LINAC will work with 10% duty cycle with a final Yu.A. Lazarev et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 75, 1903 (1995)
energy between 3.7 and 5.9 MeV/u. The LINAC of the
Munich Accelerator for Fission Fragments (MAFF) will
consist of an Radio Frequency Quadrupole (RFQ)
accelerator, three interdigital H-type (IH) structures
similar to the lead LINAC at CERN and two seven-gap
IH-resonators for the adjustment of the final energy of the
ions. In the present paper the concept, particle dynamics
calculations and first cavity design calculations with
MAFIA will be presented.
Figure 1: Calculated half-lifetimes for the elements
1 INTRODUCTION Z=104 -114 in comparison to measurements [6].
Advanced radioactive nuclear beam facilities have a
strong scientific case which is centered in three areas of In fig.1 is shown with very neutron rich isotopes as
basic science, namely Nuclear physics, Nuclear projectiles and implanted in a target very heavy elements
Astrophysics and the limits of the Standard Model. This with higher neutron numbers (165-180) can be produced,
physics and the application of neutron-rich fission which lifetimes are extended to minutes and hours
fragment beams were discussed in [4]. With the ISOL compared to the fusion products produced at GSI. The
(Isotope Separation On-line) technique intense high peak at lower neutron numbers (N=162) is derived from
quality beams of radioactive ions can be supplied using effects of magic shell closure.
very different reactions for the production: i) high energy
protons, ii) fast neutrons and iii) thermal neutrons. The 2 ACCELERATION CONCEPT AND
high neutron flux of a reactor and the high cross section BEAM DYNAMICS
235
of U for thermal fission (580b) allows to produce beam
To achieve adequate final energies close to the
intensities comparable to those of stable beams which are
Coulomb barrier several acceleration schemes have been
used at GSI for the production of superheavy elements
proposed [2,7]. For MAFF the singly charged ions out of
(SHE). The MAFF-Project at the new high flux reactor
the reactor source will be injected into a high charge state
FRM-II at Garching will be the only facility world wide
ion source, presumably an electron cyclotron resonance
which uses this concept. A first realization of this concept
ion source (ECRIS) and charge bred to an A/q < 6.3. The
was studied in the PIAFE project [5], which was stopped
LINAC of MAFF is sketched in fig.2. The key
at 1. July 1998 for political reasons.
parameters of the LINAC are shown in Table1.
Compared to other radioactive beam accelerators under
construction the MAFF project expects beam intensities 2.1 The resonant structures
11
(10 /s) of fission fragments which are typically larger by
a factor of 1000. Very intense neutron-rich ion beams The LINAC consists on an RFQ which accelerates the
accelerated to energies at the Coulomb barrier are of ions from 2.5 keV/u to 300 keV/u which requires a rod
112
voltage of 59 kV for the present design which is similar Table 1: Key parameters of the MAFF LINAC
to the REX-ISOLDE RFQ. First examination have been resonance frequency 101.28 / 202.56 MHz
carried out [8] to use a quadrupole structure which is injection energy 2.5 keV/u
driven by an IH-resonator. Such an RFQ will be used for final energy 3.7 - 5.9 MeV/u
the high current injector at GSI. The booster LINAC A/q < 6.3
consists of three IH-cavities where a jump in frequency is max. duty cycle 10%
done at the second tank to reduce the length of the required energy spread <0.2 %
accelerator [2]. at the target
11 91
beam intensities 4*10 ions/s ( Kr)
mass range (A) 75 -150
elements (Z) Ni - Eu (28 - 63)
2.2 Variation of the final energy
The variation of the final energy over the large range
of 2.2 MeV/u is done by using two 7-gap resonators and
the tank 3 of the booster LINAC. So deceleration and
acceleration is done at two different injection energies
with the same 7-gap accelerators at 4.15 and 5.4 MeV/u.
The 7-gap resonators of the MAFF-LINAC are IH-
cavities in order to reach higher resonator voltages (2.1
MV) in comparison to the cavities used for REX-
o
ISOLDE [9]. The 0 -synchronous particle structure is
used in the beam dynamics, which means that the mean
o
particle of the bunch will reach the center gap at 0 phase
of the RF. The voltage of tank3 of the booster LINAC
must be twice the effective voltage of the 7-gap
resonators. In order to achieve the required low energy
spread de-buncher is required after the second 7-gap
cavity.
2.3 Beam dynamics
Beam dynamics calculations have been carried out to
prove the possibility of the energy adjustment with only
two 7-gap resonators.
Figure 3: Development of the longitudinal phase space
for the minimum and maximum energy of the MAFF
Figure 2: Lay-out of the MAFF LINAC. LINAC
113
Fig. 3 shows calculations of the development of the mm. The half shell radius is about 135 mm. The
longitudinal phase space of the beam from the exit of calculated quality factor is 15000, the shunt impedance
tank3 of the booster to the exit of the de-buncher. Table 2 about 300 M/m. The calculated resonance frequency of
summarizes the energies which can be achieved by the cavity was 225 MHz. Model measurements will done
deceleration and acceleration with both 7-gap cavities. soon to prove the MAFIA calculations of the IH-RFQ and
For the transverse emittances, the typical emittance of of the 7-gap cavity. Assuming the calculated values, the
an ECRIS of about 0.6 mm mrad (normalized) has been maximum resonator voltage of 2.1 MV can reached with
assumed. For the longitudinal phase space at the exit of low rf-power of about 50 kW.
o
the booster a phase spread of +5 and an energy spread of
+0.2% have been taken into account. From fig. 3 it can be
seen that even in the worst case of maximum deceleration
at lower starting energy the low energy spread at the exit
can be provided.
Table 2: Achievable energies using the two 7-gap IH-
resonators for deceleration and post acceleration.
Einj [MeV/u] Emin [MeV/u] Emax [MeV/u]
4.15 3.64 4.77
5.4 4.78 5.94
3 CAVITY DESIGN AND MAFIA
CALCULATIONS
Figure 5: MAFIA model of one half of the 0.55m IH-7-
The structures which will be examined first are the IH- gap resonator for the MAFF LINAC. Shown is the
RFQ and the 7-gap-IH-resonators. In order to get some electric field of the TE111 mode.
cavity characteristics both resonator types have been
examined by MAFIA calculations.
3.1 The IH-RFQ REFERENCES
[1] D. Habs et al., „The Munich Fission Fragment
The investigation of an IH-type RFQ at frequencies
Accelerator“, Nucl. Phys. A616 39c (1997).
around 100 MHz is motivated by a higher shunt
[2] O. Kester et al., „Fission Fragment Accelerators for
impedance compared to a 4-rod RFQ and that a direct rod
the Grenoble and Munich High Flux Reactors,“ Nucl.
cooling is not required due to a higher number of stems
Instrum. and Meth. B139, 28-36 (1998).
and herewith lower electrode currents. Fig.4 shows the
[3] P. Thirolf et al., „Concept for a High Resolution
3m MAFIA model of the IH-RFQ. The parameters
Online Mass Separator of the Munich Fission
determined with MAFIA [8] are an Rp-value of 288 km,
Fragment Accelerator“, Nucl. Instrum and Meth. B
a quality factor of 11657 at a frequency of 93.5 MHz,
126, 242-245 (1997).
concerning a stem distance of 8 cm.
[4] Proc. of the International Workshop on Research
with Fission Fragments, Benedikbeuern, Germany,
ed. by T. von Egidy, D. Habs, F.J. Hartmann, K.E.G.
Löbner and H. Nifenecker, World Scientific, 1997.
[5] PIAFE Collaboration, Technical report of the project
covering the period 1993-1996, ISN report ISN97-
52.
Figure 4: MAFIA model of the 3m IH-RFQ for the [6] R. Smolanczuk, „Decay Properties of Heaviest
MAFF LINAC. Atomic Auclei“, subm. to Acta Phys. Pol. B., 1998.
[7] O. Kester and J. L. Belmont, „Charge Breeding and
3.2 The 7-gap IH-resonator
Post Acceleration“, PIAFE project report, ed. U.
The central issue of the MAFF-LINAC are the 7-gap Köster and J.A. Pinston, March 1998.
IH-cavities. For the beam dynamics calculations a total [8] T. Sieber et al., „RFQ-Accelerators for Radioactive
resonator voltage of 2.1 MV have been assumed. For an Ion Beams“, proc. EPAC98, Stockholm, June 1998.
incoupled power of 80 kW a shunt impedance of 110 [9] H. Podlech et al., „The 7-Gap Resonator-Accelerator
M/m is required to fulfill these requirements. Fig.5 for the REX-ISOLDE-Experiment at CERN“, Nucl.
shows the MAFIA model of one half of the 7-gap-IH- Instrum. and Meth. B139, 447-450 (1998).
cavity. The cell length is 74 mm, the drift tube length 50
114
FIELD DESCRIPTION IN AN RFQ AND ITS EFFECT ON
BEAM DYNAMICS
R. Ferdinand, R. Duperrier, J-M. Lagniel, P. Mattei
S. Nath*
CEA-Saclay/DSM/DAPNIA/SEA, Bat 706, 91191 GIF-sur-Yvette, FRANCE
* On sabbatical from LANL, Los Alamos, NM, USA.
Abstract
2 CALCULATION OF THE ELECTRIC
In a Radio Frequency Quadrupole (RFQ) linac, the POTENTIAL IN A RFQ CELL BY TOSCA
electric field distribution is generated by four poles
arranged symmetrically around a central z-axis. It’s a We have first simulated the electric potential in a RFQ
1
customary practice to use a formulation based on cell with the code TOSCA (Figure 1).
cylindrical harmonics. That leads to inaccurate description
of the fields near the boundary walls. Here, we present an
analysis of errors based on an alternate numerical method
to map the field correctly in the entire space between the
vanes. This is especially important for high currents when
the beam tends to fill nearly all available cavity-space [1].
The difference in the field-description and its effect on
beam dynamics in a typical RFQ end cell will be
presented. Two ways for calculating harmonic
coefficients, the harmonic analysis and the fit to the cell
geometry, are described.
1 INTRODUCTION Figure 1: Electric potential in a RFQ cell.
Radio Frequency Quadrupole (RFQ) linacs are widely
This simulation will be the reference for validation and
used in the accelerator community. They have the
calculation in following stages. A typical RFQ end cell is
remarkable capability of simultaneously bunching low-
chosen. The characteristics of the cell are:
energy ion beams and accelerating them up to the MeV
range. Several types of vane-tip geometries have been
- ρ = 0.89 (transverse radius of curvature)
considered, and it is important to know the electric fields
- Lc = 11 (cell length)
produced by these various geometries. In R.F.Q. linacs,
- m = 2 (modulation factor)
the impedance in the beam zone is such that the electrodes
- Sinusoidal profile in longitudinal direction
can be considered as isopotential surfaces, and the vector
potential can be ignored. Solving the Laplace equation in
All distances are in R0 units. The mesh of this
cylindrical coordinates, the electric potential seems to be
simulation has been optimized for calculation of the peak
able to be represented by the expansion:
surface electric field [6].
9
8 U θ ] = ∑ $ S +
U S +
FRV> S + θ @
S
3 CALCULATION OF THE
∑
P Q
$ QP
, Q
P NU FRV Q θ FRV P N] COEFFICIENTS BY PROJECTION ON
THE BASE
The first eight terms give satisfactory accuracy [2]. 7RXVHWKHSURSHUWLHVRIKDUPRQLFDQDO\VLVZHQHHGWR
Different methods are found in literature for calculating FRQVLGHU D OLPLWHG VSDFH LQ ZKLFK WKH ERXQGDULHV VDWLVI\
the coefficients of the expansion. The most common ones WKH KRPRJHQHRXV FRQGLWLRQV >@ ,Q F\OLQGULFDO FR
are the projection on the base [3] and the fit to the cell RUGLQDWHV WKH YROXPH LV D F\OLQGHU 7KH PD[LPXP YDOXH
geometry [4,5]. This paper is a discussion on the accuracy IRU WKH UDGLXV RI WKLV F\OLQGHU LV ³D´ WKH PLQLPXP
that can be achieved with these two different methods. 1
Vector Fields code for electromagnetic design
115
DSHUWXUH UDGLXV 7KH FRHIILFLHQWV FDQ WKHQ EH GHWHUPLQHG ,W LV DSSDUHQW WKDW WKH VROXWLRQ FDQ¶W EH H[WUDSRODWHG
E\WKHSURMHFWLRQRIWKHVROXWLRQFDOFXODWHGE\726&$RQ RXWVLGH WKH YROXPH XVHG IRU LQWHJUDWLRQ +RZHYHU WKH
WKHODWHUDOVXUIDFHRIWKLVF\OLQGHU DFFXUDF\ LV TXLWH VDWLVIDFWRU\ ZLWK LQ WKH F\OLQGHU DV LV
VKRZQLQ)LJXUH
π
/F
$ P =
π9D P /F ∫ ∫
8 D θ ] FRV Pθ GθG]
π
/F
$ Q =
π9, QND /F ∫ ∫
8 D θ ] FRV QN] GθG]
π
/F
∫ ∫
$ QP = 8 D θ ] FRV Pθ FRV QN] Gθ G]
π9, P QND /F
'XHWRV\PPHWU\RQO\RQHTXDUWHURID5)4VWUXFWXUH
LVQHFHVVDU\IRUWKHFDOFXODWLRQV7KHUHVXOWVIRUWKHHLJKW
ILUVWRUGHUWHUPVDUHVKRZQLQTable 1
Table 1
A01 A03 A10 A12
0.9267 0.0012 0.6006 307.6125
A21 A23 A30 A32
-0.8337 -30753.6794 -0.0109 -7.0949
The difference between the real potential and the values
obtained from the expansion derived coefficients is shown
in Figure 2.
Figure 3: Same as in Figure 2 with a close-up view around
the beam axis. A linear scale is used.
4 CALCULATION OF THE
COEFFICIENTS BY FIT TO THE CELL
GEOMETRY
The coefficients are calculated by the least-squares fit
[8] using the isopotential surfaces defined by the
conductors. This method is faster than the previous one
for calculation of the expansion’s coefficients. Table 2
contains the results of the fit obtained using the code
2
MATHEMATICA .
Table 2
A01 A03 A10 A12
0.9587 0.0211 0.6064 3489.55
$ $ $ $
Figure 2: Difference between the real potential and the The difference between the real potential and that
eight term potential. The accuracy is poor outside the obtained form the expansion using fit is shown in Figure
cylinder used for calculations (black circle). A logarithmic 4.
scale is used. 2
Environment for technical and mathematical computing.
116
5 CONSEQUENCE ON BEAM
DYNAMICS
In order to assess the influence of the difference
induced by these two methods, beam dynamics simulation
were done with particles that lay outside the cylinder of
reference. 1035 particles of 1 MeV are uniformly
distributed in a square with coordinates (x = 0, a; y = a,
m × a; z = 0) without any energy spread and zero
transverse speed component for the injection. The
transport is realized without any space charge and image
effects. The intervane voltage is equal to 97 kV. The
transmissions for three cases are summarized in Table 3.
Table 3
5HDO)LHOGV 3URMHFWLRQ )LW
6 CONCLUSION
The projection on a cylindrical harmonic base gives the
Figure 4: Difference between the real potential and the best accuracy of field around the beam axis. The fit to cell
eight term potential with fit coefficients. A logarithmic geometry by least-squares method doesn’t give accuracy
scale is used. better than a few percent. However, regardless of the
method used, cylindrical harmonics don’t allow
simulation with some accuracy in all region of the beam
The accuracy is better outside the cylinder used for [2]. An alternative is to simulate the fields numerically.
projections (black circle). However, the deviation is about This is time consuming and needs a lot of memory to
a few percent everywhere, which exceeds the tolerance store the mesh for several cells. A good compromise
for linacs (≈1% of maximum error). would be to use 8 terms obtained by projection around the
z-axis and a numerical mapping for the halo. A reduced
mesh size is necessary in such case.
7 REFERENCES
[1] B. BONDAREV, A. DURKIN and S.V. VINOGRADOV,
«Multilevel Codes RFQ.3L For RFQ Designing»,. Proc.
IFMIF Accelerator Team PARIS Meeting, CDE Workshop
May 26-30,(1997).
[2] R. DUPERRIER, «Le potentiel électrique dans la zone utile
d’un RFQ»,. CEA/DSM/SEA/9844, (1998).
[3] K.R. CRANDALL, «Effects of vane-tip geometry on the
electric fields in Radio-Frequency Quadrupole linacs»,
LANL report LA-9695-MS, (1983).
[4] A. LETCHFORD and A. SCHEMPP, «A comparison of
4-rod and 4-vane RFQ fields», EPAC Stockholm (1998).
[5] A. M. TODD and M. F. REUSCH, «RFQ beam dynamics
model development», Linear Acc. Conf.., 326-328 (1990).
[6] R. DUPERRIER, «Calcul du champ électrique maximum
dans une cellule RFQ»,.CEA/DSM/SEA/9843, (1998).
[7] E. DURAND, «Electrostatique, Tome II, Problèmes
ie
généraux, Conducteurs», Masson & C (1964).
[8] W.E. MILNE, «Numerical calculus, approximations
interpolation, finite differences, numerical integration, and
Figure 5: The same as in Figure 3 with a close-up view curve fitting», Princeton University Press (1949).
around the beam axis. A linear scale is used.
117
WAKE FIELD EFFECTS IN APT LINAC
Sergey S. Kurennoy
LANSCE-1, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM 87545, USA
Abstract ple bunches to answer this question. The idea is to apply a
time-domain code with a few identical bunches at , =1
The 1.7-GeV 100-mA CW proton linac is now under
design for the Accelerator Production of Tritium (APT)
but to set the bunch spacing s to s =
c=fb for having the
correct bunch repetition frequency. Since the resonance
Project [1]. The high current leads to stringent restrictions
frequencies are essentially independent of , so is a con-
on allowable beam losses (< 1 nA/m), that requires analyz-
clusion from such simulations. In Sect. 3 we compute the
ing carefully all possible loss sources. While wake-field ef-
wakes in the APT 5-cell SC cavities varying the number
fects are usually considered negligible in proton linacs, we
of bunches in the bunch train, and look for coherent wake-
study these effects for the APT to exclude potential prob-
field effects.
lems at such a high current. Loss factors and resonance
frequency spectra of various discontinuities of the vacuum
chamber are investigated, both analytically and using 2-D 2 LOSS FACTORS VERSUS
and 3-D simulation codes with a single bunch as well as 2
For a Gaussian bunch of rms length l, the loss factor ks
with many bunches. Here we concentrate on two features for the s-th cavity mode having the frequency !s depends
specific to the APT linac: loss factors for the design < 1 on as (see [4] for more details)
and CW beam structure. " 2 #
ks ( ; l) !l sjI ( ; ! )j2s s
ks (1; l)
= exp , c
jIs (1; !s)j2 : (1)
1 INTRODUCTION
(
Here Is ; ! ) = R exp( ) (0 )
L dz p ,i!z= c Esz ; z is the
=1 1 (0 )
A wake-field analysis for a high-intensity accelerator in-
cludes wake computations, followed by calculations of loss overlap integral,
= , 2 , and Esz ; z is the
factors and heating due to various elements of the vac- mode longitudinal electric field on the chamber axis.
uum chamber. The wake fields are typically computed with For 5-cell APT SC cavities the lowest resonances are
split into 5 modes which differ by phase advance per cell
time-domain codes like ABCI [2] or MAFIA [3]. However,
these codes are only applicable for ultrarelativistic bunches , and their frequencies are a few percent apart [5], see
with = v=c =1 . Two specific features of proton (or Table 1. MAFIA-computed on-axis fields of these modes
H, ) high-intensity linacs are essential for the wake-field [5] are used to calculate numerically overlap integrals in
analysis: first, is significantly less than 1 for the most Eq. (1) and to find the loss factors for a given . The results
part of the machine, and second, the beam is either CW for the lowest monopole modes are presented in Table 1.
(in APT) or consists of macropulses containing many reg- We are mostly concerned about only these two resonance
ularly spaced bunches (spallation neutron sources). Usual bands, since the higher modes are above the cutoff and can
=1 estimates, while useful, can be quite different from propagate out of the cavity depositing most of their energy
those for the design values, e.g., [4]. In particular, the in the beam pipes. Our results for the design values of are
resonance impedances and corresponding loss factors can in agreement with those obtained in [5]. Remarkably, the
strongly depend on . Frequency-domain calculations can total loss factors for a given resonance band in Table 1 are
1
provide an answer for a given < , but they require lower for the design than at =1 , which is not always
the case, see [4] for detail. The only exception here is the
= 0 82
information on individual modes, and are typically lim-
ited to just a few lowest ones. In Sect. 2, we consider - TM020 band for the : cavity, but it includes some
dependence of the loss factors for lowest modes in the APT propagating modes, and its contribution is very small.
Time-domain simulations with ABCI [2] give us the loss
=1
5-cell superconducting (SC) cavities.
factor of a bunch at . The loss factor spectrum for the
Due to the CW beam structure, the beam frequency spec-
trum is concentrated only near the multiples of the bunch = 0 64
: cavity, integrated up to a given frequency, has two
repetition frequency fb . While the spectrum envelope is sharp steps, 0.5 V/pC near 700 MHz, and about 0.1 V/pC
still defined by the bunch shape, it rolls off at frequen- near 1400 MHz. They correspond to the two bands of the
cies many times higher than fb , due to a very short bunch trapped monopole modes in the cavity, cf. Table 1. The
length. Therefore, an important question is whether any totals for the TM010 and TM020 bands for =1in Table 1
higher-order mode (HOM) has its frequency close to a mul- agree very well with the time-domain results.
tiple of fb . The presence of such modes, especially at rel- The -dependence of the loss factor for two TM010
atively low frequencies, can lead to undesired coherent ef- modes — 0-mode and fundamental, -mode — is shown in
fects. One can use time-domain computations with multi- Fig. 1. Obviously, the shunt impedance (and the loss fac-
tor) dependence on is strongly influenced by the mode
Work supported by the US Department of Energy field pattern.
121
Table 1: Loss Factors (in V/pC) in APT 5-cell Cavities While these bunches have =1, their separation is set to
f , MHz ()k k (1) ( ) (1)
k =k s=0.85657 m, which gives the proper bunch repetition fre-
= 0 64
: , TM010 -band quency fb =350 MHz.
0 681.6 7 2 10
: ,6 3 7 10
: ,4 0.020 We study the loss factors for the 5-cell APT SC cavities
2 5
= 686.5 4 8 10
: , 5 2 9 10
: ,2 0.0016 as a function of the number of bunches Nb in the bunch
3 5
= 692.6 1 1 10
: ,4 0.218 0.0005 train. The loss factor per bunch is expected to tend to a
4 5
= 697.6 1 2 10
: ,3 0.250 0.0049 constant for incoherent wakes, but it should increase lin-
699.5 0.184 9 2 10
: ,3 19.92 early when wakes are coherent. The coherent effects would
Total 0.185 0.507 0.365 occur if higher-mode resonances are close to multiples of
= 0 64
: , TM020 -band fb . The results for the transverse loss factor ktr per bunch
0 1396.8 6 5 10
: ,4 5 4 10
: ,4 1.187 are shown in Fig. 2, both for =0.64 and =0.82 cavities.
2 5
= 1410.7 1 2 10
: , 6 9 0 10
: ,4 0.0014 As one can see, ktr reaches its asymptotic already for Nb
3 5
= 1432.7 1 8 10
: ,5 0.0173 0.0011 between 5 and 10 in the case of =0.82. This asymptotic
4 5
= 1458.8 8 0 10
: ,7 0.0578 1 4 10
: ,5 value is, in fact, lower than ktr for a single bunch. For
1481.0 3 5 10
: , 7 0.0095 3 7 10
: ,5 =0.64, however, we observe an almost linear growth up
Total 6 7 10
: , 4 0.086 7 8 10
: ,3 to Nb about 20, and only after that the transverse loss fac-
= 0 82
: , TM010 -band tor per bunch saturates. Therefore, in the =0.64 cavity
0 674.2 0 3 10
: ,6 6 9 10
: ,4 4 5 10
: ,4 higher-order dipole resonances are closer to multiples of fb
2 5
= 681.2 7 3 10
: , 5 :1 6 10
, 5 4.64 than those for =0.82. For comparison, the longitudinal
3 5
= 689.9 1 8 10
: ,6 0.034 5 1 10
: ,5 loss factor per bunch for both cavities increases linearly as
4 5
= 697.2 1 3 10
: ,3 0.220 5 9 10
: ,3 Nb increases. This is, of course, due to the fundamental
699.9 0.285 0 240
: 1.188 accelerating mode of the cavity at 700 MHz. The maximal
values of the transverse wake potentials also saturate as Nb
Total 0.286 0.494 0.579
= 0 82
: , TM020 -band increases, unlike the longitudinal ones, see [7].
0 1357.7 4 2 10
: ,5 0 8 10
: ,6 52.4
2 5= 1367.7 1 4 10
: , 4 8 0 10
: ,5 1.71 8
3 5= 1384.5 1 6 10
: ,6 1 4 10
: ,4 0.011
4 5
= 1409.6 8 0 10
: ,7 1 3 10
: ,3 5 6 10
: ,3
7
1436.9 1 6 10
: , 2 :2 2 10
, 3 7.5 6
Total 1 6 10
Mode near the cutoff.
: ,2 3 7 10
: ,3 4.32
k , V/pC/m
5
Propagating mode, above the cutoff. 4
tr
3
1.4
1.2 2
1 1
0.8
k/k1
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
0.6 Nb
0.4
Figure 2: Transverse loss factor per bunch for 5-cell APT
0.2 SC cavities versus the number of bunches: circles for =
0 64
: , stars for : . = 0 82
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
β As the number of bunches in the train increases, its
Figure 1: Loss factor ratio (1) versus for 0-mode (dashed) frequency spectrum is getting more and more concen-
and -mode in the 5-cell APT = 0 82: cavity. trated near the multiples of the bunch repetition frequency.
Stronger peaks in the wake power spectrum for a relatively
long bunch train indicate the frequency regions where the
3 MULTIPLE-BUNCH EFFECTS cavity resonances are close to multiples of fb =350 MHz.
To identify such frequency ranges we plot in Fig. 3 the
Wake potentials of a train of a few identical Gaussian power spectra of the wake potentials produced by a 30-
bunches passing through 5-cell APT SC cavities have been bunch train in the cavities. The wake potentials have been
computed with the code ABCI [2]. Cavity parameters are calculated for 30 m after the leading bunch; they include
given in [6], the bunch rms length was chosen to be 4.5 mm about 60,000 points, and their Fourier transforms have been
in the =0.82 section of the linac, and 3.5 mm for =0.64. performed with N 16 = 2 = 64
K . One can see a regular
122
structure of peaks at multiples of fb , as well as a peak near cell =0.82 cavities they are around 1750, 700, and 1050
950 MHz, which corresponds to the band of the TM110 MHz (but all those contributions are relatively weak). Also,
dipole mode [5]. Comparison of the wake power spec- some additional attention is probably required to the trans-
tra for different Nb shows that the magnitude of this last verse modes near 950 MHz for =0.64 and in the range
peak decreases quickly as one goes to longer and longer 900–950 MHz for the =0.82 cavities. While these fre-
bunch trains, since there is a smaller and smaller excita- quencies are not close to a multiple of fb , the correspond-
tion at this frequency. Comparing relative peak heights in ing dipole resonances are strong enough that their effects
the frequency spectra shows where higher-order modes are are observed even for rather long bunch trains.
close to multiples of the bunch frequency. Obviously, it A similar analysis has been performed for the longitu-
is the strong peak near 1750 MHz — the multiple of the dinal wakes, see [7] for detail. The power spectra of the
bunch frequency — that produces a coherent increase of monopole wakes are dominated by the fundamental mode
the dipole loss factor in the APT SC =0.64 5-cell cavity. at 700 MHz, but in a log plot one can see higher-mode
Fortunately, its resonance frequency is close to the cutoff peaks. There is one near 2100 MHz for =0.64 cavities
frequency of the pipe, which means this resonance can be (since 2100 MHz is above the beam-pipe cutoff, one should
effectively damped by HOM power couplers. Neverthe- expect a trapped monopole mode near this frequency), and
less, a more detailed analysis of this frequency range with two, near 1750 and 1050 MHz, for the =0.82 case.
frequency-domain codes is required to identify the corre-
sponding eigenmode(s), and take its (their) properties into 4 CONCLUSIONS
account in designing HOM couplers.
A simple approach to study HOM effects in cavities for
1000
CW or long-pulse non-ultrarelativistic ( < 1) beams is
900 developed. Time-domain simulations with standard codes
800 are applied to the bunch trains moving with =1, but having
a correct bunch repetition frequency fb . As the number of
700
bunches Nb increases, the details of the beam frequency
600 spectrum, dependent both on and Nb , become unessential
2
|fft(Wtr)|
500 since the cavity is excited mostly at multiples of fb . This
400
allows us to find potentially dangerous frequency ranges
where HOM frequencies are close to multiples of fb .
300
A further analysis with frequency-domain codes should
200 be used to identify the modes in these frequency ranges.
100 Computed fields of these HOMs are used then to calculate
their loss factors for the design value of and to take their
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 properties into account in designing HOM couplers, if re-
f, GHz
200
quired.
Our main conclusion for the APT linac is that the only
180
noticeable wake-field effect is the HOM heating of the 5-
160 cell SC cavities. It has, however, an acceptable level and,
140 in addition, will be taken care of by HOM couplers.
Useful discussions with R.L. Gluckstern, F.L. Krawczyk
120
and T.P. Wangler are gratefully acknowledged.
2
|fft(Wtr)|
100
80 5 REFERENCES
60
[1] G.P. Lawrence and T.P. Wangler, in Proceed. PAC97, Vancou-
40 ver, BC (1997); also in LA-UR-97-2582, Los Alamos, 1997.
20 [2] Y.H. Chin, Report LBL-35258, Berkeley, 1994.
0
[3] T. Weiland et al., Proc. 1986 Lin. Acc. Conf., SLAC Report
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 303, p.282; MAFIA Release 4.00 (CST, Darmstadt, 1997).
f, GHz
[4] S.S. Kurennoy, Report LA-CP-98-55, Los Alamos, 1998; in
Figure 3: Power spectra of the transverse wake potentials Proceed. EPAC98, Stockholm, Sweden (1998), p. 1294.
for 30 bunches in the APT 5-cell cavities: = 0:64 (top) [5] F.L. Krawczyk, in Proceed. PAC97, Vancouver, BC (1997);
and = 0:82 (bottom). also LA-UR-97-1710, Los Alamos, 1997.
[6] F.L. Krawczyk, et al., in Proceed. PAC97, Vancouver, BC
Clearly, the potentially dangerous regions for the 5- (1997); also LA-UR-97-1700, Los Alamos, 1997.
cell =0.64 APT SC cavities with respect to the dipole [7] S.S. Kurennoy, Report LA-CP-98-151, Los Alamos, 1998; in
modes are around 1750 MHz and 1050 MHz, and for 5- Proceed. EPAC98, Stockholm, Sweden (1998), p. 1291.
123
DESIGN STUDIES OF THE DARHT PHASE II INJECTOR WITH THE
GYMNOS PIC CODE
W.M. Fawley, E. Henestroza
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720 USA
Y.-J. Chen, D.W. Hewett
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA 94550 USA
Abstract beam rotation in external solenoidal focusing fields. GYM-
NOS employs the “Embedded Curved Boundary” (ECB)
We have used the GYMNOS 2D (r-z) electro-/magneto-
method[4] for representing curved boundaries via a piece-
static PIC simulation code to help design a high current,
wise linear approximation on a uniformly-spaced Cartesian
high brightness, 3.2-MV injector for the DARHT Phase II
mesh. The ECB method is far more detailed than sim-
accelerator. GYMNOS is particularly noteworthy for its
ple staircase approximations to curved surfaces while re-
use of piece-wise linear approximations to curved bound-
maining more computationally efficient than most adaptive
aries within a regular orthogonal mesh, which aids in mod-
mesh techniques.
eling complex surfaces. We present a number of compar-
isons between GYMNOS and EGUN results, both in terms We first discuss the overall injector geometry and com-
of “coarse” parameters such as emitted current and beam pare the the steady-state GYMNOS and EGUN beam enve-
envelope dynamics, and “fine” details such as the trans- lope results. We then examine details of the emission near
verse phase space distribution. the cathode/Pierce shroud boundary where apparent limita-
tions of the simulation grid resolution and/or present ECB
formulation results in difficulties when modeling extremely
1 INTRODUCTION low emittance beams.
The DARHT Phase II accelerator is a 20-MV, 4-kA, in-
duction linac to be built at LANL with a nominal pulse
2
length of , s. This pulse will subsequently get chopped
2 INJECTOR GEOMETRY AND FULL
into four short duration ( 60 ns) pulses which will
VOLTAGE CURRENT FLOW
then be focused onto a metallic converter for radiographic In order to minimize the possibility of electrical breakdown
imaging purposes; a more detailed summary is available in in the 30-cm A-K gap, the present injector design uses a
Ref. [1]. Among the various challenging physics aspects of relatively large (10-cm radius), heated dispenser cathode
the injector and accelerator design is the need to produce a surrounded by a Pierce shroud extending radially outwards
very low transverse emittance over the full temporal pulse
500
to 40 cm. “Velvet” cathodes, while more robust in terms of
width. At present, our goals for "n (edge) are mm-
1200
insensitivity to vacuum contamination, are believed to pro-
mrad for the injector and mm-mrad at the x-ray duce too transversely warm and possibly insufficiently uni-
converter approximately 20-m downstream of the acceler- form emission to satisfy the high brightness requirements.
ator. Success in this area for the injector requires, among The anode surface facing the cathode has a radius of cur-
other things, a very “quiet” and highly uniform emission vature of 8 cm and 16 cm for r less than and greater than
surface, very careful design of the electrode geometry to 20 cm, respectively. At a 3.2 MV potential drop, the peak
minimize nonlinear electrostatic fields and to prevent un- electric field is approximately 162 kV/cm on the shroud
wanted electrical breakdown, and appropriate longitudinal and 189 kV/cm on the anode. The anode entrance open-
shaping of the solenoidal magnetic field in the A-K gap ing radius asymptotes to 12.5 cm. Within the anode is
and beyond to prevent radial oscillations of the beam from a solenoid magnet, typically run at a current sufficient to
converting space charge energy into transverse emittance. produce a peak field of about 500 G to keep the beam well-
This paper presents the current status of LBNL/LLNL confined radially as it drifts from the anode into the first
PIC simulations of the DARHT II injector with the time- accelerator cell magnets. Equidistant behind the cathode is
dependent, azimuthally symmetric GYMNOS code[2] and an identical bucking solenoid to zero out any Bz field at the
compares its results with those obtained with the EGUN emission surface.
ray-tracing code[3]. GYMNOS is a fully relativistic, 2- Given this configuration, the EGUN code predicts a
1/2 D, electro- and magnetostatic code which uses an it- steady-state beam current of 4.1 kA for a nominal injec-
erative ADI approach to solve the necessary elliptic field tor voltage of 3.2 MV. The beam envelope radius smoothly
equations. Both electric and magnetic collective fields shrinks down to approximately 7 cm as it passes into the
are determined, including the diamagnetic A induced by anode opening and remains at that radius until it enters the
Work supported by U.S. DOE under Contracts No. DE-AC03- first accelerator cell another 40 cm downstream. In these
76SF00098 (LBNL) and W-7405-ENG-48 (LLNL). runs the beam rays were emitted at the 5 kV potential con-
124
Figure 2: r ,
r0 snapshots at z = 13 05
: and z = 13 65
: cm
for the same simulation shown in Fig. 1; the cathode sur-
face is at z= 13 0
: cm. Each plot includes particles within
0.05 cm of the nominal z position. The ordinate ranges
from -30 to 10 mrad, the abscissa from 0 to 10.5 cm.
good agreement between Child’s Law and the emitted cur-
rent, we suspect that the emission algorithm need improve-
ments for accurate resolution of the current sheath density
and velocity profile for the relativistic injector energies rel-
Figure 1: r , z particle scatter plot from a GYMNOS sim-
evant to DARHT.
ulation of the DARHT II injector
3 PHASE SPACE EVOLUTION AND
tour, approximately 4 mm downstream of the cathode sur- MODELING DIFFICULTIES NEAR
= =1
face, and very fine ( r z mm) gridding was THE CATHODE/SHROUD BOUNDARY
used. More information on the design and EGUN results
are available in Ref. [5]. Given the high brightness wanted from the DARHT II in-
GYMNOS runs with the same injector parameters show jector, a great deal of effort has been spent on optimizing
similar but not identical results. Since GYMNOS is a “nor- the gap geometry and solenoidal focusing profile down-
mal” time-dependent PIC code, it is necessary to gradually stream. At present, EGUN predicts that the normalized
ramp up the electrode voltages to minimize “shock” exci- emittance jumps to approximately 1000 pi mm-mrad some
tation of beam and electric field oscillations. We found that 50 cm downstream of the cathode, stays this high for about
a 2-ns voltage risetime gave a smooth increase of emitted one additional meter, and then (according further single-
beam current and minimal radial bounces and/or particle slice transport by the SLICE code[6]) oscillates and damps
reflection from virtual cathodes. The beam envelope evo- down to an exit emittance of 500 pi mm-mrad at the exit
lution with z is quite similar to that predicted by EGUN. of the first 8-cell block 5-m downstream of the cathode.
Figure 1 displays an r-z scatter plot of a GYMNOS simu- These numerical values correspond to the “edge” emit-
=8
lation at t ns. Of the actual 100,000+ macroparticles in 4
tance, defined as "RMS .
the simulation volume at this time, only 10% are shown. GYMNOS runs, which have been limited by CPU con-
For the simulation volume of 120 cm in z and 20 m in r, straints to 1 m of transport beyond the cathode, have
we used 126 and 45 grid points in z and r, respectively, shown consistently higher transverse emittance values,
= 0 45
leading to r : cm and z =07 : cm. generally by a factor of 2-3X. After some development
Despite the good agreement in the beam envelope dy- of post-processing tools to permit detailed investigations
namics, there is a surprising disagreement in the magni- of particle dump “snapshots” (we cannot stress too highly
tude of the emitted current with GYMNOS results being how useful tools like these are in examining the fine details
consistently 10 15%
, higher. Some numerical tests available in multi-dimensional PIC codes), we discovered
have shown that while this discrepancy is insensitive to the that transverse phase space anomalies began appearing im-
grid cell size, there is an apparent sensitivity of Iemit to mediately downstream of the cathode surface. Specifically,
details of the macroparticle “birth” algorithm for space- 90
a “hook” in r , r0 develops for r : cm such that the
charge limited flow. In each timestep GYMNOS places smoothly increasing radial convergence for lesser values of
newly born particles within a “sheath” approximately one r suddenly drops by a factor of two. An example of this
longitudinal grid cell wide downsteam of the emitting sur- behavior is shown in the r , r0 phase plots of Fig. 2, 0.5
face. As the sheath width is decreased by up to a factor of and 6.5 mm downstream of the cathode. The equivalent
four, the total emitted current can change by some tens of normalized transverse emittance increase is close to 1000
percent. Since other tests at non-relativistic energies and pi mm-mrad within 1 cm downstream of the cathode, many
previous GYMNOS modeling of ion injectors[2] showed times greater than found in the EGUN simulations.
125
ER (kV/cm) the present numerical limitations they indicate that the de-
11.36
2
sign is no worse than a factor of from the desired result.
5 REFERENCES
[1] H. Rutkowski, “An Induction Linac for the Second Phase of
10.68 DARHT”, Paper MO2001, these proceedings.
[2] D. W. Hewett and Y.-J. Chen, “PIC Space-Charge Emission
with Finite t and z ”, Proc. 1993 Comp. Accel. Physics,
AIP Conf. Proc. 297, 532-539 (1994).
R(cm)
10.00
[3] W.B. Herrmannsfeldt, “Electron Ray Tracing Programs for
Gun Design and Beam Transport”, Linear Accelerator and
Beam Optics Codes, AIP Conf. Proc. 177, Ed. Charles R.
Eminhizer, (Amer. Inst. Physics, New York, 1988), p. 45.
9.32
[4] D. W. Hewett, “The Embedded Curved Boundary Method for
Orthogonal Simulation Meshes”, J. Comp. Physics, 138, 585-
616 (1997).
8.64
[5] E. Henestroza, “Physics Design of the DARHT Electron
12.1 12.8 13.5 14.2 14.9 Beam Injector”, Paper TH40456, these proceedings.
Z(cm)
[6] B. E. Carlstein, “Emittance Growth Due to Radial Den-
Figure 3: Contours of Er near the outer radial boundary sity Variations of an Emittance-dominated Electron Beam
of the cathode. Between r = 86 : and r = 10 0
: cm the
in a Channel with Continuous Acceleration and Focusing”,
Physics of Plasmas, 5, 1148-1161 (1998).
magnitude of this defocusing field nearly triples, leading
to strongly nonlinear behavior in the electron beam’s trans-
verse phase space. Most of the nonlinearity occurs within
1 2
, r of the beam edge.
The origin of the hook drives from a strong increase in
the defocusing Er at radii just inside the cathode-Pierce
shroud boundary. Inspection of the r , z contours of the
electrostatic potential show an enhanced “bowing” inward
95
(toward smaller z ) for r : cm, one radial grid cell be-
low the cathode/shroud boundary at 10.0 cm. At present,
we believe the underlying cause for the bowing in and
nonlinear Er dependence is a numerical artifact arising
from a unwanted interaction of the 5-7 mm grid resolution,
the sharp edge of the emitted beam, and the “kink” in the
zero potential surface at the cathode-shroud boundary as
modeled by the ECB formulation. We hope to find an ap-
propriate solution that will not require decreasing the grid
resolution to the 1-mm size of the equivalent EGUN cal-
culations. Otherwise, the required number of grid points
and macroparticles might jump by greater than an order of
magnitude.
4 CONCLUSIONS
The underlying rationale for our use of GYMNOS in sim-
ulating the DARHT II injector behavior was to provide an
independent check of both the EGUN results and overall
physics design. Despite the problems discussed in the pre-
vious paragraphs, we note that GYMNOS does confirm
4
that the injector design will produce kA of emitted
current together with a well-behaved envelope as the beam
passes through the anode. While the GYMNOS results
cannot confirm the high brightness EGUN runs, even with
126
EMITTANCE GROWTH FROM BEND/STRAIGHT TRANSITIONS FOR
BEAMS APPROACHING THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM
John J. Barnard and Bojan Losic
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, L-645, Livermore, CA 94550
Abstract general interest to examine beams with distinct tempera-
tures in the two directions.
In certain applications such as heavy ion fusion, intense The purpose of this paper, is to examine thermal equilib-
beams with large space charge tune depressions will be rium beams in bends with longitudinal temperatures which
transferred from linear transport sections into bent trans- are not necessarily equal to the transverse temperatures
port sections. In some designs, such as recirculating induc- (and hence the final temperature equilibration has not nec-
tion accelerators, transport through bends will occur over essarily been reached.)
thousands of betatron periods and in some driver designs
the final transport through a bend will occur over tens of 2 THEORETICAL MODEL
betatron periods. Over such distances, non-linear space
charge forces are expected to produce particle phase space Equilibrium distribution functions f which satisfy the
distributions which are close to thermal equilibrium, espe- Vlassov/Poisson equations, for a system with constant fo-
cially with respect to lower order moments. Here we calcu- cusing and bending radius have been found previously hav-
late the properties of thermal equilibrium beams in bends ing the following form (refs. [4,5]):
assuming uniform focusing, as a function of two dimen-
sionless parameters We also outline the calculation of the
f = f (h? ) exp[,(=0 )2 ] (1)
change in emittance for a beam that is initially in thermal where h? 2 = + + ( + )+2
p2x p2y k 2 0 x2 y2 2
g , x=.
equilibrium in a straight transport section, and that finally d ddd d d
Here f N= x y px py , is the number of particles
reaches thermal equilibrium in a bent system, using an en- per element of phase space, with the in-bend plane (hori-
ergy conservation constraint to connect the two states. zontal) coordinate x, and vertical coordinate y , dimension-
1 INTRODUCTION less momenta px;y normalized to the design momentum in
in the longitudinal direction P0
0 mv0 . The quantity
The conditions for equilibria of beams in a bent sys- =( )
Ps , P0 =P0 , is the fractional deviation of a parti-
tem were determined in ref. [1], under the assumption cle with longitudinal momentum Ps from the longitudinal
of uniform focusing and bending, with dispersion included design momentum, and m is the particle rest mass. The
through linear order in the equations of motion. The equi- quantity k 0 is the zero current spatial betatron frequency
libria were determined by requiring that the derivatives of in the postulated uniform focusing channel, and is the ra-
the second order moments with respect to path length van- dius of curvature in the uniform bending field. The quantity
ish. A further assumption of this calculation was that space is the electrostatic potential, and g q=
03mv02 .
charge was distributed uniformly in an elliptical cross sec- In this paper, we focus on the distribution of the form:
tion, although as pointed out in refs. [2,3], distributions
+
that are functions only of x2 =hx2 i y 2 =hy 2 i are also ex- f (x; y; px; py ; ) = f0 exp(,h? =T?) exp(,2 =02 ) (2)
Here, T? kb T? =
02 mv02 where T? is the comoving beam
act solutions to the moment equations of ref. [1], where
x is the coordinate in the bend plane, y is the out-of-plane
coordinate, and h i indicates average over the distribution. transverse temperature, kb is Boltzmann’s constant. The
density n(x; y ) is given by:
Recently, in refs. [4,5] equilibrium distributions have
been calculated that are fully self-consistent solutions to the Z1Z1Z1
coupled Vlassov and Poisson equations. Distribution func- n(x; y) = f (x; y; px; py ; )dpx dpy d (3)
tions which are functions only of the single particle trans- ,1 ,1 ,1
verse hamiltonian h? are solutions of the Vlasov equation, !
since h? is a constant of the motion. In refs. [4,5], the , 1 k 2 0
= n(0; 0) exp T 2 ([1 , ]x2 + y2) + g (x; y) : (4)
properties of a generalized KV distribution, (i.e. a delta- ?
function of h? ) were investigated in detail. Although,
the KV beam in bends is interesting because of its ana-
2
Here 02 = k 2 0 2 T? , and represents the effects of dis-
lytic tractability, beams which have equilibrated (e.g.due to
persion in a bend on off-momentum particles, and
space charge non-linearities), are likely to be better char-
( ) (0 0)
x; y , ; . We find solutions to the non-linear pois-
acterized by thermal equilibrium distributions. Although
= ( ( ))
son’s equation r2 ,qn x; y; x; y =0 for which the
beam pipe (radius rp ) is sufficiently far from the beam edge
longitudinal/transverse coupling can be strong [6], it is of
* Work performed under the auspices of the U.S. D.O.E. by LLNL such that image forces can be ignored.
under contract W-7405-ENG-48.
127
3 DIMENSIONLESS FORM OF MODEL
Without dispersion ( =0
) the beam density profiles in
this problem recover azimuthal symmetry. In that case, the
density profiles can be characterized by a single parameter
(0 0)
(see e.g. [8]) which we define here as 0 n ; =ncold .
(0 0)
Here n ; is the central density and ncold is given by:
0.75
2
ncold
3 mv02 0 k 2 0 =q2 : The quantity ncold is the den- 0.5 10
0.25
sity of a beam with focusing constant k 0 , but at zero Tp
5
0
and zero . -10 0
Y
When dispersion is added, the second dimensionless pa- -5
-5
rameter appears and all solutions may be characterized
0
by the two dimensionless parameters 0 and . We de-
X 5
-10
1=2 1=2
fine X k 0 x=T? , Y k 0 y=T? , g =T? , and
10
Figure 1. Scaled density n X; Y ( )=ncold vs. X and Y for
( ) (0 0)
X; Y , ; . We may then cast Poisson’s the parameters 0 : , and = 0 974 = 0:05.
equation into the dimensionless form: 2.5
@2 + @@2X2
2
= ,2 0 exp , : 2.25
@2X 2 (5)
2
(1 ) 2+ 2+
Here, , X 2 = Y 2 =
Log[I1]
. The boundary con- 1.75
dition is =0 + =at X 2 Y 2 Rp2 , where Rp k 0 rp =T?
1=2 1.5
is the dimensionless pipe radius. Note that we have ne- 1.25
glected the curvature terms in Poisson’s equation, which is
appropriate when rp << . Note also that Rp adds a third
1
dimensionless parameter to the problem, but results pre- -4 -3 -2 -1 0
sented here will be in a regime where Rp is large enough Log[1-alpha_0]
so that the beam parameters are nearly independent of Rp . 1.4
We solve this equation numerically, using standard SOR 1.2
techniques. 1
Log[<X^2>]
Once a solution is obtained, it is useful to calcu-
0.8
late dimensionless
RR moments of the density distribution:
( )
I1 0 ; R RdXdY , ; exp 0.6
( )
IX 2 0 ; R R dXdY X 2 , ; exp 0.4
(
IY 2 0 ; dXdY) RRY
2 exp
, ;
( ) exp
0.2
and I 0 ; ; Rp dXdY , . Here,the in-
tegration occurs over the interior of the beam pipe, X 2 + 0
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0
Y 2 < Rp2 , and the explicit dependence on 0 and is dis- Log[1-alpha_0]
played. From these quantities, averages can be obtained: log(I1 ) vs. log(1 , 0) (upper) and loghX 2i vs.
Figure 2.
hX 2 i IX 2 =I1 , hY 2 i IY 2 =I1 , and h i I =I1 . log(1 , 0) (lower) for five different values of (starting
Using these integrals and averages, which depend only from the left-most curve and proceeding to the right, =
on 0 , (and in the case of I ; Rp ; we may cal-) 0.00, 0.01, 0.02, 0.03, and 0.04).
culate physical parameters of the beam. For example, The curves asymptote to 0 = 1 , =2 for large space
the current I =
qv0 ncold 0 T?I1 =k 2 0 , the perveance p
charge depressions (derivable from the envelope equations
2 =
K qI= 0 0 mv03 0 T?I1 =, x-emittance x
3 = below with2 zero emittance), and I1 tends to 2= 1 , ,
4( ) =4 ( )
hx2 ihp2x i , hxpx i2 1=2 T? IX 2 =I1 1=2 , and space while hX i tends to 1=(1 , ) in the limit of zero space
charge parameter S =4 = 4 =
K hx2 i=2x K= T? 0 I1 = . 4 charge.
The rms tune depression x =0 = (1 + )
=hX 2 i 1=2 , and
=1
y =0 =hY i . 2 1 =2 5 EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS
In ref. [1], moment equations including dispersion were
4 RESULTS derived, and in ref. [9], the effects of images on a uni-
Figure 1 displays a surface plot of the normalized beam form density elliptical beam in a circular pipe were derived.
density with a relatively large dispersion, and moderate The envelope equations with these two effects included (in
tune depression. The beam has an apparent elliptical shape addition to the usual external focusing, space charge and
with a flattop similar to the thermal equilibrium beams in emittance terms are):
straight transport sections (cf. [8]). d2 a = ,k2 a + 2x + 4 hxi + 2K + K (a2 , b2)a
ds2 0 a3 a+b 4rp4 (6)
128
d2 b = ,k2 b + 2y + 2K , K (a2 , b2 )b this algorithm agrees within numerical accuracy to the cal-
ds2 0 b3 a + b 4rp4 (7)
culation done using the moment equations in ref. [1] and
p p compared with simulations in ref. [7].
Here a 2 hx2 i and b 2 hy2 i. Setting
d2 a=ds2 = d2 b=ds2 = 0, and transforming to the 7 CONCLUSIONS
dimensionless variables, we find the equilibrium moments We have solved the self-consistent Vlasov Poisson sys-
satisfy: p tem for beams in bends with thermal distributions, and
0 = ,(1 , ) hX 2 i + ph1X 2 i + 2,phX 20iI+1phY 2 i with temperatures not necessarily equal in the longitudi-
+ 0 I1 (hXRi,h Y 2 i)
2 nal and transverse directions. We have characterized these
4
p beams by two dimensionless parameters 0 and and have
p graphed two of the quantities which characterize the solu-
0 = , hY 2 i + ph1Y 2 i + 2,phX 20iI+1phY 2 i tions. We find that such beams have profiles which are con-
, 0 I1 (hX i,hY 2 i)
2 stant on nested ellipses, to within numerical errors when
Rp
4 the beam pipe is sufficiently large. This validates mo-
It has been found that in all cases examined, that given ment and envelope equations in refs. [1] and [3] for this
I1 , and solving for hX 2i and hY 2 i, these equilibrium class of beams. Emittance growth from bend/straight tran-
equations accurately predict the moments derived from the sitions, using energy and current conservation constraints
SOR code, and the final term accurately gives an indication was found to be the same as that calculated in ref. [1] again
of the importance of image charge effects on the solution. to within numerical uncertainties.
6 EMITTANCE GROWTH FROM ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
BEND/STRAIGHT TRANSITIONS The authors wish to thank Alex Friedman and Steven
As discussed in [1], if a beam abruptly enters a bend Lund for many useful discussions on the properties of
from a straight transport section, off momentum particles beams in thermal equilibrium and on numerical techniques.
will tend to oscillate in x about centers which are displaced
from the design orbit of the machine. This causes an en- REFERENCES
velope mismatch, and if the non-linear space charge forces [1] J.J. Barnard, H.D.Shay, S.S. Yu, A. Friedman, and
are sufficiently strong to allow phase mixing and energy D.P. Grote, “Emittance Growth in Heavy-Ion Recircula-
equi-partition between the x and y directions, then a new tors,”1992 Lin. Acc. Conf. Proc.,1992 Aug. 24-28, Ot-
equilibrium will result. In ref. [1], the moment equations tawa, Canada, C.R. Hoffman, ed. (1992), AECL 10728
yield an exact energy invariant, when k 0 is independent of p. 229. Also J.J. Barnard et al, in Proc. of the Workshop
s, under the assumption that density is constant on nested on Space Charge Effects in Hadron Rings, May 4-7, 1998,
ellipses (n(x; y ) = n(x2 =hx2 i + y 2 =hy 2 i)). More gen- Shelter Island NY, (AIP, NY) in press.
erally, a dimensionless average transverse energy may be [2] F. J. Sacherer, “RMS Envelope Equations with Space
written: Charge,” IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science NS-18,
H? =
1 ,(1 , 2)hX 2 i + hY 2 i + hi + 2 1105, (1971).
2 (8) [3] Marco Venturini and Martin Reiser, “RMS Envelope
Equations in the Presence of Space Charge and Disper-
Because of the choice of normalization, it is the quantity sion,” Phys. Rev. Letters 81 96-99 (1998).
H? T? which is conserved. Note that the factor of 1/2 [4] Marco Venturini and Martin Reiser, “KV Beam in a
multiplying hi is necessary to correctly calculate the self- Dispersive Channel,” Proceedings of the 1997 Particle Ac-
assembly energy from space charge. To calculate the the celerator Conference.
change in beam parameters from a straight/bend transition, [5] M. Venturini and M. Reiser, “Self-consistent beam dis-
we first calculate the current I and the transverse energy tributions with space charge and dispersion in a circular
H? T? of the beam in the straight section. Because we tab- ring lattice,” Phys. Rev. E, 57 4725, (1998).
ulate H? ( 0 ; ; Rp ) for fixed Rp we must account for the [6] I. Haber et al “Characteristics of an Electrostatic In-
change in Rp as T? changes even though rp remains fixed. stability Driven by Transverse- Longitudinal Temperature
But H? ( 0f ; f ; Rpf ) = H? ( 0f ; f ; Rpi )+(K=2T?f ) Anisotropy”, Nucl. Instr. and Meth. A, in press (1998).
(ln Rpf , ln Rpi ), where subscripts i; f indicate initial, fi- [7] S.M. Lund et al, “Numerical Simulation of Intense-
nal. For k 0 and rp held constant, we find Beam Experiments at LLNL and LBNL,” Nucl. Inst. Meth.
T?i [H? ( 0i ; = 0; Rpi ) + (K=4T?i) ln K=T?i] = A (in press).
T?f [H? ( 0f ; f ; Rpi ) + (K=4T?f ) ln K=T?f ]. For a fi- [8] M. Reiser, “Theory and Design of Charged Particle
nite value of , we iterate T? and 0 , until the current Beams,” (Wiley & Sons, New York, 1994).
and this relation for H? is satisfied. This allows cal-
culation of all final beam parameters and using h 2 i =
[9] E. P. Lee, E. Close, L. Smith, “Space Charge Effects
(1 + hX 2 i)02 =2, we may a posteriori, determine the ini-
in a Bending Magnet System,” Proc. 1987, IEEE Particle
Accelerator Conference, p. 1126 (1987).
tial value of 0 . The change in emittance calculated using
129
COUPLING SLOTS MEASUREMENTS AGAINST SIMULATION
FOR TRISPAL ACCELERATING CAVITIES
Pascal Balleyguier, CEA/DPTA, 91680 Bruyères-le-Châtel, France
Abstract Coupling antennas were made of N connectors
screwed outside each end plate (fig. 2) and did not need
At the LINAC96 conference, we presented a new to be dismantled at changes of configuration (single or
coupling scheme for the Trispal CCL accelerating double-cell). The central stem of the connector was
cavities: the “4-petal” slots [1]. It resulted from a extended somewhat toward the cavity to make an on-axis
MAFIA optimization in which we tried to maximize the electrical antenna, but the coupling remained low
shunt impedance. Since that time, we designed and built enough (<-25 dB) to neglect the external Q.
a mock-up for an accurate measurement of the Q-drop.
Indeed, we achieved a good accuracy and reliability in
Q-drop measurements, but the value was rather
disappointing: -22.5% (+/-0.5), instead of 5% as
predicted. As a consequence, the “4-petal” coupling
scheme was abandoned, and we learned that local power
losses computed by cavity simulation codes can be
widely underestimated. Further simulation showed that
improving the mesh resolution could give better results
though we felt that only a more subtle meshing method
(like triangular cells or partially filled cells) could lead
to realistic values.
1 INTRODUCTION
The TRISPAL linac [2] will deliver a 40 mA CW Fig. 1. The 2-cell cold model
beam of 600 MeV protons. Above 100 MeV, it will be
made of 352-MHz π-mode coupled cavities. Their
coupling slots had been optimized with MAFIA in a way
5
to minimize the shunt impedance drop that they induce
[1]. Starting from a "2-bean" configuration of slots R 6.5
203.3 mm
inspired by LEP cavities [3], the optimization resulted in
coupling antenna
a new "4-petal" scheme, for which MAFIA predicted a
15°
-6 % Q-drop (about half that of the "2-bean" slots), with 16.65
the same coupling coefficient. Moreover, this Q-drop 70
30
was found to be approximately canceled by an
improvement of R/Q, resulting in a quasi-negligible loss 10
in shunt impedance.
These characteristics were weakly dependent on the
resolution, and variations versus various geometrical 99.3 39
R2
squeezed wire
parameters were rather coherent. For verification, the
optimized geometry was also computed by other codes:
Soprano [4] and Antigone [5]. Roughly, all the codes
agreed about coupling factor and R/Q improvement. The
Q-drop values were rather close too, except for the one
computed with Antigone-H (-17 %) which seemed very
pessimistic. Fig. 2. Longitudinal section (transverse view on fig.4)
To settle the point of the Q-drop, a 1/3 scale
aluminum alloy cold model has been build (fig. 1). The
2 MEASUREMENTS VS. SIMULATIONS
central part, which contains the coupling slots, can be
removed for single-cell measurements. A major issue is
In the MAFIA computation of the cold model, no
to get a reliable Q value in spite of successive
symmetry is assumed in the center of the cell. So it
assembling and dismantling. The electrical seal is made
represents a true double cell cavity, rather than infinitely
of a 0.8-mm solder wire squeezed to 0.4 mm with a
mechanical limitation that makes the contact quality long structure. We computed the coupling coefficient γ
independent of the tightening strength. and the slot frequency drift α with the following
130
formulas: effect that had already been established [1]. Anyway, as
f 0 − fπ f1 − f 0 this bias is rather small and should be identical for the
γ =2 , α =2 , three modes computed here, the relative differences
f f should not be significantly altered.
in which f is the goal frequency (3×352 MHz). Indices To estimate the quality factor reliability, we made a
series of measurements alternating both configurations
π, 0 and 1 indicate the pi-mode, 0-mode and single cell
(single or double-cell) and changing the seal each time.
cavity mode (i.e., a cell without any coupling slots),
The gradual Q improvement in the left-hand part of the
respectively. The factor two is to extrapolate the data to
curves (fig. 3) shows the improvement of the operator’s
the case of an infinitely long structure with coupling
skillfulness during the first measurements. Disregarding
slots on both sides of the cell as computed in [1]. The
the first three points in each curve, the statistical
mesh used was exactly the same for the three modes, but
variation on the measured Q is about 0.4 % r.m.s.. The
in the case of a single-cell cavity, slots were filled with
accuracy on the mean value is then 0.15 %, leading to a
metal instead of vacuum. We used about 60000 points
for a quarter of a cell, resulting in a 2.5 mm resolution in 0.5 % absolute accuracy on δQ (see definition below).
the vicinity of the slots. Table 1 also gives measured quality factors against
Table 1 shows a +8 MHz systematic frequency error predicted ones. Here, relative variations versus single-
in simulation versus the cold-model that probably results cell mode (δQ) have been doubled by squaring the ratios
from gap length and nose shape changes due to to represent the case of an infinitely long structure with
discretization. But this bias is constant, and should not coupling slots at both sides of each cell:
Q Q
2 2
alter relative differences. Indeed, α and γ computed
values are close to the measured ones: the agreement is δ Qπ = π − 1 δQ0 = 0 − 1 .
pretty good, from the coupling-factor and slot-frequency- Q1 Q1
drift points of view. We can see that MAFIA prediction of δQπ is widely
underestimated: -5 % instead of -22.5 %. Furthermore,
Table 1. Frequency and quality factor (4-petal). we measured a very small δQ0: +0.9 %, instead of +11.5
MAFIA cold model % as predicted. Other codes used in [1] gave results
pi-mode (MHz) 1073.912 1064.415 close to MAFIA ones, except for Antigone-H. This code
zero-mode (MHz) 1081.556 1072.412 predicts δQ values closer to measurements but still not
single-cell (MHz) 1088.948 1080.841 very satisfactory.
coupling γ (%) 1.45 (1.40*) 1.51
fq. drift α (%) 1.40 (1.42*) 1.60 3 BACK TO “2-BEAN” SLOTS
Q pi-mode 11924 11340
Q zero-mode 12922 12938 Previous measurements showed that the 4-petal slots
did not yield the performance we expected from them.
Q single-cell 12236 12880
So, we built a new central-part for the cold model, with
δQπ (%) -5.0 (-5.9*) -22.5
two classical bean-shaped slots. A single measurement
(-16.9**)
(i.e., no statistics) in each configuration was performed
δQ0 (%) +11.5 (+11.3*) +0.9 this time. According to measured results (fig.4), the 2-
(+4.7**) bean slots are definitely preferable to 4-petal ones.
(*MAFIA and **Antigone-H simulations in [1]) Unfortunately, we did not have time and material to
make R/Q measurements with the bead-pull technique.
average ∆rms Anyway, even if MAFIA predictions were right (the pi-
Quality factor zero-mode
13000 12938 54 mode R/Q variation versus single-cell is +5.2 % for 4-
single cell 12880 67 petal, and -0.2 % for 2-bean), the net result in shunt
impedance would still be in favor of conventional slots.
For 2-bean slots, the simulated frequency is also
12000 8MHz higher than measured, and a rather good
pi-mode 11339 30 agreement is obtained for relative frequency differences
(table 2). The slot frequency drift α is pretty well
11000 predicted. The actual coupling factor is a little bit
# of measurement smaller than computed (1.27 % instead of 1.51 %).
Fig. 3. Statistical variation of the measured Q. Perhaps the actual 5 mm radius due to the machining
method, instead of right angles (at the slot corners),
The resistivity of the alloy (Al: 96%, Cu: 4%) was 51 explains a part of this discrepancy. For linac designing,
nΩ.m, and the measured single-cell cavity Q was 12880, such a discrepancy is non-negligible and the slot width
slightly above the computed value (12236). But, because should be slightly increased in order to reach the desired
of surface imperfection and seal losses, we should expect 1.4 % coupling factor.
the measured Q to be 10% to 15% lower. We conclude About Q-variations, this time the agreement between
that the MAFIA Q-value is probably underestimated, an measurement and simulation is not bad. Apparently,
131
losses are inaccurate in the case of composite coupling the cell, losses should be identical between a single-cell
(like 4-petal), and not in case of pure magnetic coupling cavity and a multi-cell one, as long as walls are
(like 2-bean), but we have no explanation. This is a identical. Thus, only small areas in which surface
possible track for further investigations. currents are deviated by coupling slots (i.e., nearby the
slot edges) should yield different losses. The discrepancy
Table 2. The 2-bean coupling. between computed and measured Q-drop is rather
cold model MAFIA important though only small areas of the cavity walls
pi-mode (MHz) 1069.976 1076.629 may cause this difference. So, we suspect the local
zero-mode (MHz) 1076.702 1084.604 power dissipation to be very inaccurately computed in
single-cell (MHz) 1080.922 1088.554 some cases, particularly in areas where the fields are
strongly non-uniform.
coupling γ (%) 1.27 1.51
Further analyses have been carried out at CST to
fq. drift α (%) 0.80 0.75 explain the discrepancy between MAFIA results and
Q pi-mode 12083 13269 measured ones. It appeared that the computed Q-drop
Q zero-mode 12959 14118 would depend on the resolution, and be a little closer to
Q single-cell 12825 13928 experimental values with a much larger number of
δQπ (%) -9.2 -11.3 points. Anyway, no clear convergence was found, and
δQ0 (%) +2.8 +2.1 the conclusion was that one should not try to get this
kind of information from MAFIA at the present time.
The future “Partially Filled Cells” algorithm, should
2-bean 4-petal lead to more accurate Q-drop values.
40
43° About Trispal: the 4-petal coupling slots must be
abandoned. As we have no reliable way to optimize the
70 30 slots, we will use the more classic 2-bean ones, which
have proved to be not so bad.
63.3
Right now, we should take a great care when
designing cooling circuits. If possible hot spots are
26.6 suspected, a more important margin should be used. This
remark is also valid for the Trispal RFQ design.
1.27% coupling 1.51%
-9.2% Q-drop -22.5% ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Fig.4. “2-bean” vs. “4-petal” slots (actual performances). The author thanks F.Appolaire who designed the cold-
model, M.Fabry (from AMAFA) for having it built, and
4 CONCLUSIONS P. Hahne (from CST) for investigations with Mafia. The
author is grateful to R.Wood (from LANL) for careful
About the cold model: we managed to get a reliable reading of the manuscript.
quality factor in a cold model cavity, despite successive
assembling and dismantling. Thus, we can estimate the REFERENCES
percentage Q-drop induced by the coupling slots in an
infinitely long structure, with an accuracy of ± 0.5. This [1] P. Balleyguier, "Coupling slots without shunt
accurate experimental data can be a benchmark for impedance drop", Linac Conference, Geneva, 1996,
future codes. p. 414.
[2] M. Prome, "Conceptual studies of a high proton
About simulation: cavity code accuracy has been linac", Linac Conference, Tsukuba, 1994, p.146.
widely discussed until today (see, for example [6]). But [3] I. Wilson and H. Henke, "The LEP main ring
most of the time, only the frequency or the on-axis field accelerating structure", CERN report 89-09, 1989.
has been taken care of. The present study gives accurate [4] D. Walsh et al., "Resonant cavity design using the
experimental data involving the quality factor. We finite element method", EPAC, Sitges, 1996.
conclude that, at the present time, 3D codes tested here [5] G. Le Meur and F. Touze, "Priam/Antigone: a 2D/3D
are not suitable for minimizing cavity losses. package for accelerating design", EPAC, London,
In a closed vacuum-filled cavity, the quality factor is 1994.
the ratio between two integrals: a volume integral (field [6] T. Weiland,"High precision eigenmode computation",
energy) and a surface integral (losses). The first integral Particle Accelerators, Vol. 56, 1996, pp. 61.
should be good, because if there were a bias in the whole
volume, the resonant frequencies could not be predicted
accurately. Thus, we probably should suspect the surface
losses to be inaccurate. For a given field in the center of
132
EXTERNAL Q STUDIES FOR APT SC-CAVITY COUPLERS
Pascal Balleyguier, CEA/DPTA, 91680 Bruyères-le-Châtel, France
1 η
2η ∫∫ 2 ∫∫
2 2
Abstract P= E ds = H ds ,
line x sect line x sect
Coupling coefficients for the APT superconducting assuming that η is the mode impedance. The stored
cavity couplers have been predicted using an energy in the cavity (assumed to be under vacuum) is:
improvement of the method previously developed for the 1 1
∫∫∫ ε 0 E dv = ∫∫∫ µ 0 H dv .
2 2
French Trispal project [1]. We here present the method W =
2 cavity 2 cavity
and a proof of the formula used to compute the external
Q. Measurements on a single-cell copper cold model We assume the line mode is a TEM, and that the dielectric
exhibited a very good agreement against simulation. is vacuum: η2=µ0/ε0. Then, the external Q can be
Then, we established that the original coupler design lead expressed as:
ω ∫∫∫
2
to an insufficient coupling in β=0.64 cavities. Different F dv
Qext =
solutions were proposed to fix this problem, like cavity
, (1)
c ∫∫
combining impedance discontinuities in the line and an 2
F ds
off-centered disc end tip. Finally, it was decided to line x sect
increase the beam tube diameter though it has some F being either the electric (E) or magnetic (H) field. (If
influence on the cavity end-cell performance. the line is not under vacuum and/or the mode is not a
TEM one, a coefficient taking the line mode impedance
1 INTRODUCTION into account has to be introduced in equation (1)).
Unfortunately, computing the Qext with the formula
The superconducting accelerating cavity prototype for (1) would require the use of a dissipative code. Though
the Accelerator Production of Tritium project and its such codes now exist, they are more difficult to use and
associated power coupler have been intensively studied in much slower than non-dissipative ones.
Los Alamos [2]. Among the main characteristics is the Inverting the sign of time gives a second solution of
external quality factor of the cavity. This parameter Maxwell’s equations that represents the same cavity
determines the coupling between the cavity and the RF slowly gaining energy from an incoming wave travelling
line that feeds it. in the line. According to the superposition theorem, we
Some methods to compute the external Q already exist. can add these two solutions (fig. 1).
In 1990, Kroll and Yu [3] proposed one based on a fit on
a branch of Slater’s diagram. Unfortunately, this method
is limited to low Qext values (less than a few hundreds) travelling invert H=0
standing
and is not suitable for our purpose. The author of the waves
in the line
× eiϕ time superposition waves
E = 0 in the line
present paper recently proposed a new method [4]. It has
been improved since, and the resulting method in fact is
equivalent in its principle to another one described in Fig. 1. Transforming a travelling-wave problem into a
1993 by Hartung and Haebel [5]. But our method differs standing-wave one.
both in the proof and in the practical way to operate.
Moreover, we derive from it a procedure to compute Inside the line, the two added travelling waves drive
fields and local power losses under operation in a cavity the same RF power P in either direction, and they
and its power coupler. interfere into a standing wave. Let us choose the reference
plane at an electric field antinode: the standing wave field
2 METHOD amplitude is there twice the one of the travelling waves.
Inside the cavity, the two added fields have an arbitrary
Let us consider a lossless cavity initially containing phase difference ϕ, so the amplitude of the resulting field
some RF energy W at its resonant frequency ω. If this is |1+eiϕ| times the one of the original field. Using the
cavity is weakly coupled to an infinite line, this line same formal expression as in equation (1), we can define
drives out a certain RF power P and the energy stored in the quantity Q1 as:
the cavity gradually decreases. The external Q then is:
ω ∫∫∫
2 2
E1 dv 1 + e iϕ
Qext = ωW . Q1 =
cavity
= Qext ,
P
c ∫∫
2
E1 ds 4
Only a single mode is assumed to travel along the line. ref. .plane
The power transported by the travelling wave along the where the suffix 1 indicates the resulting field after
line may be computed either from the electric or the addition. This field is a pure standing wave in both the
magnetic field amplitude: cavity and the line. The line can be terminated at the
133
reference plane with the appropriate boundary condition S11 Network
(perfect magnetic wall) without changing the fields, calibration nalyser
making this problem computable by MAFIA or any other HP 8753
Measured Port 1 Port 2
cavity code. coupler
Now let us use the superposition theorem again, but by
subtracting the two solutions instead of adding them (the antenna penetration
resulting fields will be noted with the suffix 2). At the
same reference plane, we now have a magnetic antinode Reflection Auxiliary
which field amplitude is twice the one of the travelling measurement antenna
wave. Inside the cavity, the resulting field is now |1-eiϕ|
times the original field. We define Q2 as: Fig. 3. Qext measurement in the 1-cell copper mock-up.
ω ∫∫∫
2
iϕ 2
H 2 dv 1− e Qext
Q2 = =
cavity
Qext . 109
c ∫∫ Transmission
2
H 2 ds 4
ref. .plane 8 measurement
10
This problem can also be computed by MAFIA with the
other boundary condition (perfect electric wall) at the 107
reference plane. As for any value of ϕ, |1+eiϕ|2 + |1-eiϕ|2 = Simulation
106
4, we have then: Qext = Q1 + Q2 . Reflexion
105 measurement
So, two MAFIA runs (with the same mesh) are
sufficient to predict the external Q. The reference plane 104 Antenna penetration (mm)
position has no influence on the external Q and can be -40 -20 0 20 40 60
chosen anywhere in the line. Indeed, tests showed that the Fig. 4. Computed and measured Qext in the mock-up.
computed Qext was within a 0.5% variation when
computed in double precision with different line lengths. To prove the validity of this method, we tested it on a
β=0.64 single-cell copper mock-up of APT cavities
E=0 H=0 Combination (fig.3). The coupling could be changed by moving the
on boundary on boundary electrical antenna more or less into the beam tube. The
Qext has been computed and measured (by reflection
travelling
waves and/or transmission) for various penetrations of the
in the line coupler antenna. The result (fig. 4) shows an excellent
agreement between simulation and measurements. The
discrepancy of measurements versus simulation is <20 %
for reflection and <7 % for transmission.
3 THE β=0.64 APT CAVITY
To cancel the reflected wave on the β=0.64 APT
cavity, the external Q must equal the internal Q which is:
ωW βλ E
Q int = = r 2 ,
Fig. 2. Losses in the coupler under normal operations Pbeam 2 Q I cos ϕ
where W is the stored energy, Pbeam the power gained,
Reciprocally, the travelling wave can be reconstituted E=4.8 MV/m is the accelerating gradient, r/Q (single-cell
from the two standing wave solutions in order to compute circuit-definition)=17.1Ω, I=100mA is the beam current,
the fields in normal operation. For this purpose, one just ϕ=30° is the phase angle between the proton bunch and
has to combine the two standing waves solutions in
the RF voltage. The goal value is then: Qext=0.22×106.
quadrature phase. Before combining, one has to make
The cavity [6] has been simulated with the originally
sure that the electromagnetic energy at an arbitrary line
designed power coupler (fig.5). The computed Qext
cross section of the line is the same for the two waves.
This operation also permits to compute the losses in the (assuming two couplers per 5-cell cavity) was: 1.5×106,
coupler under normal (i.e. travelling waves) operation. As which is off by a factor 6.7. With such a design, the
the solutions combine are in quadrature phase, the antenna would have had to be pushed 26 mm into the
resulting losses is just the sum of the losses of the two beam pipe in order to reach the goal: this is not acceptable
solutions after normalizing them with respect to the in a real accelerator.
energy density at the line end plane. As an example, the At first, we tried to increase the coupling, without
local losses in the final coupler (sect. 3) have been modifying the cavity design, but only the coupler itself
computed. As expected, we obtained a pure travelling (fig. 6). Replacing the hemisphere antenna end tip with a
wave with uniform losses along the line (fig. 2). disc was found to be efficient if the disc axis was shifted
toward the accelerating cells. A further improvement was
134
obtained by introducing an impedance step in the coaxial has been computed versus antenna penetration, and the
line. Such a discontinuity generates a reflected wave that slope is 0.38 dB/mm around nominal position. So, a
partially cancels the one at the antenna end, if the distance ±5-mm possible antenna adjustment will permit to vary
between the reflections planes is chosen suitably. It the Qext within a factor 2.4.
appeared that two such steps would be necessary: an The influence of a possible antenna tilt was simulated
impedance increase about λ/2 from the end tip, and an by a parallel displacement of the antenna in the z-axis
impedance diminution λ/4 further. These steps would also direction. In fact, this effect is very small: 0.12 dB/mm. A
make the transition between the coupler dimensions and ±1-mm misalignment can be compensated by a ±0.3-mm
the feeding coaxial line, thus avoiding the use of a taper. penetration of the antenna.
Hemispheric end tip flush Exploded
50
50 Ω with the beam-pipe Beam-pipe
50 22
22
50 Ω
10
65 8 80
65 mm beam axis
beam axis
6
6 Qext=0.20×10 : +0.6 dB more than goal
Qext=1.5×10 (–8.3 dB from goal)
Fig.7. Final geometry
Fig. 5. Original coupler design
50 Ω 4 CONCLUSION
33 Impedance
steps
76 The Qext can be easily and efficiently computed by
107
lossless cavity codes in frequency domain. The losses in
=λ/4 90 Ω
the coupler associated with the travelling wave can also
22 Off-centered be derived from the same simulation.
190 disc
≈λ/2 The desired Qext in APT β=0.64 cavities has been
65 Ω
obtained by expanding the beam-pipe. If necessary, an
17 asymmetrical end tip and appropriate impedance steps
10 could further improve the coupling.
17
beam axis The author thanks Brian Rusnak and all the coupler
group for including me in their team during my stay in
6
Qext=0.22×10 : goal achieved Los Alamos. I want to thank specially Frank Krawczyk
Fig. 6. Solution without cavity modification for all his help, and Henri Safa for his suggestions about
the possible ways to improve the coupling.
However, the above solution only barely gave the
necessary Qext and would have let no margin in case of REFERENCES
unexpected behavior. For this reason, we preferred
another one that consisted in expanding the end-cell [1] M. Prome, "Conceptual Studies for a High Power
beam-pipe radius from 65 to 80 mm. This change was Proton Linac", LINAC-94, Tsukuba, p 146.
rather soft because 80 mm is already the beam pipe radius [2] F. Krawczyk et al., "The Power Coupler Design for
of the β=0.82 cavities. Computations showed that such a the APT Superconducting Accelerator", LA-UR-97-
beam-tube expansion would almost give the required 3190, 8th Workshop on Superconducting RF, Abano
Qext. In order to further improve the coupling, a 10-mm Terme, Italy,1997.
thick symmetrical disc was added at the antenna end tip [3] N.Kroll and D.Yu, “Computer determination of the
(fig. 7). The Qext obtained (0.20×106) is even a little external Q and frequency of wave guide loaded
lower than required. cavities”, Particle Accelerators, Vol 34, p 231, 1990.
Such a modification in the cavity geometry has of [4] P.Balleyguier “A straightforward method for cavity
course some influence on the cavity performance. First of external Q computation”, Particle Accelerators, Vol
all, the end cell profile has been adjusted to keep a 700 57, p 113, 1997.
MHz resonance frequency. As well, the transit time factor [5] W.Hartung and E.Haebel, “Search of trapped modes
is poorer with the enlarged pipe, and the geometric in the single-cell cavity prototype for CESR-B”, 1993
impedance (r/Q) drops by 19 %. But, as this happens only Particle Accelerator Conf., Washington DC, p 898.
in the end-cell, the global cavity impedance is only 4 % [6] F. Krawczyk, et al, "Superconducting Cavities for the
lower, which is acceptable. APT Accelerator", LA-UR-97-1700 and Proceedings
For a final adjustment, couplers will be tuned by of the 1997 PAC Conference in Vancouver, Canada.
adjusting the penetration into the beam pipe. The Qext
135
2.5D CAVITY CODE WITH HIGH ACCURACY
Y. Iwashita
Accelerator Laboratory, Nuclear Science Research Facility
Institute for Chemical Research, Kyoto University
Gokanosho, Uji, Kyoto 611-0011, JAPAN Gokanosho, Uji, Kyoto 611-0011, JAPAN
Abstract
PISCES II calculates Eigensolutions of any axi- where M and K are large sparse symmetric matrices,
r
symmetric cavity with 2.5D Finite Element Method and and x is an Eigenvector[6]. Because of the hybrid
can handle periodic boundary conditions. Dipole and elements, any spurious mode has zero-Eigenvalue and is
higher multipole solutions are obtained by hybrid finite well separated from the real modes. Usually several
elements. The accuracy of the frequency in a solution Eigensolutions starting from the smallest one but zero are
obtained from PISCES II is improved by use of higher of interest. Unfortunately, this Eigenvalue problem has
order elements. In order to reduce the computation time, many zero-Eigenvalue solutions, which correspond to the
the Eigenvalue solver is improved. spurious modes, and thus special care should be taken.
For axisymmetric solutions, such as TM0xx or TE0xx,
1 INTRODUCTION the problem can be expressed by field variable of Eθ or
H θ , which has no zero Eigensolution.
An RF cavity code with high accuracy is necessary for
design with high precision. There are still some needs of 3 PERIODIC BOUNDARY
an axisymmetric cavity because of its simplicity.
PISCES II can calculate all Eigensolutions in a cavity The periodic boundary condition is implemented using
r
with axisymmetric boundaries including multipole Floquet's theorem[7]. Although x has to be a complex
modes[1,2]. Periodic boundary conditions can also be vector for this analysis, the final Eigenvalue problem to
handled in this code. be solved can be rewritten as real and symmetric by
splitting the component into real and imaginary part.
2 FORMULATION AND FINITE Because of this technique, the Eigenvalue solver for the
ELEMENT MODEL usual boundary conditions is used.
r r
Because either E or H can be used as the field 4 GENERAL EIGENVALUE SOLVER
variable, only the electric field will be shown here. The
differential equations to be solved are [3,4,5], Because Eq. (5) is a general Eigenvalue problem for
r r r r r large sparse symmetric matrix with many zero Eigenvalue
∇ × ∇ × E + k 2 E = 0, ∇ ⋅ E = 0 (in Ω) , (1) solutions, special care had to be taken. The solver is based
where k2=ω2εµ. In vacuum space k2=ω2/c2, where c is on the subspace method[8] and uses zero and upper
the speed of light. Boundary conditions are filtering technique[9].
r r The zero filtering technique requires a rough estimate of
Er ⋅ n = 0r on magnetic boundaries (Γm) (2) the lowest Eigenfrequency(FLO), which can be obtained
r
E × n = 0 on electric boundaries (Γe) and (3) by the physical dimension of the problem. If FLO is not
r r
Eright = eiϕ Eleft on periodic ones (Γp), (4) given by a user and solution with the second order
r element or multiple solutions are required, PISCES II
where n denotes the outward normal on the boundary, and evaluates FLO from a single mode solution with lowest
ϕ is the phase advance in the problem . order element starting with the "guess" value from the
Because only the problems on axisymmetric domains physical dimension.
are considered, we can assume si n m θ and cos m θ Using similar technique, upper filter is also applied for
dependencies for Er, Ez and Eθ components, and then the acceleration of the convergence. If the upper frequency
problem can be reduced to two-dimensional problem: (FUP) are not given by a user, PISCES II uses the
r highest Eigenvalue in the subspace after it settled. In this
E = (Eθ sin mθ, Er cos mθ, Ez cos mθ). (5)
case the FUP value is adjusted adaptively.
Then (Eθ, Er, Ez) are functions of r and z only. The field Because the method is based on the iterative method,
variables are (rE θ , Er , Ez ) for m≥1 and (E θ , H θ ) for initial vectors should be given at the beginning. For the
m=0. problem with the lowest order element, the initial vectors
Using Finite Element Method, Eqs. (1-3) can be reduced are given by random numbers. Before starting with the
to a matrix form of a general Eigenvalue equation: second order element, the solution vectors are obtained
r r
M⋅x =k2K⋅x , (6) from the lowest order element and "prolonged" to the
136
second order solutions by linear interpolation. Because conditions are listed in Table 1. The last group is the
fairly good initial solutions are obtained by this way and curvature data which specifies the radii of the segments in
FUP is also available from the beginning, the solution the same sequence as the boundary conditions. Zero in
time is reduced up to half comparing with direct start with radius should read as straight line. Each group is read by
the random vectors. free format read statement. The mid-line points will be
generated in the code if the second order elements are
5 INPUTS TO PISCES II needed. For a periodic boundary problem, the radial
A mesh data example for a sphere as shown in Fig. 1 is coordinates of both the left and right side nodes should
listed in Fig. 2. All the internal units are in SI. The first coincide.
line contains a title with less than 80 characters. The MESHNET program[10] can convert a TAPE35 data
second line is problem constants, where only the unit that is generated by LATTICE[11] to an input file for
scale for cm is specified in the list. The options are PISCES II. Because the curvature information is not
explained later. The third line has three numbers, which included in TAPE35 data, the curvature data has to be
are the number of nodes, the number of elements and the added by hand or by NETREF (NET REFine) program.
number of boundary points plus one for closure of the Table 2 explains the major problem constants and their
line. Node coordinates are specified being enclosed by default values. Table 3 shows the encoding of the element
brackets. Followings are the element data, which specifies type. For example, LMTYP=22, the second order nodal
the three coordinates of the vertices by the sequential elements are used for axisymmetric modes (m=0) while
numbers of the coordinate sets. The fourth positions are the mixed linear edge/nodal element are used for multipole
reserved. Then the boundary points are specified in the modes (m>0). For the default setting of LTYP=1, both
same way as above. Each boundary condition for a TE0xx and TM0xx are obtained simultaneously at m=0 so
segment between n and n+1 boundary points is specified that any mode is not missed in the solution. Although
by a character constant. The encoding of the boundary such Eigenvalue problem can be separated into two
independent problems, it is solved altogether.
Table 2: The problem constants
name Default description
OPTNF T The problem constants will be read
again
EM 1.0 m in Eq. (5)
MSTEP 1 increment of m
MNUM 1 iterations
PHASE 0.0 phase advance
PHSTEP 0.0 increment of phase
NUMPH 1 iterations
BCLR '' override boundary condition at
left/right sides(2chars)
Fig. 1 Mesh example for a sphere. UNIT 1. unit scale
CVF T enable curved boundary
FIELD 'E' field variable E or H
:SPHERE LMTYP 1 element mode
&PROBLEM UNIT=0.01 &END NMODE 5 modes to be solved
8 7 8 FUP 0.0 highest frequency
(0,0) (5,0) (10,0) (0,5) (3.1,4.5) (8.66025,5) (0,10)
FLO 0.0 lowest frequency
(5,8.66025)
1,2,5,,2,3,6,,4,1,5,,4,5,7,,5,2,6,,5,6,8,,7,5,8,, EPS 1E-5 accuracy
1, 2, 3, 6, 8, 7, 4, 1, ITMX 200 iterations for subspace
'A' 'A' 'E' 'E' 'E' 'E' 'E' 'A' MGF T enable two step solve
0 0 10 10 10 0 0 0 MCG 2 method of CGM
INFILE '' file for initial value
Fig. 2 Mesh data for a sphere with radius of 10 cm. OTFILE '' output file
Table 3: The element mode encoding
Table 1: The encoding of the boundary conditions LMTYP 0 1 2 10 11 12 20 21 22
Code Boundary condition LTYP (EM=0) 0 1 2 3 1 2 4 1 2
'A' on axis ( r=0 ) LTYP (EM>0) I 0 0 0 3 3 3 4 4
'E'' on electric boundary (metal surface) LTYP=0 E/H with mixed constant edge/nodal element
'M' on magnetic boundary (symmetry plane) LTYP=1 E&H with linear nodal element
LTYP=2 E/H with 2nd order nodal
'P' left side boundary for periodic boundary LTYP=3 E/H with mixed linear edge/nodal element 12 params
'Q' right side boundary for periodic boundary LTYP=4 E/H with mixed linear edge/nodal element 14 params
137
6 EXAMPLE nodes, 46519 elements, 624 boundary points, 93662
Figs. 5 and 6 show the relative frequency errors and point (including mid-line points generated internally)—
CPU time as functions of the number of unknowns for takes about 20 hours for seven Eigensolutions. If FLO
the hemisphere problem shown in Fig.1 (r=10cm). The and FUP are given, the CPU time is reduced to about
CPU time depends on only the number of unknowns, 70%. The most time consuming portion is the linear
although the number of nonzero elements in the matrices matrix solver. PCGM (Preconditioned Conjugate Gradient
are about twice. The second order solutions give better Method) with SOR as a preconditioner is currently used
accuracy with doubled memory requirement. for the linear matrix solver. More efficient preconditioner
will reduce the CPU time.
10-1
10-2 8 REFERENCES
[1] E. M. Nelson, "A finite element field solver for
10-3 dipole modes", 1992 Linear Accelerator Conference
Proceedings, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, AECL-
10-4 10728, Vol2, pp.814-816, August 1992
[2] M. Koshiba, S. Maruyama and K. Hirayama, "A
| ∆f|/ f
10-5 vector finite element method with the high-order
mixed-interpolation-type triangular elements for
10-6 optical waveguiding problems", Journal of
Lightwave Technology, Vol.12, No.3, March 1994,
pp.495-502.
10-7 ∆ f 1/ f 1 (6 parameter)
∆ f 1/ f 1 (14 parameter) [3] K. H. Huebner and E. A. Thornton, "The finite
element method for engineers", (J.Weiley, New
10-8 ∆ f 2/ f 2 (6 parameter) York); and A.R.Mitchell and R.Wait, "The Finite
∆ f 2/ f 2 (14 parameter)
Element Method in Partial Differential Equations"
10-9 1 (J.Weiley, New York, 1977)
10 102 103 104 105
Number of Unknowns [4] M. Hara, T. Wada, T.Fukasawa, and F. Kukuchi, "A
three dimensional analysis of RF electro-magnetic
Fig. 5 Relative frequency errors of the second and the fields by finite element method", IEEE Trans.,
third lowest modes in a spherical cavity as a function of MAG-19 No. 6 Nov. 1983
the number of unknowns. [5] F. Kikuchi et al., "A finite element method for 3-D
analysis of cavity resonators", Distributed Parameter
105
Systems: Modeling and Simulation, Elsevier
Science Publishers B. V. (North-Holland)
©IMACS,1989
[6] Y. Iwashita, "Accuracy of Eigenvalue with Hybrid
104 Elements on Axisymmetric Domains", Proc. of the
11th Conference on the Computation of
Total CPU Time(sec.)
Electromagnetic Fields, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 165-
103 166 (1997)
[7] R. L. Gluckstern and E. N. Opp, "Calculation of
dispersion curves in periodic structures", IEEE
102 Trans. MAG-21 No. 6 Nov. 1985 pp. 2344-2346
[8] K.J. Bathe, "Solution Methods for Large Generalized
Eigenvalue Problem in Structural Engineering",
Doctoral thesis, University of California, Berkeley,
101 1971
CPU time lowest ( single step ) [9] Y. Iwashita, "General Eigenvalue Solver with Zero
CPU time second ( w/presolution ) and Upper Filters for Large Sparse Symmetric
100 2 Matrix", Proc. of the Eighth Biennial IEEE
10 103 104 105 106
Conference on Electromagnetic Field Computation
# of unknowns CEFC'98, June-3,1998, Tucson, Arizona, p.253
Fig. 6 CPU times as functions of the number of [10] Y. Iwashita, "PISCES II:2.5D RF Cavity Code",
unknowns. Computational Accelerator Physics, Williamsburg,
VA, AIP conference proceedings No. 361 Sept.
1996, pp.119-124
7 CONCLUDING REMARKS [11] "User's Guide for the POISSON/SUPERFISH
After the improvement of initial vectors and parameters, Group of Codes", LA-UR-87-115, Los Alamos
the dipole problem with 324388 unknowns—23572 National Lab.
138
COMPUTING EIGENMODES IN HIGHLY LOSSY ACCELERATING
STRUCTURES
S. Setzer , T. Weiland
Darmstadt University of Technology, Fachbereich 18,
Fachgebiet Theorie Elektromagnetischer Felder, Schlossgartenstrasse 8, 64289 Darmstadt, Germany
Abstract following notation:
_
The numerical calculation of eigenvalues in structures con- Ce = ,b (1)
taining high loss dielectric and permeable materials is of
_
importance in the field of accelerators as well as in many Ceh = j + d (2)
Sd = q
other high frequency applications. While satisfying algo-
rithms exist for loss free and small-loss problems, the nu- (3)
merical problem of highly lossy material insertion is still Seb = 0 (4)
a big challenge. We examine the Jacobi-Davidson method d = D e
that proves to be a rather suitable method for calculating a " (5)
set of eigenvalues even in the case of highly absorbing ma- b = Dh:
(6)
terials. Furthermore, unlike the commonly used sub-space
methods, this algorithm is not limited to calculate extreme The geometry is discretized on a dual orthogonal grid sys-
eigenvalues only. It is also capable of finding the eigenfre- tem with the vectors of the electrical grid voltage e and the
quencies located around any user specified frequency. An-
magnetic flux b located on the normal Grid G while the
other practical advantage of this method is the absence of
vectors of the electrical flux d and the magnetic grid volt-
parameters such as the upper limit for an eigenvalue spec- age h are based on the dual Grid G e . The analytical curl
trum. operator results in the curl matrices (C ,Ce ) and the diver-
gence operator in the source matrices (S ,Se).
The presence of lossy dielectric and permeable materials
1 INTRODUCTION can be included by introducing complex diagonal material
matrices D" and D
. The eigenvalue equation can be ob-
Many problems in the field of electroctromagnetic design
require the determination of a set of eigenvalues and cor- tained by combining equations 1 and 2 in the frequency
responding eigenvectors. In the absence of lossy dielectric domain with the now complex grid voltages e; h:
Ceh = i!D"e
and permeable material or even for small loss problems, ex-
isting algorithms are functioning satisfyingly. In the pres- Ce = ,i!Dh ;
,1 ,1
ence of highly lossy material new methods like the Jacobi-
Davidson technique as shown in [1] must be used. This al-
) D CeD
"
Ce
= !2e (7)
gorithm has been implemented in the eigenvalue module of
the electromagnetic CAD software MAFIA which is based 2.2 The Jacobi-Davidson Method
on the FI-Technique. Besides the basic theory we present The Jacobi-Davidson method as described in [3] is applica-
results for typical accelerator components such as the pre- ble to the standard as well as to the generalized eigenvalue
liminary model of a high order mode damped accelerating problem with a complex system matrix. Here, we will only
cavity built at Fermilab. concentrate on the standard eigenvalue problem as it arises
when using the FIT as presented above.
The idea of Jacobi-Davidson techniques is to generate a
2 BASIC CONCEPTS search subspace on which the projected eigenvalue prob-
lem of a now much smaller dimension is solved. This
2.1 The FIT-Method is the “Davidson“ part and leads to an approximation for
the eigenvalue and eigenvector of the unprojected problem.
The formulations of the Finite Integration Technique (FIT) In the Jaccobi part of the algorithm, a correction equation
according to Weiland [2] provides a general spatial dis- is solved defining an orthogonal correction for the current
cretization scheme usable for different electromagnetic ap- eigenvector approximation. This correction is also used to
plications of arbitrary geometry. The so called Maxwell expand the orthogonal search subspace.
Grid Equations and the material relations are given in the Although no estimations of extreme eigenvalues are
needed, there is a practical problem with the Jacobi-
Work supported by DFG (GK-GRK 410/1) Davidson algorithm, namely the convergence towards a
139
specific eigenvalue. Usually one is interested in calculat- in figure 2. Usually, the identification of the first eigen-
ing a set of eigenvalues located around a user specified frequency takes more iteration then for the higher modes.
target which is more effectively done by using a modified This is due to the fact that subspace information generated
method, the JDQR algorithm, as described in [4]. Here for the first eigenvalue can be used to speed up the conver-
the Jacobi-Davidson method is used to generate a partial gence of the following ones.
Schur-form for the standard eigenvalue problem. A explicit
deflation technique is introduced which leads to a modified
correction equation. After identifying the first eigenvalue,
the speed of convergence towards the succeeding ones is
increased by reusing already generated subspace informa-
tion.
3 NUMERICAL RESULTS
The JDQR-algorithm, a modified version of the Jacob-
Davidson method, has been implemented for rz-problems
in the eigenvalue module of the electromagnetic CAD
software MAFIA. As an example the preliminary design
of a high order mode damped cavity developed at Fermilab
[5] has been chosen. The damping of the unwanted higher
modes excited by the beam itself is achieved by inserting
rings of lossy dielectric and permeable material with
" = 5 , 5i and = 100 , 3i. The geometry of the cavity Figure 2: Relative error of eigenvalues vs. number of iter-
is shown in figure 1. ations
0.317
0.159 4 CONCLUSION
R
0.0 The Jacobi-Davidson method has proved to be a success-
-0.914 0.0 0.914
Z Lossy material
ful approach to the identification of resonating modes in
structures containing highly absorbing materials. The al-
Figure 1: High order mode damped accelerating cavity gorithm is also capable of finding the eigenfrequencies lo-
cated around an user given frequency which is useful for
the examination of special frequency ranges. Another prac-
tical advantage of this method is the absence of parameters
The first ten eigenmodes and the corresponding quality fac- such as the upper limit for an eigenvalue spectrum.
tors have been calculated , the results are summarized in
table 1. To ensure that the lowest ten modes are identified, 5 REFERENCES
the user given eigenvalue target has been set to zero. [1] S. J. Cooke, B. Levush,“Eigenmodes of Microwave Cavi-
The speed of convergence for each eigenmode is depicted ties containing High-Loss Dielectric Materials“,Proceedings
of the Particle Accelerator Conference PAC 97, Vancouver,
Mode fre =MHz fim =MHz Q to be published
1 54.608 0.657 41.56 [2] T. Weiland, “A Discretization Method for the Solution of
2 63.723 15.888 2.01 Maxwells Equations for Six-Component Fields“, Electronics
3 64.833 16.357 1.98 and Communication (AEÜ), Vol. 31, pp. 116-120, 1977
4 87.578 1.902 23.02 [3] G. L. G. Sleijpen , H. A. van der Vorst, “A Jacobi-Davidson it-
5 98.203 36.505 1.35 eration method for linear eigenvalue problems“,SIAM J. Ma-
6 98.278 36.606 1.34 trix Anal. Appl., 17(2), pp. 401-425,1996
7 137.547 53.701 1.28 [4] D. R. Fokkema, G. L. G. Sleijpen, H. A. van der
8 137.630 53.829 1.28 Forst,“Jacobi-Davidson style QR and QZ algorithm for the
9 171.255 52.872 1.62 partial reduction of matrix pencils“, Preprint 941, Department
10 171.340 53.066 1.61 of Mathematics, University Utrecht, Janur 1996, to appear in
SIAM J. Sc. Comput.
Table 1: First ten Eigenmodes of a high order mode [5] W. Chou, private communication
damped cavity
140
SIMULATION RESULTS WITH AN ALTERNATE 3D SPACE CHARGE
ROUTINE, PICNIC
N. Pichoff, J.M. Lagniel, S. Nath*
CEA-Saclay/DSM/DAPNIA/SEA,
* On sabbatical from LANL, Los Alamos, NM, USA.
UHVSHFWLYHO\ WKH [ DQG \ EHDP UPVVL]HV GLIIHUV
Abstract
VLJQLILFDQWO\IURPRUZKHQWKHEHDPKDVQRF\OLQGULFDO
One of the major problems in the beam dynamics V\PPHWU\ HJ LQ WKH 5)4 RXWSXW EHDP GXH WR LPDJH
calculation dealing with high current linacs is the FKDUJHIRUFHV
treatment of space charge effects. The widely used ,Q 3,&1,& the space is mapped with a 3D (x, y, z)
SCHEFF routine - originated and developed at Los mesh. The number of particles in each elementary volume
Alamos, is often critiqued as being simplistic because of (cube) with x ∈ [x,x+δx], y ∈ [y,y+δy] and z ∈ [z,z+δz]
its inherent assumption of transverse symmetry. Here we is calculated, and the field induced by each cube
report preliminary work on an alternate fully 3D space- (considered as uniformly charged) is computed at the
charge routine for a bunched beam. It is a particle-in-cell mesh node. The field at each particle position is then
approach based on numerical-calculation of the interpolated from those of the neighbouring nodes. No
interaction between cubes (PICNIC). The principle beam symmetry is assumed.
underlying the method and the comparative results of In figure 1 we represent the results of emittance-growth
simulation with SCHEFF and PICNIC are reported. calculation of a non cylindrical (X=Z=Y/α) beam
(100mA, 6.7 MeV) in a continuously focusing channel
1 INTRODUCTION (kx0 = 1 P . For both SCHEFF and PICNIC. The initial
beam distribution is of type 8 in PARMILA (uniform);
Increase in the interest for high-current accelerators
9,000 particles are used. It clearly shows the problems
with very low loss-rate demands a high degree of
with SCHEFF calculations for larger values of α
confidence to the space-charge simulation tools.
Simulations have also been done under the same
PARMILA is one of the more well known and widely
conditions but with a transversally round beam
used tools in the design of such accelerators [1]. Its space-
(X=Y=Z/α ,Q WKRVH FDVHV 3,&1,& DQG 6&+()) JLYH
charge routine, SCHEFF, is fast, but is not a fully 3D
QHDUO\WKHVDPHUHVXOWVLHWKRVHRIILJE
code. It assumes cylindrical symmetry around the
longitudinal axis. We have written a new 3D space-charge a) α = 2.58 η[ η] η\
routine, PICNIC, based on the same principle as
SCHEFF, but making no assumption on the bunch shape.
εxf/ε0 = .76
H
We made simulations with PARMILA, both with F
Q
D
εyf/ε0 = 2.6
W
W
L
SCHEFF and PICNIC. Studies were done for the front P
εzf/ε0 = 1.4
(
Q α = 2.03; η[ η] η\
section of the APT linac [2] (98 mA RFQ-output beam D
H
0
with energy form 6.7 MeV to 100 MeV) as well as in α = 1.76; η[ η] η\
continuously linear focusing 3D channel (50 m, α = 1.37; η[ η] η\
-1
kx0=ky0=kz0=1 m , with 10 space charge calculations per α = 1.16; η[ η] η\
meter).
εxf/ε0 = εzf/ε0 =.97
'LVWDQFH P
0
2 LIMITATION OF SCHEFF
b) εyf/ε0 = 1.4 α
In the SCHEFF routine the space is mapped with a 2D
(r, z) mesh, r and z being respectively the radial and the α
longitudinal position in the beam. The number of particle
in each elementary volume (a ring such that r ∈ [r,r+δr] 'LVWDQFH P
and z ∈ [z,z+δz]) is calculated, and the field induced by Figure 1: Emittance growth of non cylindrical beam in
each ring, considered as uniformly charged, is computed a continuously focusing channel. a) SCHEFF results, b)
at the mesh node. The field at each particle position is PICNIC results. We have Z = X.
interpolated from that of the neighbouring nodes. Thus,
SCHEFF is very well suited for transverse round-beam, The emittance growth observed at the beginning with
but becomes increasingly inaccurate as when the PICNIC comes from the initial beam relaxation towards a
transverse aspect ratio a <; ; DQG < EHLQJ space-charge equilibrium; the nonzero slope of the curves
141
is due to a poor statistics for this severely depressed-tune demonstrated in [3]. A space-charge routine should
beam (see § 3.b). therefore be validated in the context of "spurious
collision" in order to avoid erroneous conclusion in term
3 PICNIC PROPERTIES of equipartitioning. In all cases, however, it is better to
work with large Np. Even in such case, a very small
a) Choice of the number of cells emittance growth is observed. This is explained in §4.c.
With PICNIC, as with SCHEFF, one must choose
number of cells (Nc is the half cell number) in each
direction. The PICNIC mesh extends to ±3.5⋅X, ±3.5⋅Y 9 000
20 000
and ±3.5⋅Z. Electric field at positions outside the mesh is
H
F
Q
D
W
W
L 40 000
calculated as that of a gaussian beam with the same rms- P
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explored in terms of particles and cell numbers. They are
represented in fig.4.
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ORZHUWKDQZKDWHYHUWKHSDUWLFOHQXPEHU+RZHYHU Figure 4: Space-charge computation time with a PC
UHVXOWV SUHVHQWHG LQ LQ D FRQWLQXRXV FKDQQHO IDYRXU (fortran 77) for SCHEFF and PICNIC.
ODUJHU1F
In a PIC code, one part of the computation-time
b) Sensitivity to the statistics depends linearly on Np. It represents the time used to
count the particles in the mesh cells (~10%), and to
When the beam is highly tune depressed, and the compute the field at each particle position (~90 %). This
transverse and longitudinal temperatures are not the same linear dependence can be seen when Nc tends to 0.
(non-equipartionned), the rate of emittance growth per The other part of the computation-time depends on the
meter dεG] LQ WKH GLUHFWLRQ ZLWK ORZHU WHPSHUDWXUH method used to calculate the field at the mesh nodes. It
depends on the number of particles. However, theore- depends only on Nc. For SCHEFF it is nearly proportional
tically once at equilibrium (after some betatron periods), 4 6
to Nc and for PICNIC to Nc ! New developments in
the beam should not undergo any emittance growth. This PICNIC, not reported here, should reduce this part by a
dependence on statistics is nearly the same with SCHEFF factor 5 to 10.
and PICNIC, it has been illustrated in fig. 3. PICNIC computation-time is very reasonable with
This results from an spurious exchange of energy Nc=8. It is nearly the same as that of SCHEFF (with
between the "hotter" transverse direction to the "colder" Nc=20) with more than 100,000 particles. Use of fully 3D
longitudinal direction. This phenomenon has been
142
routines thus seems to be feasible even with a small
computer (PC) ! b) Field calculation accuracy with small Nc
Figure 7 shows the space-charge field applied on the
4 LIMITATIONS particles of a spherical Gaussian beam. Calculations were
done with PICNIC and SCHEFF for 2 different Nc values
a) Highly tune-depressed beam emittance and results are compared with the theoretical curve. With
growth a too small value of Nc, the field is calculated as if the
beam was less dense at the centre. This effect seems to be
The transport of a highly tune-depressed beam (η down a common feature for all PIC routines; the same has been
to 0.1) has been studied in a continuous focusing channel observed with the routine 3DPIC [4]. However, this seems
with phase advance per meter without space-charge to have a negligible effect on the emittance growth, but
k0 = P. The initial beam is a uniform sphere (type 8), might change the space-charge equilibrium of the beam
filled with 9,000 particles. somewhat.
Simulations with PICNIC ILJ and SCHEFF have
shown a linear emittance growth, important for η .SDUWLFOHV 3,&1,&1F
3,&1,&1F
6&+())1F
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Figure 7 : Computed space-charge field on particles of
a spherical Gaussian beam, compared with analytic
Figure 5 : Emittance growth observed with PICNIC for prediction.
different tune depressions.
7KH JURZWK UDWH ILJ LQFUHDVHV ZLWK WKH VHYHULW\ RI
5 CONCLUSION
WXQHGHSUHVVLRQ DQG YDULHV ZLWK WKH QXPEHU RI PHVK D 3D space-charge calculations appears to be realistic on
ODUJH 1F VHHPV WR EH EHWWHU IRU η RSWLPXP IRU a personal computer and PICNIC is a good candidate for
1F= this. It benchmarks very well with SCHEFF for test cases.
It should be emphasised tha each space-charge routine
3,&1,&
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3,&1,&
needs to be carefully studied before application for
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appropriate parameters (i.e. Nc, Np, number of space
Q 1 F=
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charge calculation per betatron period ...).
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Some of the parameters could be used to quantify and
1F =
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W
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between directions (§3.b), the emittance growth per
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betatron period (§4.a), the computation speed (§3.c)... All
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these parameters depend on Np and Nc (or parameters such
(
as the screen distance in a PPI routine).
h 6 REFERENCES
Figure 6 : Emittance growth rate in % per betatron
[1] G.P. Boiscourt, «Linear Accelerator and Beam Optics
period with depressed tune. Both PICNIC and SCHEFF
Codes», Proc. of AIP Conf., 177 (1988).
results are shown
[2] J. D. Schneider, «APT Accelerator Technologie»,
Proc. of LINAC96 (1996).
The origin of this observed emittance growth is under
[3] J. Struckmeier, «Concept of entropy in the realm of
study. The growth-slope however quickly decreases when
charged particle beams», Phys. Rev. E 54 (1), 830-
the beam density distribution is smoothed out. For
837 (1996).
example, the slope decreases by a factor ~3.5 when each
[4] R. D. Ryne and S. Habib, «Beam dynamics calcula-
cell is assigned the mean value of the neighbouring 27
3 tions and particle tracking using massively parallel
(=3 ) cells with Np=9,000 and Nc=8. It is independent on
processors», Part. Acc., Vol. 55, 365-374 (1996).
the initial beam distribution (as type 22 (~Water-Bag))
and the number of particles (up to 80,000).
143
MUSTAFA-A TOOL FOR NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS OF THE BEAM
BEHAVIOR IN A LINAC
G. Guignard, J. Hagel, CERN, Geneva, Switzerland
Abstract Since the beam of a linear collider is highly relativistic,
the space charge forces can be neglected and the longitudi-
MUSTAFA stands for MUltibunch Simulation and
nal positions along the bunches are fixed (no mixing). This
Tracking Algorithm for Future linear Accelerators and pro-
has two impacts on the beam model. The absence of radial
vides an environment for tracking a multibunch beam ac-
forces makes the use of a 3D-model with macro-particles
celerated in the linac of a collider. It is made of three parts:
unnecessary and each bunch can simply be longitudinally
i) an interactive utility MBUNCH which allows to run the
divided into elements with constant relative positions. The
simulations, edit the input data, systematically vary some
main parts of the numerical model are described below:
parameters, launch statistics on misalignment realisations
– The beam is a train of equidistant bunches. Each bunch
is divided in turn into equidistant slices of width z , small
and select the outputs, ii) the tracking program itself MBTR
w.r.to the r.m.s. bunch length z . Each slice is defined
that includes magnetic focusing, acceleration, wakefields,
misalignments and trajectory correction, and iii) a graph-
by the transverse positions of its center of gravity and its
ics facility called MOVIE that provides an animated repre-
r.m.s. transverse dimensions deduced from the emittances.
sentation of the transverse motion within each bunch of a
The charge per bunch is distributed in all slices according
train, either in the geometric space or in the phase space.
to a (truncated) gaussian distribution.
While MBTR is written in FORTRAN, the other two codes
– Magnetic focusing is achieved by quadrupoles arranged
are written in QUICKBASIC (MS V4.5). They run on PC
in a FODO lattice that also includes drifts, accelerating
Pentium computers in a stand-alone mode, independent of
structures, beam position monitors (BPM) and microwave
any network. Hence MUSTAFA is easily transportable and
quadrupoles (RFQ). There are two versions of the MBTR
offers a unique graphics facility. It has been extensively
code which only differ by the way the focusing is scaled
used for multibunch simulations in the Compact Linear
along the linac with the energy of the bunches. The first
Collider scheme (CLIC) as well as for demonstrations of
version called MBTRSCAL corresponds to a continous and
the beam behaviour in different stability or beam break-up
adiabatic scaling (small steps not requiring any matching)
conditions.
while the second called MBTRSECT gives a more realistic
lattice implementation, that approximates to the continuous
1 INTRODUCTION scaling solution but is based on linac sectors with constant
FODO geometry, joined by matching insertions.
The transverse oscillations of many bunches under the in-
– The RF system is characterized by a few parameters,
fluence of longitudinal and transverse wake fields are of
such as the RF frequency of the fundamental accelerat-
ing mode !RF in s,1 , the RF wave length RF in m and
fundamental importance for beam stability in linear collid-
ers. Since these oscillations are governed by many cou-
the maximum amplitude of the loaded acceleration gradi-
ent Ga in MV=m. The relative position of the bunch train
pled forced-oscillator equations, their behaviour is gener-
with respect to the RF wave is defined by the phase RF of
ally complex and not yet completely understood. Simula-
tion codes therefore are important to analyse the question
the reference slice of the first bunch which is equal to zero
at the peak of the wave. The phase RF can be different in
of the bunched beam stability for various sets of linac pa-
rameters. MUSTAFA provides a user-friendly environment
each sector and adjusted for optimum BNS damping. The
for such a tracking and result analysis. Only a short de-
relative phases of all the slices of the bunches are then cal-
culated from this reference value and from the z -position
scription of the three parts of MUSTAFA is given below
and the potential user is recommended to look at the pub-
of each slice resulting from the beam definition.
lished MUSTAFA description and users’ guide [1] for more
– Short-range wakefield Green’s functions are computed
details.
with the code MAFIA [4] and defined as usual via the loss
factors kn and frequencies !n /(2 ) of a large number of
2 TRACKING CODE MBTR synchronous modes. The short-range, delta-function wake
The central piece of the MUSTAFA codes which have potentials are then given by the subsequent summation over
been written for beam tracking and multibunch simula- these structure normal modes [5].
tions in a linac is the FORTRAN program named MBTR. – Long-range wakefield Green’s function is obtained ei-
This program is based on the MBTRACK codes [2], is- ther from an analytical approximation or MAFIA output
sued themselves from the single bunch tracking application data, that directly provides the field in the time domain, i.e.
MTRACK [3]. MBTR is a result of an evolution that fol- as a function of the distance behind a point-charge. Differ-
lowed the needs related to the CLIC studies and emphasizes ent models can be used. They all assume that beam loading
portability as well as graphical visualization. in a train of bunches is compensated, but they differ by the
144
drop-off of the transverse wakefield behind bunch 1. Fig. 1 output data providing both an online visualization of the re-
shows the Green’s function of three particular models, two sults obtained and a statistical evaluation originating from
analytical ones based on piece-wise exponential decays and many simulation runs. It also provides a link to the ani-
one numerical (termed here CG-DS) associated with indi- mated graphics facility which makes it possible to visual-
vidual damping of each cell and frequency detuning via lin- ize a train of many bunches through the given linac. Finally
early tapered iris dimensions. At the level of bunch 2, the MBUNCH gives the possibility to run either MBTRSCAL,
wakefield is equal to 1 or 1.5 % of its maximum. the scaled lattice version of MBTR, or MBTRSECT, the
– The transport through the linac of the coordinates and sector lattice version of the simulation code (Section 2).
geometrical emittances defined by the matrix is done for Like the simulation code MBTR, MBUNCH runs on
every slice of each bunch, using the transfer matrices of the IBM compatible PCs. It has been written using the lan-
linac components. Hence, the slice emittance that includes guage Microsoft Quickbasic V 4.5 [6] and is available in its
the contribution of its off-set with respect to the average po- executable form under the name MBUNCH.EXE. To run it
sition of the train can be computed at any point s. Adding efficiently together with MBTR and MOVIE, it is strongly
these contributions weighted by the slice population, gives recommended to use a PC with at least 16 Mbytes of inter-
the geometric emittance of a bunch or the whole train, de- nal RAM, a clock frequency of not less than 100 MHz, the
pending on the selection. Calculating the (square root of available space on hard disk not being less than 30 Mbyte
the) determinant of and multiplying by the Lorentz factor and a Pentium type processor. Although MBUNCH has
give the normalized bunch and beam emittances which been written under MSDOS (version 3.3 at least), WIN-
are then used for further analysis. DOWS 95 is well suited to run the code starting either in
– Trajectory correction is implemented in the presence of an MSDOS window or directly from Windows 95 Explorer.
random misalignments of quadrupoles, accelerating struc- The main menu of this program appears as:
tures and beam position monitors . It is based on a stan- ****************************************
dard ’one-by-one’ correction in which the beam is centred * MUSTAFA -MULTIBUNCH SIMULATION *
in a BPM by moving the preceding upstream quadrupole, * AND TRACKING ALGORITHM *
taking into account the actual wakefields. A minimisation * *
over several BPMs is also possible and errors in the mea- * G. GUIGNARD , J. HAGEL *
surements or in the displacements of the quadrupoles can * *
be introduced. * (Version 1.0 , January 1998) *
****************************************
Edit the input CLIC(SCAL)SECT.INP.... <===
Run the simulation ..................
Look at the output summary ..........
Look at the emittance graphs ........
Vary an Input parameter .............
Run the movie .......................
Save Results on Subdirectories ......
More ................................
End .................................
Pick an option via the cursor UP/DOWN keys
and execute the command with the ENTER key.
The first command enables the user to interactively change
the input file via the KEDIT editor and displays a copy.
Figure 1: Long-range transverse wakefields in various The second command runs the requested simulation and
CLIC structure models. produces the following files: i) a summary of the results
with the echo of the input data that can be displayed via
command 3, ii) four files containing the orbits and emit-
3 MBUNCH UTILITY tances as functions of position s for the first, an intermedi-
ate, and the last bunch as well as the whole train (graphs
The MBUNCH program has been written to provide an previewed with command 4, see example in Fig. 2. Com-
effective and easy tool for working with the multibunch mand 5 varies any single input parameter within specified
tracking code MBTR. It is fully menu driven and therefore limits and steps, providing four files [as under ii)] with the
self explanatory to a large extent, however, the basic parts vertical emittance versus this parameter, that can be dis-
are shortly described in this section. played. The next command initiates the ’movie’ (animated
MBUNCH handles the input and output of MBTR in an graphics) described below and the last one stores all the
interactive way and allows to run the simulation code with generated files in a sub-directory for later use. Commands
specified input parameters. In addition, it postprocesses the 4 to 6 open (mostly self-explanatory) sub-menus.
145
The movie can be run with or without the subtraction of be-
tatron motion, in the geometric- or phase-space, and offers
on-line options to change the animation speed, stop on an
image and save it in a file for later viewing with a graphics
package. Figs 3 and 4 show examples of such frozen pic-
tures in the geometric- and phase-space respectively, gener-
ated for a CLIC main beam. In the animated graphics, rapid
succession of pictures of Fig.3-type gives the sensation of
the oscillatory motion of the bunch tails. Colors are used to
represent the particle gaussian distribution in a bunch (e.g.
’red’ for the dense core and ’blue’ for the tails).
Figure 2: Vertical emittance growth averaged over a train
of 10 bunches, along the 1 TeV linac, in the presence of a
weak instability due to long-range wakefields
4 MOVIE FACILITY
The idea of the MOVIE code is to have a tool for direct
visualization of transverse bunch oscillations as the train Figure 3: Vertical off-sets of the last five bunches at the
passes through all the parts of the linac. This helps to un- linac end, for the same weak instability as in Fig. 2.
derstand the instability mechanisms as well as the attempts
to correct them. The MOVIE code shows the vertical os-
cillations (the most important for the flat beams of linear
colliders) of all the slices of all bunches along the bunch
coordinate z in the form of an animated graphics (real time
corresponding to s). It uses an input file containing all
the coordinates of all slices of all bunches along the en-
tire linac (at every quadrupole position). This input file
(CK.OUT) has to be created by the simulation code MBTR
before MOVIE is run. Up to five bunches can be seen at
any one time on the screen and it is possible during one
run to scroll along the train using the right and left arrow
keys. MOVIE van visualize bunches of up to 50 slices. Figure 4: Vertical coordinate off-sets of bunch 1, in the
The program MOVIE, as well as MBUNCH has been writ- phase space, at the linac beginning and with BNS damping.
ten using Microsoft Quick Basic (V. 4.5) [6] and can be
run on any PC after importing and starting the executable 5 CONCLUSION
file MOVIE.EXE. It can be run independently or via the
MBUNCH utility which provides a comfortable way to The MUSTAFA programme ’trilogy’ has proved to be user-
launch it. The sub-menu for the ’movie’ appears as: friendly and very useful for both the design of the CLIC lin-
ear collider and the definition of the required parameters or
MOVIE SHOWING THE MOTION OF THE
BUNCHES IN THE LINAC tolerances. It also provides a practical graphic illustration
of the possible single-bunch or multi-bunch instabilities.
Use the File CK.OUT created by the Its modularity makes additions easy and its portability has
stand alone program ................. <=== showed to be extremely convenient when movie-examples
Use a different File ................ are projected during seminars or conferences. The code is
Run the Movie ....................... available on request to any potential user.
Preview the Frozen Pictures .........
Return to main menu .................
6 REFERENCES
The proposed commands run the MOVIE facility from [1] G.Guignard and J.Hagel, CERN-SL-98-002(AP), 1998.
the last CK.OUT file created by MBTR simulations or from
[2] G.Guignard and J.Hagel, CERN-SL-96-60 (AP), 1996.
previously stored MOVIE-files with different names but
[3] G.Guignard, CERN-SL-91-19(AP),1991, and XVth Int.
the same extension. Command 3 initializes the animated
Conf. on H.E. Part. Acc. Conf., Hamburg, 1992.
graphics routine itself, requiring the full screen, using col-
[4] MAFIA collaboration, CST GmbH, Darmstadt, Germany.
ors and displaying the bunch slice positions at successive
quadrupoles at a nominal speed of 10 frames/s, giving the [5] A.Millich, CERN-SL-91-27(CO), 1991.
feeling of oscillating bunches with time when they travel [6] J.R.Ottensmann, Quickbasic Quick Reference, Que Corpo-
down the linac (the related s-values appear on the screen). ration, Carme, Indiana, 1988.
146
SIMULATION OF HALO FORMATION IN BREATHING
ROUND BEAMS IN A PERIODIC FOCUSING CHANNEL*
Zhibin Huang, Yinbao Chen
China Institute of Atomic Energy, Beijing 102413
Abstract 2 SIMULATION METHOD
The Hamiltonian of the transverse motion is given by
Halo formation in high-intensity axisymmetric beams in
a periodic focusing channel is analyzed using particle-in-
cell simulations. In order to explore self-consistently the (
H ⊥ (r , r⊥ ; z ) = r⊥2 2 + κ z (z )r 2 2 + qφ(r , z ) mγ 3β 2 c 2 , ) (1)
fundamental properties of breathing round beams
propagating in a periodic focusing channel, the initial where m, q, βc denote, respectively, the ion mass, charge
phase-space distribution of a beam injected into a linac is and longitudinal velocity, κz(z), whose profile is shown in
adopted to be a sufficiently realistic distribution such as Fig.1, is the periodic function representing the variation of
Gaussian, waterbag and parabolic. Numerical results such the focusing strength, and z is the distance measured along
the beam line. γ = (1 − β 2 ) , r = (x 2 + y 2 )
as halo intensity and emittance growth are obtained by −1 2 12
is the distance
means of multiparticle simulations.
from the z-axis in the transverse plane, and r⊥ = ( x '2 + y '2 )
12
1 INTRODUCTION is the dimensionless transverse velocity with x ' = x / βc ,
y ' = y / βc , φ(r,z) is the space charge potential, which must
Recent interest in using high-current ion linacs for
production of tritium, the transmutation of nuclear waste, meet with the Poisson eqution:
etc. has enhanced activitities for halo study. It is necessary
∇ 2 φ(r , z ) = − ∫∫ f (r , r ; z)dr
to understand mechanisms of intense-beam losses, q *
⊥ ⊥ , (2)
especially, beam instabilities and halo formation, because ε0
machines must operate with a very low beam losses to
avoid serious radioaction. where f (r , r⊥ ; z ) = f ( x , y , x ' , y ' ; z ) is the distribution
K-V distribution of particles in transverse phase space function in the transverse nonrelativistic four-dimensional
is used to adopt to predict the behavior of real beam in phase space.
most theoretical studies [1,2]. Because K-V beam density
is uniform, then space-charge forces are linear. Particle- k z(z)
S
core model has contributed to an understanding of the
k 0(z)
underlying causes of halo formation from mismatched
beams [3-6]. In order to obtain more meaningful
simulation results nonlinear particle-density distributions
are adopted in a uniform channel [7-11], the codes 0
z
calculating space charge have been replaced by those with nS
more simple and accurate representation of practical
Figure 1: The profile of solenoidal periodic focusing field
distributions [12,13]. Moreover, it is important to
understand the mechanism of halo formation in a periodic
All distributions that are function of the transverse
focusing channel, since the periodicity of the external field
Hamiltonian H ⊥ are stationary for a uniform focusing
can cause a strong resonant instability [14,15]. The
chaotic behavior caused by structure-driven resonance has channel because H ⊥ is a constant of motion in this case.
recently been studied and connected with halo formation However, in the case of periodic focusing channels H ⊥ is
[16-19]. We had investigated the mechanism which no longer constant, and the only stationary state for which
enables some particles to escape from deep inside core in an analytic representation could be found is the K-V
a uniform channel [11]. In present paper, we discuss the distribution. For a more general investigation one must
properities of halo formation in breathing round beams in rely on numerical simulations by means of adopting
a periodic focusing channel. nonstationary distributions. Here nonstationary
We first describe the simulation method in section 2, distribution functions used in computer simulation studies
then apply the code to the phase-space distributions and are defined as functions of the radius in four-dimensional
obtain some simulation results in section 3. trace space and not as functions of the Hamiltonian H ⊥ .
For a detailed discussion of nonstationary distributions see
[20].
147
In order to compare different distributions on the same adopted to estimate emittance growth. Figure 2 shows
basis, we consider rms-equivalent beams which have the emittance growth defined as the ratio of the final rms-
same perveance, rms radius, and rms emittance. To obtain emittance to the initial rms-emittance vs the cell number
the rms radius, we introduce the envelope eqution: of the transport channel for tune depression η=0.4, which
is defined by η=σ/σ0, where σ is the space-charge phase
d 2a Λ 1 advance over one axial period of such a focusing field and
+ κ (s)a − − 3 = 0 , (3)
ds 2 a a σ0=75°, and different mismatch parameter (a) µ=0.7, (b)
µ=0.8. From Fig.2 we can find that the more realistic the
where a, Λ and κ(s) are dimensionless variables: s=z/S, distribution is, the smaller the ripple of emittance growth
Λ=KS/ε, K is the generalized perveance, ε the emittance changes through the transport channel.
and S is the periodic length of a single focusing cell, and 7 1.8
κ(s)=κz(z)S2. The matched normalized radius a0(s) can 2
1--GA
(b)
3
2--WB
readily be derived from Eq.(3) when Λ and κ(s) are
emittance growth
emittance growth
1.6
5 1--GA 3--PA
2--WB
determined. The vacuum phase advance over one axial (a)
3--PA 1.4 2
period of such a focusing field is approximately given by 3
1.2 1
σ 0 = ∫ κ ( s)ds = [nk0 ( z)] . Then we notice that a0(0)
12
1 12 3
1
0 1 1
0 200 400 600 0 200 400 600
corresponds to the minimum radius of a matched beam
cell number cell number
because the original coordinate is located at the center of a
drift. Figure 2: Emittance growth of various distributions vs cell
We determine the mismatched initial phase-space number for (a) µ=0.7, (b) µ=0.8.
distribution a i = µa 0 , a 'i = a '0 µ , where a 0 , a'0
correspond to the matched one, and mismatch parameter 3.2 The structure-driven resonance
µ ≤ 1 . The radial space-charge field of an axisymmetric
beam can be calculated from Gauss law by counting the The periodicity of the external field can cause a strong
number of particles in cells of a finite radial grid which resonant instability. Since the unstable particles can easily
extends up to 5 times the beam matched radius. We escape from the core getting a large betatron amplitude, it
monitor the total energy through the transport channel, is necessary to investigate halo formation mechanism in
and keep the total energy constant. Here we employ 104 the structure-driven instability. The instability growth rate
particles and 100 radial meshes over the length increases with increasing σ0, and at sufficiently high
a 0 = a 0 (0) . values of σ0 there is an intensity threshold beyond which
the beam is unstable for all values of σ→0 [20], that is to
3 NUMERICAL SIMULATION RESULTS say, the second-order even mode occurs from the Vlasov
equation perturbation analysis. For σ0>90° and
We take into account the transport channel with enough sufficiently large Λ, the envelope oscillations become
length so that the beam reaches saturated states before chaotic for some mismatched beams [17].
arriving at the exit. Here the filling factor n seen in Fig.1 Figure 3(a) shows emittance growth of rms-matched
is 40 percent of the length of a single cell. beams with Gaussian distribution, the phase advance
If an input beam is perfectly matched to a transport without space charge is fixed at 1050. We find emittance
system, there is no reason to expect the growth of a halo growth rises rapidly from η=0.23 to η=0.25, there is the
unless the distribution is intrinsically unstable against region where the second-order even mode exists. The
perturbation or there is structure-driven resonances. beam is trapped by the second-order resonance in the
However, it is impossible to provide a perfect beam, phase-space configuration shown in Fig.3(b).
actually, there is an inevitable initial mismatch which 15
generates a halo.
We perform multiparticle simulations, to consider a
emittance growth
16
beam as realistic as possible, several different types of
0
r'
initial phase-space distributions such as Gaussian, 8
parabolic and waterbag distributions are adopted.
0 -15
3.1 Emittance growth of various nonstationary 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0 5
r/a0
distributions tune depression
Figure 3: (a) Emittance growth of rms-matched Gaussian
To consider a beam as realistic as possible, several beams vs η and (b) phase-space distribution of rms-
various initial phase-space distributions such as Gaussian Gaussian beam at cell number=600 and η=0.245.
(GA), parabolic (PA) and waterbag (WB) distributions are
148
3.3 Halo intensity and the maximal radial ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
extent
The authors thank professor Robert L. Gluckstern for
We firstly consider mismatched beams with Gaussian helpful discussions and guidance. The authors also want to
distribution, the phase advance without space charge is thank Dr. M. Ikegami for useful communications.
65°,75°, 85°, respectively. The number of particles which
go into the halo seen in Fig.4, gets rather small as REFERENCES
mismatch parameter µ tends to 1.0. Here we define halo
intensity h as the number of particles outside the boundary [1] I. M. Kapchinskij and V. V. Vladimirskij, in
rb=1.75a0 divided by all of particles we employ. Proceedings of the International Conference on High
0.20 0.05 Energy Accelerators. CERN, Geneva, 1959.
(a) (b) [2] Robert L. Gluckstern, W-H Cheng, S. S. Kurennoy
0.04
0.15 et al., Phys. Rev. E, 1996, 54(6):6788
0.03
h 0.10 h [3] Robert L. Gluckstern Phys. Rev. Lett., 1994,
0.02 73(9):1247
0.05
0.01 [4] J. S. O’Connell, T. P. Wangler, R. S. Mill et al.,
0.00 0.00 Proc. 1993 Particle Accelerator Conf., Washington
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 D C, 1993, p.3657
tune depression tune depression [5] J. M. Lagniel, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res.,
Figure 4: Halo intensity vs η for mismatch parameter (a) 1994, A345(3):405
µ=0.6, (b) µ=0.8, with different σ0: ◊-85°, ∆-75°, -65°. [6] T. P. Wangler, R. W. Garnett, E. R. Gray et al.,
In addition, let us look at Fig.5 where the maximal Proc. of the 1996 International Lianc Conference,
radial extent rmax has been displayed. It is obvious that the p.372
maximal radial extent is almost independent of σ0, but the [7] Robert A. Jameson, Proc. 1993 Particle Accelerator
maximal radial extent is larger as mismatch parameter is Conf., Washington D C, 1993, p.3926
lower than 1.0. [8] J. M. Lagniel, Proc. of the 1994 International Linac
Conference, p.529
4 3 [9] H. Okamoto and M. Ikegami, Phys. Rev. E, 1997,
55(4):4694
3
2 [10] Robert L. Gluckstern and S. S. Kurennoy, Proc.
1997 Particle Accelerator Conf.
rmax/a0
rmax/a0
1
[11] Huang Zhibin and Chen Yinbao, High Energy
(a) (b)
1 Physics and Nuclear Physics, in published.
[12] P. Lapostolle, A. M. Lombardi, E. Tanke et al., Proc.
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
of the 1994 International Linac Conference, p.552
tune depression tune depression [13] P. Lapostolle, A. M. Lombardi, S. Nath et al., Proc.
of the 1996 International Linac Conference, p.375
Figure 5: Ratio of the maximal radial extent to radius of
[14] I. Hofmann, L. J. Laslett, L. Smith and I. Haber,
matched beam vs η for mismatch parameter (a) µ=0.6, (b)
Particle Accelerators, 1983, 13:145
µ=0.8, with different σ0: ◊-85°, ∆-75°, ×-65°.
[15] J. Struckmeier and M. Reiser, Particle Accelerators,
1984, 14:227
4 CONCLUSIONS [16] C. Chen and R. C. Davidson, Phys. Rev. Lett., 1994,
49:5679
It has been confirmed that the periodicity of the channel [17] C. Chen and R. C. Davidson, Phys. Rev. Lett., 1994,
induces resonant instibility in some region. There is no 72(14):2195
prominent emittance growth in the region when σ0<90°, [18] Q. Qian and R. C. Davidson, Phys. Rev. Lett. E,
however, the strong instibility, especially the second-order 1996, 53:5349
resonance, occurs when σ0>90°, and emittance growth is [19] M. Ikegami and H. Okamoto, Jpn. J. Appl. Phys.,
very large. Therefore, we do our best to set σ0 at a value 1997, Vol. 36:7028
below 90° in a linear transport design. We can also set σ0 [20] M. Reiser, Theory and Design of Charged Particle
above 90°, but we need to select the region where there is Beams. John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 1994
no resonance.
*
Simulation results show halo intensity and maximal The work is supported by the National Natural Science
radial extent are more increased as the magnitude of initial Foundation of China and the Science Foundation of
mismatch increases, and they is not dependent of the tune Chinese Nuclear Industry.
depression when σ0<90°.
149
BEAM DYNAMICS IN A HIGH CURRENT SC PROTON LINAC
FOR NUCLEAR WASTE TRANSMUTATION
G. Bellomo, P. Pierini,
INFN Milano - LASA, Via Fratelli Cervi, 201, I-20090 Segrate (MI), Italy
Abstract 4
INFN is studying a 100 MeV to 1.6 GeV high current
σx,σy [mm], σz [deg]
σx
(25 mA) proton linac for waste transmutation and energy 2
production. The beam dynamics in the superconducting
linac have been studied with multiparticle tracking codes. σz
0
The results of this activity will be presented here, with a
description of a simulation code that we are developing
-2
for space charge dominated beam dynamics. σy
1 THE LINAC DESIGN -4
INFN has started a two year program (TRASCO) for 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
the design study and for R&D on components of a high
power superconducting proton Linac for nuclear waste z [m]
trasmutation. The status of the program is reported in a Figure 1: Rms beam sizes along the linac. On the positive
separate contribution at this Conference [1]. ordinates: horizontal and longitudinal, On the negative
The 352 MHz superconducting linac, operating at ordinates: vertical.
25 mA in the energy range 100-1600 MeV, uses five cell
elliptical cavities designed for synchronous β of 0.5, 0.65, 2 MULTIPARTICLE SIMULATIONS
0.85. The rationale of this choice, based on the efficiency
of the cavities, has already been presented in Ref. [2].
2.1 Initial results
The peak energy gain in the cavities, at the nominal
synchronous phase φs=-30 deg, is 4, 6.5 and 10 MeV, Initial multiparticle tracking has been performed with a
respectively. The cryostats accommodate 2, 3 and 4 preliminary version of a code we are developing, using a
cavities in the three sections. limited number of particles (up to 5000) and space charge
The transverse focusing is provided by a periodic array calculations via a direct point-to-point scheme. The
of quadrupole doublets, and the cavity cryostats are placed results, reported at EPAC 98 [3], are summarized here.
in the drift between the doublets. The lengths of the For the rms emittances assumed in these simulations,
focusing periods are 8.0, 11.2 and 15.3 m. 0.2 π mm mrad and 0.2 π deg MeV, an increase of 70% of
The lattice parameters have been chosen so that the the transverse rms emittances and a decrease of 40%
zero current phase advances in the first period of each longitudinal emittance was observed. The growth
section are close to 90 degrees and the tune depression is occurred mostly in the first linac section (100-200 MeV).
around 0.7. Using as a guideline the equipartitioning criteria two
The quadrupoles in each section have an almost alternatives were found to limit the emittance growth:
constant gradient, so that the transverse phase advance is • a decrease of the period length of each section (this can
smoothly decreasing at approximately the same rate of the be reached with 1, 2, 2 cavities per cryomodule in the
longitudinal phase advance. sections, but results in a linac lengthening);
The matching between sections is controlled with the • an increase by a factor two of the transverse rms
gradient of the doublet at the interface and the tuning of emittances. The beam sizes increase approximately by
the synchronous phases of the cavities close to the 50%, but the ratio aperture to rms is still larger than 20.
interface. The latter solution, presented in Figure 1, has been
The rms beam sizes along the linac are shown in chosen to be explored in more detail with the enhanced
Figure 1. The input rms emittances are 0.4 π mm mrad 5
capabilities of the code, using up to 10 particles, and will
and 0.2 π deg MeV. be reported in the following subsection.
Since the beam pipe radius is 100 mm the ratio between The first solution will be examined in the future, in
the aperture and the rms beam size is larger than 25 and connection with the foreseen increase of the current up to
reaches the value of 40 at the end of the linac. 50, or even 100 mA [1].
153
2.2 The multigrid code 6 3
A multiparticle beam dynamics code has been 5
100%
developed for the SC linac simulations. The particles are
advanced through direct integration of the equations of 4 2
εn x,y [mm mrad]
εz [deg MeV]
motion along a beamline composed of quadrupoles, drift
spaces and RF cavities. 3
The on-axis longitudinal field of the cavities is either 90%
assumed as an analytical expression for an ideal cavity or 2 1
provided as an input. An iterative method to set the RF
1
field phases of each cavity to the synchronous values, rms
defined at the cavity center, has been implemented. 0 0
Space charge kicks are applied every few integration 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
timesteps. A 3D space charge routine based on a fast z [m]
multigrid[4] Poisson solver and a Cloud in Cell (CIC)
charge assignment algorithm have been implemented in Figure 2: The rms, 90% and total (100%) normalized
the code. The charge distribution is evaluated in the emittances along the linac. Solid curves (left axis):
reference particle rest frame, using a CIC density transverse emittances; dashed curve (right axis):
5
smoothing algorithm. The Poisson equation for the longitudinal emittance. 10 particles in the simulation.
electric potential is then solved on a square mesh 4
(typically consisting of 33x33x33 points, extending at
least to 6 rms) using a fast multigrid solver. The electric
field in the rest frame is then computed from the potential, 3 100%
transformed to the laboratory frame and the corresponding
99.9%
kick, interpolated from the grid values, is applied to each
X/Xrms
2 99%
particle of the beam.
Multigrid methods are surely among the fastest iterative 90%
methods for the solution of elliptic problems[4]. The
1
model problem is represented on a series of coarser grids,
obtained, for example, doubling the mesh size.
Appropriate operators allow to “transport” the information 0
(i.e. the source term, the residuals or an estimate of the 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
solution) down one coarser grid level (“coarsening”) or up
one finer grid level (“prolongation”). The approximate z [m]
solutions at each grid level are then used to form a better Figure 3: Ratio of the horizontal beam size to the rms
5
solution of the problem on the finest. The approximate value along the linac, for different beam fractions (10
solutions at each grid level are obtained with a few cycles particles in the simulation).
(2-4) of an ordinary relaxation method (here the Gauss-
Seidel algorithm).
The multigrid scheme makes use of the smoothing 2.3 Matched beam case
properties of relaxation schemes: the high frequencies The simulations with the multigrid code, using 10000
(relative to the grid in use) of the error decay very rapidly. particles, have confirmed the results obtained with the
This, together with the use of a hierarchy of coarser and point to point space charge routine. Simulations with 10
5
coarser grids, allows a very effective improvement in the particles were then performed to explore in more details
convergence with respect of a standard relaxation scheme the tails of the beam distribution.
on a single grid, which has to face a poor performance The simulations discussed here have been performed
with the smooth components of the error. V-cycle using a 6D waterbag distribution for the particle loading
-6
multigrid schemes converge (to 10 in norm) in 4 to 6 with a quiet random number generator [5]. However,
iterations, independently from the grid size. more particle loading options still need to be implemented
A further acceleration in the convergence to the in the code, in particular the stationary distributions
required accuracy for the space charge fields in a beam described in Ref. [6].
dynamics code is the use of the potential map evaluated in The input rms beam Twiss parameters and the matching
the previous space charge step, in order to have a better conditions for the section transitions have been calculated
initial guess for the unknown potential. with a linear space charge code [7].
The multigrid Poisson solver has been employed for The evolution of the rms, 90% and total emittances
5
beam dynamics simulations with up to 10 particles for the along the linac is plotted in Figure 2. The rms emittance
750 m TRASCO linac, as reported in the following. growth is less than 10%.
154
Figure 4: Transverse (upper) and longitudinal (lower) Figure 5: Transverse (upper) and longitudinal (lower)
phase space projections at the end of the linac (1.6 GeV). phase space projections at the end of the linac for an
Also plotted are the rms and the 90% beam ellipses. The initial mismatched beam (10% in x,y and z). The
5
simulation has been performed with 10 particles. Units simulation has been performed with 20000 particles. Units
are m, rad and deg, MeV. are m, rad and deg, MeV.
The increase of the total emittance is moderate (less
than 50%), so that the ratio total/rms grows approximately 3 CONCLUSIONS
from 8 to 12. The discontinuity at the interface between
The beam dynamics multiparticle simulations of the
section 1 an section 2 (approximately at z=100 m) can be 5
linac, using up to 10 particles, have shown a modest 10%
seen from Fig. 2.
increase of the rms emittances and a good behavior of the
The regular behavior of the beam is more apparent in
total beam sizes and distribution along the linac.
Fig. 3, where we plot the ratio X/Xrms corresponding to
Initial calculations with mismatched input beams (10%,
various beam fractions. The 100% beam size is
in one plane or in all planes) have shown a remarkable
remarkably constant in the first linac section (up to
stability in the rms emittances, with no significant sign of
z=100 m), indicating, in our opinion, a good matching of
halo development.
the beam distribution in the linac. In the second and third
A revision of the linac design will be undertaken in the
linac sections the betatron oscillation of the beam tails
future to increase the current up to 50 mA and to explore
(99% and beyond) can be clearly seen, indicating a
the constraints imposed by the 100 mA operation.
mismatch of the tails of the distribution. Similar plots can
be shown for the vertical and longitudinal distributions.
A close examination of the phase space projections at 4 REFERENCES
the end of the beamline, see Fig. 4, show the formation of [1] C. Pagani, D. Barni, G. Bellomo, R. Parodi,
beam tails, in both the transverse and longitudinal planes. P. Pierini, paper TH4108 at this Conference.
The deformation of the phase space is also evident [2] C. Pagani, G. Bellomo, P. Pierini, G. Travish,
D. Barni, A. Bosotti, R. Parodi, in Proceedings of the
looking at the beam fraction outside the 90% ellipses. 1997 Part. Acc. Conf., Vancouver, Canada.
[3] G. Bellomo, P. Pierini, in Proceedings of the 1998
2.4 Initial beam mismatch European Part. Acc. Conference, Stockholm,
Sweden.
Simulations with a 10% mismatched initial beam (in a [4] W.L. Briggs, “A Multigrid Tutorial”, SIAM,
single plane and in all planes) have been performed with Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 1987.
20000 particles. No appreciable variations of the rms [5] J.M. Hammersley, D.C. Handscomb, “Montecarlo
beam emittances have been observed. The total beam methods”, (Methuen, London 1964).
emittances increase by 20% with respect to the matched [6] A.V. Fedotov, R.L. Gluckstern, S.S. Kurennoy,
R.D. Ryne, in Proceedings of the 1998 European Part.
beam case, in agreement with similar calculations [8]. Acc. Conference, Stockholm, Sweden.
The phase space projections for a mismatch of +10% in [7] TRACE3-D, LANL Report LA-UR-90-4146 (1987).
the three planes are shown in Fig. 5; signs of filamentation [8] M. Pabst et al, in Proceedings of the 1998 European
in the longitudinal plane are barely visible. Part. Acc. Conference, Stockholm, Sweden.
155
SIMULATIONS OF THE NONLINEAR TRANSVERSE RF FIELD EFFECTS
ON THE BEAM DYNAMICS IN LOW ENERGY X-BAND SW LINACS*
Sun Xiang and Lin Yuzheng
Department of Engineering Physics, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, PRChina
Abstract
The detailed beam dynamics simulations in a low
energy X-band SW linacs are presented. The codes CAV
and TRACK are developed. They are used to investigate
beam dynamics in a model structure including the
nonlinear transverse RF fields. Examples are given of the
study of transverse effects in different cavity shapes and in
different synchronous states. The results are compared and
found to agree well with those from analyses.
1 INTRODUCTION Fig. 1 Schematics of the model structure
In ref.[1], we discuss the RF fielde nonlinear effects on amplify the effects of the nonlinear RF fields, a larger
the emittance dominated beam in low energy linacs beam radius and RF power are chosen. This model
analyticly. In low ernergy linacs, the initial phase region structure opperates in 9300MHz and consists of 8 cavities
of captured particles is very large and usually in the (shown in Fig. 1). The microwave power inputed in the
decelerating region. From the simply theory, the nonlinear structure is 1.1MW and the initial rms normalized
transverse effects on the beam is associate with the tranceverse emittance of the electon gun is
relative radial positon of particles, the nonlinear 12.02mm.mrad. The initial phase region of captured
components of RF fields and the synchronous state particles is from -1500 to -300.
between particles and RF fields. The RF nonlinear
transvers effects on the beam and the emittance growth 3 DESCRIPTION OF THE SIMULATION
mainly occurs in the first cavity, especially over the
CODES
decelearting phase region. These effects weaken quickly
and vanish in the quasi-synchrous section and synchrous. The RF fields in the linacs are calculated by CAV.
In the symmetric π mode cavities, the nonlinear TRACK is coded by multi-particle tracking and calculates
components of RF fields are least. But the nonlinear the beam dynamics including the nonlinear RF fields. It
effects on the beam in an assymetric first cavity can be uses the time as independent variable and calculates the
less than the beam with the same initial phase in a effects of Coulomb interactions among the electrons by
symmetric one. variable-radius-disc model[2]. The electrons are emitted
A few formulas for longitudinal and transverse randomly with a profile that can be arbitrary distribution
dynamics have been derived including bunching, in radius. Both forward and backward particles are
accelerating and higher space harmonics. The results of tracked. We introduce power distribution factors to
the theory should be compared with the ones of simulation TRACK to changing the RF field distribution
to test and verify this theory. conveniently.
We mainly concentrate on the first cavity in simulation.
4 EMITTANCE GROWTH
2 MODEL
4.1 Emittance Growth Occurs in the First
A model linac structure is considered to compare the Cavity Mainly
analysis of this structure by the methods in ref.[1] with the The rms normalized emittances at the entrance of the
numerical simulation by CAV and TRACK. In order to model, at the exit of the first cavity, at the exit of the
bunchers and the exit of the model are calculated
separately. From simulation results (shown in Fig. 2), we
*Work supported by the National Science Foundation of
can see the emittance growth due to RF nonlinear fields
China
occurs in the first cavity mainly. The drop of emittance at
the exit of the model whose initial phase is -1500 results
159
from the particles loss on the wall. So we concentrate on Fig. 5). εn1=22.82mm.mrad in Vinj =16.0kV as compared
the first cavity when investigating the emittance growth. to εn1=26.80mm.mrad in Vinj =14.5kV at the initial phase
φ0=-1500 and P0 =1.1MW.
If P0 is higher, an is higher and the decelerating is
larger, then the sychronous state is worse (shown in Fig.
6). εn1=22.81mm.mrad in P0 =1.1MW as compared to
εn1=13.72mm.mrad in P0=0.9MW at the initial phase φ0=
-1500 and Vinj =16.0kV.
Fig. 2 Comparison of εn at different cross section
4.2 The Influence of the Cavity Shape
The nonlinear transverse effects on the beam is
associate with the nonlinear components of RF fields
which are deceded by the cavity shape. The RF fields in
Fig. 4 Schematics of βe in the first cavity for different φ0
the assymetric cavity lift slowly along the axis and the
decelearting for the particles in the asymmetric cavity is
smaller than the particles with the same initial phase in the
symmetric cavity (shown in Fig. 3). The emittance growth
in the asymmetric cavity is smaller because the
synchronous state of particles in the asymmetric cavity is
better than in the symmetric cavity, even though the
nonlinear components of RF fields in the asymmetric
cavity is larger than in the symmetric cavity.
εn1=22.81mm.mrad at the exit of the symmetry first
cavity as compared to εn1=12.51mm.mrad at the exit of in
the assymytry first cavity at the initial phase φ0= -1500.
Fig. 5 Schematics of βe in the first cavity for different Vinj
pFig. 3 Schematics of β in the different shape first cavity
e
Fig. 6 Schematics of βe in the first cavity for different P0
4.3 The Influence of the Synchronous State
The synchronous state is associated with the initial 5 COMPARISON BETWEEN ANALYSIS
phase, injecting voltage and RF field amplitude. The AND SIMULATION
following εn1 is the rms normalized emittance at the exit
of the first cavity. The relativistic factor at the exit of the first cavity,
If the initial phase is near the sychrotrous phase (00), the
nβ nβ
sychrotrous state is better (shown in Fig. 4). Sin e 0 φ 0 − e 0 Sin (φ 0 )
εn1=22.82mm.mrad at the initial phase φ0=-1500 as e β e0 ∞
β p1 β p1
γ1 =γ0 + ∑ a n
compared to εn1=12.72mm.mrad at the initial phase φ0=- m 0 c 2 k n =1 2
nβ e 0
1 −
1200 in Vinj =16.0kV and P0 =1.1MW. β
p 1
If Vinj is higher, the sychrotrous state is better (shown in
160
β nβ
− Cos e 0 φ 0 Sin e 0 φ 0
β β
e β e1 ∞
e1 p1
+ ∑ an
m 0 c 2 k n =1 2
nβ e1
1−
β
p1
β p1 β nβ
( −1) n Sin π + Sin e 0 φ 0 Cos e 0 φ 0 (1)
+
nβ e1 β e1 β e1 β p1
β p1 nβ e1
2
1−
β
p1
Corresponding, the phase at the exit of the first cavity
φ 1 ==
k
(D1 − D 0 ) (2)
β e1
where D = − β e 0 φ defined in ref.[1].
0 0
k Fig. 8 Comparison of φ at the exit of the first cavity
After one cavity under the nonlinear RF fields,
3
1 (3)
∆ε xn = 4π (φ )
2
β λ N 0 r4x2 x2 − r2 x2
p1
If the distribution of electrons is uniform distribution at
the plane which is perpendicular to the axis,
3
R (4)
∆ε xn = 4π (φ ) ×
β λ N 0 0.06 R
p1
where R is the envelope radius of beam.
For the first cavity,
D1 e π 2 1 ∞ n (n 2 − 1)
N (φ 0 ) =
− M 02 ∑
[Cos(nM 0φ 0 ) − Cos(φ 0 )]
m 0 c 2 β p1 n = 2 1 − (nM 0 )
2 2
(
D e π 2 ∞ n 2 − 1 an )
n
2 M
− 1Sin 0 φ 0 Sin(nM 0φ 0 )
− 12 ∑ 2
n = 2 1 − (nM 1 )
M1
β Fig. 9 Comparison of εn at the exit of the first cavity
m0 c 2
p1 M 1
1 π M (5)
+ n − M 12 − (− 1) Cos + Cos 0 φ 0 Cos (nM 0φ 0 )
n
β 6 CONCLUSIONS
p1 M1 M1
where β , β .
M 0 = e 0 M 1 = e1 A simulation to investigate the beam dynamics in the
β p1 β p1
presence of nonlinear RF fields in a low energy SW X-
RF acceleration and RF effects on longitudinal phase band linac structure has been performed. The results have
space distribution γ1 and φ1 of analysis is in rough been compared and found to agree well with those from
agreement with γ1 and φ1 of simulation (shown in Fig. 7 analyses. These programs CAV and TRACK should be
and 8). So is the RF field effects on transverse phase useful in designing the low energy, high beam quality and
space distribution εn1 (shown in Fig. 9). high shunt resistance SW linacs opperating in higher
frequencies.
A 6 MeV X-band SW linac structure has been designed
including the nonlinear RF fields and is presently under
construction.
REFERENCE
[1] Sun Xiang and Lin Yuzheng. The Nonlinear
Transverse RF Field Effect on the Beam Dynamics.
These proceedings.
[2] Yao Chongguo. Electron Linear Acclerators. China
Science Press. (1986)
Fig. 7 Comparison of γ at the exit of the first cavity
161
A NOVEL STRUCTURE OF MULTI-PURPOSE RF GUN
E. Tanabe, A. Nakayama*, F. Oda*, M. Yokoyama*
AET Associates, Inc., 20370 Town Center Lane, Ste. 252, Cupertino, CA 95014
USA
*Kawasaki Heavy Industries Ltd., 118 Futatsuzuka, Noda, Chiba, 278 JAPAN
Abstract 2.2 The accelerating field within the first cavity contains
the least transverse components on an off-axis where
RF guns have recently been very commonly used in the beam initially gains longitudinal momentum.
high-energy research accelerators, as well as in various 2.3 The amplitude and phase of accelerating field within
applications of accelerators such as FEL, because it offers the accelerating cavities should be stable with beam
significant advantages over the conventional techniques, loading, frequency shift, and thermal instabilities.
which use electron guns and bunchers. In this paper, the 2.4 Accelerating gradient must be as high as possible, but
novel structure of the RF gun, utilizing the π/2 mode, less than the RF breakdown and field emission
standing wave, on-axis coupled structure (OCS), is threshold.
described. The new structure offers much higher group
velocity and lower emittance over the structure that is In order to satisfy these criteria, we have designed an S-
commonly used. As a result, the new structure has a more Band RF Gun as shown in Fig. 1. The standing wave π/2
stable operation for higher beam current without mode was chosen as the accelerating mode to satisfy
sacrificing beam emittance. Moreover, the structure offers criterion 2.3 [2]. The on-axis coupling structure (OCS)
unique characteristics in reduction of back bombardment was used in order to satisfy criteria 2.1 and 2.2.
for the application of thermionic cathodes in RF guns. The selection of this mode and structure offers several
The cavity structure and beam parameters were optimized other advantages, such as a) ease of machining the
by using EMSYS (2D) and MAFIA (3D). An overview of structure; b) ease of tuning; and c) flexibility of choosing
design detail and prototype structure, which can be used the ratio of accelerating field in the first cell and the third
with either thermionic cathodes or photocathodes, will be cell.
presented.
1 INTRODUCTION
Since RF guns offer various advantages over the high
voltage DC guns, many of today's electron injectors for
physics accelerators and accelerators for FEL utilize this
concept in order to obtain a higher brightness beam within
a smaller space [1]. Although laser driven cathodes have
been used in conjunction with RF gun, the complexity,
the lifetime of cathode material, and cost have been the
obstacles. Meanwhile, the RF Gun with the thermionic
cathode offers a compact and low cost injector, but it
suffers by pulse shortening due to electron "back-
bombardment". Fig. 1. Cross sectional view of OCS type RF gun
Here, we propose a new RF-Gun utilizes the π/2 mode,
on axis coupled standing wave structure (OCS), that can The RF input power will be fed to the third cell where a
offer highly stable, high current beam with lower vacuum pump out-port is placed at the opposite side of
emittance. The new structure can be used with both the the RF input-port in order to minimize the non-axis
photo cathode and thermionic cathode. symmetry within the cavity as shown in Fig 1. A
demountable cathode structure is designed by using a
tungsten wire spring in the form of a toroid for RF
2 DESIGN CRITERIA AND CONCEPT contact. It employs an impregnated tungsten dispenser
There are several very important criteria for designing cathode for operation at around 1000oC.
RF guns, including: Fig. 2 shows an equivalent circuit for three cavity
couple resonator models with the nearest neighbor
2.1 The first accelerating cavity and the cathode for coupling (k12 and k23) and the second nearest neighbor
initial acceleration should be made electrically and coupling (k13). Assuming Q is very high, one can obtain
mechanically as axis-symmetric as possible. the relation of the couplings and the amplitude ratio of the
first and third cavity as:
162
k12 | X3|
= = α
k23 | X1|
for π/2 mode operation. This indicates that one can
choose any α by changing the radii of the coupling disk
holes.
Fig. 4. Field balance (a) vs. beam emittance and back
bombarding power
Fig. 2. Coupled resonator model for OCS type RF gun
Fig. 5 shows the computed energy spectra of back
bombarding beam for α=2.6 and for α=1.0. This figure
clearly shows that the lower accelerating field within the
3 NUMERICAL SIMULATION AND shorter first cavity will generate much less electron back
DESIGN OPTIMIZATION bombarding energy as 0.2MeV, compared to the back
bombarding energy of higher accelerating field within the
The electromagnetic field profiles were computed using longer first cavity as 0.6MeV.
SUPERFISH and EMSYS. The beam dynamics were
calculated by the 2D particle-in-cell (PIC) code EMSYS
and 3D PIC Code (MAFIA).
Fig. 3 shows the relation of computed coupling
coefficients, k12 and k23, vs. disk hole radius in
millimeters.
Fig. 5. Energy spectra of back bombarding beam
Fig. 3. Disk hole radii vs. coupling coefficients Fig 6 shows the radial distribution of back
bombardment power density for α=2.6. The back
Fig. 4 shows the dependence of output beam emittance bombardment power density is much higher in the center
and back bombardment power on coupling ratio α, of the cathode due to the back bombarded higher energy
assuming cathode diameter of 6mm and current density electrons being focused by the radial RF field. This
16A/cm2. In order to optimize the output beam energy indicates that the back bombardment effect and pulse
spectrum, the length of the first cell and the second cell shortening will be completely eliminated by introduction
are varied along with α. A larger α offers lower back of a hollow beam cathode with a Faraday cup of 2mm
bombardment power, but aggravates the emittance of the hole in the center of the cathode and a Faraday cup placed
beam, since the accelerating field on the cathode surface behind. Fig. 7 and Fig. 8 show an energy spectrum of
output beam and energy spread as a function of time,
will be reduced. The optimum α will be around 2.5 and
respectively. The FWHM of the energy spectrum is about
the normalized emittance is 12πmm⋅mrad. The average
25KeV and the charge contained during 10psec is about
back bombardment power is about 1.1W, assuming the
0.17nC.
pulse width of 5µsec and a repetition rate of 10pps [3].
163
Table I
Frequency: 2856MHz
Band Width: 103MHz
Peak Beam Energy: 1.9MeV
Peak RF Power: 5.0MW
β (Input Coupling): 3
Coupling Coefficients k12: 1.4%
k23: 3.6%
Peak Beam Current: 17A
Normalized RMS Emittance: 11πmm⋅mrad
Energy Spread (FWHM): 25KeV
Fig. 6. Radial distribution of back bombarding power
density
Fig. 9. Measured and calculated longitudinal field profile
Fig. 7. Energy spectrum of output beam 4 CONCLUSION
The new on-axis coupled standing wave RF gun
structure is presented. This structure offers numerous
advantages over the RF guns, which are commonly used.
It can be used with either the photocathode or thermionic
cathode. Two prototype RF guns are under construction
along with a hollow beam thermionic cathode with a
beam dumper placed in the center of the cathode.
REFERENCE
[ 1] J.E. Clendenin, "RF Photo Injector," Linear
Accelerator Conference Proceedings, 1996.
[ 2] E.A. Knapp, et al., "Standing Wave High Energy
Linear Accelerator Structure," Rev. Sci. Instr. 39, 979
(1968).
[ 3] E. Tanabe, et al., "A 2-MeV Microwave Thermionic
Fig. 8. Time dependence of energy of output beam Gun," Linear Accelerator Conference Proceedings,
106 (1989).
Table I summarized the optimized design parameters of
the S-Band OCS RF gun. A prototype RF gun is under
construction. The beam test will be expected to begin in
early 1999.
Fig. 9 shows a comparison of experimental result of an
axial field distribution and EMSYS computation.
164
THE HIGH VOLTAGE SYSTEM FOR THE HIGH INTENSITY CERN
PROTON SOURCE
C.E. Hill, M. O’Neil
PS Division, CERN, 1211 Geneva 23, Switzerland
Abstract was specified for 120 kV, 1.2 mA with a current limiting
mode and modified for interlock and control purposes.
For the RFQ injector mounted on the CERN 50 MeV High voltage was led into the Faraday cage via a length
proton linac, the source needs to provide about 300 mA of RG218 cable.
of 100 keV beam in pulses of 20 to 150 µs at 1 Hz. Figure 1 shows the layout of the high voltage system
Although the high voltage supply is fairly conventional, a which can probably be described as fairly conventional.
number of measures had to be taken to ensure not only During off-line tests of the RFQ, a 100 nF capacitor was
the reliability of the source electronics, but also other used as an energy reservoir to maintain the voltage during
equipments installed in the near vicinity. In view of the the beam pulse. As this did not give rise to problems, it
high current demanded from the source, a new and very was adopted for its simplicity for the operational
simple form of beam load compensation was developed machine. A single point earth very similar to that used on
to stabilise the preinjector voltage to values acceptable to the test stand was also installed. It soon became obvious
the RFQ. that the selected earth point had been badly chosen as HT
flashovers often resulted in trips of the vacuum pump
1 BACKGROUND electronics (and other power supplies).
The original 750 kV preinjector for the CERN Proton A new star point was found which resulted in a
Linac (Linac2) used a Cockroft-Walton (C-W) high complete elimination of the problems with the vacuum
voltage supply with dynamic beam load voltage pump controllers although there are still occasional
stabilisation [1]. In 1993, this injector was replaced by a problems with power supplies latching up.
Radio Frequency Quadrupole (RFQ) system whose Flashovers are detected and cause the HT reference to
injection energy was 90 kV. This voltage was chosen to be automatically reduced to a low value. A programmed
be close to that of standard commercial high voltage ramping of the reference then takes place bringing the
power supplies whilst still allowing a small margin for voltage back to normal after about one minute. During
injector column conditioning. this time the source is inhibited until the HT has reached
The ion source is a standard CERN Duoplasmatron about 95% of the nominal. Depending on the weather the
with the steel body adapted to the length of the injector typical flashover rate varies from zero to about five per
column. This two-section column uses two porcelain week. An additional interlock is provided to protect the
rings 300 mm diameter by 60 mm thick which were system from the consequences of bursts of flashovers.
recovered from parts of the original CERN Linac1 The control interface between ground and the source
preinjector [2]. The porcelains are glued with Araldite to racks in this system has always been via fibre optic
the end flanges and an intermediate disk which is fitted interfaces. Originally, it was based on a Camac serial
internally with a stress relief electrode. Corona plates loop. Now, in order to economise rack space, to reduce
which also carry bleeder resistors complete the assembly. maintenance costs and to prepare for the obsolescence of
Source supplies and controls were installed inside the certain Camac modules, an industrial based CAN bus
Faraday cage in open racks supported on polyethelyene controller interfaced to the ground level VME is in use
insulators,. This assembly gave a very compact system at [3]. Present experience has shown this to be rather
a location where space was at a premium, whilst also resistant to the consequences of HT flashovers.
allowing easy access for maintenance. The minimum
clearance between racks and the cage is about 330 mm. 3 BEAM LOADING COMPENSATION
Following problems with backstreaming oil vapours The original C-W set had stringent requirements for
from turbopumps on the RFQ test stand, virtually oil-free voltage stability. Fortunately, the RFQ is much more
magnetic bearing turbopump systems were adopted to tolerant in its requirements for injection energy stability.
pump the high hydrogen load. With the chosen power supply, passive energy storage
with a 100nF capacitor could maintain the voltage for the
2 HIGH VOLTAGE SYSTEM 120 µs beam to within 0.5%. However, with the desire to
For the operational injector a modified standard reduce the stored energy of the system, a simple active
commercial high voltage supply was chosen. The supply compensation scheme was developed.
165
Figure 1: Schematic layout of the High Voltage system
If capacitor (C2) in Fig.2 is charged at constant current, demanded by the user. This results in the proton pulse
the voltage at its high terminal increases linearly. It is length varying from 20 to 150 µs.
then only necessary to arrange that the increase in voltage A beam transformer downstream of the source
compensates the fall due to beam loading on the system provides a quasi square wave signal which reflects both
capacitance. For a beam of constant intensity and length, the intensity and length of the beam pulse. This signal is
a square pulse synchronous with the beam would be amplified in a transistorised power amplifier which drives
suitable to charge the capacitor. Unfortunately, at CERN a 100:1 pulse transformer. The output pulse of the
pulse to pulse modulation of the beam length is used to transformer charges capacitor C2. Typically, the primary
provide only the number of protons that are actually current is of the order of 300 A. Figure 3 shows the HT
with and without beam
load compensation for a
source current pulse of
300 mA (trace 2), with a
useable length of 92 µs.
Figure 4 shows laboratory
measurements on the
system for a simulated
beam of 300 mA and the
linear rise of the voltage
at C2 can be clearly seen
for a constant charging
current (traces 3 and 2).
The transistorised
power amplifier consists
of 240 BUV27 transistors
in parallel made up into
eight removable modules
Figure 2: Block diagram of compensation scheme and is placed between the
pulse transformer and
166
ground, the high side of the transformer being connected has proved to be of great advantage to use a current
to the supply rail. A RG213 cable 6 m. long connects the limiting HT power supply. After a particularly severe
secondary to the capacitive divider. After the passage of flashover which caused some damage to the accelerating
the beam, C2 is discharged through the resistor R in electrodes in the HT column, current limiting enabled the
preparation for the next cycle. In the laboratory the problem to be diagnosed quickly without repeated
compensation has run at up to 5 Hz but could probably tripping of the high voltage.
run at a higher frequency. Surprisingly, the transistorised drive amplifier for the
Fine tuning of the compensation is achieved by beam loading compensation has not suffered any failure
trimming the gain of the preamplifier and the high in its six years of operation. However, the main problems
voltage can be maintained to better than 0.1% during the experienced to date concern the pulse transformers.
passage of the beam (trace 1 Fig 3). Apart from Although specified for the required service in
amplification of the beam current signal no other consultation with, and manufactured by, industry, they
treatment of this signal has proved necessary. have suffered internal insulation failures. Investigations
showed that the insulation was inadequate and badly
designed. To overcome this problem, the transformers are
being rewound “in house”.
The high voltage system and the beam loading
compensation now meet the requirements of simplicity
and reliability. In the near future, as new modules pass
flashover immunity tests, it is intended to replace the
residual Camac and NIM based cards to Eurochassis
standards thus eliminating obsolete, ageing and expensive
equipment.
5 REFERENCES
[1] H. Haseroth, M. Hone, J. L. Vallet, “The
Compensation for Beam Loading on the Preinjector
of the New CERN 50 MeV Linac”, Proc. 1979
Figure 3: Comparison of high voltage stability with and Linear Accelerator Conference, Montauk, BNL
without beam loading compensation. 51134, 444, 1979
nd
[2] E. Regenstreif, “The CERN Proton Synchrotron (2
Part)”, CERN 60-26. 1960
[3] G. Gräwer, W. Heinze, “Using a Fiber Optic CAN
Bus for the Proton Source Control of the CERN PS
Linac”, CERN/PS/97-76, 1997, Presented at Int.
Conference Accelerator and Large Experimental
Physics Control Systems (Icalepcs'97), November 3-
7, 1997, IHEP, Bejing, China
Figure 4: Voltage and current waveforms at key points in
Fig.2 under simulated operation at 1 Hz.
4 RELIABILITY
Reliability of the injector is of prime importance,
especially with the increasingly longer operational
periods now becoming common at CERN. In 1998, the
longest continuous period will be of 29 weeks. For the
systems described here, the commercial power supplies
have shown themselves to be particularly reliable and it
167
FIRST EXPERIENCE OF WORKS WITH COMPACT INJECTORS FOR
TRIALS AND DRILLS OF RF LINAC STRUCTURES
V.V.Kushin, N.A.Nesterov, S.V.Plotnikov, D.N.Seleznev, A.S.Suvorov, A.B.Zarubin,
V.P.Zubovsky
Institute of Theoretical and Experimental Physics (ITEP), Moscow, Russia
E.P.Bogolyubov, V.T.Bobylev, Y.K.Presnyakov, V.A.Samarin
All-Russia Research Institute of Automatics (ARRIA), Moscow, Russia
Abstract drills due to its feature to avoid the problem of gas
loading on accelerator cavity.
The problem of gas loading on vacuum conditions in RF
linac structures from traditional ion injectors based on 2 MULTIPLE BEAM SYSTEMS
duoplasmatron type source is well known. At the stage of
starting high power linac trials and drills it often requires
2.1 General comparison of single and multiple
significant increase of pumping capacity to maintain the
working vacuum level in resonators. The problem is
channel accelerator systems
mostly vital at development of multiple aperture linac It is well known requirements of simultaneous high
structures. To simplify the problem new compact test intensity and small divergence of charged beams are in
injectors based on spark ion sources are discussed. contradiction because of space charge loading, and only
multiple beam accelerator systems are principally able to
1 INTRODUCTION resolve the problem [3]. Let us compare properties of
single and multiple channel systems with strong focusing.
Recently there has been a great deal of interest in If every the channel with aperture radius of a which
studying of possible methods of remote non-destructive is among multiple (M⋅ N) beam system is able to
object composition testing by means of nuclear detection accelerate maximum beam current of iMm then total
of targets irradiated by accelerated beams of light ions. current of the system is
The approach known as pulsed fast neutron analysis IM=(M⋅ N) iMm,
(PFNA) is based on measuring of gamma ray spectra And for traditional single channel linac with aperture
from remote target after its irradiation with extremely radius of R and the same channel characteristics,
short neutron pulses produced by RF linac [1]. The maximum beam current is I1 and it is easy to see that
obtained time and energy gamma spectra are used for IM / I1 = (a/R)2 (M⋅ N). (1)
material interrogation. The information is stored by means At analogous comparison of angular divergence α at
of time-of-flight analysis between the accelerator pulse the output of single and multiple beam linac systems their
and the arrival of γ-rays to NaI detectors located far relationship may be estimate as
enough from an examining object [2]. On the other hand, α1/ αM = R / a.
pretty low angular divergence of accelerated beam is So taking into account (1) we have
required to transport it to remote target with minimal αM = α1 [IM / (M⋅ N ⋅ I1)] 0,5.
losses. The method of simultaneous acceleration of many It is easy to see that at the same value of total current
short pulse ion beams in the same RF accelerator structure beam angular divergence at the output of multiple channel
is expected to be the most promising for this purpose. system is by factor of (M⋅ N)0,5 times less than it is in a
Two approaches of multiple beam injection are under single channel system. It means that at given value of
consideration. The first approach is based on the ion beam current its output angular divergence may be
injector with multiple individual channels. The other way decreased by increasing of number of channels.
is based on generation of wide common ion beam with
low angular divergence within ion source placed in the
nearest close to multiple aperture RF structure with beam
2.2 Multiple aperture RF accelerator system
multiple channel collimating before the structure. with space lattice focusing
A compact injector of deuterium ions based on spark Design features of multiple channel accelerator
ion source is one of possible decision for the second systems with alternating phase focusing (APF) as well as
approach. On the other hand, such kind of injectors may with some multiple channel RFQ modification [4]
be used as test equipment for any RF structures trials and considered below are promised to be adequate decision
for simultaneous acceleration of some hundred beams.
168
Let us consider the multiple beams RFQ system by
using a new focusing element called "space lattice" (SL-
focusing) [5]. The main idea is based on the following
feature of RF accelerating fields. At the edges of drift
tubes particles are exposed to transversal focusing or
defocusing pushes from RF field. In particular, in drift
tube linac a particle is pushed by defocusing RF field at
the input and by focusing field at the output edges of drift
tubes while it is roughly free from RF field action within
both drift tubes and accelerating gaps. We considered a
possibility of substantial amplification of focusing action
from RF field by increasing a number of indicated
boundary edges. It may be possible if some additional
electrodes are placed within every accelerating gap.
By making M horizontal grooves from one flat side
of the thin electrode plate to the middle of its thickness as Fig.2. Space lattice electrodes and their possible
well as N vertical grooves from the other side of this arrangement in RF structure
electrode again to its middle we get metal space lattice
with (M⋅ N) rectangular aperture holes with relatively thin 3 SHORT PULSE TEST INJECTOR
walls in between (see fig.1).
The injector is designed for generation of very short
pulses of ion beam as well as its preliminary acceleration
in the range from 50 keV up to 150 keV [6]. The
important feature of the injector is its small sizes due to
possibility of placement both ion source and high voltage
accelerator block within the same metal-ceramic package
of 680 mm long and 130 mm in diameter. Such a
configuration may produce protons, deuterons or heavy
ions formed with pulses of nanosecond or microsecond
ranges and followed with repetition rate up to some tens
or hundred pps. On the other hand, such injector may be
Fig.1.The fragment of Space Lattice electrode. fixed at input flange of multiple channel RF accelerator
structure at once due to the property of discharge
If several thin SLs are arranged along the common axis initiation with no initial gas concentration (gas is stored in
one after another at the equal distances between them source electrodes as hydride of metal).
within accelerating gaps of the multiple channel linac we Vacuum accelerating tube of TNT-147 designed earlier
have a system which can accelerate some hundred beams in ARRIA for neutron generators is used as the main part
simultaneously. In case of circular apertures in thin of the injector. Ion generation is based on the property of
electrodes focusing and defocusing forces at both edges of desorption of deuterium occluded in metal cathode at
thin electrodes are almost mutually compensated while in spark charge, and its ionization in arc of spark discharge.
SL every particle is pushed in vertical direction at the Ion pulses are generated by formation of accelerating
input and in horizontal direction at the output edges even voltage of nanosecond range at microsecond pulse current
at very thin electrode depth. If we arrange n SLs within an of ion source. Ions are extracted from plasma bunches at
accelerating gap particles will be n times pushed by electric field supplied between plasma gun anode and
focusing strength in the vertical plane and n times pushed extracting electrode. Plasma gun is switching on at the
by defocusing strength in the horizontal plane. When SLs moment of capacity discharge or inductive energy storage
are arranged within every gap particles will be suffered on the anode-cathode gap of the gun.
some focusing action in one of transversal direction and A spark-type ion source is based on the feature of some
defocusing action in other transversal direction. By metals, such as Ti, Zr, or Sc, heated in the condition of
0
turning SLs by an angle of 90 in every the following gap hydrogen or its isotopes, to form hydride of metal as
it is possible to create a sequence of sign-alternating result of exothermic reaction. The process leads to
strengths analogous to field strengths at space- saturation of a metal cathode with hydrogen. The
homogeneous RFQ focusing. In fig.2 some possible saturated metal cathode in the form of washer is placed
realization of SL focusing electrodes with 324 aperture within the body of the ion source (fig.3).
holes as well as their use in multiple channel accelerator
structure is presented.
169
the beam axis in three transversal layers - the central
pickup and two peripheral layers of 6 pickups every. The
distances from the beam axis to peripheral pickup layers
are 16 mm and 28 mm.
The central part of the transversal beam distribution of
20 mm in diameter contains about 60% of total beam
current while the tendency of both beam current and core
diameter rising at injection voltage increase was also
noted. The instability of pulse amplitude at this stage was
observed rather high and sometimes exceeded ± 100%.
The short pulse proton injector based on spark ion
source was used for first trials of experimental deuteron
Fig.3. Short pulse spark ion source APF linac structure with output energy of 4 MeV at half
level of RF gradients in accelerator gaps (85 kV/cm). At
The trigger electrode placed near the cathode supplies that stage the main purpose was to calibrate all the
initial electrons to heat the cathode for gases desorption in technological units including RF level required for
the source volume. The electric arc is formed between supply, level of optimal injection energy, etc. The 1 m
cathode and anode electrodes. It is drifting to an open long 148.5 MHz RF accelerator structure based on H-
edge of plasma gun where ions of hydrogen are extracted resonator with drift tubes was jointed to the injector
and accelerated by high voltage potential. Pulse source is output edge due to the injector feature of working at
used as a source of trigger voltage. Pulse duration of pretty high vacuum. The collimator with a single axis
extracted ion beam is in strict accordance with the aperture hole of 10 mm was arranged at the flange of
duration of pulses of extraction which is able to be varied vacuum tank 50 mm before the first drift tube of the RF
in rather wide time range from some nanoseconds to accelerator channel.
several tens of microseconds. The problem of electrical The tests of the structure have confirmed abilities of the
insulation is simplified in short pulse mode of source injector to be prepared quickly for the working with high
work. The unit of pulse formation is based on the scheme vacuum RF accelerator structure with injection current
with electric capacity energy storage and pulse level of some tens mA and its easy of handling. On the
transformer. High voltage pulses are generated at the other hand, the tests have pointed to the necessity of
transformer’s secondary and supplied to the gap between improving some injector parameters and its stability
trigger electrode and anode. firstly.
The acceleration block of the injector includes spark
ion source and trigger pulse former which contains high 4 REFERENCES
voltage transformer, accumulator capacitors and high
voltage throttle. The elements of the acceleration unit are [1] D. R. Brown, T. Gozani. Cargo inspection system
mounted within the same frame of metal ceramic tube. based on pulsed fast neutron analysis. - Nucl. Inst. &
One of butt-ends of the tube is covered hermetically with Meth. In Phys. Res., B 99, (1995), p.753-756.
the lid supplied with high voltage connectors, the other [2] I. V. Chuvilo et al. “Accelerator-based approach
one serves to join injector with RF accelerator structure. experiments for remote identification of fissionable and
The output flange of the accelerator structure is connected other materials”. - Nucl. Inst & Meth. In Phys. Res., B
with the injector body by bellows for adjusting purpose. 139 (1998), p.298-300.
Independent tests were carried out with proton and [3] T. P. Wangler “Summary for Working Group on
deuteron short pulse injectors. The cathode of the proton Multiple Beams and Funneling”, Proc. of High-Curr.,
source was saturated with hydrogen. Pulse ion beam with High-Bright., High-Duty Fact. Ion Injectors Workshop,
output energy varied from 60 keV to 120 keV at pulse 173-177 (1986).
duration of about 1 µs and repetition rate up to 30 pps was [4] E. V. Gromov, V. V. Kushin, S. V. Plotnikov, “Multiple
formed. Channel Structure For Ion Linac”, Inventor's Certificate
We investigated regimes of pulse output current of USSR No. 256492 (1986).
depending on ark trigger voltage at different values of [5] S. V. Plotnikov “Operating variables of RF focusing
anode voltage at pulse repetition rates of 1, 10, and 30 in linac structures”, Thesis, 2 (1986) (in Russian)
pps. The beam collimator with a single aperture diameter [6] V. V. Kushin, N. A. Nesterov, S. V. Plotnikov et al.
of 10 mm was placed 100 mm behind the injector with “Some features of short pulse test injector for linac”,
output aperture diameter of 60 mm. At the distance of 80 VANT, Ser.: Yaderno-fizicheskie issledovaniya, 2,3
mm behind the collimator beam current has been (29,30), 146-148 (1997) (in Russian).
measured by the system of 13 current pickups of 5 mm in
diameter every. The pickups were placed symmetric by
170
THE CATHODE TEST STAND FOR THE DARHT SECOND-AXIS*
C. Fortgang, C. Hudson**, D. Macy**, M. Monroe, K. Moy**, D. Prono
Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545 USA
** Bechtel Nevada, Santa Barbara, California 93111 USA
same 8” thermionic cathode, has focusing electrodes with
Abstract
the same shape and is also a high perveance design (1.4
The injector for the DARHT second-axis will use an 8” µP). The gun is designed using the computer code
thermionic dispenser cathode. Because the cathode is EGUN. The gun geometry and the electron-beam
relatively large and requires a large amount of heat (5 trajectory are shown in figure 1.
kW) there are certain engineering issues that need to be
addressed, before the DARHT injector reaches the final 600
Radial Distance (mm)
design stage. The Cathode Test Stand (CTS) will be used
to address those concerns. The CTS is a new facility, 400
presently under construction. The CTS will consist of a
high-voltage pulse modulator, a high-vacuum diode test-
200
chamber, and a short beam-transport section with
diagnostics. This paper discusses the status of the
project. 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Axial Distance (mm)
1 INTRODUCTION
The DARHT second-axis (DARHT-2) requires a 3.2 Figure 1: Electron gun design and beam envelope. Note
MV, 4 kA, 2 µsec injector [1]. The injector will use an 8” axes are not scaled equally.
diameter thermionic dispenser cathode. Because such a
cathode has requirements exceeding existing cathode The injector uses two focusing solenoids to extract and
assemblies, we are building a facility for measuring its transport the beam. Both solenoids are located down
most important engineering features. The cathode will be stream of the anode and have a peak magnetic field on
tested in situ as part of an operational electron-gun which axis of about 200 Gauss. The primary purpose of the
has most of the design features envisioned for the magnetic optics is to transport the beam with a small
DARHT-2 injector. The cathode requires 5 kW of heater amount of beam compression and negligible emittance
power. We will measure: temperature uniformity over the growth. Under these circumstances a beam profile
cathode surface, differential thermal expansion between measurement at the end of the beam transport section can
the cathode and focusing electrodes, and outgassing and be used to determine electron-emission uniformity at the
vacuum properties. We will also test field-emission from cathode.
the focusing electrodes up to an electric-field strength of The gun uses a M-type dispenser cathode, i.e., BaO
160 kV/cm. We will extract a 500 kV, 500 A beam using impregnated into a tungsten matrix with a few thousand
a PFN and a step-up transformer to generate a 1-µsec Angstrom Os/Ru coating sputtered on the surface to
pulse. After a modest compression of the beam and a enhance emission and life. The cathode is heated with
short transport section, we will measure the beam profile two counterwound filaments supplying about 5 kW of
to assess electron-current emission-uniformity, paying heater power. The focus electrode follows the standard
particular attention to beam halo in preparation for further Pierce diode design (67 degrees) and extends out to a
studies of emittance growth due to non-linear focusing large (stainless steel or molybdenum) radius shroud to
forces. minimize electric field stress.
2 GUN DESIGN 3 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
The electron-gun design for the CTS is very similar to The configuration of the gun inside its vacuum chamber
that being designed for DARHT-2 by Lawrence Berkeley is shown in figure 2. After initial thermo-mechanical
National Lab [2]. It is not identical because the electrical experiments, that don’t require beam extraction, a beam
characteristics of the CTS (500 kV, 500 A) are more transport line will be attached to the diode vacuum
modest than DARHT-2 (3.2 MV, 4 kA). However, chamber. The cathode is supported by a 22” long ceramic
compared to the DARHT-2 design the CTS gun uses the insulator stack. Stainless steel rings are used to grade the
*
Work supported by the US Department of Energy.
171
electrical stress along the stack. On the oil side, torlon The modulator output voltage shown in figure 3 has
rods under tension are used to maintain the insulator stack unacceptable droop. We are in the process of replacing
under compression and help support the cantilevered the PFN inductors with variable inductors. This will give
cathode assembly which weighs about 400 pounds. us the ability to vary the waveform pulse shape and make
Radial and upstream heat shields surround the cathode it more constant. The modulator is capable of running at
structure to prevent heat loss and to maintain temperature 10 Hz but we envision running the gun between 0.1 Hz
uniformity. Water cooling is provided to the cathode and 1.0 Hz.
support structure and shroud.
5 PLANNED EXPERIMENTS
The experiments to be performed on the CTS can be
grouped into two categories, those without beam and
those with beam. Experiments without beam will consist
of measuring thermal, mechanical, and vacuum properties
of the gun. Because of the high heat load (5 kW) some
differential thermal expansion of components is expected.
In particular, we will measure relative movement between
the cathode, Pierce electrode, and shroud. EGUN
simulations indicate that relative displacements of ~1mm
have adverse effects on the beam quality. Pyrometers will
Figure 2: An assembly drawing of the gun and vacuum be used to measure thermal uniformity on the cathode
test chamber. surface. The cathode is heated to 1100 degrees centigrade
and a temperature uniformity of ±5 degrees is desired to
The vacuum chamber for the gun has 1 cryopump maintain electron emission uniformity to a few percent
(4000 liters/sec) and 2 turbo pumps (500 liters/sec each). 2
over the 324 cm cathode surface area. If we find that the
Because the cathode can be easily poisoned by temperature uniformity is greater than desired the 2
contaminants (e.g. water, hydrocarbons) only metal seals cathode filaments will be reconfigured to run off
-9
are used and all components are to be baked for 10 Torr independent power supplies to gain more control of the
vacuum operation. There are several viewports on the heat deposition profile.
vacuum chamber to be used for instrumentation. Ports Another important experiment for the CTS regards field
are also available to insert quartz heating elements for in emission from the shroud. Field emission can cause
situ baking. breakdown and contamination of the cathode. The peak
electric field at the shroud surface for the DARHT-2
4 HIGH VOLTAGE MODULATOR injector is 160 kV/cm. The peak electric field during
The HV modulator consists of a solid-state switching beam extraction for the CTS gun is only 39 kV/cm.
power supply, two 7-section PFNs wired in parallel, and a Therefore to test for field emission from the shroud we
HV step-up (13:1) transformer. The modulator is plan to use a small grounded electrode placed close to the
presently being commissioned using a 1 kΩ dummy load. shroud to locally enhance the electric field. The
Each PFN has a characteristic impedance of about 11 Ω. experiment will be performed using a HV pulser with
An example of the modulator output and a simulation of little energy storage. In this way we will achieve a high-
the output are shown in figure 3. electric field with negligible current emission from the
cathode. This experiment will be performed with a hot
200 cathode providing the same vacuum environment
Secondary Voltage-measured
(dominated by the barium outgassing from the cathode)
Load Current- measured
100
Secondary Voltage- simulation
that is present when the gun is being pulsed normally.
V secondary (kV) and I load (A)
0
After the first phase of experiments are complete a
short beam line (~ 1m) will be installed to transport the
-100 beam to a beam profile diagnostic (see figure 1).
Simulations show that with two solenoids (20 cm and 40
-200
cm long) the beam can be transported with negligible
-300
emittance growth. By measuring current density at the
end of the transport section with a beam profile diagnostic
-400
we will assess beam current-emission uniformity at the
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
µsec cathode surface.
Figure 3: Modulator output waveforms compared with a
circuit model simulation.
172
6 SUMMARY
The CTS is a new facility under construction. It will be
used to investigate critical engineering issues for the
DARHT-2 electron gun. The modulator is built and
operating. The gun is in the final design stage and
fabrication of some parts has begun.
7 REFERENCES
[1] H. Rutkowski, An Induction Linac for the Second
Phase of DARHT, presented at this conference.
[2] E. Henestroza, et al., Physics Design of the DARHT
Electron Beam Injector , presented at this conference.
173
THE SNS FRONT END ACCELERATOR SYSTEMS
John Staples, Daniel Cheng, Martin Fong, James Greer, Matthew Hoff,
Roderich Keller, Kurt Kennedy, Matthaeus Leitner, Robert MacGill,
Daryl Oshatz, Alessandro Ratti, Justin Remais, Steve Virostek
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley California, USA 94720
NA TIONAL SPALLATION NEUTRON SOURCE
Abstract H- ION SOURCE -- SCHEMATIC
The Spallation Neutron Source front end comprises a 35-70 source body:
extractor - outer housing
mA volume H source, a multi-element electrostatic LEBT collar with
extraction hole - 20 rows of permanent magnets
(line cusp configuration)
including chopping and steering, a 402.5 MHz RFQ with - inner plasma tube with
water cooling channels
low output emittance and a 2.5 MeV MEBT also including
chopping. The beam duty factor is 6%, with possible exten- vacuum gauge
RF-antenna gas inlet
sion to 12%. This system, along with an LANL-supplied
feedthrough for
1 GeV linac and a BNL-supplied storage ring, provides an quarz light pipe
average beam power of 1-2 MW to an ORNL and ANL-
insulators
supplied neutron target and beam instruments facility. The
current status of the front end design is described, along magnetic filter
with results of several R&D projects leading to the final source cooling source backplate
water inlet with antenna and filter
design. mounting flange
feedthrough holes
4 rows of permanent magnets
1 INTRODUCTION
Figure 1: Ion Source Cross Section
Over the last year the SNS design has undergone two DOE
reviews and the project is expected to receive authorization
for construction start. This paper reports on physics and en- further reduce this unavoidable power load, we have added
gineering progress since the last report[1]. Hardware mod- an intermediate electrode between the plasma outlet and
els have been built to test various subsystems, and some the extractor electrode as shown in figure 2. All electrons
technical systems are now moving into prototype engineer- leaking out of the magnetic deflector will be caught on this
ing design stages. intermediate electrode, which has only a 3kV potential dif-
ference to the ion source potential.
2 ION SOURCE
The design of the SNS prototype H ion source will be
based on experiences gained with the SNS R&D ion source
number 1, which is currently mounted on an ion source
test stand at LBNL. A schematic of such an rf-driven (2
MHz) multicusp H ion source is shown in figure 1. A de-
tailed design of this ion source has already been described
elsewhere[2] .
Last year the ion source development was mainly con-
centrated on the extraction system[3]. Because of the
high electron fraction in the beam extracted from a vol-
ume H ion source, an efficient electron removal scheme
is essential for the 6% duty factor operation of the SNS
H extraction system. We have chosen a novel design
which deflects most electrons back to the ion source by a
strong (1300 Gauss) magnetic field across the extraction Figure 2: Ion Source Trajectories
hole as described in reference[4]. Only a small electron
leakage current, which diffuses through the strong mag- The design of the magnetic field distribution across the
netic field, has to be dumped at a downstream electrode. To extraction hole has been optimized with the 3D-ion-optics
code KOBRA in combination with the 3D-magnet code
This research is sponsored by the Lockheed Martin Energy Research
Corporation under the U.S. Department of Energy, Contract No. DE-
TOSCA[5]. To compensate for the H ion beam deflec-
AC05-96OR22464, through the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory tion the outlet electrode must be tilted (see figure 2). It has
under Contract No. DE-AC03-76SF00098. been found that no transverse shift of the electrode is nec-
177
essary to inject a straight H ion beam into the LEBT. This stabilizing loops[6] maintaining the quadrupole field sym-
feature eases the mechanical design and alignment of the metry in the presence of assembly errors. The one techni-
SNS LEBT considerably. cal recommendation from the first DOE review committee
was to increase the maximum current the RFQ could ac-
commodate. This was done by increasing the peak field at
3 LEBT the vanetips from 1.75 to 1.85 kilpatrick.
The Low Energy Beam Transport system has undergone A r.f. cold model has been constructed and operated. It
some modification, described below. The all-electrostatic is full size in cross section and one-quarter length of the
transport system provides a 65 keV beam to the RFQ en- actual RFQ, with six pairs of pi-mode stabilizers, spaced
trance with a normalized emittance of less than 0.15 mm- 15.5 cm apart, as shown in figure 4. Perturbing one of the
mrad, with twiss parameters = 1.6 and = 6.5 cm. four quadrant frequencies by 1.53 MHz with plunger-type
Figure 3 shows a cross section of the LEBT electrode tuners causes a change in the quadrupole field balance by
arrangement. The beam enters from the plasma generator 2.7% worst case, with field levels in the remaining quad-
off to the left, and is delivered to the RFQ through the tank rants varying less. This substantial field stability will pro-
endwall on the right. vide good field balance with normal mechanical assembly
The electrode geometry includes two pseudo-einzel errors.
lenses, allowing both and twiss parameters at the The pi-mode stabilizers move the quadrupole operating
RFQ to be varied independently over a large range, and frequency down by 11 MHz and the two degenerate dipole
the last electrode, split into quadrants, allows beam angu- modes up by 36 MHz from the non-stabilized cavity fre-
lar steering by biasing the four segments, and beam chop- quencies, with a resulting quadrupole-dipole separation of
ping, by applying a 3 kV bipolar waveform to each seg- 35 MHz. No longitudinal stabilization is provided. The
ment, deflecting the beam in a stepped rotary pattern onto RFQ is five free-space wavelengths long, comparable to the
a four-segment beam stop. The length of the last focusing JHF RFQ[6], which has no longitudinal stabilization and a
electrode has been extended to enhance the steering and measured field longitudinal field flatness of 1%.
chopping sensitivity. The electrically isolated four-segment
beam stop, integrated into the RFQ endwall, will provide
diagnostic signals of beam intensity and steering during the
35% of the time the beam is deflected away from the RFQ
entrance by the LEBT chopper.
Tests on a prototype LEBT at LBNL show that the 3 kV
bipolar chopper power supply rise/falltime is less than 40
nsec, and that the beam extinction time is 25-30 nsec.
The entire LEBT assembly is movable with respect to
the RFQ for beam centering.
Figure 4: Cold Model End Detail, with Stabilizer
The RFQ mechanical design incorporates four separate
vane quadrants which are brazed together to create the final
cavity configuration. This design eliminates the need for
Figure 3: LEBT Cross Section demountable rf joints in regions of high rf wall currents.
The vanes and cavity walls are made from OFE copper
and they are backed by a brazed-on one inch thick piece of
4 RFQ Glidcop AL-15 c . Cooling water channels will be milled
into the OFE prior to brazing on the Glidcop. Four of the
The 3.7 meter-long RFQ accelerates 60 mA of H beam 93 cm long completed modules will be joined using bolted
at greater than 95% transmission from 65 keV to 2.5 MeV. joints with vacuum and rf seals. This method is acceptable
The r.f. duty factor is initially 6%, but the RFQ is capa- since the longitudinal rf currents across the interfaces will
ble of operating at 12% for a possible future upgrade of the be much lower than the azimuthal currents in each module.
facility to extend the average beam power to 4 MW. The Rather than a flanged connection, the joint design will in-
RFQ comprises a single 402.5 MHz cavity, with pi-mode corporate axial bolts inserted into recesses in the Glidcop
178
layer. Benefits of this type of joint include higher strength, up to 0.03 T. All coils will be wound with solid conductor
more reliable seal loading and a lower profile. Canted coil and the cores will be water-cooled.
springs will be used in the area between adjoining vane tips The quadrupoles will be locally aligned to each other
to ensure good electrical contact. in groups of six on three separate strong-back structures.
Vacuum ports will consist of an array of slots small Mechanisms for mounting and aligning the individual
enough to attenuate any rf leakage. The ports will be incor- strong-backs within the vacuum chamber will be provided.
porated identically in all four quadrants to ensure rf sym- A distributed pumping system will be used to achieve a
metry. Nearby tuners will be used to compensate the lo- pressure of less than Torr at the DTL entrance.
cally depressed cutoff frequency near the pumping ports, The MEBT vacuum will be isolated from the RFQ and
leveling out local variations in the vane tip voltage distri- DTL by a pair of thin gate valves.
bution. The RFQ vacuum level will be maintained in the MEBT diagnostics will include two-slit emittance de-
Torr range. vices, Faraday cups, beam position monitors and a beam
The RFQ mechanical design and prototype RFQ models calorimeter. Additionally, toroidal beam transformers, ca-
are covered further in two other papers at this conference[7] pacitive phase probes and profile monitors will be used dur-
[8]. ing routine operation of the neutron source since they are
non-intercepting diagnostics.
5 MEBT
6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The MEBT transports the 2.5 MeV H beam from the RFQ
to the DTL, and accommodates a fast traveling-wave clean- The authors wish to thank Rick Gough, Craig Fong and
up chopper, supplied by LANL[9]. Three rebuncher cavi- Ron Yourd for their leadership. In addition the authors
ties and 18 quadrupoles transport the beam over the 3.6 thank Jim Ayers, Don Williams, and the many other sup-
meter length. Nonlinear space charge emittance blowup is port persons who participated in this work.
reduced to less than 20% by the large number of closely-
spaced quadrupoles, which adiabatically taper the trans- 7 REFERENCES
verse betatron period length up at the entrance, focus the
beam for the traveling-wave chopper, and then adiabati- [1] John W. Staples, “The NSNS Front End Accelerator System”,
cally refocus the beam into the DTL. PAC97, May 1997, Vancouver.
[2] M.A. Leitner, R.A. Gough, K.N. Leung, M.L. Rickard,
P.K. Scott, A.B. Wengrow, M.D. Williams, D.C. Wutte,
Rev.Sci.Instrum. 69, 962 (1998).
[3] M.A. Leitner, D.C. Wutte, K.N. Leung, 2D Simulation and
Optimization of the Volume H Ion Source Extraction Sys-
tem for the Spallation Neutron Source Accelerator, to be pub-
lished in Nucl.Instrum. Methods A
[4] M.A. Leitner, D.C. Wutte, K.N. Leung, Rev.Sci.Instrum. 69,
965 (1998).
[5] M.A. Leitner, K.N. Leung, Optimization of the Volume
H Ion Source Extraction System for the Spallation Neu-
Figure 5: MEBT in Common Vacuum Chamber tron Source Accelerator Utilizing 3D Magnet and Ion Optics
Codes, to be published in Nucl.Instrum. Methods A
The original MEBT physical configuration consisting of
[6] A. Ueno et al,. “Beam Test of the Pre-Injector and the 3-MeV
individual diagnostic boxes between the quadrupoles has
H RFQ with a New Field Stabilizer PISL”, Linac 96, August
been supplanted by a design where all components are con-
1996, Geneva.
tained inside a common vacuum chamber as shown in fig-
ure 5. Spool pieces between the beam line elements are [7] A. Ratti et al,. “Conceptual Design of the SNS RFQ”, Paper
MO4090, Linac 98, August 1998, Chicago.
used to maintain a low wall impedance, damping the exci-
tation of wake fields in the vacuum chamber. The previ- [8] A. Ratti et al,. “Prototype Models for the SNS RFQ”, Paper
ous concept, which used a combination of EM and perma- MO4084, ibid.
nent magnet quadrupoles, has been replaced by a design [9] S. Kurennoy, J. Power, “Development of a Fast Traveling
incorporating only EM quadrupoles. The MEBT’s high Wave Beam Chopper for the SNS Project”, Paper TH4023,
quadrupole filling factor necessitates minimizing the phys- ibid.
ical length of the magnets in order to maximize the inter-
quad gaps for diagnostic devices. The associated fringe
fields allow the length of an EM quadrupole to be up to one
aperture radius shorter than an equivalent PM quad. To pro-
vide steering, six of the quadrupoles will be equipped with
additional trim windings to create magnetic dipole fields of
179
FERROELECTRIC CERAMICS: A NOVEL EFFICIENT AND ROBUST
PHOTOCATHODE
I. Boscolo, R. Parafioriti, A. Scurati
University and INFN, Via Celoria 16, 20133 Milano, Italy
M. Castellano, L. Catani, M. Ferrario, F. Tazzioli
INFN-LNF, Via E. Fermi, 00044 Frascati - Roma, Italy
A. Doria, G.P. Gallerano, L. Giannessi, E. Giovenale
ENEA-CRE, Via E. Fermi, 00044 Frascati - Roma, Italy
Abstract laser beam
a) b)
Ferroelectric ceramics of the PLZT type, i.e. lead zirconate
titanate lanthanum doped, in form of thin disks have been
PLZT disk
tested as photocathodes. The disc of material, with the back Faraday cup
surface only metallized and held in place by a metallic ring,
was set in front of a solid anode. The applied accelerating
field reached 20 kV/cm and the light pulse was 25 ps long,
532 nm wavelength and its energy arrived up to 6 mJ on an
area of about 10 mm2 . The vacuum was very poor. The high voltage generator
to scope
maximum output charge was 1 nC, but it was clearly lim-
ited by space charge. A theoretical explanation of the re-
sults is only hinted because the material surface structure is Figure 1: a) Sketch of the experimental apparatus used in
very complicated and various emission mechanism concur. the photoemission experiments; b) sketch of the cathode
with the ring electrode at the front surface. The passively
mode locked Nd-YAG laser provides some mJ of light at
1 INTRODUCTION = 532 nm for a pulse length of 25 ps.
The photoemission from ferroelectric material has become
interesting after the experiments at CERN [1, 2]. The rea-
and 1 mm thickness, coated by a uniform metallic film at
sonably good emissivity at wavelength varying from green
the back surface and by an external ring only at the front
to UV, coupled to robustness makes this ferroelectric lead
surface, see fig. 1 b).
zirconate titanate lanthanum doped (referred as PLZT) ce-
ramic a real subject of research for an efficient and robust
photo-cathode for induction linac [3], next generation of 2 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
accelerators [4], FEL, ultrashort x-ray sources.
The problem of the physical interpretation of the photoe- 2.1 Experiments on PLZT 8/65/35 with bare
mission from these materials appeared soon very difficult. front surface.
In reference [5] a new physical model has been proposed The results of the emission from a PLZT 8/65/35, fig. 1
in order to account for the different experimental observa- b), are given in figures 2 and 3. The emission reached such
tions. a level that the saturation effect becomes evident. From
An experimental program has been set with the aim to the shape of the emitted charge versus the incident laser
investigate further the physics of the emission. The green power, we can see that: there is a threshold and the yield
light has been chosen because it seemed more suitable for in logarithmic scale increases linearly with an angular co-
that investigation. efficient nearby 4. Extrapolating with an accelerating field
The sketch of the experimental setup is shown in fig. 1. high enough to avoid saturation effects, the emitted charge
The experiment has been carried out with PLZT having at 6 mJ of laser light would be 2 nC. The value of quantum
composition 8/65/35 and 4/95/5, where the numbers refer efficiency results around 10 6 .
to lanthanum (in relation to lead), zirconium and titanium
relative atom percentage and with lead titanate, PTO3 , sam-
2.2 Experiments on PLZT 4/95/5.
ple. The ceramics 8/65/35 and PT are in ferroelectric phase
at room temperature, while the 4/95/5 is in antiferroelectric We have investigated the emission from antiferroelectric
phase, but it undergoes a transition from antiferro to ferro- PLZT 4/95/5 samples. The results are summarized in fig-
electric phase under the action of an enough high electric ures 4, 5 and 6.
field [6]. These materials have a high density of defects [7], The charge emitted increased from some picocoulombs
whose activation energy is about 1 eV. The samples were to a couple of hundreds of picocoulombs when the applied
not prepoled. The cathodes are disks of 16 mm diameter field passed from 3.5 kV to 7 kV (equivalent to 20 kV/cm).
180
Figure 4: Emitted charge versus laser energy in logarith-
mic scale for a PLZT 4/95/5 sample when the applied volt-
age through the gap was 3.5 kV. The continuous line fits
Figure 2: Emitted charge versus laser energy for a PLZT with Q I 2 scaling law.
8/65/35 without the front grid. Notice the clear bending of
the curve due to the space charge effect.
Figure 5: Emission versus laser energy for a PLZT 4/95/5
sample when the applied voltage was 7 kV.
Figure 3: Emitted charge versus laser energy for a PLZT
8/65/35 without the front grid in log-log frame. The con-
tinuous line is a fit with Q I 4 scaling law.
In addition the log-log plot of emitted charge as function of
laser power changed the slope from about 2 to the higher
value around 3.
Figure 6: Emitted charge versus laser energy: the lower
2.3 Experiments on PT. points are obtained at 7 kV of applied voltage, while the
points of the upper curve are obtained in succession but
This lead titanate material is a hard ferroelectric, good ab- after having reduced the voltage to 3.5 kV. The hysteretic
sorber of radiation in optical range. It emitted at much behavior was not observed keeping constant the voltage.
lower level as shown in fig. 7. We remark that the emis-
sion from this sample follows the two-photon absorption
law [8], as the case of 4/95/5 sample at relatively low elec-
3 DISCUSSION
tric field in the diode gap.
The two main characteristics of the strong emission are: the
We have, finally, tested the emission with two light almost negligible emission up to a laser intensity of about
pulses separated by 2 ns. The two emissions are substan- 1 GW/cm2 (i.e. 2 mJ) and the high non-linearity starting
tially stable. The system seems able to provide pulse trains from that point. In addition to this, the other notable fact is
with nanosecond time separation. the change of the operational regime for the PLZT 4/95/5
181
sion only because the charge was limited by space charge
effect. Since the damage threshold of a ceramic is relatively
high, a large amount of extracted charge can be foreseen.
The emission has shown to be very sensitive to the sam-
ple polarization. This fact allows to foresee a large en-
hancement of the quantum efficiency just increasing the
polarization. This polarization increasing occurs naturally
with the high electric field that are customary applied in
electron guns.
The characteristics of these cathodes, are: a)strong ro-
bustness, they work in any kind of vacuum showing a long
Figure 7: Charge versus laser energy in log-log scale for life; b) they do not require any particular processing; c)they
PT. The continuous line fits with Q I 2 scaling law. can be operated with green light. In the near future the ex-
tracted electron beam will be characterized in terms of time
structure. If the electron pulse duration is strictly related to
sample when it is immersed in a relatively high electric the laser pulse duration, these cathodes promise to deliver
field. The PT sample has stably two-photon emission. current densities larger than 1 KA/cm2 and to be valid com-
The generalized Fowler-Dubrige theory [8] cannot ex- petitors of both metallic and alkali cathodes.
plain these results. An average potential barrier higher than
4 eV is estimated in these materials for the electrons of the 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
defect traps. The electron affinity Ea is not well defined be-
cause the surface state is un-defined: is like a patchwork of We want to thank H. Riege for the part of apparatus he sup-
pieces with different physical characteristics, which range plied us and for the encouragement to start this research;
from insulating to metallic [9, 10, 11]. That value of the we must also recognize the technical support given by R.
potential barrier is a fairly crude approximation. Sorchetti.
Furthermore, our disk is immersed in the electric field
applied through the diode gap, hence a counter field is cre- 6 REFERENCES
ated by the induced polarization. When the crystal is polar-
[1] K. Geissler, H. Gundel, H. Riege, J. Handerek, Appl. Phys.
ized, there is a band bending at the surfaces with a potential Lett. 56, 895, 1990.
well for electrons at the positive side of the polarization,
[2] K. Geissler, A. Meineke, H., Riege, S. DE Silvestri, N.
while there is a barrier at the opposite side [12].
Nisoli, O. Svelto, I. Boscolo, J. Handerek, Nucl. Instrum.
The emission at 2.3 eV and its non-linearity with a power Meth. Phys. Res.A 372, 567-571,1996.
equal or greater than 4 would envision the anomalous heat-
[3] T. Srinivasan-Rao, J. Fisher, T. Tsang, J. Appl. Phys. 69,
ing regime [13], cooperating with the Auger effect [5]. 3291, 1991.
More generally, we should have the concurrence of dif-
[4] C. Pagani, P. Michelato, L. Serafini, Nucl. Instr. Meth. Phys
ferent contributions: one and two-photon emission, ther- Res. A 340, 17, 1994 and other papers in that volume.
mally assisted and Auger emission.
[5] G. Benedek, I. Boscolo, Appl. Phys. Lett. 72, 522, 1998.
The increase of the emission of 4/95/5 sample as a func-
[6] M. E. Lines and A.M. Glass, Principles and Applications of
tion of the applied field, together with the hysteretic behav-
Ferroelectric and Related Materials, Clarendon Press, Ox-
ior of fig. 6 tells that the polarization is very important:
ford, 1977.
when the polarization builds up in the sample, the emis-
[7] H. Gundel, J. Handerek, H. Riege, E.J.N. Wilson and K.
sion steps up, then the sample remains polarized when the
Zioutas, Ferroelectrics 109,137,1990.
electric field is reduced because of the hysteresis loop. The
experiment with PT material says that the polarization by [8] J.H. Bechtel, W.L. Smith, N. Bloembergen, Phys. Rev. B.
15, 4557, 1977.
itself is not sufficient for obtaining strong emission, but a
strong doping, that is a large number of defects, must be [9] K. Szot, M. Pawelczyk, J. Herion, Ch. Freiburg, J. Albers,
also present. R. Waser, J. Hullinger, J. Kwapulinski, J. Dec, Appl. Phys.
A 62,335,1996.
Assuming that the electron pulse length is strictly corre-
lated to the light pulse length, that is 25ps, since the il- [10] K. Szot, W. Speier, S. Cramm, J. Herion, Ch. Freiburg,
R. Waser, M. Pawelczyk, W. Eberhardt, J. Chem. Solids,
luminated area is about 10 mm2 , the current density would
57,1765,1996.
be higher than 1 kA/cm2 . The laser power is well below
the damage threshold. [11] K. Szot, W. Speier, J. Herion, Ch. Freiburg, Appl. Phys. A
64,55,1997.
[12] G. Benedek, I. Boscolo, J. Handerek, H. Riege, J. Appl.
4 CONCLUSIONS Phys, 81,1396,1997.
A new very efficient configuration for ferroelectric photo- [13] J. P. Girardeau-Montaut, C. Girardeau-Montaut, Phys. Rev.
51, 13560, 1995.
cathodes has been investigated. We got 1nC level of emis-
182
FIELDS INDUCED BY CHOPPED BEAMS IN THE TANK CAVITY
E. Takasaki, Z. Igarashi, F. Naito, K. Nanmo and T. Takenaka
High Energy Accelerator Research Organization, KEK
1-1 Oho, Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki-ken, 305-0801, JAPAN
Abstract 2 INDUCED FIELDS
In order to accelerate high-intensity beams at the 12-
Nominal beams accelerated by the proton linac have
GeV proton synchrotron complex at KEK, the 40-MeV
only the frequency components of (driving frequency) × n
proton linac has been successfully operated as an injector.
and a small fraction due to the phase spread. However,
The 40-MeV proton linac consists of two tanks. Recently,
chopped beams have many frequency components, like
an acceleration of chopped beams has been tried to obtain
good transmission from the Booster to the 12-GeV main (driving frequency) × n ± (chopping frequency) × m and
ring. We thus measured the fields induced by chopped the fraction. Figure 1 shows the frequency components of
beams in the second tank, where the accelerating field is chopped beams accelerated in the first tank at KEK.
stabilized by post-couplers. The effects of the induced
field on the longitudinal motions have also been observed.
In this report, the measured results are described.
1 INTRODUCTION
The KEK 40-MeV Proton Linac has worked very well
to supply beams to the 500-MeV Booster Synchrotron
since the upgrade from the accelerating energy of 20-
MeV to 40-MeV. Recently, an increase in the beam
intensity of the 12-GeV Proton Synchrotron is required
for experiments about neutrino oscillation. It is thus very
important to accelerate beams with good quality and high
intensity. Therefore, at first, we arranged a beam-monitor
system and then improved the control system, the RF-
Fig. 1 Frequency components of chopped beams.
source for a prebuncher and the RF-source for a
Chopped beams were produced by using a beam-
debuncher system [1]. The effects of the tuning procedure chopping system developed at KEK. An average beam
of the linac on the transversal motions have been studied intensity was about 8 mA. The post-1 and TM012-modes
[2]. Otherwise, a beam-chopping system [3] has been were excited by the frequency components of (a) and (b),
developed and the acceleration of chopped beams has respectively.
been attempted in order to control the bunch shape in the
Booster. Furthermore, the proton linac comprises many tanks,
At KEK, a 200-MeV proton linac for the Japanese each of which also has many resonance modes, like the
Hadron Facility (JHF) has been designed [4]. The main TM and TE modes, and which must accelerate long-pulse
features of the linac are a high peak current, a high high intensity beams with good quality. Therefore, when
average current, a high duty factor and a high such beams pass through a tank and the beam-frequency
performance for beam-loss problems. Therefore, an RF- component is near to a resonance mode in the tank, the
source with high specifications must be fabricated, where mode would be strongly excited by the beams.
we must guarantee that the accelerating field is stabilized In general, such a field would be given by [5]
within about ±1% in amplitude and within about ±1° in E =α I {exp(-jΩ t)-exp(-ω t/2Q )}
bl l l l l l
phase. In this linac, also, the acceleration of chopped × exp{j(ω t+φ )}cos(πz/L). (1)
l b
beams with a micro structure and a long-pulse high where α = coefficient which is dependent upon
intensity is required to paint the linac beams onto the l
parameters regarding to the l-mode,
longitudinal phase space in the next accelerator. I = beam-frequency component of beam bunches,
l
We think that in the near future chopped beams with a
high peak current can be accelerated in a proton linac. We ω = l-mode frequency,
l
thus measured the fields induced by chopped beams and Ω = (TM010 mode frequency) - (l-mode frequency),
l
those effects on the longitudinal motions. In this report we Q = total Q for the l-mode,
describe the results measured with chopped beams l
produced by a beam-chopping system. φ = accelerating phase angle,
b
L= tank length = 12.84 m.
183
Thus, the total field in the tank is given by the following induced field and the frequency components, as shown in
superposition, Figure 3. The measured results show that the higher post-
E = E exp(jωt) + Σ E modes would be not strongly excited by the beam-
0 bl
= E exp(jωt) {X + jY}. (2) frequency component.
0
Therefore, the phase shift relative to the driving field is 3.2 Effects of the induced field on the
Y/X and wiggles with a frequency of ω-ω , which would longitudinal motion
l
Though an average intensity of the chopped beams
correspond to the chopping frequency. We can then
was about 8 mA, the ratio of the field strength of the post-
estimate a phase shift of about 4°, where the ratio of the
1 mode to the main field strength (201.07 MHz) was
induced field to the driving field is assumed to be about -
about -43 dB, as can be seen in Fig. 2. This ratio is
40 dB. A variation of the phase shift due to the induced
comparable to the ratio of the field induced by the
field is larger than a phase stability of about ±1° required
nominal beam with an intensity of about 130 mA [5]. We
for stable operation of the JHF proton linac. At the KEK
thus think that the post-1 mode excitation might affect
proton linac, the driving frequency is 201.07 MHz and the
the longitudinal motion of the beams. Therefore, we
chopping frequency is about 2.2 MHz, which is near to a
measured an acceptable phase area to the second tank at
post-2 mode in the second tank.
beam positions (1) and (2) and on conditions whether the
mode has been excited or not, as shown in Figures 4a and
3 MEASUREMENTS b.
3.1 Fields Induced by Chopped Beams at KEK Dependences of the induced field upon the mode
The second tank has 17 rf-loop monitors for checking -10
ratio of induced field to frequncy
-15
the field distribution of the accelerating modes. Thus, the
-20
component of beams
TM01n-like mode has only been observed by using those
(dBm,arbitrary)
-25
loop monitors. At first, we measured fields induced by -30
chopped beams in the second tank as variations of the -35
chopping frequencies. Figure 2 shows the relation -40
between the chopping frequency and the induced field. -45
The measured frequencies of all the modes are consistent -50
196 198 200 202 204 206 208 210
with the frequencies given in Reference [6]. All of the mode frequency (MHz)
modes were determined by measuring the field
Fig. 3 Ratios of the induced field to the frequency
distributions along the second tank. The strength of the component of bunched beams injected into the
induced field depends upon the frequency components of second tank. Higher modes of the post-type modes
the beam bunches injected to the second tank and the are weakly excited. However, the TM01n modes
operational phase between the first tank and the second are almost equally excited.
one. We measured the ratios between the strength of the
The measured results are
Measurements of fields induced by chopped beams shown in Figures 5, 6 and 7.
induced field (dBm,arbitrary
-20 Fig. 5 shows that the field
post-5
-25 levels of the post-1 mode are
-30 post-4
-35
dependent on the operational
-40 post-3 phase between two tanks. We
-45 post-2 could observe some
-50
-55 post-1 differences in those
-60 TM011 dependence between the
-65
-70 TM012 post-1, post-2 and TM-
-75
TM013 modes.
-80
1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 TM014
Fig. 6 shows the energies
accelerated in the second
tank under conditions of
chopping frequency (MHz)
different excitation levels of
the post-1 mode. We thus
Fig. 2 Relation between the chopping frequency and the induced field. We conclude that the average
measured the field distributions using 17 rf-monitors installed along the second energy would be independent
tank, and then determined all modes of the measured fields. In our case, the post- of the induced field levels.
2 mode is excited because the rf-frequency in Booster is about 2.2 MHz.
184
We can see variations of the acceptable phase areas in Relation between the induced field
Fig. 7, which were measured at different beam positions (post-1) and the tank's phasee
and under different conditions of excitation levels of the -25
Induced field (arbitrary ,dBm)
post-1 mode. We can now conclude that the field induced -30
by chopped beams in the tank might disturb the -35
longitudinal motion of beams, and then narrow the -40
-45
acceptable phase area. Hence, it would be very important
-50
to study the relations between the resonance mode of the
-55
tank cavity and the chopping frequency. Next time, we 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
will study the induced fields, like the TE-modes and their post-1;on
post-1;0ff
Phase bet ween two tanks (degree)
effects.
Fig. 5. Relation between the field level of the
REFERENCES post-1 mode and the operational phase between
two tanks.
[1] Z. Igarashi et al., 1992 Linear Accelerator Conf. Proc.,
Ottawa, 109-111 and 112-114 (1992).
Z. Igarashi et al., " Introduction of the Solid State RF Source
at KEK 40-MeV Proton Linac", to be published in the Proc. Velocity vs. T ank's phase near post-1
of the 11th Symp. on Accelerator Science and Technology, at the beam position of (2)
0.5
Harima, (1997). 0
Z. Igarashi et al., " A New RF System for the Debuncher at -0.5
Velocity (arbitrary)
-1
the KEK 40-MeV Proton Linac", submitted to this -1.5
-2
Proceedings. -2.5
-3
[2] E. Takasaki et al., " Effects of Controlling the 40-MeV -3.5
-4
Proton Linac on Transversal Motions", to be published in the 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Proc. of the 11th Symp. on Accelerator Science and post-1;on
Phase between two tanks (degree)
Technology, Harima, (1997). post-1;0ff
[3] K. Shinto et al., Rev. Sci. Instrum. 67(3), p. 1048, March
(1996). Fig. 6 Relation between the velocities and the
[4] JHF Project Office, KEK Report 97-16. operational phase.
[5] T. Kato and E. Takasaki : IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. Vol. NS-
28 NO.3 (1981) p.3507.
[6] T. Kato, KEK Report 86-5.
Acceptable phase area to the second tank near
the post-1 at the beam position of (1)
105
Transmission of the second tank
100
95
90
(%)
85
80
75
70
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
post-1;on
Phase between two tanks (degree)
post-1;off
Acceptable phase area to the second tank near
the post-1 at the beam position of (2)
105
Transmission of the second tank
100
Fig. 4-a; “on-mode” Fig. 4-b; “off-mode” 95
In Fig. 4, the conditions are given for when we 90
(%)
85
observed the effects of the induced field on the 80
longitudinal motions. Both 91) and (2) are the beam 75
positions measured on a long beam pulse. We selected 70
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
these positions while considering that the strength of the Phase between two tanks (degree)
post-1;on
post-1;off
induced field would increase exponentially.
Fig. 7. Acceptable phase area on the second tank. The
results measured at the beam position of (2) show that
the variation in the acceptable phase area strongly
depends on whether the post-1 mode is excited or not.
185
DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE LEDA SLOW WIRE SCANNER
PROFILE MEASUREMENT*
J. F. O’Hara, ALLIEDSIGNAL FM&T**; J. F. Power, LANL;
J. Ledford, LANL, J. D. Gilpatrick, LANL; J. Sage, General Atomics, M. Stettler, LANL
There are two separate position feedback systems, a
Abstract
rotary potentiometer and a linear optical encoder.
The Low Energy Demonstration Accelerator (LEDA) Preliminary system testing shows the rotary potentiometer
[1, 2] is being developed at Los Alamos National has an uncertainty of 0.17 mm and the linear optical
Laboratory as part of the Accelerator Production of encoder has an uncertainty of 0.013 mm.
Tritium (APT) project. One of the diagnostics being
developed to commission LEDA [3] is a slow wire 1.2 Vacuum Considerations
scanner beam profile measurement. Initial profile The drive system lies outside the vacuum boundary of
measurements will be made at 6.7 MeV beam energy and the beam line. A flexible welded bellows seals the
100 mA beam current. The wire scanner is an actuator to atmosphere. The actuator mounts to the
interceptive device that will move two silicon carbide beam line with the use of metal sealed flange connections.
coated graphite mono-filament fibers (wires) through the Inside the vacuum chamber the actuator bolts to the fork
beam, in order to obtain the profile. Some of the design that is in turn connected to a recirculating ball linear
considerations discussed are; Mechanical design, wire bearing. The linear bearing moves on a precision guide
temperature analysis, secondary electron detection, signal rail. The linear bearing guide rail system stabilizes the
processing, and system control. wire configuration during data acquisition.
1 SCANNER MECHANICAL DESIGN
Fig. 1 shows the LEDA Slow Wire Scanner. The wire
scanner will be mounted at 45° angle to the beam line in
the diagnostic pump port of the LEDA High Energy
Beam Transport (HEBT) [4]. The sensing wires are 100
µm silicon carbide fibers mounted on an aluminum fork.
This material was selected based on the successful use of
silicon carbide at LANSCE (Los Alamos Neutron
Science Center) [5]. In order to prevent the x and y
scanning wires from being in the beam at the same time
the wires are mounted in a “V” design. Two biasing wires
surround each signal wire. The biasing wires are also
silicon carbide and will have a high voltage on them.
The biasing wires prevent the secondary electrons from Figure 1. LEDA Slow Wire Scanner
back streaming on to the signal detection wires and also
will optimize the Secondary Electron Coefficient (SEC) 2 WIRE TEMPERATURE ANALYSIS
of the wires. This configuration called for approximately
The sensing wires will intercept the beam as they move
370 mm of travel to get both signal fibers fully through
through it. The protons that move through the wire will
the beam scanning area. To clear the fork back out of the
interact with the electrons in the wire material atoms. The
scanning area requires an additional 90 mm of travel.
electron will sense an attractive force due to the
1.1 Drive System oppositely charged proton. This force can cause the
electron to move to a higher lying shell (excitation) or if it
A fractional horsepower stepper motor moves the is large enough it can actually remove the electron
scanner through the beam. Coupled to the stepper motor (ionization) [6]. The energy lost to the wire material
is a modified Huntington Labs linear motion feed comes at the expense of the proton, and this energy will
through. The stepper motor drives a ball screw that cause a temperature increase in the wire material. The
converts rotary to linear motion. problem with this measurement technique is that if the
energy deposited in the wire becomes too great it can
cause the destruction of the wire. In order to predict the
*Work supported by the US Dept. of Energy. operating parameters that the wire is capable of surviving
**Operated for the US Dept of Energy under Contract No. DE- it was necessary to do a thermal analysis of the sensing
ACO4-76-DP00613. wires.
186
2.1 Governing Equations K, based on manufacture supplied data (Textron Systems,
Wilmington, MA).
The analysis began by performing an energy balance
2 5 0
on a control volume around the wire [7] and arriving at
the following governing equation: 2 0 0
( )
µ Α/ m m ^ 2 )
dE dT
0+ρ Ipeak V − εσ T 4 − Tsurr 4 As = ρVc p 1 5 0
dx dt
C u r r e n t D e n s ity (
Where, 1 0 0
ρ - wire material density (gm/cm^3).
dE/dx - stopping power (MeV-cm^2/g). 5 0
Ipeak - peak current of the beam (µA/cm^2).
0
V - the volume of the wire under consideration (cm^3). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0
ε - emissivity of the wire material. C y c le s o f p u ls e d b e a m (H z )
σ - Stephan-Boltzman coefficient (W/(cm^2-K^4)). Figure 3. Scanner operating parameters for 500 µs beam
T - temperature of the wire (K). pulse length.
Tsurr - temperature of the surroundings (K).
As - surface area of the wire (cm^2). 2.3 Finite Element Analysis
cp - specific heat capacity of the wire material (J/(g-K). A finite element analysis (FEA) was also done on the
dT/dt - time rate of change of temperature (K/s). wire. Included in the FEA was the effect of the thermal
The first term represents the energy entering the control conductivity of the material. Fig. 4 shows the results of
volume that, in this case, is zero. The second term an FEA model of a SiC fiber exposed to a 500 µs beam
represents the energy generated inside the control volume, pulse and the conduction effects as the heat is being
which is due to the stopping power [8] of the wire transferred along the wire axis.
material and to the beam current. The third term
represents the energy out, or the radiant cooling of the
wire. The term on the right hand side represents the
energy stored inside the control volume.
2.2 Numerical Analysis
A numerical integration technique is used to determine
the time rate of change of temperature (dT/dt). Early on
in the development of the scanner it became clear that no
material would be able to withstand the intense CW beam
conditions. It was therefore necessary to determine what
pulsed mode operating parameters the wire material could
tolerate. Fig. 2 shows a typical plot of the temperature
rise in a 100 µm silicon carbide wire at a 500 µs beam Figure 4. FEA model showing conduction effects
macro pulse length and a 1 Hz beam repetition rate.
3 SECONDARY ELECTRON DETECTION
1 3 0 0
The signal for this measurement is taken directly from
1 1 0 0 the sensing wires. The signal will be the sum of the
T e m p e r a tu r e (K )
9 0 0
protons stopped in the wire and the secondary electrons
leaving the wire surface.
7 0 0
5 0 0
3.1 Secondary Electron Yield
3 0 0
Protons passing through the wire surfaces generate
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
secondary electrons, both as they enter and as they exit.
tim e (s )
Using Sternglass’s theory [9] the amount of secondary
Figure 2. Temperature rise in SiC Wire electrons generated can be stated as follows:
A series of analyses were done at various pulse lengths Pd dE
and repetition rates in order to determine the safe Y=
ε dx
operating conditions of the wire. Fig. 3 shows the safe Where,
wire operating conditions based on a 500 ms beam pulse Y = electron yield.
length at different repetition rates. The primary P = probability that electron will escape (0.5).
requirement was to keep the wire temperature below 1400 d = average depth from which the electron escapes (nm).
187
e = average kinetic energy lost by an ion per ionization in User-defined scan: The operator has the ability to
material (MeV). define the scan range (for both x and y axes) as well
dE/dx = stopping power (MeV-cm^2/g). as the desired bin size (distance between data points).
The anticipated secondary electron yield for the LEDA
4.3 Data Analysis Screen
wires is: Y= 0.012, which corresponds to a 16 mA signal
at the distribution peak with 100 mA beam current. This screen is where the profiles will be displayed.
There will be two plots, one for each axis profile.
3.2 Signal Processing
Interactive Data Language (IDL) will be used for data
The current or charge measurement electronics will be reduction. IDL is a commercial software package used
packaged in VXI format. An onboard Digital Signal for analysis and display of scientific data. The operator
Processor (DSP) will enhance measurement and data will have the ability to display calculated moments of the
analysis features. An on-line calibration and verification raw data and the parameters determined from a Gaussian
system will also be included. fit.
3.3 Secondary Electron Coefficient, Ψ ,
5 SUMMARY
Calculation
Wire Scanner system testing and development are
One of the features being incorporated into the scanner continuing. The scanner is scheduled for use this fall
control system will be the ability to do an on-line during The LEDA commissioning process.
calculation of the SEC, Ψ. This is done by measuring a
beam profile, normalizing the average beam current
6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
present during each point in the scan, as measured by the
ac Beam Current Monitor system. The average SEC is The LEDA Slow Wire Scanner design was based
calculated as the measured wire current divided by the heavily on scanners currently in use at LANSCE. The
theoretical current intercepted by the wire, assuming a LANSCE-2 group was responsible for the design of these
Gaussian distribution. scanners. We gratefully acknowledge their generosity
and assistance.
4 SYSTEM CONTROL
7 REFERENCES
The wire scanner will be controlled by the
Experimental & Physics Industrial Control System [1] J. D. Schneider, “APT Accelerator Technology,”
(EPICS) [10, 11]. Motion control sequences are written in Proceedings of XVIII Int. LINAC Conf., (Geneva, 26-30
State Notation Language, the EPICS implementation of a Aug. 1996), pp. 22-26.
finite state machine. There will be three main screens. [2] H. Vernon Smith, Jr. and J. D. Schneider, “Status Update
on the Low-Energy Demonstration Accelerator (LEDA),”
4.1 Calibration Screen this conf.
This screen will be used to perform the on-line system [3] J. D. Gilpatrick et al, “LEDA and APT Beam Diagnostics
verification. The operator will have the capability to Instrumentation,” Proc. 1997 Particle Accelerator Conf.,
check the condition of the sensing wires and verify the (Vancouver, 12-16 May. 1997), Paper 8P058.
voltage on the biasing wires. The operator will also be [4] W. Lysenko and M. Schulze, “High Energy Beam
able to verify the scanner position accuracy by running Transport Beamline for LEDA,” this conf.
the scanner, acquiring position information and [5] M. Plum and M. Borden, “Intense Beam Profile
comparing this information against past performance. Workshop”, Santa Fe, NM. Nov 6-7, 1997.
nd
[6] G. F. Knoll, Radiation Detection and Measurement, 2 ed,
4.2 Status and Scan Execution Screen NY: John Wiley and Sons, 1989.
This screen will provide the operator information about [7] F. P. Incropera and D. P. DeWitt, Fundamentals of Heat
nd
the scanner and other accelerator functions. There will be and Mass Transfer, 2 ed, NY: John Wiley and Sons,
links to the Run Permit system, information on beam 1985.
pulse width, beam repetition rate, and the measured beam [8] W. H. Barkas and M. J. Berger, “Tables of Energy
current. The operator will select from five types of scans. Losses and Ranges of Heavy Charged Particles”, NASA
Fast scan: This scan is intended to provide a quick, SP-3013, 1964.
coarse resolution profile. [9] E. J. Sternglass, Phys. Rev. 108 (1957) 1.
Slow scan: This scan is intended to provide a high [10] L. R. Dalesio et al., “Nucl. Instrum. Meth. In Phys.
resolution profile. Research A352 (1994) 179-184.
Find peak scan: This scan is a combination of the [11] M. Moore and R. Dalesio, “A Development and Integration
fast and slow scans. Analysis of Commercial and In-House Control
Go to position and stay: The scanner will move to Subsystems,” this conf.
the operator-defined position and remain there.
188
IMPROVEMENTS ON THE ACCURACY OF BEAM BUGS
Yu (Judy) J. Chen and T.J. Fessenden
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA 94550
Abstract instrument of 1 kA/V. Also shown are measurements of
At LLNL resistive wall monitors are used to measure the response of the bug to a 10 amp fast rising current
the current and position of intense electron beams in
electron induction linacs and beam transport lines. These,
known locally as “beam bugs”, have been used
throughout linear induction accelerators as essential
diagnostics of beam current and location. Recently, the
development of a fast beam kicker has required
improvement in the accuracy of measuring the position of
beams. By picking off signals at more than the usual four
positions around the monitor, beam position measurement
error can be greatly reduced. A second significant source Fig. 1. Drawing of an ATA beam bug. ETA-II bugs use
of error is the mechanical variation of the resistor around 5.4 µm nichrome foil and have no 50 Ohm resistor in
the bug. In addition, in-situ bugs used on ETA-II show a series with the outputs. Also shown is the response of the
droop in signal due to a fast redistribution time constant bug (lower trace) to a 10 Amp pulse (upper trace) along
of the signals. This paper presents the analysis and the bug axis from a mercury pulser.
experimental test of the beam bugs used for beam current
and position measurements in and after the fast kicker. It flowing around the resistor. Because of the very low foil
concludes with an outline of present and future changes resistance, the L/R time for the current to decay is very
that can be made to improve the accuracy of these beam much longer than the beam pulse. Eight pickoffs around
bugs. the circumference of the bug are used to develop the
current and position signals. Two of the pickups encircle
1 DESCRIPTION the ferrite in a direction opposite to that of the other six
Perhaps the most important diagnostic developed for thus producing a negative signal. The current signal is
electron induction accelerators is the device that monitors formed by adding four positive signals from cardinal
the beam current and position in the accelerator and points around the bug. The x and y position signals are
associated beam transport lines. This type of monitor [1] formed adding positive and negative signals from
was first developed for use on the LBL ERA accelerator opposite sides of the bug. Additional information on beam
about 1970. It was rapidly adapted [2] for use on the bugs and other diagnostics for high current linacs can be
Astron Accelerator [3] and has been used on all LLNL found in [6] and [7].
induction accelerators since. These instruments,
commonly called “beam bugs”, are capable of measuring 2 ANALYSIS
kiloampere beam currents and beam position with rise Consider a beam moving within a conducting pipe as
times of less than 0.2 ns and relative position resolutions sketched in Fig 2. It is possible to show (by the method of
less than 100 µm. Signals are generated by placing a images for example) that a current I flowing within a pipe
resistor in series with the inner wall of the beam transport of radius a at a distance r off axis causes a surface current
lines and detecting the currents induced in the wall by the to flow on the inner pipe wall.
passage of the beam. The resistors are made of 0.2 mil Consider interrupting the beam pipe with a resistive
nichrome foil (5.4 µm) that is spot welded across an band or ring placed at the inner circumference of the pipe
insulated break in the beam tube wall to form a band that with total resistance R. The surface current passing
encircles the inside of the beam pipe. The diameter of the through the resistor that initially or for a short time
band equals the inner diameter of the beam pipe so that develops a voltage around the pipe V(•) given by [7].
the beam sees no abrupt steps or extraneous capacitance ρ2 −1
during its passage through the bug. A small overlap is V (θ ) = IR . (1)
formed as the band wraps around the inside diameter of 1 + ρ 2 − 2 ρ cos θ
the pipe. where • = r/a is the normalized beam displacement. The
Figure 1 shows the design [4] of the beam bug used angle • is defined by Fig. 2b. For most of the ETA-II
with the ATA accelerator [5]. The ETA-II bugs are only accelerator and transport the beam current signal comes
slightly different. The resistance of the resistor foil was from adding the voltages of the four sum ports, S1 to S4.
approximately 20m• with a resulting sensitivity of the It is fed through a resistive summing circuit in which care
189
D2- measurements to be expected. At a normalized dis-
S1 beam placement of ••= 1/2, the position error ranges from -37%
S2
to 48% for the case of two pickoffs and -7% to 3% for six
r θ pickoffs, a drastic improvement.
54 °
D1+ D1-
a
S4
S3
D2+
(a) (b)
Fig. 2. (a) ETA-II’s beam bug port configuration and (b)
Sketch of a beam off-axis in a conducting pipe
is taken to avoid reflections in the cabling. Therefore,
o
V I = [V (54 ) + V (144 ) + V ( 234 ) + V ( 324 )] (2)
o o o
Similarly, the position signals are obtained with
Vx = V (0) − V (180° ) Fig. 3. Plots of the measured error as a function of the
(3) normalized beam displacement from axis for two and six
V y = V (90° ) − V ( 270° )
pickoffs as defined above. For arbitrary angle, the point
Combining (1)-(3) and taking the limit of small beam will be bounded by the two curves.
displacement (• << 1), we obtain
V I = 4 IR (4) 4 MECHANICAL ERRORS
and V x = 4IRρ cos θ (5) Beam bugs are tested and calibrated using a mercury
x V y Vy pulser and a test fixture. The fixture consists of two
or = ρx = x ; = ρy = (6) coaxial cylinders; the larger has an inside diameter equal
a VI a VI
to that of a beam bug that is attached in its center. The
second simulates the beam and threads the assembly. It is
3 IMPROVED CURRENT AND POSITION smaller in diameter by a ratio of 2.3 to achieve a 50 Ohm
FUNCTIONS impedance. The two cylinders are attached with tapers to
The determination of beam current and position can be a coax line that is driven by a mercury pulser. The pulser
improved by using all eight pickoffs to determine beam generates current pulses with a rise time of 0.2 ns that are
current and position which already exists on ETA-II’s typically 200 ns long. The oscillograms presented in Fig.
beam bugs (see Fig. 2a). Define the beam x and y- 1 were obtained from such a fixture.
position relations as: Measurements of the eight output signals from the
V x = V (0) − V (180) + [V (54) − V (234)] cos(54) beam bug show random amplitude variations of
(7) approximately ± 2%. For the ETA-II bugs this implies an
− [V (144) − V (324)] sin(54) uncertainty in beam position of ±1.4 mm. These errors
V y = V (90) − V (270) + [V (54) − V ( 234)] sin(54) + result from variations in the resistance of the foil around
[V (144) − V (324)] cos(54)
the circumference of the bug. These variations arise
principally from two causes. Measurements revealed that
and the relation for the beam current is given by the thickness of the 5.4 µm foils randomly vary by about
V I = V (0) + V (54) + V (90) + V (144) + 2%, and variations in the spot welds that attach the foil
(8) also contribute to the error. This latter effect is evident in
V (180) + V (234) + V (270) + V (324 ) Fig. 4. The foil on Beam Bug 26 was re-welded with
The relationships for x and y are the same as (6). extreme care. This reduced the variation between pickoffs
Let us consider in detail the error in the position signal by about a factor of two.
resulting from the assumption of small beam
displacement •. Fig. 3 shows plots of the error in 5 SIGNAL DROOP
measured beam position by the bug as a function of the The beam bugs are fabricated of metal and essentially
normalized beam displacement • for the case of two and shorted by the housing as shown in Fig. 1. The inductor
six pickoffs as defined above. These curves were obtained provides time isolation for the monopole current signal
from Eq. (3) and (7). Each pair of curves show the values for times long compared with the beam pulse. This time is
to be expected for the case of the beam displacement determined by the L/R time constant developed by the
angle toward a pickoff point and for the case of the beam ferrite inductor and foil resistor. For ETA-II parameters
displacement angle half-way between two pickoff points. this time is typically hundreds of microseconds. Thus the
For an arbitrary displacement these curves bound the
190
Variation of Pickoff Amplitude as shown in Fig. 4. To combat this source of error, one
for four beam bugs
2.50%
should document port amplitude variation for each port
2.00% on each beam bug. This can be stored in a look-up table
1.50% and compensated in software. This necessitates individual
1.00% measurement of each pickoff and summing and
0.50% BB 18 F
BB 10 F
differencing is processed in software, not hardware as has
0.00%
S4 D1- S1 D2- S2 D1 S3 D2
BB 26 F
BB 11 F
been traditionally done. This also increases on-axis
-0.50% BB 26 B
precision as long as bit noise is not a major source of
-1.00%
-1.50%
error (if one goes to 16-bit data acquisition).
-2.00%
-2.50%
Port
Fig. 4. Variations between electrical signals at the eight
ports of four ETA-II beam bugs. The foil on Beam Bug
26 was re-attached with extreme care.
current signal will droop by less than 0.1% in the time of
the 70 ns ETA-II pulse. The position signal is generated
by an off-axis beam which produces a dipole excitation of
the bug. The dipole component of the excitation does not
link the ferrite inductor. As a consequence the droop of
the position signal is much faster.
The center cylinder of the calibration fixture can be
moved with respect to the outer cylinder so as to simulate Fig 5. Oscillograms showing bug signals generated from a
an off-axis beam. Fig. 5 shows bug signals developed at 1 cm offset of the center conductor of the test fixture.
opposite sides of a one centimeter offset of this center
cylinder. Adding these signals together produces a signal The dipole L/R droop on ETA-II beam bugs has been
that is proportional to the offset of the center conductor. corrected in software. In addition, a real-time display of
For the parameters shown here the decay time constant is processed I, X, and Y values has been implemented. In
approximately 200 ns. Thus, in the 70 ns of the ETA-II the long term, beam bugs around the fast kicker (which
pulse, the position signal droops by approximately 30%. require a high level of precision) will have it’s pickoffs
For centering the beam this droop is of little consequence. individually routed to the control room.
However, for determining the position of an off-axis
beam this droop must be compensated by either 7 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
processing the position signal or partially integrating the We are grateful to C. Holms and J. C. Clark for their
signal. assistance. This work was performed under the auspices
The present droop compensation scheme on ETA-II is of the U.S. Department of Energy by the Lawrence
to correct it in software, thus preserving signal strength. A Livermore National Laboratory under Contract No. W-
simple yet accurate approach is to calculate the amount of 7405-Eng-48.
droop by finding the value the signal immediately reset to
(and it is usually non-zero) and add a ramp to the signal 8 REFERENCES
with that amplitude. In addition, RC circuits have been [1] Avery, R. et al., UCRL-20166, LBL, (1971).
built to boost the RC time constant. The advantage of [2] Fessenden, T. et al., Rev. Sci. Instru., 43 , 1789,
using hardware compensation is speed of data processing (1972).
but signal strength is compromised. These circuits have [3] C. Christofolis et al., Rev. Sci. Instru., 35 , 886,
not been used yet. (1964).
[4] K. Struve, “The ATA Beam Bug,” internal
6 CONCLUSION communication, LLNL.
A wealth of extremely detailed characterization on two [5] Reginato, IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., NS-30 , 2970,
generations of beam bugs (ATA and ETA-II) has pointed (1983).
to a number of improvements that can be made on the [6] K Struve, Meas. Elect. Qty. in Pulse Power Sys.-II,
accuracy of these diagnostics. It has been known that NBS, Gaithersburg, MD (1986).
increasing the number of pickoff points increases off-axis [7] Fessenden, T, Conference Proceedings No. 252:
accuracy. However, one must be careful about Beam Instrumentation Workshop, p. 225, AIP (1992).
implementing this idea. The increased number of pickoffs [8] Chambers, F. et. al., Proc. of the 1991 PAC, SF,
also increases the inherent error in port to port variations 3085, (1971).
191
A COAXIAL CABLE BEAM LOSS MONITOR ION CHAMBER SYSTEM
FOR HIGH POWER MULTI-BUNCH BEAMS∗
M. C. Ross and D. McCormick
Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94309
Abstract Some failures, such as instabilities in upstream sys-
tems, will not be identified by the device controllers. In
Gas filled coaxial cable beam loss monitors are a this case, it may not be possible to recover stable opera-
proven diagnostic in short pulse linacs and transport lines. tion without a diagnostic process that includes the gen-
At the SLAC linear collider (SLC), where the bunch eration of a sequence of beam pulses that may then be
length (σz) is ~ 1 mm, monitor cables with lengths analyzed in order to determine the underlying cause of
ranging from 100 m to 3 km are used to locate beam the fault. An essential aspect of the EBD system opera-
losses of 5 x10 8 particles (1.5% of the nominal intensity) tion is to allow the generation of the diagnostic pulses and
with a resolution of +/- 1 m. The monitor is effective eventually to allow the recovery of full power operation.
because of the simplicity of its installation and signal
interpretation. Future linear colliders (LC) will use beams 2 MACHINE PROTECTION SYSTEM
made up of trains of many closely spaced bunches and
The linear collider MPS will control both the termina-
will therefore require more careful signal processing in
tion of operation in the case of a device controller signal
order to locate losses. Typical collider operation will
or an EBD signal and the restoration of full power op-
involve the use of pilot pulses, made up of only one
eration. The system must at the same time protect the
bunch, to test subsystem performance prior to full power
accelerator structure from possible single pulse induced
operation. A simple signal processor will be able to locate
failure (SPIF), i.e. failure that results from a single errant
losses by comparing the evolution of the loss monitor
pulse without any warning. SPIF is a concern in future
signal as the number of bunches is increased. The
LC because the charge density, and therefore the power
monitor must have 10 times greater sensitivity than the
density, is high enough to cause substantial material
SLC monitors in order to provide a prediction of the
damage.
expected beam loss at full power using only the signal
Restoration of full power operation proceeds in 5
from the pilot pulse. This paper describes the proposed
stages as outlined in table 2; 1) generation of a low repe-
linear collider loss monitor system.
tition rate benign, low intensity, high emittance single
bunch pulse which cannot cause SPIF, 2) generation of
1 INTRODUCTION the same pulse at high repetition rate, 3) at full repetition
Future LC differ from the SLC in that they will use rate, increase the single bunch intensity, 4) reduce the
multi-bunch, very high power beams. The machine emittance to the nominal value, and finally, 5) raise the
protection system (MPS) role is therefore more critical number of bunches (nb) to the nominal.
than in older, lower power machines [1] and the The purpose of the coaxial cable loss monitor (CCLM)
consequences of its failure are more severe. system is to aid in predicting what the beam loss profiles
The MPS for LC consists of two primary sensors: a will be in order to allow the steps listed above to proceed.
device controller monitor and an errant beam detector We will focus only on the last step, increasing nb, since it
(EBD). The purpose of the device controller monitor is to involves the highest power beams. Collider systems are
query the state of all appropriate devices before allowing designed such that the difference between the trajectory
the system to produce beam pulses. The monitor can be and phase space volume of a single bunch and the pro-
as simple as an analog comparison of magnet currents jected volume of the entire train is small. However, fol-
and will be queried and tested before each pulse. The lowing a system failure or an interruption, this cannot be
EBD is typically comprised of loss monitors, such as gas guaranteed, so the response of the loss monitor must be
filled ion chambers, current monitor toroid comparators checked and evaluated as full power operation is restored.
and solid state radiation detectors as well as simpler Typical Next Linear Collider (NLC) parameters are
devices such as thermal sensors. In an ideal system, the listed in table 1. Table 2 shows a typical full power re-
device controllers would be adequate to ensure that the covery sequence from a ‘benign’ pilot beam at low
machine is not in danger of damage from simple failures. repetition rate to full power operation.
∗
Work supported by the Department of Energy, contract DE-AC03-76SF00515
192
Table 1: NLC beam parameters [2] an estimate the losses at full nb is possible. Table 3
Bunch intensity (Ib) 1 x 1010 e+/e- summarizes the threshold and CCLM sensitivity re-
Number of bunches (nb) 90 quirements.
Bunch spacing (τb) 2.8 ns (total ∆z=77m)
γεx(horizontal invariant 100 x 10-8 m-rad 3 LOSS MONITOR SYSTEM
emittance) Gas-filled coaxial cable loss monitors have been used
γεy 10 x 10-8 m-rad at SLC and other accelerators for the last few decades [3,
Energy 500 GeV 4, 5]. They offer excellent position resolution (1m) and
Repetition rate 120 Hz good sensitivity for short bunches. As the gas in the cable
Typ. linac beam size (σx) 10 µm is ionized, a signal propagates in both directions along the
σy 1 µm cable. In the direction opposite that of the beam, the
signal carries position dependent loss information. For
Table 2: Five step full power operation start
multi-bunch trains, the signal from losses of a small
sequence for NLC. Note that beam power increases
portion of each bunch in the entire train at a single
by 105. The multi-step sequence is required in order
location and that from a few bunches at more than one
to use the benign pilot beam as a diagnostic and
location can be similar. One way to resolve the ambiguity
smoothly make the transition to full power operation.
is by monitoring the evolution of the signal during the nb
Step Parameters Charge Average
progression. Figure 1 shows the expected waveform from
nb, Ib, typ. density beam
a single point loss and illustrates how the signal evolves
σx,y (C/m2) power
through the power up sequence.
Pilot 1, 1 x 109, .04 80
The complete MPS will also rely on discrete loss
beam 30µm(1Hz)
monitor EBDs. These devices indicate the local energy
Full rate 120 Hz .04 10KW
10 deposition less ambiguously but do not have the
Nominal 1, 1 x 10 , .3 100KW
comprehensive geometric coverage of a CCLM.
I 30µm
Nominal 1, 1 x 1010, 23 100 KW 0
ε and I 3µm
Nominal 90, 1 x 1010, 2100 8MW -
Volts
3µm
The rate at which the sequence proceeds depends on -
the characteristic stabilization times of systems used to
control the beam parameters such as the emittance -
controller and beam energy loading compensation.
Typically, the transition between steps may require 10 or -
more machine pulses or sub-steps so that, for example, nb 0
might follow a 1,5,10,20,40,60,80,90 progression. -1
Volts
Table 3: Loss monitor sensitivity requirements and -2
test results using SLC beam (see figure 3).
Trip threshold 2 J (corresponds to -3
energy(Vthres) 240W at full rate) -4
Required sensitivity 250 mV/J
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
(5mV/(Vthres/nb))
Nominal SLC system 60 mV/J Seconds x 10 -7
sensitivity [3] Figure 1: Simulation showing the expected
Fast gas –Ar CF4 150 mV/J – test result CCLM performance as nb is increased from 1 (top
Ar CF4, larger cable, HV 450 mV/J – test result half of figure) to 90 (bottom half). The top half of
gradient doubled the figure was recorded during SLC operation and
illustrates a beam loss of 0.2J.
The threshold used in the MPS is determined using an
estimate of the average power that can cause damage in a The loss monitor MPS signal processing schematic
given mechanical subsystem (typically a few hundred is illustrated in figure 2. Because the bunch train is
watts). Operation with CCLM signals greater than the long compared to the rise and fall time of signals in
threshold voltage is not permitted. Since the nominal the cable, a simple Vthres comparator does not
pulse rate is 120 Hz, the threshold against which each provide an accurate estimate of the local power
pulse will be compared is about 2 J (Vthres). An elec- deposition and an integrator with a time constant of
tronic sensitivity of 5mV/(Vthres/nb) is required so that nbτb must be used.
193
absolute
fixed threshold threshold
HVPS
storage/ comparator
history
display
gas-filled train length
co-axial console integrator
cable fixed threshold
waveform full n b train length
digitizer prediction integrator full n b prediction
isolation comparator
amplifier n b step last n b step
memory prediction
sequence
difference sequence
display trace last n b step advance
console difference threshold
calculator comparator
Figure 2: Signal processing schematic for CCLM MPS. The loss monitor signal emerges from the cable at the left
side of the figure, is separated from the DC HV, and is amplified and digitized on each 120/s pulse. The signal is then
processed and checked using the 3 comparators shown at right. If any threshold is exceeded, the sequence is terminated
and a diagnostic process begins.
The electronics will use three comparators: 1) a local
power threshold (Vthres), 2) anticipated Vthres for full 4 CONCLUSION
nb, and 3) a comparison of the observed vs. expected
The purpose of the pilot project is to develop a system
difference between the latest steps in the nb sequence. It
for use of CCLM and determine its role in the LC MPS.
will analyze the signal evolution and abort the sequence,
While the CCLM does not replace discrete loss monitors,
if necessary, before actually producing the pulse that
it has several advantages and will be used at future LC.
exceeds the threshold.
0.1 5 REFERENCES
0 [1] M.C. Ross, “Machine Protection Schemes for the
Volts
-0.1 SLC”, Proceedings of IEEE Particle Accelerator Conf.
1991, San Francisco, CA, May 6-9, 1991, Particle
-0.2
Accel.Conf: IEEE 1991:1502-1504.
-0.3 [2] T. Raubenheimer et al., “Zeroth-Order Design Report
-0.4 for the Next Linear Collider”, SLAC-Report-474, 1996.
[3] D. McCormick et al., “Long Ion Chamber Systems for
-0.5 the SLC”, Proceedings of IEEE Particle Accelerator
-0.6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Conf., Chicago, Ill., Mar 20-23, 1989. IEEE
Part.Accel.1989.
Seconds x 10 -7 [4] W. K. H. Panofsky, “The Use of a Long Coaxial Ion
Figure 3: Loss monitor signals, (recorded during 1.2 Chamber Along the Accelerator,” SLAC TN-73-57
GeV SLC beam operation), showing the difference (1963).
between the Ar/CO2 (95/5%) gas mixture (*) and the [5] M. Fishman and D. Reagan, “The SLAC Long Ion
Ar/CF4 (90/10%) gas mixture (-)[6]. The figure shows Chamber for Machine Protection,” IEEE Transactions on
Nuclear Science (June 1967). IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci.
CCLM signals from a beam loss of about 4 x 109
14:1096-1098, (1967) (issue No.3).
particles distributed over three locations (0.8J total). [6] D. McCormick, “Fast Ion Chambers for SLC”
The CCLM was mounted 0.3 m from the beamline. Proceedings of the 1991 Particle Accelerator Conference,
Figure 3 illustrates results of tests aimed at increasing San Francisco CA, May 6-9 1991. IEEE 1991, PAC, vol.
the sensitivity of the CCLM. As indicated in Table 3, the 2 1240-1242.
cable gas volume and the high voltage gradient were
increased and a 2 x higher drift velocity gas was used.
The combination of the three improvements provided
adequate sensitivity.
194
TIME RESOLVED, 2-D HARD X-RAY IMAGING OF RELATIVISTIC
ELECTRON-BEAM TARGET INTERACTIONS ON ETA-II*
C. E. Crist, SNL; S. Sampayan, LLNL; M. Krogh, AlliedSignal FM&T; G. Westenskow, G.
Caporaso, T. Houck, J. Weir, D. Trimble, LLNL,
long, lead filled housing with an opening of 12 ½-inches
Abstract (fig 2).
Advanced radiographic applications require a constant
source size less than 1 mm. To study the time history of a
relativistic electron beam as it interacts with a
bremsstrahlung converter, one of the diagnostics we use
is a multi-frame time-resolved hard x-ray camera. We are
performing experiments on the ETA-II accelerator at
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory to investigate
details of the electron beam/converter interactions. The
camera we are using contains 6 time-resolved images,
each image is a 5 ns frame. By starting each successive
frame 10 ns after the previous frame, we create a 6-frame
movie from the hard x-rays produced from the interaction
of the 50-ns electron beam pulse.
1 INTRODUCTION
Of the variety of diagnostic tools available to an
experimenter, an image or picture representing salient
features under investigation is a significant tool. At ETA- Figure 2
II, one of the diagnostics that provides reliable data is a 6-
frame x-ray camera. This instrument, created at Sandia
National Laboratories in 1985 by Dr. William A. Stygar, The reasons for the extensive lead shield is to minimize
provides six time-resolved images and one time- the signal from sever scattered x-ray noise. Inside the
integrated image of the hard x-rays produced by camera housing are the camera’s six micro-channel plate
relativistic electron beam as it interacts with a (MCP) intensifier tubes and film holders. (fig 3)
bremsstrahlung converter.
2 THE CAMERA
To operate in a high, x-ray noise environment, the
camera, (fig 1) consists of a 26-inch diameter, 32-inch
Figure 3
This housing provides a minimum of nine inches of lead
shielding in front, seven inches of shielding on the sides
and three inches of shielding aft, between the x-ray
source and micro-channel plate MCP tubes. For
imaging the x-ray spot, we are using tapered tungsten
pinholes that are ~ 6 inches long with a final aperture of
Figure 1
195
.015 inch diameter. This provides us with an image scanned via the flatbed scanner and archived for later
resolution of ~ .3 mm with an on axis signal x-ray to processing (fig 6).
scattered x-ray of over 1 × 10 6 and off axis of over
1 × 10 3 (fig 4).
Unscattered
Scattered
Figure 6
4 DATA RECORDING
Radius (mm)
Figure 4 Recently, we are using Polaroid Type 52 and Type 57 file
for our data recording. While this is not the optimum
recording medium, this camera/film combination
3 DRIVE ELECTRONICS provides a relatively convenient recording format. After
developing the film, we utilize a standard flatbed scanner
To control the timing of the individual MCP tubes in the with an optical resolution of 1200 dots per inch (dpi).
camera, we use high-speed avalanche pulsers assembled The film is scanned as an eight-bit gray scale image at
at LLNL by Stephen Fulkerson [1]. The pulsers provide 1200 dpi. The result 22-Mb image is then stored in a
the 1-kV signal across the MCPs that in turns controls the Joint Photo. Expert Group (JPEG) format image file. The
precise gain or gating of the camera. For the experiments files are then available for image processing and data
on ETA-II, the pulsers provide a signal for 5-ns, with reduction
each successive pulse arriving 10-ns later. This creates a
6-frame movie with an integration time or frame time of 5 RESULTS
5-ns with an inter-frame time of 5-ns (fig 5).
For the applications at ETA-II, we are presently
measuring beam profiles with feature sizes from ~ .5-mm
to 2.0-mm. This combination of optics, shielding, film,
and digitalization, provides us with a reasonable
representation of the x-ray spot behavior as a function of
time. As a result of utilizing this diagnostic we have
performed several critical experiments in support of
DARHT and AHF programs [2,3]. An example of the
raw data provided by this system, clearly demonstrates
some of the unique advantages of this instrument (fig 7 &
fig 8).
Example of stable beam
Figure 7
Figure 5
For monitoring the individual MCP sequencing, a sample
from each pulser is summed via a resistive network. This
signal is then combined to a signal from a beam current
monitor which is located ~2.5 m upstream of the Beam blowup stimulated by laser induced plasma
bremsstrahlung converter. All signals are then combined Figure 8
via the summing function of a Tektronix 7104
oscilloscope and recorded on film. The film is later
196
6 FUTURE PLANS
Future activities include installing an array of video type
cameras with a resolution in excess of 30 lp/mm. The
cameras, CID Technologies Corporation’s model TN
2250, create an image using a 512 element by 512
element Charge Injection Device (CID) sensor. The
individual square pixels are 15-µm by 15-µm on a side.
The input of the CID arrays are coupled to the output of
the micro-channel plate intensifiers by means of fiber-
optic tapers. This provides a convenient means of
matching the 18-mm diameter MCP to the camera’s ~0.3-
inch x 0.3-inch CID array. With video frame-grabbers,
from Imaging Technologies, containing eight-bit flash
A/D converters, direct digitization and computer storage
of the images is possible. This configuration should
allow us to acquire, store, and pre-analyze the spatial and
temporal history of the beam at a rate consistent with the
accelerator operation.
7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
*Work performed jointly for the U.S. DOE by Sandia
National Laboratories, managed by Lockheed Martin
Corp., under contract DE-AC04-94AL85000, Lawrence
Livermore National Laboratory under contract W-7405-
ENG-48 and by AlliedSignal FM&T under contract DE-
ACO4-76-DP00613.
The authors would like to thank Dr. William A. Stygar
from Sandia National Laboratories, Roger Van Maren,
Stephen Petz from Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory, and the rest of the ETA-II team for their help
and assistance. Without their help many of these
experiments and results would not have been possible.
8 REFERENCES
[1] E. Stephen Fulkerson et al., “Driving Pockel Cells
Using Avalanche Transistor Pulsers,” Proceedings of
11th IEEE International Pulsed Power Conference,
June 29-July 2, 1997, Baltimore, Maryland
[2] G. A. Westenskow et. al., “Experimental
Investigation of Beam Optics Issues at the
Bremsstrahlung Converters for Radiographic
Applications,” Proceedings of LINAC98, August 23-
27, 1998
[3] G. J. Caporaso et al, “Analytic Model of Ion
Emission from the Focus of an Intense Relativistic
Electron Beam on a Target,” Proceedings of
LINAC98, August 23-27, 1998
197
ABSOLUTE BEAM POSITION MONITORING USING HOM-DAMPER
SIGNALS *
C. Peschke, G. Schreiber, P. Hülsmann, H. Klein
Institut für Angewandte Physik, Universität Frankfurt/Main, Germany
Abstract One possibility for the choice of a suitable monopole
mode is the TM011 pillbox mode. Due to the fact of differ-
To preserve the required beam quality in an e+/e--collider
ent frequencies of the TM011 and TM110 mode phase com-
it is necessary to have a very precise beam position control
parison of both modes is very difficult. This method was
at each accelerating cavity. An elegant method to avoid ad-
described in a preceding paper [1].
ditional length and beam disturbance is the usage of signals
To simplify the method it is desirable to have the same
from existing HOM-dampers. The magnitude of the dis-
frequency for both modes. This would simplify the syn-
placement is derived from the amplitude of a dipole mode
chronisation with the bunch and reduces the number of in-
whereas the sign follows from the phase comparison of a
termediate frequency stages which leads to a considerable
dipole and a monopole HOM. To check the performance of
reduction of costs. Thus one needs an additional monopole-
the system, a measurement setup has been built with an an-
like mode with the frequency of the TM110 dipole mode.
tenna which can be moved with micrometer resolution to
This is ensured by the presence of reflections in waveguide
simulate the beam. Furthermore we have developed a sig-
corners of the HOM-damping system attached (see for ex-
nal processing to determine the absolute beam displace-
ample the SBLC [2] HOM-damping system).
ment. Measurements on the HOM-damper cell can be done
One suitable mode was found by a MAFIA-simulation
in the frequency domain using a network analyser. Final
(eigenmode solver) of the coupler cell closed by electrical
measurements with the nonlinear time dependent signal
boundaries within the iris and waveguide flanges. The
processing circuit has to be done with very short electric
mode on the left hand side of Figure 1 is the desired mono-
pulses simulating electron bunches. Thus, we have de-
signed a sub nanosecond pulse generator using a clipping
line and the step recovery effect of a diode. The measure-
ment can be done with a resolution of about 10 microme-
ters. Measurements and numerical calculations concerning
the monitor design and the pulse generator are presented.
1 INTRODUCTION
To explain the principle of operation, we take a look to the
modes of a single pillbox resonator. On the one hand, the
monopole modes have a nearly constant longitudinal elec-
trical field near the axis. Therefore their excitation by a
bunch of charged particles does not depend on the displace-
ment. The amplitude after a passing of a bunch is propor-
tional to the charge of the bunch, the starting phase is Figure 1: MAFIA[3]-simulation of the coupler cell:
independent of the displacement. On the other hand, the di- monopole-like waveguide mode at 4.1682 GHz
pole modes have no longitudinal electrical field on the axis. and dipole mode at 4.1115 GHz.
Off-axis the field rises with the first Bessel function. Near
the axis, the amplitude after a passing of a bunch is propor-
tional to the magnitude of displacement and the charge, the pole mode with electrical field on axis. On the right hand
starting phase (0˚/180˚) depends on the sign of the dis- side one sees the dipole pillbox mode geometry changed by
placement. the damping system attached. Due to the strong damping
So we can use the complex amplitude of a dipole mode effect on both modes, the resonance curves are widely
to measure the absolute beam position in one azimuthal di- overlapped. Thus one can choose a frequency near both re-
rection. A higher monopole mode serves as a phase refer- sonances. To proof the existence of the monopole mode
ence to detect sign of bunch displacement. The accelerating and their coupling to the beam a MAFIA time domain sim-
mode is not useful for this purpose since amplitude is dom- ulations have been done.
inated by the klystrons.
* Work supported by DESY/Hamburg and BMBF under contract 06OF841
201
2 FREQUENCY DOMAIN MEASURE- 1.6
MENTS 1.4
1.2
For the measurements the beam was simulated by a mova-
|SA∆ /SAΣ| [10-2]
1.0
ble antenna nearby the axis. Therefore a positioning system
0.8
has been build with a mechanical resolution of 1.23 mi-
crometers. As long as all components of the signal process- 0.6
ing electronics are linear and time invariant, the 0.4
measurements can be done in frequency domain. During 0.2
the measurements the RF-source was connected to the 0.0
movable antenna. The signals of the modes were detected 90
ϕ(SA∆ /SAΣ) [˚]
by two pick-up antennas mounted in the waveguides of the 45
0
damping system. The separation of monopole and dipole
-45
signals were done by a 180˚ ring hybrid which delivers the -90
sum and the difference of the signals. Figure 2 shows mag- -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
x [µm]
1.0 Figure 3: Transmission ratio at 4.197 GHz in dependence
0.9 of the displacement.
0.8
0.7 limited isolation of the hybrid the signal is not symmetric,
|SA∆|, |SAΣ| [10-2]
0.6
which causes a relative inaccuracy of 6 % of the beam dis-
0.5
0.4
placement.
0.3 Further measurements with the nonlinear time depend-
0.2 ent signal processing circuit have to be done with very
0.1 short electric pulses simulating electron bunches.
0.0
45
ϕ(SA∆ /SAΣ) [˚]
0 3 BEAM SIMULATIONS BY SHORT
-45 PULSES
-90
-135 The requirements to produce a short pulse are small transi-
-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 tion time and small pulsewidth. A 10 MHz oscillator pulse
x [mm] is shaped by a clipping line and the transition time is short-
Figure 2: Transmission from antenna to Σ- and ∆-Port at ened by a step recovery diode. The pulse generator is real-
4.198 GHz in dependence of the displacement. ized on a single microstrip line printed circuit board
completely. The schematic configuration is shown in
nitude and phase of the transmission from the movable an- Figure 4.
tenna (A-Port) to the Σ- (monopole signal) and the ∆-Port
(dipole signal) of the hybrid depending on the position of -14V
the input antenna. As expected, the dipole signal rises line- SMA
Oscillator Output
arly with the magnitude of displacement and the phase be- Output 50 Ω Output Line
tween monopole and dipole signal jumps by 180˚ at zero 50 Ω
displacement. Furthermore the result shows a much strong-
Step
er coupling to the monopole than the dipole mode. Even at Recovery
2 · N-Channel Clipping Line
positions far off axis (1.5 mm) the monopole transmission V-MOSFET Diode
25 Ω 250 ps
is two times the dipole transmission. Thus it is clearly
IF
shown that the 180˚ ring hybrid is necessary.
Figure 3 shows the ratio of dipole to monopole trans-
mission in magnitude and phase with the maximum resolu- -20V -20V
tion of the positioning system. This measurement was Figure 4: Schematic of a fast pulse generator (simplified).
performed at optimum frequency of 4.197 GHz. We found
a phase jump within 1.23 micrometers on axis. Apart from The step recovery diode can be described as fast switch
the optimum frequency the minimum is flatter and is fur- reducing the fall time of the oscillator pulse. A forward bias
ther away from zero. Due to the fact of mechanical toler- IF stores charge and the negative oscillator pulse, powered
ances of the damping system, the electrical axes of the by two V-MOSFETs, causes a reverse bias IR which de-
monopole and the dipole modes are different (Figure 2). pletes this charge, and when fully depleted the step recov-
Thus the electrical field of the monopole mode is not con- ery diode ceases to conduct current. The action of turning
stant near the axis of the dipole mode. Together with the
202
off takes place within 100ps or less depending on forward SMA
-4V
and reverse bias and the specific carrier life time of the di- Output
Output Line
ode. Oscillator 50 Ω
The clipping line changes the falling edge into a pulse, Output 50 Ω
and pulse length is given by two times the delay of the clip- Clipping Line
Step
ping line which has to be longer than two times the rise Recovery 33 Ω
150 Ω 55 ps
time of negative edge. Otherwise the resulting pulse height 2 · N-Channel
V-MOSFET
Diode
decreases. To avoid multiple reflections the entrance of the Open Line
IF 60 Ω 125 ps
clipping line, seen from the short end, should be matched.
But due to presence of the diode capacity and parasitic in-
ductances of the MOSFETs perfect matching is impossi- -10V -10V
ble. The effect of multiple reflections on the resulting pulse
can be seen in Figure 5, after the desired negative pulse, Figure 6: Schematic of a optimized pulse generator (sim-
plified).
0.5
2
0.0
-0.5 0
Uout [V]
-1.0
-2
-1.5
Uout [V]
-4
-2.0
-2.5 -6 without clipping line
-3.0 with clipping line
-8
0 1 2 3 4 300 400 500
t [ns] t [ps] and open line
-10
Figure 5: Measured output signal of the pulse generator in 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
Figure 4. t [ns]
Figure 7: Calculated output signals of the pulse generator
which ends around 800 ps, the signal is oscillating around in Figure 6.
zero.
One possibility to get rid of the undesired multiple re- to the evanescent accelerating mode in the HOM-damping
flections caused by the mismatch of the clipping line is to waveguides is expected. But this influence depends strong-
connect the diode directly to the common drain of the ly on the signal processing electronics and has not yet been
MOSFETs. The disadvantages are now the parasitic in- proven. For measurements with the pulse generator the
ductances and capacities of the MOSFETs which influence new proposed setup (Figure 6) will be built and tested.
the pulse stronger than before. On the other hand due to the This concept of a beam position monitor can be applied
inductances the pulse height is increased. Additionally to any high energy cavity type linac with symmetric HOM-
length and impedance of the clipping line were optimized damping system. Due to the synchronisation with a higher
to achieve a more proper pulse. This is ensured by destruc- monopole mode, external synchronisation to the timing
tive interferences eliminating the parasitic oscillations. system of the linac is not necessary. Thus beam position
Furthermore leading parasitic oscillations can be mini- monitoring is also possible in non accelerating cavities.
mized using a second line with an open end. All these pre-
cautions were verified numerically with the program
5 REFERENCES
SPICE [4] and are not yet realized experimentally. The
configuration is shown in Figure 6 and the results are pre- [1] Peter Hülsmann, H. Klein, W.F.O. Müller, C. Peschke:
sented in Figure 7. “Beam Position Monitoring for SBLC Using HOM-Coupler
Signals”; proceedings of the 5th European Particle Acceler-
ator Conference (EPAC 96); Sitges (Spain), 1996
4 CONCLUSION [2] R. Brinkmann et al.: ”Conceptual Design of a 500 GeV e+e--
Linear Collider with Integrated X-Ray Laser Facility“,
The resolution of the HOM-damper beam position monitor DESY 97-048, Hamburg (Germany), 1997
is limited by strongly excited monopole modes. It has been [3] T. Weiland et al.: “Solutions of Maxwell’s Equations using
shown that a resolution of 10 µm seems possible. The rela- the Finite Integration Algorithm”; Version 3.2; Darmstadt
1993
tive inaccuracy caused by the axes offset of the monopole
[4] “Simulation Program with Integrated Circuit Emphasis”;
mode, which is in the order of 6 %, can be decreased by the Version 3f4; Department of Electrical Engineering and
construction of a new HOM-damping system which can be Computer Science, University of California, Berklay, Cali-
machined more precisely. Furthermore an inaccuracy due fornia 1993
203
DESIGN OF THE RF PHASE REFERENCE SYSTEM AND
TIMING CONTROL FOR THE TESLA LINEAR COLLIDER
A. Gamp, M. Liepe, T. Plawski, K. Rehlich, S.N. Simrock, DESY
Notkestr. 85, D-22603 Hamburg, Germany
Abstract can be tolerated.
The phase stability of the 433 MHz rf systems of the
The frequency distribution system for the TESLA lin-
damping rings determines that arrival time of the bunches
ear collider must deliver a highly phase stable rf signal to
at the interaction point. The interaction position error
the 616 rf stations over a length of 33 km. At the operating
should not exceed one bunchlength (1 mm) resulting in
frequency of 1300 MHz a short term and long term stabil-
the same timing stability requirements as dictated by the
ity of the order of 1 degree with respect to the accelerated
low energy spread.
beam is required. Our solution involves three coherent
In addition to the rf phase reference system a timing
oscillators, a 9 MHz low loss coaxial cable distribution,
system with event coding capability is required to allow
1.3 GHz fiber optics, and continuous calibrations based on
for real time synchronization of the various rf and other
beam phase measurements. This system is transparent to
subsystems. The electron and positron bunches must be
beam operation and will continually monitor and correct
slow phase drifts. accelerated in selected rf buckets (every 438th bucket, this
number is given by the ratio of bunch spacing and the
1 INTRODUCTION period of one rf cycle) to guarantee that the collision takes
The overall layout of the TESLA linac [1] is sketched place in the center of the detector. A misplacement by 1
in Figure 1. The main elements are two linacs with a bucket would result in a collision position error of 23 cm
length of 2×12 km, the damping rings which make use of (λ=c/f=23 cm). Therefore the timing system for the rf gun
the linac tunnel, the source for electrons (laser driven rf must guarantee a trigger signal stability of better than 770
photocathode gun), the source for the positrons which is ps. The timing system clock will also be synchronized to
based on the concept of high-energy photon conversion the master oscillator and can therefore provide phase sta-
ble timing for the digital feedback and rf system monitors.
into e+e-, and a 3 km region for the beam delivery system
in between the two linacs. The photon are generated by 3 DESIGN CHOICES AND ISSUES
the spent high-energy electron beam passing a wiggler.
The four basic choices for a phase stable reference
The acceleration system in each linac consists of 9856
system are:
superconducting cavities which are powered by 308
• coaxial distribution system
klystrons (32 cavities per 10 MW klystron)
• fiber optic distribution system
The various rf system that must be phase synchronized
• coherent oscillators
with picosecond stability over the full accelerator length
• beam pickup
are:
All systems with the exception of the beam pickup
• the 616 rf systems operating at 1300 MHz in the two
require a beam based calibration scheme since calibra-
superconducting linacs.
tions by measurement of the electrical length of the sub-
• The 433 MHz rf systems for the damping rings
systems is not sufficiently accurate. It is desirable to use a
• the 1300 MHz rf system providing power to the pho-
fast coarse calibration scheme for initial start-up of the
tocathode rf gun of the electron source and the associ-
accelerator and a slow and precise calibrations scheme
ated laser for illumination of the photocathode.
which is active during accelerator operation and which is
The timing system must guarantee that the bunches
transparent to the beam experiments.
which are spaced by 337 ns (3 MHz repetition rate) arrive
The rf distribution system for the TESLA linear col-
at the same time at the interaction region.
lider has been designed as a combination of all of the
2 RF DISTRIBUTION STABILITY above options to utilize the advantages of each of the sys-
REQUIREMENTS tems thereby maximizing performance and providing
some level of redundancy.
The phase stability requirements for the accelerating The design employs a coaxial distribution system in
field in the linac cavities are dictated by the low beam the linacs. It provides a phase stable 9 MHz signal to all of
energy spread requirement of σE/E < 7×10-4 and the tim- the 616 rf stations in the linacs and the 433 MHz systems
ing requirements for the bunch arrival at the interaction in the damping rings. The signals are locally multiplied by
point. Assuming that a third of the energy spread contribu- 144 or 36 respectively. Coherent oscillators operating at 9
tion originates from phase fluctuations of the accelerating MHz are located at the beginning of each linac close to the
field a correlated phase error of only σφ =0.4° at 1300 433 MHz rf systems (also close to rf gun for electrons and
MHz corresponding to a timing error of 0.8 picoseconds auxiliary positron source) and in the experimental hall
204
electron source
positron source
beam dump 433MHz
damping ring damping ring
e+ Linac collision point e- Linac
coherent coherent x36
oscillator ............... ............... x-ray laser ............... ............... oscillator
coherent coaxial distribution (9MHz) x12
coaxial distribution (9MHz) oscillator
event
fiber optic line for timing system (108 MHz) coder
phase detector x144
phase detector
fiber optic distribution line (1300MHz)
9 MHz (coaxial)
108 MHz
Multiply
fiber optics fiber optics
Receiver Sync. Transmitter
to other Stations Serial 1.3 GHz 1.3 GHz
Parallel Klystron Cavities
1.3 GHz
Low Level RF
Dual Port
Timers Freq.Dividers Memory LO System
1300.25 MHz
t0 tn f0 fn
Local Computer
Figure 1 : Overall layout of the TESLA Linac. The phase reference system and timing control distribution are
shown.
between the linacs. The three oscillators are synchronized • thermal stability (phase stability of cable)
by a optical fiber system. Each of the oscillators provides • number of amplifier needed within the distribution
the reference signal for half of the linac closest to it. All system
systems are measured against each other and calibrated • sensitivity to microphonics
with reference to the beam utilizing the beam induced In the case of TESLA it is advisable to distribute a
transients. lower frequency and to convert the frequency locally to
the operating frequency by use of multipliers. This
3.1 Coaxial Distribution System method reduces the rf losses in the distribution system sig-
The distribution of rf signals by coaxial cables or nificantly. The lower frequency limit is given by the effi-
waveguides appears to be the most obvious solution since ciency, noise characteristics, and phase stability of the
the rf signal can be transported directly to its destination. local frequency multipliers.
For the distribution to many rf stations directional cou- For the TESLA accelerator the operating frequency is
plers are recommended for good isolation between the tap 1300 MHz but the coaxial frequency distribution along the
points. This scheme allows for relatively high power lev- linac is operated at 9.0278 (= 1300/144) MHz. The signal
els of up to a few hundred watts at the input of the distri- sources - H--masers controlled low noise oscillator operat-
bution line and can provide several milliwatts to several ing at 9 MHz and boosted by 200 W amplifiers - are
watts of rf power to each station. The main parameters located at the beginning of each linac and in the experi-
that need to be considered for a coaxial distribution sys- mental hall between the linacs. For the coaxial distribution
tem are: system a 1 5/8” (type LDF-50A1-5/8-inch Heliax) cable
• frequency to be distributed has been chosen because of its low insertion loss of 0.2
• distance between signal source and destination dB/100 m, the excellent phase stability (10 ppm/deg. C)
• numbers of destinations to which the signal must be and power handling (42 kW) capability. With a group
supplied velocity of 0.88c this results in a phase sensitivity of 177
• power level of signal required at destinations deg./°C/10 km. The actual sensitivity may deviate from
• power level available at signal source this number since the cable cannot expand freely due to its
• attenuation of coaxial cable own mass.
• power handling capability of the cable and the direc- The directional couplers (type HDC1460 from HD
tional couplers Communications) exhibit an insertion loss of 0.15 dB /
205
coupler. The distribution scheme for the linac is shown in measurement time of up to 100 seconds. Therefore the
Figure 1. Input power for each of the 7 km long sections is beam based phase correction can take place at a time scale
200 W. The number of couplers has been reduced to 50 of 100-1000 s.
with a spacing of 120 m. A three way power splitters feeds
a subnet consisting of LDF 1/2” cable to the two adjacent 4 TIMING CONTROL
stations. The 9 MHz signals are then locally multiplied by The timing system provides various triggers and fixed
144 in the linacs and 36 at the damping ring rf systems. frequency signals as well as machine parameters in a dual-
port memory. A central timing signal source is synchro-
3.2 Fiber Optic Distribution nized with the master oscillator. This signal source gener-
ates encoded telegrams and sends them via a fiber optic
Over the past years, fiber optic distribution links have distribution system to all devices along the linac and the
replaced coaxial cable distribution for phase reference sys- damping rings. Repeaters every 120 meter receive the sig-
tems [2]. Optical fibers are the preferred medium for distri- nals, resynchronize them with the 9 MHz, distribute the
bution because of their low attenuation, immunity to EMI/ data to the local equipment and retransmit the signals to
RFI, and temperature stability. the next stations. The received serial telegrams have to be
The thermal coefficient of delay for a typical optical encoded and converted into parallel data streams. This data
fiber is of the order of 7 ppm/°C and therefore comparable stream contains events and data words from the master sta-
to that of phase stabilized coaxial cables. A LCD coated tion. Since the telegrams are synchronized with the main
optical fiber from Sumitomo [3] which has been specifi- oscillator fixed frequencies with low phase errors can be
cally designed for high thermal stability provides a stabil- derived from the telegrams also. The data stream is used to
ity of better than 0.4 ppm/°C at an operating temperature filter events in a timer unit and data words in the dual port
close to 0°C. At a more realistic operating temperature of memory. Programmable timers are triggered by these
30°C the coefficient increases to 1 ppm/°C. The group events to generate the start pulses for the klystrons or dig-
velocity in this fiber is 0.66c resulting in a phase sensitivity ital signal processors for instance. A timer unit provides
of 23.6 deg./°C/10 km. several independent output channels. Some machine
The phase noise characteristics of a fiber optic distribu- parameters that change from macro pulse to macro pulse
tion system suffers from the low signal levels retrieved at need to be delivered in time to run all digital feedback
the individual receivers. The minimum phase noise level at loops in parallel. The data words from the telegrams are
1300 MHz is expected to be around -100 dBc (> 10 kHz) stored in a dual port memory. This information is readable
[2] corresponding to an rms phase error of 0.57 deg. or 1.2 from the local connected computers or signal processors.
ps timing jitter which is marginal for our application.
5 CONCLUSION
3.3 Coherent Oscillators The design of a rf phase reference and timing system
The timing stability requirements between two remote for the TESLA linear collider is a challenging task due to
locations such as the rf stations for the damping rings the tight timing stability requirements of about 1 picosec-
which are separated by a distance of 32 km could be full- ond over a distance of more than 30 km. It should be possi-
filled with two absolutely coherent oscillators. Present ble to meet these requirements if a combination of coaxial
distribution, optical fiber distribution, coherent oscillators
technology utilizing a H- Maser allows for a frequency sta-
and beam based calibration is used. It is planned evaluate
bility of 2x10-13/s corresponding to a phase stability of about the performance of such a scheme at the TESLA Test
0.1 deg./s (or 0.2 ps/s) thereby exceeding the requirements Facility.
for intrapulse and pulse-to-pulse stability. Even oven stabi-
lized crystal oscillators can achieve a stability of the order REFERENCES
of 2×10-12/s which might be sufficient. [1] R. Brinkmann, Linear Collider Projects at DESY,
The coherent oscillators will be synchronized with the EPAC98, Stockholm, Sweden, June 22-26, 1998, in
fiber optic distribution system with a time constant of 10 - print.
100 s to ensure long term stability. [2] M. Calhoun, Fiber Optic Reference Distribution to
Remote Beam Waveguide Antennas, JPL Report 95-
3.4 Beam Based Phase Calibration 0037, Reston, VA, December 5, 1994
[3] Kakuta, Tanaka, LCD Coated Optical Fiber with Zero
The ultimate reference for the rf systems in the linacs, Thermal Coefficient of Transmission Delay Time,
the damping rings, and the timing of the bunches at the col- Sumitomo Electric Industries Ldt., Yokohama, 244,
lission point will be the beam itself. It is therefore foreseen Japan.
to synchronize all rf systems with respect to the beam. To [4] A.N. Luiten, A.G. Mann, E.N. Ivanov, D.G. Blair, Lat-
achieve a measurement accuracy of better than 0.5 deg. or est Results of the UWA Cryogenic Sapphire Oscilla-
1 ps, the transient beam loading based algorithm must tor, Proc. 49th Annual Frequency Control
average over several hundred measurements resulting in a Symposium. San Francisco, CA, 1995, pp 433-437.
206
FREQUENCY SOURCE FOR THE ISAC RFQ
K. Fong, S. Fang and M. Laverty
TRIUMF, 4004 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, B.C., Canada
35.654517MHz to 35.851119MHz is needed. A digital
Abstract direct synthesizer (DDS) is used to provide a very stable
source with fine resolution, and is able to change
The ISAC RFQ cavity nominally operates at a
frequency without generating phase jumps. As shown in
frequency of 35 MHz. It can operate in either self-excited
Figure 1, a DDS is used as the core of this frequency
or driven mode. In the self-excited mode, the RFQ cavity
source.
itself is one of the frequency-determining elements. In
the driven mode, the frequency is slaved to an external
stabilized, digitally synthesized frequency source. In
order to achieve glitchless transitions between the two
modes, the RFQ frequency source is buffered by a phase-
locked loop. When operating in the driven mode, RF
switches in the loop configure the loop to lock to the
external direct digital synthesizer. Reconfiguration of the Figure 1: Block diagram of DDS
RF switches in the self-excited mode turns the phase- The phase data, which is stored in the EPROM shown
locked loop into an oscillator whose frequency is in Figure 1, and the clock frequency are directly related to
determined by the phase shift of the RFQ cavity. The the output frequency by the equation (1).
overdamping characteristic of the phase-locked loop f c x(− phase )
prevents sudden transitions in either frequency or phase fo = (1)
during switching between operating modes. 232
where fc is clock frequency generated by an 80 MHz
crystal oscillator (XCO), -phase is the phase data. The
1 INTRODUCTION DDS input phase resolution is 32 bit, but the phase bus
between the DDS and the EPROM is only 8 bit.
The ISAC RFQ accelerator is a high Q, 4-rod RFQ Therefore, it is necessary to transfer the phase data four
with a peak potential between the electrodes of 74 kV. times from the EPROM to the DDS to obtain a new
When operating under the fixed frequency mode, a frequency. This control logic is performed by the Address
stabilized direct digital synthesizer, whose frequency can Generator Control Unit( AGCU).
be controlled remotely, drives the RFQ. During the The DDS output frequency is the third sub-harmonics
powering and warming up phase, before the RFQ cavity of the RFQ frequency (i.e. 11.884839MHz to
reaches its operating temperature, the preferable mode is 11.950373MHz). The DAC is used to convert the
the self-excited mode, where the rf frequency is slaved to frequency digital data to analog voltages. A 3-pole
the resonance frequency of the RFQ cavity. The rf control Butterworth bandpass filter removes any spurious
system must be able to switch between these two modes frequency components and splits the signal into two
under full power. Since the DDS frequency and the self- paths: one is used as the frequency source for a buncher
excited frequency are often different in frequency as well placed upstream the RFQ and another requires tripling the
as in phase, this switching must be performed in such a frequency in order to obtain the desired frequency for the
way that will result in a gradual phase transition to RFQ. The design frequency resolution is 6Hz and its
prevent overloading the final RF power amplifier. A rf stability is better than 1ppm.
switch is used to provide the frequency switching, while a
phase-lock loop is used to buffer the resultant switching 3 PHASE-LOCK LOOP
transition. The phase-lock loop is designed with a large
overdamp factor to enable the RFQ rf system to switch The RFQ can be operated either under the driven mode,
from one mode to another without generating large phase in which the DDS is used as the master frequency source,
excursion. or in the self-excited mode, in which the signal from the
RFQ cavity is used to determine the excitation frequency.
An internally terminated high-isolation rf switch is used
to select between the two frequency references. A phase-
2 DIRECT DIGITAL SYNTHESIZER lock loop (PLL), with its versatility in frequency control,
For operation of the RFQ in the driven mode, a acquisition times, and step response, is used as a buffer
frequency source whose output frequency ranges from
207
after this mode selection switch. A low phase drift spectrum of the PLL. The x-axis shows the frequency at 5
limiting amplifier with 30-dB dynamic range is placed kHz/div. The y-axis shows the power at 10 dB/div. This
between the switch and the PLL to eliminate the spectrum displays typical noise distribution of PLL
amplitude dependency of the circuitry. The performance output. The background noise is -70 dBc, while the
requirements of this RFQ PLL are different from that of oscillator noise with a bandwidth of 20 kHz is –55 dBc.
an ordinary frequency synthesizer. In particular, it is
designed to have a slow step response in order to satisfy
the following two requirements.
1. The ability to switch from self-excited to driven
operations under full power without phase jumps.
2. The ability of the entire system to recover from
sparking in a rf cavity.
A spark can collapse the rf field in the cavity.
Sometimes within several microseconds the RFQ voltage
may recover after the spark has dissipated. The inclusion
of the PLL circuitry is designed to be highly overdamped
such that its VCO frequency does not react to the
disturbance during this time interval. The power amplifier
keeps energizing the cavity with rf power at the last Figure 3: Output spectrum of PLL
resonance frequency allowing the cavity field to recover.
The transfer function of the PLL is given by
θo G 4 SELF-EXCITED OSCILLATION
= (2)
θ i 1 + GH
with In the self-excited mode, the RFQ cavity determines
KvK p F the rf frequency. This is achieved by feeding the signal
G= (3) voltage at the RFQ cavity back into the input of the PLL.
s
Thus θi is given by
and
H = 1. θ i = θ o + ∆θ m + ∆θ l + θ c (5)
where ∆θm is the phase shift from the VCO to the output
In equation (2), θi is the phase at the input of the PLL, of the vector modulator. ∆θm is the sum of the phase delay
and θo is the phase at the output of the PLL. In equation due to the VCO to the modulator and the phase shift of
(3), KV is the VCO sensitivity, Kp is the phase-detector the vector modulator. ∆θl is the phase shift due to the
gain constant, and F is the transfer function of the filter. transport lag of the feedback loop. θc is the phase shift
Together they determine the response characteristics of caused by the RFQ cavity. When the excitation frequency
the PLL. A unity gain bandwidth in the order of kHz and ω is close to the resonance frequency ωo of the cavity,
a phase margin of more than 45o provides enough 2(ω − ω o )
damping for spark recovery. Using a type 2, second-order θc = − Q (6)
PLL, zero frequency error at dc is guaranteed. The ωo
schematic of the PLL filter is shown in Figure 2. Q is the quality factor of the cavity. These phase shifts
must be adjusted to satisfy several constraints. In order to
reduce crosstalks between channels in I/Q feedback loops,
it is necessary to set the phase shift from the vector
modulator to the vector demodulator to be integer
multiples of 360o (i.e. ∆θ l + θ c ≅ 0. ). For proper
operation of the self-excited mode, the phase shift from
the output of the VCO to its input should also be integer
Figure 2: Schematic of PLL integrator/filter multiples of 360o. As a result, ∆θ m + ∆θ l = 0 . This
In equation (3), the filter transfer function, F, is given also implies that for the Q channel, the regulation is
by disabled and the open loop drive is set to zero. The
1 + sT2 overall phase relationship is illustrated in Figure 4.
F =− (4)
sT1
where T1 = R1C and T2 = R2 C . Figure 3 shows the output
208
Figure 4: Phase relationship for proper operation of self-excited oscillation
When the above conditions are satisfied, the PLL will single C-size VXI module. In operation, the low pass
oscillate at filter at the PLL output is adjusted to give the desired
1 + sT2 (7) phase shift as shown in Figure 4. Final phase adjustment
ω= ωo is carried out using the variable phase shifter after the
T1ω o
1 + s + T2 cavity. During self-excited mode operation, the Q-
2K K Q
p v channel is disabled and the phase shifter is adjusted for
The PLL in the ISAC RFQ has the following parameter minimum VSWR.
values:
T1 = 330µs 5 SUMMARY
T2 = 50µs The mixing of digital and analog technology in the
K p = 0.16 V rad frequency source for the RFQ allows for both
performance and flexibility. A direct digital synthesizer
K v = 500 × 10 3 rad s V is able to generate a highly stable and programmable
frequency source. An overdamped phase-lock loop allows
ω o = 35.75 × 106 ⋅ 2π rad s
the rf power amplifier to switch from a self-excited mode
to a driven mode without sudden phase jumps. To date,
With these parameter values, Equation 7 then reduces to the system has been running in close-loop operation with
the ISAC RFQ cavity. Stable operation has been
s achieved with both self-excited and driven modes.
1+
ω= 3 × 10 3 ω (8) Switching between the two modes has been demonstrated
s o at different power levels including full power without
1+ tripping the rf power amplifier. Spark recoveries at both
9 × 10 3
modes are also observed to be similar. The rf system is
able to recover from short duration sparks. In the driven
where ωo, the resonance frequency of the cavity, is the mode, the digital direct synthesizer (DDS) as a frequency
only varying factor. Since the variation in ωo is due to source is capable of reaching high stability, high
thermal expansion, it varies slowly and thus, resolution and is proving to be easily controlled.
ω ≅ ωo REFERENCE
Thus, the PLL tracks the resonance frequency of the RFQ [1] M. Laverty, K. Fong, and S. Fang, “A DSP-based
cavity. Control System for the ISAC Pre-Buncher,”
International Conference on Accelerator and Large
All the above mentioned circuitries (i.e. the PLL, the Experiment Physics Control System, Beijing,
mode selection switch, the limiting amplifier, the vector Nov. 1997
modulator and the vector demodulator) are placed into a
209
A DEVELOPMENT AND INTEGRATION ANALYSIS OF COMMERCIAL
AND IN-HOUSE CONTROL SUBSYSTEMS
D. M. Moore (WSRC), L. R. Dalesio (LANL)
Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545 USA
Abstract Allen-Bradley PLC-5/40 interfaces to the klystron control
electronics (called the “transmitter”), and an Allen-
The acquisition and integration of commercial Bradley SLC 5/03 interfaces to the high-voltage dc power
automation and control subsystems in physics research is supply. The transmitter provides magnet power, ac
becoming more common. It is presumed these systems filament power, and crowbar triggering for the klystron,
present lower risk and less cost. This paper studies four and the power supply provides the cathode voltage for the
subsystems used in the Accelerator Production of Tritium 1.2 MW continuous wave klystron amplifiers. Both
(APT) Low Energy Demonstration Accelerator (LEDA) PLCs were provided and programmed by the vendors as
at the Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL). The part of the purchase specifications for the equipment –
radio frequency quadrupole (RFQ) resonance-control Continental Electronics Corp. supplied the transmitter,
cooling subsystem (RCCS), the high-power RF subystem and Maxwell Technologies supplied the power supply.
and the RFQ vacuum subsystem were outsourced; the
low-level RF (LLRF) subsystem was developed in-house. 2.3 RFQ Vacuum Subsystem
Based on our experience a careful evaluation of the costs The RFQ vacuum subsystem is used to achieve high
and risks in acquisition, implementation, integration, and vacuum. This subsystem was contracted to Lawrence
maintenance associated with these approaches is given. Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL), and consists of
five cryo pumps, two scroll pumps, and one turbo pump.
1 INTRODUCTION Control is implemented using a Modicon PLC for
There were several reasons the control systems for equipment interlocks, Granville Philips ion-gauge
major subsystems were outsourced for the LEDA project. controllers, and a Labview system for operator display
A major reason was that delivery of the subsystem and automatic shutdown.
control system along with the subsystem allowed
complete testing at the supplier’s location before 2.4 LLRF Subsystem
shipment. From our experience with several subsystems, The low-level RF subsystem is comprised of 5 VXI
we will analyze aspects of these implementations and boards used to control the cavity field and resonance and
provide strategies for successful acquisition of future to provide high-power RF protection and RF reference
subsystems. frequency generation and distribution. The clock
distribution module provides the master timing signals to
2 SUBSYSTEM OVERVIEWS the other modules. The field control module provides
Provided below is a summary of each subsystem feedback/feedforward I/Q control based on beam and
included in this study. Brief descriptions of the computer field I/Q inputs. The amplifier control module
system hardware, software, and external interfaces are compensates for individual klystron phase differences to
presented. These subsystems have been, or are being, 10 kHz. The resonance control module controls cavity
integrated into the integrated control system for LEDA, resonance and allows for frequency agility during cavity
which is based on the Experimental and Physics warm-up. The high-power RF module protects the
Industrial Control System (EPICS). [1] klystrons, windows, loads, and the accelerator from
excessive reflected power.
2.1 RFQ Resonance-Control Cooling Subsystem The VXI boards were developed and programmed by
the LANL RF group, and the external interface is via the
The RCCS is a water cooling system used to maintain slot zero controller mounted in the VXI chassis.
the RFQ’s temperature, thereby controlling the resonant
frequency of the accelerating cavity. Provided by Allied
Signal, the RCCS includes an EPICS input/output
3 EVALUATION OF COST AND RISKS
controller (IOC) connected to devices like flow meters, All four subsystems described above are, or will be,
thermocouples, valves, variable-speed pumps, etc. integrated into the LEDA instrumentation and control
system. This integrated system is implemented in EPICS,
2.2 High-Power RF Subsystem a control system tailored for accelerator and research
The high-power RF subsystem control system is applications. Whether the subsystems were outsourced or
comprised of two PLCs used to control each klystron. An developed in-house had a definitive impact on the cost
210
and risks involved in acquisition, implementation, other PLCs via Allen-Bradley’s DataHighway Plus or
integration, and maintenance. Each of these areas is DF1 protocols, while the SLC communicates via DH-485
discussed below. or DF1. Since DF1 is the common protocol, an EPICS
device driver was written to allow communication
3.1 Acquisition between a PC IOC and the PLCs. Coding and testing of
The acquisition cost for outsourced subsystems is this driver took approximately 4 man-months, and
difficult to quantify, particularly when the control development of a fault logger similar to the vendor’s
systems portion is not identified as a separate, billable implementation took approximately 2 man-months.
expense. However, a general estimate on the materials There will be three klystrons connected to the LEDA
and effort involved is possible. RFQ. A commercial, off-the-shelf (COTS) hardware
In the case of the RCCS, it was developed using board was ordered for each klystron’s PC IOC, at a cost
hardware specified by the LANL Accelerator Controls of $750 each, to communicate with the transmitter PLC
and Automation group, which has primary responsibility via DataHighway Plus. Communication with the power
for the integrated LEDA control system. When compared supply PLC is via the PC’s serial port. Interfaces to the
to a typical EPICS system design as developed by the integrated control system were allowed for, but
Controls group, the only extra component added by the integration details were not initially designed. Had the
supplier is the learning curve required to become LANL Controls group implemented the klystron controls,
productive with the EPICS toolkit. This has been a large portion of the PLCs ladder logic would have
estimated at 3 man-months effort for this supplier. instead been implemented in the EPICS IOC to reduce
In the case of the high-power RF subsystem, the maintenance costs.
materials include the two PLCs and their associated The RFQ vacuum subsystem was implemented in 4
input/output modules, sensors, and cabling. Approximate man-months, which was spent developing the Labview
costs of these are on the order of $25K. The effort display, automatic pumpdown sequence, and Modicon
includes the PLC programming, installation and testing PLC program. Device drivers for the GPIB
by the vendor’s control system engineer, as well any communications protocol were already supported in
support provided by LEDA personnel involved in factory EPICS, but the Modicon PLC interface driver had to be
and site acceptance testing. This has been estimated at 12 created.
man-months for the system. In the case of the LLRF subsystem, control system
In the case of the RFQ vacuum subsystem, it was materials include only the slot zero controller and
developed using Labview due to LLNL’s familiarity with associated software licenses. Costs of these are on the
that software, and the steep learning curve for EPICS. order of $10K. The effort includes the software
Interlocks were programmed into the PLC’s ladder logic, installation and configuration, ethernet wiring, and device
and the automatic shutdown sequence was implemented driver development for each VXI module. This is
in Labview. This Labview system is being replaced with estimated at about 11 man-months.
an EPICS implementation for LEDA. The effort to
3.3 Integration
support requirements definition and equipment testing
has been estimated at 9 man-months. The RCCS was easily integrated into the LEDA control
In the case of the LLRF subsystem, the acquisition cost system, since it was designed as an EPICS application.
and risks are nonexistent. They are instead reflected in Integration costs included implementing the database,
the implementation section. sequences, and displays, and is estimated at 9 man-
3.2 Implementation months.
For the high-power RF subsystem, EPICS database and
The RCCS took approximately 10 man-months to operator screen development took 12 man-months for the
implement. Collecting requirements took 4 months, first klystron. A considerable amount of time was spent
developing device drivers took 5 months, and testing took analyzing the data available in the two PLCs and
1 month. Had the subsystem been implemented in-house determining how best to duplicate this information for the
by the LANL Controls group, it is estimated that 4 man- other klystrons to be added to the network. Subsequent
months could have been eliminated. However, this klystrons will be added rather easily due to the repetitive
would have impacted the schedules of other subsystems nature of the design, and this is estimated to take 0.5
due to resource limitations. Also, problems were man-months per additional klystron.
encountered during device driver development and The RFQ vacuum subsystem was integrated into the
integration with the RCCS that required additional LEDA control system by porting the Labview application
implementation time. to EPICS, and took 2 man-months. This includes
Since the high-power RF subsystem used two different reviewing the requirements, using the ladder logic and
models of PLCs, implementing the EPICS interface Labview programs as a foundation. Integrating a GPIB
proved somewhat difficult. The PLC-5 communicates to
211
device took 2 days, and overall system testing by LLNL
and LANL is expected to require another man-month. 5 CONCLUSIONS AND
Integrating the LLRF subsystem is ongoing. EPICS RECOMMENDATIONS
device drivers are being written for each VXI module as
they are delivered, and engineering databases and screens Although the LEDA control system is not yet fully
are being developed for testing and commissioning operational, the following conclusions can be drawn from
purposes. This effort was included in the implementation the experience gained to date in this effort:
section. Further integration with the high-power RF • The amount of involvement in subsystem design
subsystem databases and screens will take another 3 man- and implementation by the LANL Controls group is
inversely proportional to the effort to integrate each
months, after obtaining all operational requirements.
subsystem in the LEDA control system.
3.4 Maintenance • Surprisingly the largest amount of time spent
developing and integrating these subsystems into
Maintenance costs for these subsystems are affected by the LEDA control system has been in collecting
formality of the vendor relationships and the familiarity requirements.
the LANL Controls group has with the overall system • When there are repeating elements in the control
design. For instance, maintenance of the RFQ vacuum system, as is the case with the klystron PLCs, time
subsystem is not expected to take any extra time, since spent replicating added elements is greatly reduced
the ladder logic is the only component remaining from by carefully evaluating and planning the initial
the original system design, and familiarization with that design.
software was required to implement the porting into The following recommendations can be made to
EPICS. Also, the LANL Controls group will now have improve future developments, both in outsourcing and in
maintenance responsibility for that software. However, developing in-house:
high-power RF subsystem maintenance is complicated by • Ensure the personnel responsible for the integrated
the fact that all ladder logic changes will remain the control system are involved in establishing
subsystem requirements.
responsibility of the vendors. This is likely to result in
longer response times for software revisions, which could • Ensure the personnel responsible for the integrated
control system are involved in periodic reviews of
impact LEDA operations since some control algorithms
subsystem implementation.
and sequences are implemented in the PLC and not in the
• Reduce the role of PLCs in the design to that of
EPICS IOCs. Maintenance concerns are minimized for equipment protection interlocking, and implement
the RCCS and the LLRF subsystem since these are all sequencing and control algorithms in the EPICS
strictly EPICS implementations, and are only limited by IOCs. This will reduce complexity of the PLC
the resources available to the LANL Controls group to design, and improve the flexibility of the integrated
perform these tasks. control system.
• When outsourcing, include in the purchase
4 SUMMARY requisitions a minimum response time to software
and hardware change requests, and add a minimum
The effort involved in implementing a control system
time period where there are no fees for these
with subsystems developed by both outside suppliers and changes.
in-house personnel is affected by many factors. Included • When developing custom hardware in-house, the
in these are the overall complexity of the subsystem, the schedule must include time to integrate and test
amount of software to be developed while integrating these components into the overall control system.
new modules, and the amount of communication between
subsystem developers and the integrated controls group. 6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Table 1 lists efforts in man-months for the acquisition,
implementation, and integration of the four subsystems We gratefully acknowledge the support of the United
discussed above. States Department of Energy.
Phase RCCS HPRF RFQ LLRF 7 REFERENCES
Vacuum [1] M. E. Thuot et.al., "The Success and The Future of
Acquisition 3 12 9 0 EPICS," Proceedings of XVIII International Linac
Implementation 10 6 4 11 Conference, Geneva, Switzerland, August 26-30,
Integration 9 13 3 3 1996.
Table 1. Effort (man-months) for Each Subsystem
212
PERFORMANCE OF THE KLYSTRON MODULATORS AT THE S-BAND
TEST FACILITY AT DESY
S. Choroba, J. Hameister, M. Kuhn
Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron, DESY, 22603 Hamburg, Germany
overview of the modulator system and report on our
Abstract
operation experience so far. After that we describe the
The klystrons at the S-band test facility at DESY modifications required to install the new charging power
require high voltage pulses of 550kV at a flat top pulse supply and present results of the measurements performed
duration of 3µs, at a current of 700A and a repetition on the system.
frequency of 50Hz. Two HV pulse modulators with a
nominal power of 375MW were built. The design and 2 LINE TYPE MODULATOR LAYOUT
results of the commissioning of the first system were
Table 1 shows the parameters of the modulator and
described in [1]. The second system came into operation
figure 1 shows the basic circuit diagram.
and was operated at an output power up to 475MW
(610kV, 780A). In addition it was modified to investigate Table 1: Modulator parameters
capacitor charging power supplies, which might be used Pulse Voltage 550 kV
in a linear collider tunnel. This type of power supply Pulse Current 700 A
promises a better efficiency than the conventional Flat Top Pulse Duration 3 µs
resonant charging method and also saves space in the Repetition Rate 50 Hz
linear collider tunnel. This paper describes the operation Equivalent Square Wave 4.8 µs
experience with the HV modulators at the test facility Duration
especially with the second system. It reports the Rise Time 10 - 90 % 700 ns
modifications, which were required to operate the PFN four lines parallel,
modulator with the new type of HV power supply and each line ten sections
presents results of the operation. PFN Impedance 1.34 Ω
Total Capacitance 1.8 µF
1 INTRODUCTION Capacitor Capacitance 45 nF
The S-band test facility at DESY is a 400MeV electron Coil Inductance 1.3 µH
linac, which serves for the development and evaluation of Charging Voltage 50 kV max.
components which might be used for an S-band linear Peak Current (primary side) 16 kA
collider. Two pulse klystrons operating at 2.998GHz with Pulse Transformer Ratio 1 : 23
a nominal output power of 150MW are installed at the test Charging
PFN
facility. The pulse duration is 3µs and the repetition rate Diode 10
Despiking L1 L2 L10
50Hz. In order to generate the microwave power of Network C1 C2 C10
150MW a klystron cathode voltage up to 550kV and a Power EOLC L11 L12 L20
Circuit C11 C12 C20
Supply
current up to 700A are required. The high voltage pulses L21 L22 L30
of 3µs flat top pulse duration are produced by line type DeQing
Circuit
C21 C22 C30
26.5 kV
( not installed ) L40
modulators. Although the resonance charging method, L31 L32
C31 C32 C40
used in both modulators, is a well established and reliable 400V AC PFN: Thyratrons
3 Phase
technique to charge the capacitors of pulse forming Input
Ci = 45 nF
Li = 1.3 H
ITT F303
1:23
networks, a new type of capacitor charging power supply, Z(total) = 1.3 Trans-
former Klystron
which is now available from different manufacturers, was
installed at the second modulator. It can be used Figure 1: Basic circuit diagram
alternately with the existing resonance charging system.
Constant current capacitor charging power supplies have a The pulse forming network is formed by four parallel
high efficiency and a compact size. Both are properties, lines of ten sections. They are discharged by two
which are especially desirable for modulators, which need thyratrons, ITT F303, via the pulse transformer into the
to be installed in a linear collider tunnel, but of course are klystron. There is a slight positive mismatch between the
also of interest for other linear accelerators. The first pulse forming network and the klystron. The capacitors of
modulator is in operation since three years and the second the lines are charged by a resonant charging system
since one year. In the following we present a short consisting of a DC power supply (26.5kV, 5A), a charging
choke of 16H and a charging diode capable to withstand
213
80kV. The PFN can be charged up to 50kV by a sinus half achieved and could be handled without problems. Longer
wave current of 17ms duration. This allows to operate the pulses might be even possible but have the risk of
modulator at a repetition rate up to 50Hz. The DeQing damaging the klystron or the modulator. Since we need
system shown in the figure 1 was not installed, because the klystron to operate the test facility linac, we refrained
the DC power supply has good regulation properties, from running at longer pulse width at this power level.
which already allow a pulse to pulse variation smaller
than 0.5%. Figure 2 shows typical waveforms at more 4 MODIFICATION
than 500kV.
The second modulator was modified in order to
investigate the properties of a constant current capacitor
charging power supply. This type of power supply might
be able to replace the resonant charging method. It
charges a pulse forming line with a constant current to the
desired voltage without the use of a charging choke.
Maxwell (San Diego, USA) offers power supply modules
up to a voltage of 50kV and a power rating of 10kJ/s.
Modules can be connected in parallel to build one power
supply with more output power. In a first stage we
installed three modules, which are sufficient to operate the
Ch2: Klystron Voltage 537kV
Ch3: Klystron Collector Current 623A modulator at maximum peak power, but at a reduced
Ch4: Klystron Gun Current 624A
repetition rate of 12.5Hz instead of 50Hz. In a later stage
Figure 2: Typical waveforms
the new power supply could be upgraded to full average
power by installing up to twelve modules in parallel. In
More detailed information can be found in [1].
the meantime the existing resonance charging system
must be used, if operation at 50Hz repetition rate is
3 OPERATION EXPERIENCE required. Therefore all modifications of the existing
At the beginning of operation electromagnetic noise modulator needed to be done in a way, which allows to
generated by the modulators was a major concern. It switch easily between the two charging methods.
entered the interlock system or other components and A freewheeling diode and two series resistors must be
could lead to interruptions of the modulator operation. In installed between the pulse forming network and the
the worst case it could even muddle up the thyratron constant current charging power supply output. This is
driver trigger logic and damage components in the driver, necessary, because the charging power supply must be
especially the drivers thyristor switches. Since the source protected from negative voltage at its output. In this case
of noise could not be eliminated, we installed RC filters in a current could flow through the power supply rectifier
the drivers and also in other components, which were diodes, which might exceed their capabilities. Negative
affected by the noise. This solved our problem and voltage at the power supply output arise during fault
allowed to operate without interruptions. conditions like klystron arcing or PFN breakdown and
It is necessary to control the thyratrons reservoir even also during normal operation conditions. The EOLC
voltage carefully. Otherwise the situation can occur, that diode is not sufficient to protect the power supply,
instead of firing both thyratrons simultaneously, the because it does not connect the power supply output and
thyratrons fire at different times or in the worst case one ground. We therefore installed a another diode at the
thyratron fails to fire. This does not harm the klystron, but thyratron side of the PFN. Figure 3 shows the diagram of
leads to large thyratron grid spikes and can damage the the modified circuit.
PFN
thyristor switches in the driver circuits. L1 L2 L10 Maxwell
Besides these we had no major problems. C1 C2 C10 CCDS
The klystron output power of 150MW could be reached EOLC
L11 L12 L20 50 kV
Circuit C11 C12 C20
with a cathode voltage of 550kV. With a PFN charging 10 kJ/s
L21 L22 L30
voltage of 50kV even 610kV could be achieved at the C21C22 C30
klystron. At this voltage an output power of 213MW L31 L32 L40
could be extracted from the klystron. Since the klystron C31C32 C40
=30 start with
was developed for an RF power of 150MW at 3µs pulse PFN: Thyratrons 3 units
Ci = 45 nF
duration and a repetition rate of 50Hz, we reduced the RF Li = 1.3 H
ITT F303 1:23
end with
and HV pulse duration to 1µs and the repetition rate to Z(total) = 1.3 Trans- Klystron 12 units
12.5Hz. The reduction in pulse width was accomplished former
by removing five capacitors per PFN line. At a flat top Figure 3: Diagram of the modified circuit
pulse duration of 1µs a maximum voltage of 610kV at
780A, which corresponds to a power of 475MW, was
214
The protecting diode is made of 25 high voltage diodes phases and calculated the input power of each phase.
in series (4kV each), each with a varistor in parallel. Two Figure 5 shows the linear ramp of the PFN voltage and the
30Ω series charging resistors serve for the decoupling of power extracted from the three phases of the mains. It is
the two thyratrons. This allows switching of both basically a picture one would expect from a three phase
thyratrons at the same time. Each of the power supply double way rectifier, which has do provide a linear
modules has a separate output cable, which is terminated increasing output power. This process is repeated with the
by a another series resistors. We did not combine the modulators repetition rate. The power consumption from
output of modules directly after the output and did not use the mains is not constant and in case of a large number of
just one cable and resistor instead of many, because this modulators would probably disturb the mains. Further
would have made it more difficult to install or remove development to limit this effect is required.
60 20
modules for test purposes. For a set up, which does not
PFN Voltage 18
require this flexibility, a connection with just one cable 50
Power from Input Phases / kW
16
could of course be made. The protecting diode and the
14
Voltage / kV
resistors were installed in the PFN cabinet. 40
12
The compact size of this new type of power supply Power
30 10
makes it attractive if space availability is an important
8
aspect, e.g. in the case of a linear collider tunnel. The size 20
6
of each of the modules in use is 220mm high, 508mm
4
long and 19 inch wide. All modules, which would be 10
2
sufficient for a modulator operation at full average power,
0 0
would fit in two 19 inch racks. This reduces the space 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
required by the existing DC power supply and the Time / ms
charging unit by about a factor of ten. Figure 5: Charging voltage and power extracted from the
Another motivation to test the new type of power three phases of the mains during one charging cycle
supply results from the efficiency demands of a linear
collider. The existing resonance charging method has an More detailed information about the modification of
efficiency of 88% for the charging path from the mains to the second modulator can be found in [2].
the PFN, partly caused by the DC power supply efficiency
and partly caused by ohmic and eddy current losses due to 5 CONCLUSION
the charging choke. We measured the efficiency of the The high voltage pulse modulators at the S-band test
power supply at various output voltage settings. At the facility are in operation at nominal conditions of 550kV at
maximum voltage of 50kV it reaches 93%. Even if one 3µs pulse duration and a repetition rate of 50Hz. The
includes the losses in the series charging resistors, the second system can be even operated at a higher power
efficiency for the charging path from the mains to the level up to 475MW (610kV, 780A) at 1µs pulse duration
PFN is still 91.5%. and 12.5Hz repetition rate. The operation of the
100
modulators is reliable, but the thyratron reservoir voltage
90
80
setting needs careful control and adjustment. A new type
of charging power supply was installed at the second
Efficiency / %
70
60 system. It has a high efficiency and is of compact size,
50 which makes it attractive for linear collider applications.
40 Its reaction to the mains was investigated, but further
30 work is necessary to limit disturbing effects to the mains.
20
10
0 6 REFERENCES
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
Voltage / kV
[1] S. Choroba, M. Bieler, J. Hameister, Y. Chi, A
Figure 4: Charging power supply efficiency versus PFN 375MW Modulator for a 150MW Klystron at the S-
voltage Band Linear Collider Test Facility at DESY,
Proceedings of the XVIII International Linear
The pulse to pulse variation was measured in the same Accelerator Conference, Linac96, Geneva,
way as for the resonance charging method by superposing Switzerland, 26 -30 August, 1996, P 785-787
1500 klystron voltage pulses. The variation did not change [2] S. Choroba, J. Hameister, M. Kuhn, “Operation of a
significantly. and is still smaller than 0.5%. HV Pulse Modulator at the S-Band Test Facility at
An important aspect for a linear collider is the impact DESY with a Constant Current Capacitor Charging
of the modulator power supplies on the line. Therefore we Power Supply”, to be published in the Proceedings of
measured the voltage and the current of each of the input the 1998 Third Modulator-Klystron Workshop,
SLAC, Stanford, June 29 - July 2, 1998
215
ADVANCED BUCK CONVERTER POWER SUPPLY
“ABCPS” FOR APT *
R. Street, T. Overett, E. Bowles
General Atomics, San Diego, California 92186-5608 USA
Abstract
In addition to meeting specification requirements in
To meet the Nation’s needs for Tritium one proposal is section 4, the HVPS must also provide fault protection for
to use a high-power proton Linac, The Accelerator for the the klystron, have high efficiency, high reliability, good
Production of Tritium or APT project **. The 1700 maintainability, and be readily manufacturable. As the
million electron volt (MeV) proton beam accelerator will HVPS are one of the largest cost elements in the
be powered by radio frequency (RF) klystrons. A direct accelerator, a technology review was made to determine
current (DC) power supply is required for each of the the most economical approach to satisfy the requirements.
approximately two hundred and fifty 1-megawatt (MW) The results of that review indicated a switch-mode power
continuous wave klystrons in the RF power system. The supply employing a buck-regulator was potentially the
requirements are that the power supply meet output lowest cost approach to satisfy all plant requirements.
performance specifications, provide fault protection for The buck-regulator topology is potentially the most
the klystron, have high efficiency, high reliability, good economical because the high voltage rectifier bridge and
maintainability, and be readily manufacturable. As the the high voltage step-up rectifier transformer are removed
power supplies are one of the largest cost elements in the from the power supply. All other topologies, including the
accelerator, a technology review was made to determine resonant power supply utilize expensive magnetic
the most economical approach to satisfy the requirements. components, which increase their costs and complicate
A switch-mode power supply employing a buck-regulator their manufacturability.
was identified as being potentially the lowest cost To accomplish this, the 230-kV high voltage, utility
approach. As the switch represents a certain development distribution transformers would become the rectifier
risk, a small-scale prototype has been constructed for transformers. The transformer secondary voltage is
evaluation, and has resulted in the decision to fabricate a rectified to provide twelve pulse DC power to the system.
full-scale prototype power supply. The prototype design This also simplifies and reduces the cost of the utility
and performance test information will be made available distribution system for APT because the usual branch
to potential suppliers. A description of the concept circuits and components used to step-down the utility
follows. voltage to a workable medium voltage are not required.
1 INTRODUCTION The utility source 230-kV, 677 megavolt-ampere
(MVA) line feeds four substations. Each of four
The proposed APT plant will use proven accelerator
substations (Fig. 1) will contain two, 60 MVA isolation
based technology. The 1700 MeV proton accelerator will
transformers for a total substation capacity of 120 MVA.
utilize three standard 350 megahertz (MHz) klystron RF
This allows each substation to feed twenty five percent of
sources to drive the RF Quadrupole. There will be two
the HVPSs. For redundancy, two high voltage rectifier
hundred and forty one 700 MHz klystron RF sources to
bridges would be connected to the secondary of each
power the normal temperature low-energy linac and the
distribution transformer. There would be a total of eight
super-conducting radio frequency cavities in the high
rectifier-transformers and sixteen rectifier bridges.
energy linac to create the high-energy proton beam.
Interphase transformers tie the rectifier outputs from the
phase-shifted transformers to make twelve pulse ripple.
2 APT RF POWER SYSTEM The transformer secondary is eighty-two kV rms. It is then
The APT plant requires one high voltage power supply rectified to 115 kV DC. Each rectifier bridge will be sized
(HVPS) for each of the 244-klystron RF power sources. to support twice the usual number of HVPSs, in case one
Three HVPS provide 2 MW DC to 1.2 MW (RF) rectifier is out of service. Each of the four DC
klystrons and the rest supply 1.6 MW DC to 1 MW (RF) transmission grids would feed a minimum of sixty-one
klystrons. Two-MW DC power supplies rated for 95 power supplies. Only three HVPSs will actually operate at
Kilovolts (kV) @ 21 Amperes (A) DC are planned 21 A. The remaining HVPSs will operate at 17 A. Fig. 1
throughout for commonality. shows a typical distribution substation pair of rectifier
*Work supported by DOE under contract DE-AC04- transformers including the DC rectifiers dedicated to the
96al89607. RF power system.
** George P. Lawrence’s invited talk at this conference.
216
2 3 0 kV m ain u tility lin e fee d to S P E C IA L W Y E T O E X T E N D E D D E LT A
o n e o f fo u r s ub sta tio n s s ho w n D IS T R IB U T IO N -R E C T IF IE R
TRANSFO RM ERS
P rim ary 230,000 V A C
: S econdary 82,000 V A C L-L
T1 T2
82 K V D istribu tion
11 5 K V C las s
Rectifier Assem bly
O il O il O il O il
F illed F illed F illed F illed
R ectifie r R ectifie r R ectifie r R ectifie r
Inte rph a se Inte rph a se
T ran sform er T ran sform er
D iscon ne ct S w itch
O ne HV Fuse Per PS
LO W V O LT A G E R E T U R N B U S
" ABC PS " 15-20 KHz
H IG H V O LT A G E 115 K V D C D IS T R IB U T IO N B U S
Buck Regulator and
Fault Protection Sw itch.
O ne p er klystron
10 Pow er 11 Pow er 10 Pow er 10 Pow er 11 Pow er 10 Pow er
Supplies Supplies Supplies Supplies Supplies Supplies
Figure 1: “ABCPS” DC Distribution System for APT
limiting to the klystron. During operation, when the
3 ABCPS klystron may arc internally, the IGBT switch will
The Advance Buck Converter Power Supply, (ABCPS) interrupt the high voltage power supply output current in
is connected directly to the DC distribution bus. The one microsecond or less. To prevent damage to the
topology of this converter is a DC to DC buck chopper klystron, less than 40 joules will be deposited during an
which regulates the applied voltage to one klystron. A internal plasma arc. Individual primary high voltage fast
circuit schematic of a single ABCPS is shown in Fig. 2. acting fuses will be used for back-up power supply and
The raw HVDC input is switched at approximately 20 klystron load protection.
kilohertz by a HV IGBT switch and charges the output The high voltage IGBT switch assembly is designed for
capacitor through a switching inductor. A freewheeling ease of maintenance. The IGBTs, heat sinks, and gate
diode transfers the inductor energy into the output drive circuits are mounted on plug-in circuit cards. Fiber
capacitor during the IGBT switch off time. The circuit optic signal isolation is utilized throughout the HVPS.
operates in the discontinuous current mode. The entire switch assembly can be bench manufactured
Additional output filter sections reduce output ripple and does not require special manufacturing or heavy
voltage and also provide instantaneous fault energy assembly equipment. In addition no large magnetic cores
217
are needed. All the HVPS inductors are single layer Voltage stability: +/- 0.4% max.
wound air-core coils. The majority of the HVPS Output DC current: 0 - 21 A
components are standard off the shelf types. This Load fault protection: 40 Joules max.
manufacturing approach reduces cost and procurement
lead-time. REFERENCES
The most critical circuitry in this ABCPS is the high [1] V.Chitta, S. Hong, and David A. Torrey, “Series
voltage solid-state switch. This switch is a string of paired Connection of IGBTs with Active Voltage
IGBTs connected in series to hold off the 115-kV DC Balancing”, IEEE 1997
input. References [1] through [6]. The IGBTs are paired [2] P.R. Palmer and A.N.Githiari, “The Series Connection
to provide redundancy. Uniform voltage sharing across of IGBTs with Active Voltage Sharing”, IEEE PESC
each device is critical under all operating conditions. 1997, pp.637-644
Each IGBT will have an independent gate control circuit. [3] C.Gester, P. Hofer, N Karrer, “Gate-control Strategy
Once the fault is detected, the IGBT switch can operate in for Snubberless Operation of Series Connected
less than one microsecond to protect the klystron and IGBTs”, PESC 1996, pp.1739-1742.
provide fast voltage regulation and control. [4] P.R. Palmer and A.N. Githiari, “The Series
Connection of IGBTs with Optimized Voltage
Sharing in the Switching Transient” Proceedings of
4 HVPS OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS IEEE PESC 1995, Vol. 1, pp.44-49.
Output DC voltage: Continuously variable- 4 to - 95 kV [5] C.Gester, “Fast High Power/High Voltage Switch
Output DC polarity: Negative with respect to ground Using Series Connected IGBTs with Active Gate-
Output voltage set-point accuracy: +/- 400V Controlled Voltage Balancing”, APEC 1994, pp.469-
Output voltage rate of increase: 10 kV / second max. 472.
Output current rate of increase: 200A / second max. [6] M.Tsuneoka, M. Takeuchi, and I. Takahashi, “The
Regulation range: 10 – 95 kV Design of RF Power Supply using DC-DC
Regulation requirements (line & load): +/- 400 V max. Converter”, IEEE 1989, pp.1206-1209.
Ripple @ any 60 Hz harmonic: 800 V pk to pk max.
Total ripple (all causes): 1100 V peak to peak max.
S w itc h in g O u tp u t filte r
In d u c to r in d u cto r
IG B T IG B T IG B T N e ga tive
L1 L2 O u tp u t
in p u t ca b le
4 - 95 kVD C
S o u rc e
im p e d a n ce
D1
O u tp u t filte r
in p u t filte r fre e w h e e lin g
c a p a c ito r
c a p a c ito r d io d e
115 kV DC
POW ER
SOURCE
IG B T IG B T IG B T
K L YS T R O N
LO AD
im p e d a n ce
Figure 2: ABCPS Schematic
218
STATUS OF THE 36 MHZ RF-SYSTEM
FOR THE HIGH-CURRENT-INJECTOR AT GSI
W. Vinzenz, W. Gutowski, G. Hutter, GSI, Planckstr. 1, D-64291 Darmstadt, Germany
B. Rossa, Thomcast AG, Bahnhofstr. 10, CH-5300 Turgi, Switzerland
Abstract
Additionally, a small rebuncher structure focusing to the
Within the beam intensity upgrade program at GSI some input of the Alvarez 1 tank will be driven by an existing
significant changes of the rf equipment will take place. 200 kW amplifier [2], which has been modified from 27
The replacement of the four Wideröe tanks means at the to 36 MHz.
same time the elimination of the 27 MHz operating
frequency at GSI. To supply the new 36 MHz structures, 2 AMPLIFIERS 200 KW
rf amplifiers with a peak power of about 2 MW are
needed. These stages will be designed and built up in The required driving power for the 2 MW stages, as
house. 200 kW amplifier stages were specified, ordered mentioned before, is calculated to be up to 200 kW.
and delivered. They act as driver stages for the 2 MW Further two 36 MHz final stages in the power range from
final stages and as final stages for feeding smaller 120 kW to 150 kW are needed to supply the Superlense
cavities, respectively. The frequency change, as well as and a debuncher cavity in the injection line to the
the future operation with beam load implies the synchrotron SIS (see fig.1). Therefore it was decided to
replacement of more than 60 % of the present UNILAC procure five identical stages. Within a call for tenders rf
low level distribution and control. amplifiers including all these features have been
specified. Details about the design philosophy can be
1 INTRODUCTION found in Ref.[3].
The major design part as well as the construction was
In 1999 the 1.4 MeV/u prestripper section will be performed by Thomcast AG (Turgi, Switzerland) after the
replaced by the High Current Injector HSI with an order was placed (see Fig. 3). These stages use a class
accepted mass over charge ratio for heavy ions up to 65 A/B solid state amplifier with a maximum peak output
and with beam currents up to 0.25 A/q (mA) [1]. A 36 power of about 2 kW as driver . For the layout of the
MHz RFQ and two IH drift tube tanks will replace the following tube stages the current use of the Siemens
four tank Wideröe section. Each of the three new cavities tetrode RS1084CJ at GSI and the working mode of the 2
will be fed by 2 MW final amplifier stages designed at MW final stages have been taken into account. The 200
GSI (see fig.1). The duty factor is up to 2% at maximum kW stage works in a grounded cathode circuit in a class
rf level, the specified rf power fraction into the beam is A/B mode (quiescent current at 2 Amp). To reduce power
ranging up to 40%. Though the RFQ will need only up to dissipation between the rf pulses the operating point will
500 kW input power it was decided to have three identical be switched to class C during the intervals. The anode
amplifier chains. Beam dynamical aspects, as well as the circuit is a capacitively shortened λ/4 resonator in strip
dimensions of the cavities caused the choice of the new line design, tuneable by a vacuum capacitor at the tube
frequency 36 MHz. Because of the future UNILAC time side. The input (grid) circuit is a tuneable Π-network
share operation with two 1.4 MeV/u – Injectors and with loaded with a capacitivly coupled 50 Ω.
up to three ion sources running in parallel, it was The stages are designed as an 'all including' system. It
necessary to change the master frequency from 27 MHz means that all electronic components are installed inside
to 108 MHz, the Poststripper LINAC frequency. The new the rack system, including the power supplies for plate,
36 MHz system includes the following structures : RFQ, grids and heater of the 200 kW stage. In three amplifiers
Superlense, IH 1, IH 2, a rebuncher at the 1.4 MeV/u gas the grid supplies for the 2 MW final stages are included.
stripper section and a debuncher at the 11.4 MeV/u In addition the amplitude and phase control units, the
transfer line to the synchrotron SIS. The operating modes analogue value measuring and tube protection units, the
of the 36 MHz Injector LINAC are : free programmable control (SPS), the computer interface
and also the automatic tank tuning system are housed in
a) up to 20 Hz repetition rate with 1 ms flat top at these cabinets. The timing information for rf pulse width,
maximum power and full beamload; pulse space and sampling time, transmitted via a GSI two-
b) up to 50 Hz repetition rate with 6 ms flat top at 40% wire-bus, is decoded in a special timing interface. The
of maximum power without appreciable beamload; identification of a high current pulse is also done within
c) replacement of single pulses out of the pulse train in this system [4].
case b) with short high current pulses like in case a) With regard to the pulsed beam operation of the UNILAC
resulting in a mixed mode operation. (max. 16 virtual accelerators and low duty factor in the
219
high current mode) the analogue measurement unit had to built a test cavity. They were powered by pulses of 90 -
be sampled. This allows to gate the measured values with 100 kW peak at 1 ms / 20 Hz rep. rate and also by 20 kW
the according beam pulse. For acceptable beam operation at 6 ms / 50 Hz rep. rate. The results of the above
at unstable beam intensities, the frequency response of the mentioned RFQ tests showing excellent performance of
amplitude and phase control loops had to be improved. the transmitter at 150 % of the nominal power level for
For that reason a redesign of the existing control units of the RFQ modules. Starting this test operation a parasitic
the Alvarez rf-transmitters was performed. Now the oscillation at 190 MHz was observed at the plate circuit
bandwidth of the amplitude control is set to f cutoff = 500 by switching the operating point to class A/B mode. This
kHz while the accuracy is up to ± 0.1%. The phase spurious mode could be eliminated by placing a
control unit attains a bandwidth of 1 MHz and an frequency dependent attenuation circuit inside the anode
accuracy of ± 0.1 degree. circuit. An earlier detected oscillation at 280 MHz had
already been eliminated at the manufacturer. At tests with
the 2nd to the 5th stage at Thomcast AG by a pulsed grid
Low Level System voltage ( -350 volts to 0 volts) with a resulting plate
current up to 20 ampere, no parasitic effects could be
Solid State 36.136 MHz 108.408 MHz
seen. Tests were done with 50 Ω load, open and shortened
Low Level Master
10 W cw Processing Oscillator amplifier output.
3 LOW LEVEL RF SYSTEM
Amplitude & Amplitude &
Phase Phase The planned UNILAC upgrading requires also extended
Control Control modifications within the low level rf equipment,
including the master oscillator system and the low level rf
Solid State Solid State
distribution. The present system is driven by an oscillator
Dressler Dressler
2 kW 2 kW
frequency at 27 MHz. The frequency for the Poststripper
section (108 MHz) is generated by quadruplicating the
RS 1084 CJ RS 1084 CJ
master oscillator frequency. This system will be replaced
Thomcast Thomcast by a new 108 MHz master oscillator and a phase locked
200 kW 200 kW loop (PLL) synchronised slave oscillator at 36 MHz. Both
low level systems are separately amplitude and phase
RS 2074 HF controlled and can be supplied by different phase set
GSI values from the operating software. Thereby both 1.4
2 MW
MeV/u UNILAC injector LINACs can be shifted in
pulsed mode against the 11.4 MeV/u Poststripper LINAC.
This feature is very important because the injectors can be
Cavity Cavity operated in time share operation with different ions [5].
(a) (b)
All input and output levels are normalised to +24 dBm
(250 mW). Components like detectors, phase shifters,
Rf losses < 1MW Rf losses < 150kW filters, oscillators, frequency dividers and amplifiers are
Beamload < 0.7 MW designed and made in-house. Figure 2 shows the block
diagram of the low level set-up and the rf-distribution.
Fig. 1: Amplifier Chains of the New High Current
high charge state
Injector: (a) RFQ, IH1-DTL and IH2-DTL, rf out
(b) Superlense and Buncher (spare)
rf distribution digital rf 108.408 MHz
rf
HLI phase shifter master
oscillator
The delivery of the five stages to GSI started in December status
status
97 and had been finished in July 98. Individual set value 10 bit rf
acceptance tests, including laboratory measurements, as status
interface low level rf
well as electrical parameter tests (rf test with dummy UNILAC
status
load) and measurements of unwanted radiation leaks have set value
rf 300 W control
10 bit
been accomplished at the manufacturer. The observance status
of the very tight EN (European Harmonised) standards for rf distribution digital PLL slave
phase shifter oscillator resonant rf line
electromagnetic compatibility and the IEC/VDE HSI rf
1/3 deg. steps
rf
36.136 MHz
directives required an extension of the development time. 30 outputs
Nevertheless this part of the project is terminated rf out rf out
rf out
successfully with a delay of only three months. For tests high current inj. 36 MHz buncher UNILAC
of the RFQ tank and one 200 kW rf stage on resonant
load, two of ten RFQ modules have been assembled to Fig. 2: Upgraded Low Level System
220
Fig. 3 : Front View of the 200 kW / 36 MHz Amplifier (by Thomcast AG) : the plate supply (two cabinets left);
the local operation panel with computer interface and plunger control (3rd cabinet); Program controlled
computer [Simatic] with the measuring device and amplitude & phase controls (4th cabinet);
opened anode & grid circuit of the 200 kW stage with the 2 kW solid state amplifier (by Dressler)
and the tube grid supplies below (right cabinet)
4 AMPLIFIERS 2 MW REFERENCES
The Siemens tube RS 2074 HF of the 2 MW final stages [1] U. Ratzinger; “The New GSI Prestripper LINAC for
is the same tube as used at the final stages of the High Current Heavy Ion Beams” Proc. of the 1996
Poststripper LINAC (Alvarez 1 to 4). All the necessary LINAC Conf., Geneva, 288.
calculations (partly performed with the Supercompact→
code) have been done for a 50 Ω load at the output of the [2] G. Hutter et al; “New Power Amplifiers for 200 kW
amplifier. They were confirmed by cold measurements at 27 MHz” Proc. of the 1992 EPAC Conf., Berlin,
with a 1:1 model of the anode circuit using a dummy 1203.
tube. The input circuit showed a good tunability. For a
power range of 1:10 the load of different cathode currents [3] D. Böhne; “Beam Intensity Upgrade of the GSI
at different power levels was simulated by variable Accelerator Facility” GSI-95-05 report.
resistors for this measurement. At present a prototype is
under construction. The amplifier will be tested with rf on [4] W. Vinzenz; “The Computer Interface for the RF
a dummy load early in autumn 1998. The construction of Amplifiers of the new HLI” GSI annual report 1992,
the three transmitters for the new injector should start by GSI 93-1, 433.
the end of this year. Commissioning of the RFQ and IH-
Linacs with beam is scheduled for April to July 1999. A [5] N. Angert et al; “Two-Ion Time Share Operation of
detailed report of the amplifier layout and the first results the UNILAC” Proc. of the 1994 LINAC Conf.,
will be given elsewhere. Tsukuba, 707.
221
KLYSTRON RF STABILIZATION USING FEEDFORWARD CIRCUIT
H. Hayano, M. Akemoto, T. Naito, S. Takeda, KEK, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
D. Aizawa, M. Higuchi, T. Sakamoto, Tohoku-Gakuin University, Tagajo, Miyagi, Japan
Abstract with various possible sources. The results of the
correlation measurements showed that the most strong
Klystron rf stability in the linac of ATF, Accelerator source was rf amplitude jitter of the klystron output. It is
Test Facility at KEK, is important to make beam directly connected with driving pulse voltage jitter
injection into the damping ring stable. The current pulse- supplied by a klystron modulator. In order to reduce the
to-pulse fluctuation of the output rf is 0.4% peak-to-peak energy jitter pulse-to-pulse, a stabilization of the klystron
in the amplitude and 1.5degree in the phase. The linac modulator output is essential. This paper describes a new
beam energy is correlated with rf amplitude fluctuation deQ circuit with feedforward compensation to stabilize the
directly. In order to make more stable beam injection, output pulse amplitude of the existing modulator for the
storage and extraction in the damping ring, pulse-to-pulse pulse klystron.
jitter of injected beam energy should be reduced to half of
it. By the analysis of rf fluctuation, the amplitude and the 2 ATF KLYSTRON MODULATOR
phase jitter are correlated with a charging voltage of the PERFORMANCE
modulator. The charged voltage of the modulator is also
In the ATF linac, 9 klystrons are in operation with
correlated with the slope of charging rise cycle. The peak
25Hz repetition. The first klystron which is used for the
of the charging waveform slope which is a few ms in
bunching section is operated with 70MW 1µs rf pulse
advance of a deQ trigger control gives a possibility of a
output. The rest of them which are used for 8 regular
feedforward to stabilize the charged voltage. We developed
accelerating unit are operated around 56MW 4.5µs rf pulse
a new deQ circuit with a feedforward function which
output with rf pulse compression. The average
reduces a charged voltage fluctuation into about a half of
accelerating gradient is 25.6MV/m which gives 1.3GeV
it. The rf fluctuation of the klystron and the feedforward
beam energy at the end of linac. There are two type of
circuit test are described.
klystron modulators; one is a conventional resonant
charging type from AC 200V. The other is a common
1 INTRODUCTION
DC power supply type with resonant charging. In both
ATF[1] is a test-stand of key components to realize a case, a deQ circuit stabilize the charged voltage less than
linear collider such as multi-bunch beam generation, high 0.2% peak-to-peak. The charged voltage of the PFN
gradient acceleration, low emittance beam generation and capacitor is around 43kV in the operation. The following
its instrumentation development. ATF consists of pulse trans makes about 340kV 7.5µs HV pulse which is
1.54GeV S-band Linac[2], damping ring[3] and extraction applied to the klystron. The operational parameter of the
beam line[4]. The main purpose of the damping ring is to modulator and klystron are summarized in Table.1. Also,
develop an extremely low emittance beam(1x10-11 m for the simplified diagram of the modulator is shown in Fig.
vertical). After the commissioning on end of January 1.
1997, single bunch operation and development were
performed continuously. The emittance performance was Klystron Toshiba E3712
confirmed as 1.3x10-9 m for horizontal 3.6x10-11 m for frequency 2856MHz
vertical with 1.29GeV energy and maximum 1x1010 output rf power 56MW, 4.5µs
electrons of single bunch storage. It is comparable with cathode voltage 340kV, 7.5µs
the design value within a few factor difference. One of the Modulator
problem to be solved in ATF operation is extracted beam PFN & pulse trans 12stage, 2 para., 3.0Ω, 1:16
PFN charged voltage 43kV with deQ
intensity fluctuation of pulse-to-pulse. The required
repetition 25Hz
specification for the intensity fluctuation in the linear pulse flatness <1%p.p.
collider is less than 1%, however, ATF beam is pulse amplitude jitter <0.2%p.p.
fluctuating more than 10%. This is coming from the
injection efficiency fluctuation which is caused by the Table.1 operation parameter of ATF klystron modulator
energy jitter and the wide energy spread expanded into
whole damping ring acceptance of 1% full width. The Since the AC line stability is not good by a conflict
energy spread will be reduced to half of it by the bunching with the other accelerator operation and other power
section upgrade in this summer. The energy jitter of supply operation, there is a few % voltage fluctuation in
pulse-to-pulse has been studied by measuring correlation the input AC line. By using a deQ circuit for PFN
222
charging and an AC line synchronized thyratron trigger, charging slope is detected by differentiating the charging
the PFN charged voltage is well regulated less than 0.2% voltage electrically.
correlation of charging slope error
peak-to-peak which is the design value of the modulator. vs. PFN charged voltage
In this condition, the correlation measurement between 41.05
PFN charged voltage and the klystron output rf has been
41.04
PFN charged voltage [kV]
done using digital oscilloscope with offset function and
vertical axis expansion. The results of this correlation are 41.03
shown in Fig. 2. The amplitude and the phase of klystron
output rf are well correlated with the PFN charged 41.02
voltage.
charging inductor PFN 41.01
25kV DC HV Power Supply
41.00
Thyratron -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3
deQ charging capacitor
circuit error signal of PFN charging Slope [V]
HV Probe
Thyrister Figure 3: correlation plot between a charging voltage
slope and charged voltage equilibrium
klystron
Gate on charging voltage trigger Pulse Trans. 1:16
The maximum of the charging voltage slope is about
deQ
trigger circuit
Thyratron
trigger circuit
5ms in advance to the deQ trigger timing in case of the
ATF modulator. Therefore, there is a possibility of
feedforward from the slope information to the timing of
Figure 1: The simplified diagram of the modulator
Klystron output amplitude
vs PFN Charged Voltage
Klystron output phase
vs PFN Charged Voltage
deQ trigger in order to compensate overshoot and
1.001 1.5
undershoot charging. A 5ms time duration is enough long
1.000 for determination of the feedforward amount by a digital
Klystron output amplitude [arb.]
1
Klystron output phase [Deg]
0.999 calculation or an analog circuit.
0.5
0.4%p.p.
1.5deg p.p.
0.998
0
4 FEEDFORWARD TEST CIRCUIT
0.997
-0.5
Using this slope detection, a feedforward test circuit
0.996
0.10%p.p. 0.14%p.p. was designed and built by the analog circuitry. The
0.995
41.37 41.38 41.39 41.4 41.41 41.42 41.43 41.44
-1
41.36 41.37 41.38 41.39 41.4 41.41 41.42 41.43 41.44 conversion function from the slope change to the delay of
PFN Charged Voltage [kV] PFN Charged Voltage [kV]
the deQ trigger was assumed to a linear for the circuitry
simplicity. The charging slope detection circuit, the slope
Figure 2: correlation plot between an amplitude and a
phase of klystron output rf and PFN charged voltage error signal generation, the amplifier for feedforward gain
adjustment and deQ trigger delay circuit were added to the
3 FEEDFORWARD FUNCTION FOR existing deQ circuit. The block diagram of the circuitry is
DEQING STABILIZATION shown in Fig. 4. The slope detection is done by a
sample/hold at the peak signal of the differentiated
The deQ circuit of the ATF modulator consists of charging waveform. A comparator outputs an error signal
charging inductor which is a part of resonant charging voltage from the reference which is coming from the deQ
circuit, its secondary winding circuit including a thyrister PFN voltage F.F.
and a resister, PFN voltage monitor and thyrister trigger LPF -
+
Gate
on/off
OR
Pulse
gene-
low noise rator thyrister
circuit, as shown in Fig. 1. The thyrister trigger circuit buffer amp. Comparator
& trigger
trigger
Ref. voltage generator
outputs 20V trigger pulse to make it on-state when the Digital
Existing deQ circuit
PFN voltage reached the set reference voltage. The diff.
moni. gain f.f. gain
delay
-
charging current into the PFN capacitor is cut by this Sample
&Hold
+ AD
Comparator
close action of the inductor secondary circuit. In this way, charging slope detection voltage control delay
-5V ~ +5V : 128µs ~ 0.25µs
thyratron
the charged voltage is stabilized. trigger
5ms
15ms
delay
Since there is a small time delay from the deQ trigger delay
0~5ms
delay
0.1ms
delay
Feedforward circuit
timing to charged voltage equilibrium, a small change of
charging voltage slope at the reference voltage will make Figure 4: The block diagram of the feedforward circuitry
small overshoot or undershoot for the equilibrium. In this
reference voltage. The error signal level is adjusted by the
case, a change of the charging voltage slope is correspond
following amplifier and converted into a digital signal.
to an amplitude fluctuation of the AC line which is slow The digital error data is converted to a time delay which is
compared to 25Hz. The correlation plot between a used for a deQ trigger delay. The amount of the delay is
charging voltage slope and charged voltage equilibrium 0.25 to 128µs for +5 to -5V error voltage. By adding this
shows a good correlation relation as shown in Fig.3. The delay circuit, the deQ trigger has an offset delay of about
223
60µs for the nominal control compared to the case of by using new deQ circuit with feedforward compensation.
without feedforward. The achieved performance on the PFN charged voltage
stability was 0.03% peak-to-peak which was about factor
5 RESULTS OF FEEDFORWARD 3 reduction from the existing deQ circuit. The rf stability
TEST of the klystron outputs were 0.13% peak-to-peak in
The test of the feedforward circuit has been done using amplitude and 0.5degree peak-to-peak in phase which were
one of the ATF modulator which is the first modulator about factor 2 reduction. This method will provide easy
used for the bunching section. The charged voltage was modification of an existing deQ circuit and more than
41kV which generated 328kV of the klystron cathode factor 2 reduction for an rf amplitude fluctuation.
variation of RF amplitude FF=on [%]
voltage and 49MW 1µs rf pulse. The measurement of the variation of RF amplitude FF=off [%]
charged voltage and the klystron output rf has been done PFN voltage vs. RF amplitude F.F.=on/off
0.15
using the digital oscilloscope(Tektronics TDS684B) with
F.F.=on
offset function and vertical axis expansion into its
variation of RF amplitude [%]
0.1 0.13%p.p.
maximum. The bit resolution is about 2 order small 0.05
compared with the measured fluctuation width. In order to
0
remove high frequency noise coming from a thermal noise
and a thyratron noise, 20 sequential sampling points were -0.05
averaged. The acquisition bandwidth of 20MHz was used
-0.1
only for the charged voltage measurement.
variation of E-PFN G=6.5 [%] -0.15
variation of E-PFN FF=off [%]
charging slope error
vs. PFN charged voltage (Feedforward=on/off) -0.2
0.06 -0.06 -0.04 -0.02 0 0.02 0.04 0.06
variation of PFN voltage [%]
variation of PFN voltage [%]
0.04
RF Phase FF=on [deg]
F.F.=off F.F.=on RF phase FF=off [deg]
0.1%p.p. 0.03%p.p.
0.02 PFN voltage vs. RF phase F.F.=on/off
0.4
0
0.3
-0.02 0.2
RF Phase [deg]
-0.04 0.1
-0.06
0
-0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
error signal of charging slope [V] -0.1
Figure 5: correlation between a charging voltage slope and -0.2
F.F. on
charged voltage equilibrium with feedforward on/off -0.3
0.5deg p.p.
After the adjustment of the feedforward gain, the PFN -0.4
-0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1
charged voltage fluctuation was measured together with variation of PFN voltage [%]
the error signal of the charging slope. The read-out time Figure 6: correlation between a charging voltage slope and
from the oscilloscope into PC was around 3 seconds for klystron output rf with feedforward on/off
one correlation. The total number of the data points is
300 for each plot which is correspond to about 15 7 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
minutes duration. The plot shown in Fig.5 includes the The authors would like to acknowledge Prof. H.
correlation of the PFN charged voltage with feedforward Sugawara, director of KEK organization, for the support
and without feedforward. It shows the fluctuation is under the program of cooperation & development research.
reduced from 0.1% to 0.03% peak-to-peak by the We also thank to all the member of the ATF group for
feedforward. As for the output rf stability shown in Fig. their cooperation and useful discussion.
6, the effect on the output rf is about factor 2 reduction,
that is, from 0.3% to 0.13% peak-to-peak in amplitude REFERENCES
and from 0.8degree to 0.5degree peak-to-peak in phase. A
[1] F. Hinode et. al., “ATF Design and Study Report” KEK Internal
residual fluctuation in phase still remains. It seems that it 95-4, (June 1995).
may come from a noise conflict for the phase [2] H. Hayano, “ATF Linac Commissioning” Proc. of 18th Int. Linac
measurement and from the phase noise of the drive input Conf., Geneva (August 1996)
rf of the klystron. [3] K. Kubo, “Beam development in ATF Damping Ring,” Proc. of
6th European Particle Accel. Conf., Stockholm (June 1998)
[4] S. Kashiwagi et. al., “Diagnosis of the low emittance beam in
6 CONCLUSION ATF DR Extraction Line,” Proc. of 6th European Particle Accel.
In order to reduce the energy jitter pulse-to-pulse, the Conf., Stockholm (June 1998)
stabilization of klystron modulator output has been tested
224
IMPROVEMENT IN THE UPGRADED MODULATOR OF THE KEKB
INJECTOR LINAC
H. Honma, T. Shidara, S. Anami and K. Nakahara
High Energy Accelerator Research Organization
1-1 Oho, Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki-ken, 305-0801, Japan
Abstract 2 IMPROVEMENTS TO THE OUTPUT
An upgrade of the klystron modulator for the KEKB CIRCUIT
injector linac was completed before March, 1997. In this
linac, SLED (SLAC Energy doubler) along with an upgraded
2. 1 Improvement to the Waveshape of the Output
klystron ( which has an rf output power of 46 or 50 MW) is Pulse Voltage
utilized to accelerate electron and positron beams up to 8 and By considering the total number of acceleration units and
3.5 GeV, respectively. It is desirable to increase the pulse flat available output power of the upgraded klystron, a SLED
top of the modulator output pulse voltage for SLED energy multiplication factor of 2.0 was selected as the design
operation. An improvement of the output waveshape had value. Taking into account the characteristics of the SLED
been carried out and a flat-top width of about 4µs was finally cavity, a flat-top width of 4µs was reqired for the klystron rf
obtained. In addition, the time jitter of the modulator output output pulse [2].
pulse voltage was reduced to about 8ns by modifying the Figure 1 shows the calculated output voltage waveshapes
driver circuit for a thyratron. in the old (a) and upgraded (b) modulators using the circuit-
simulation code “ISSPICE”. It can be seen from these figures
1 INTRODUCTION that the increase in the flat-top width is less than that of the
pulse duration due to the slower rise-and fall-time than those
The upgraded modulators in the KEKB injector linac are in the old modulator. It is therefore necessary to reduce the
capable of producing pulses with a 110 MW peak power and inductance of the wiring in the PFN output circuit.
a 5.6µs pulse duration (calculated as one without a pulse
transformer) for the upgraded klystron. SLED along with this
klystron is utilized in order to obtain an energy gain of 160
MeV per one acceleration unit. At the initial stage of SLED
operation, it became clear that there were some problems
concerning the waveshape and the time jitter of the modulator
output pulse voltage.
In order to obtain the aimed energy gain, it became
important for the flat-top width of the klystron rf output to be
increased as much as possible. A basic concept of the
modulator upgrade was doubling the total capacitance of the (a) old (b) upgraded
PFN (pulse-forming network). The size of the PFN housing horizontal scale: 1µs /div
was therefore enlarged and the inductance of the wiring in the Fig. 1 Output voltage waveshapes (calculated).
PFN output circuit was increased. The upgraded klystron
causes the distributed capacitance of the pulse transformer to Figure 2 shows the arrangement and the wiring of the
be increased, since its step-up ratio must have been increased output circuit in the upgraded modulator. A copper pipe was
compared to that in the old modulator [1]. These two factors being used as the wiring (a) between the thyratron anode and
deteriorated the pulse flat-top width of the output pulse the high-voltage side of the PFN. The length of this wiring
voltage, i.e. the klystron rf output. became longer than that in the old modulator and its
A reduction in the time jitter of the output pulse voltage is inductance was increased. As for the wiring (b) between the
also important in order to obtain a stable beam energy. Since thyratron cathode and the feeder, a copper plate perpendicular
the time jitter of the modulator output pulse voltage is to low voltage side of the PFN was being used.
strongly dependent on a thyratron operation, improvements to We carried out the following improvements to the output
the driver circuit for the thyratron were intensively performed. circuit in order to increase the flat-top width of the output
This paper describes the improvements mentioned above. voltage pulse (see fig.2):
(1) Another copper pipe was added to the wiring (a) in
such a way that the two pipes are separated from each
other as much as possible,
225
(2) The wiring (b) was made parallel to the low-voltage
side of the PFN in order to reduce the area of the loop
surrounded by the wiring,
(3) The capacitance of the added PFN capacitors was
increased from 0.0146µF to 0.0155µF .
Fig. 4 (a) Expanded trace of the flat-top of an output-voltage
waveshape (after improved). (horizontal scale:
0.5µs/div, vertical scale: 0.4% of peak pulse voltage/div).
Fig. 4 (b) Expanded trace of the flat-top of an output voltage
waveshape(before improved). (horizontal scale:
0.5µs /div, vertical scale: 0.4% of peak pulse voltage/div).
2.2 Improvement to the Thyratron Grid Driver
There are the following four factors which control the
time jitter of the output pulse voltage: (1) the thyratron
resorvoir voltage, (2) the output impedance of the thyratron
grid driver, (3) the rise time of the pulse output voltage in the
driver and (4) the input impedance of the thyratron input
Fig. 2 Wiring of the output circuit. circuit. Figure 5 shows both the output circuit of the thyratron
grid driver and the input circuit of the thyratron. The output
Figure 3 shows the output-voltage waveshape of the impedance is derived from the impedance of the PFN and the
modulator with the improved output circuit. It can be seen step up ratio of the pulse transformer. In the old modulator,
from this figure that the pulse duration is increased and the
the output impedance of the thyratron driver was 100 Ω was
rise-time is being improved compared to fig.1(b). Figure 4 (a)
equal to the value of the input impedance in the thyratron
shows an expanded trace of the flat-top of the waveshape. It
input circuit.
can be seen that the flat-top width within 0.4% of peak pulse
voltage is 3.8µs. Taking into account a recovery time of the
oscilloscope, it is possible to say that the flat-top width of
about 4µs was obtained. Figure 4 (b) shows an similar trace of
the waveshape in the modulator without improvement to the
wiring. It can be seen from this figure that the flat-top width
increase of 0.4µs was obtained by carrying out the
improvement to the wiring. An rf output pulse with the aimed
flat-top width was obtained using this improved modulator.
Fig. 5 Circuit between the driver and the thyratron.
Figure 6 shows the dependence of the time jitter in the
output pulse voltage on the thyratron resorvoir voltage (jitter-
resorvoir relation) measured under repetition rates of 25 and
50 pps in the old modulator. In this figure, it was impossible
to measure the time jitter outside of both edges in each curve
due to an unstable operation of the thyratron. It can be seen
from this figure that the time jitter at each repetition rate and
the difference between the values at two repetition rates
increases when the resorvoir voltage decreases. This means
that the thyratron driver of the old modulator has not fed
Fig. 3 Output voltage waveshape by the improved sufficient power to the thyratron grid. It is also necessary to
output circuit. decrease the time jitter further for SLED operation .
(horizontal scale: 1µs /div, peak voltage: 286kV).
226
120
60
time jitter of output
100 25pps
voltage (ns)
time jitter of output
80 50pps 25pps
voltage (ns)
60 40
40 50pps
20 20
0
2.8 3 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4
0
rsvr v(v)
3.2 3.4 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4 4.1
rsvr v(v)
Fig.6 Jitter-resorvoir relations by an old driver.
In order to modify the old driver into one capable of Fig. 8 Jitter-resorvoir relations by a new driver.
feeding sufficient power to the thyratron grid, the jitter-
resorvoir relation was investigated by changing the output REFERENCES
impedance (Ro) of the thyratron driver and the input
impedance (Ri) of the thyratron input circuit under repetition [1] S. Fukuda et al., “Development of the B-Factory Linac
rate of 50 pps. Figure 7 shows the result of this investigation. 50-MW Pulse Klystron”, Proceedings of Linac94,
The result obtained by changing the input impedance from Tsukuba, Japan, August 21-26, 1994, 427-429(1994).
100 Ω to 22 Ω while maintaining the output impedance of the [2] H. Hanaki et al., “Use of SLEDS for high-gradient
driver is almost same as that of the old driver. It is also known acceleration” , Proceedings of Linac94, Tsukuba, Japan,
that the smaller is the output impedance, the smaller does the August 21-26, 1994, 430-432(1994).
time jitter become. Though an output impedance of 28 Ω
gives the smallest time jitter, such a modification costs too
much, since it needs another PFN. Therefore, we adopted a
driver with an output impedance of 56 Ω. Figure 8 shows the
results of the jitter-resorvoir relations of this driver under both
25 and 50 pps operation. Since two jitter-resorvoir relations
nearly coincide with each other, this driver feeds sufficient
power to the thyratron grid.
80
70 RO28RI10
time jitter of output
60 RO56RI20
voltage (ns)
50
RO100R20
40
R 100R100
30
20
10
0
3 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4 4.1
rsvr v(v)
Fig. 7 Jitter-resorvoir relations investigated by changing
the impedances (Ro, Ri).
227
NEW HIGH POWER 200 MHZ RF SYSTEM FOR
THE LANSCE DRIFT TUBE LINAC∗
J. Lyles, C. Friedrichs, and M. Lynch, Los Alamos National Laboratory,
Los Alamos, New Mexico 87544 USA
Abstract Industries 7835 triode, is approximately 250 kW. The
peak power from the final cavity amplifier for the largest
The Los Alamos Neutron Science Center (LANSCE) DTL tank (tank 2) is slightly over 3 MW for some tunes.
linac provides an 800 MeV direct H+ proton beam, and The triode FPA is unstable if operated with plate voltage
injects H- to the upgraded proton storage ring for charge but no RF drive. Consequently, the FPA is driven with
accumulation for the Short Pulse Spallation Source. constant RF drive from the IPA, using a Burle Industries
Accelerating these interlaced beams requires high average 4616 tetrode. The plate voltage is simultaneously pulsed
power from the 201.25 MHz drift tube linac (DTL) RF on and varied by the_amplitude controller in order to
system. Three power amplifiers have operated at up to adjust the saturated output and provide tank field control.
three Megawatts with 12% duty factor. The total number This high voltage modulation technique requires four
of electron power tubes in the RF amplifiers and their additional power tubes. The modulator has an internal
modulators has been reduced from fifty-two to twenty- voltage drop of about 10 kV when fully on, so the high
four. The plant continues to utilize the original design of a voltage capacitor bank must be maintained above the
tetrode driving a super power triode. Further increases in level needed by the FPA by at least this amount. This
the linac duty factor are limited, in part, by the maximum causes an additional power dissipation of nearly 250 kW
dissipation ratings of the triodes. A description of the each, in three of the four plate modulators. The forth RF
system modifications proposed to overcome these system drives DTL tank 1, which requires less than 500
limitations includes new power amplifiers using low-level kW of peak RF, relatively low power compared to the
RF modulation for tank field control. The first high power other units. In this report, this unit is not shown in the
Diacrode is being delivered and a new amplifier cavity is diagrams for simplicity.
being designed. With only nine power tubes, the new
system will deliver both peak power and high duty factor,
with lower mains power and cooling requirements. The
remaining components needed for the new RF system will
be discussed.
1 PRESENT HIGH POWER RF SYSTEM
The Los Alamos Neutron Science Center (LANSCE)
linac provides high power proton beams for neutron
science, Tritium target development for APT, nuclear
physics, material science, isotope production, and
weapons research. The number of simultaneous beam
users places heavy demands on the RF powerplant,
especially the 201.25 MHz final power amplifiers (FPA) Figure 1. Present configuration - high power RF modules
driving four Alvarez DTL tanks for 0.75 to 100 MeV.
Designed nearly 30 years ago, these amplifiers have The FPA triode has an output ceramic seal length of
operated at up to 3 Megawatts with duty factors of 12%. 7.62 cm. This requires that it be operated within a
The large number of power tubes in the PA plate pressure vessel operating with 2.4 bar dry air at Los
modulators, the age of the cooling and control Alamos (2120 meters above sea level) to maintain voltage
subsystems, tube manufacturing problems, and operation standoff. Because of the high average power, the
near maximum PA tube ratings have all affected the pressurized air must be circulated through the cavity and
system reliability. cooled. The high-pressure turbine and pressurized heat
For the past six years we have designed and installed exchanger require annual maintenance, and have
system upgrades that have reduced the number of power contributed to system down time. Replacement of the
tubes in the system from fifty-two to twenty-four [1,2]. A FPA tube takes approximately 16 hours due to the
block diagram of the present RF system is shown in enormous pressure vessel that must be removed first.
Figure 1. The maximum duty factor is rated at 12% where Higher beam current for new linac applications such as
the plate dissipation of the final amplifier tube, a Burle the proposed Long-Pulse Spallation Source [3] cannot be
∗
Work supported by the US Department of Energy
228
delivered simultaneously with other beams at high duty DC-to-RF Efficiency >60%
factor. Table 1 shows the RF power requirements for the DC plate voltage 26 kV
present 18 mA and proposed 21 mA peak current needs. Screen (G2) Voltage 1.6 kV
The RF pulse parameters are for up to 1350 microseconds Filament Power 18 VDC, 910 A.
width at 120 pulses per second repetition rate, resulting in RF Power Gain >14 dB
up to 16.2% duty factor for the RF amplifiers. These Zero Drive Stability No emissions 0 to 1 GHz
requirements are within the fundamental capabilities of Coolant Flow 360 l/min deionized water
the 805 MHz RF System for the coupled-cavity linac that
The planned configuration for DTL modules 3 and 4 is
accelerates from 100 to 800 MeV; only the 201 MHz
shown in figure 2. Two combined amplifiers may be
system needs this substantial upgrade.
required only for module 2, and this scheme is shown in
figure 3. The upgraded system will employ circulators
Table 1. RF power requirements for DTL
RF Operating Levels
between the FPA and DTL. Air pressurization is not
Module Energy Tank Pwr. 21 mA Beam Pwr 8% margin Peak Req'd Ave. Req'd planned for these amplifier cavities, as the ceramic seal is
MeV MW MW MW MW kW
1 4.64 0.37 0.10 0.04 0.51 82 longer on the TH628. Tube replacement time will be
2
3
35.94
31.39
2.57
2.10
0.75
0.66
0.27
0.22
3.59
2.98
582
483
decreased from about 16 hours to 2 hours.
4 27.28 2.23 0.57 0.22 3.03 491
2 POWER AMPLIFIER REPLACEMENT
We plan to install a new cavity amplifier, which will
operate as a linear amplifier and eliminate the need for
modulation of the high voltage. Output power control will
be accomplished by varying the low-level RF drive to the
preamplifier stage. This eliminates four more tubes in
each system, leaving only two RF amplifier tubes per
module (three in module 2), or nine for the entire DTL RF
powerplant. In addition, the voltage overhead of the plate
modulator will disappear, as the tube will operate with Figure 2. New configuration for RF modules 3 and 4
DC plate voltage and be pulsed into conduction with the
control grid bias.
2.1 RF Power Tube Selection
Until very recently, there has been no reasonable
alternative to the 7835 for the LANSCE 200 MHz DTL.
Thomson Tubes Electroniques embarked on a program to
develop a tube capable of delivering 3 MW peak, 600 kW
average RF power, at 200 MHz. The tube was proposed
for fusion heating as early as 1991 [4]. Employing
double-ended RF geometry (as in the 7835 triode) can
extend the frequency-power limits of gridded tubes. The Figure 3. New configuration for RF module 2
TH628 Diacrode® is a double-ended tetrode, derived from
the single-ended TH526 tetrode. The tube uses pyrolytic 2.2 Intermediate Power Amplifier
graphite grids, a thoriated-tungsten mesh cathode, and a
multiphase-cooled anode rated to dissipate 1.8 MW. The existing 4616 tetrode intermediate power amplifier
Pyrolytic graphite grids allow elevated grid operating is capable of 150 kW peak power at our present duty
temperatures without seconday electron emission. This factor. The statistical lifetime of these tubes has varied
allows for higher screen power dissipation, and higher with variations in manufacturing, including component
output power without adverse effects. The first cathode- changes such as different filament alloys and sources of
driven TH628 Diacrode has recently passed acceptance mica. As a grid-driven tetrode, the 4616 is capable of very
tests at the factory, and is being delivered to LANSCE. high gain. Along with this high gain is a system
No other modern tetrode has delivered this level of high sensitivity to variations in the screen emission and VHF
power 200 MHz performance. Table 2 lists significant resonances or back-cavity modes from the internal mica
results from the tests. screen bypass capacitor assembly. We have a choice of
continuing to utilize the existing amplifiers, or converting
Table 2. Thomson TH628 Test Results – June, 1998 to a cavity amplifier using a Thomson TH781 tetrode,
Peak Power Output 3 MW peak which has pyrolytic graphite grids, a thoriated-tungsten
Average Power Output 600 kW mesh cathode, and a multiphase-cooled anode rated to
RF pulse duty cycle 20 % dissipate 250 kW. A nearly identical tetrode (TH681) is in
229
successful operation driving the CERN PS 40 MHz standoff and lifetime of the windows for the higher peak
bunching cavity [5]. and average powers proposed for LANSCE.
2.3 Power Supplies 2.5 Cooling Plant
The existing plate HV power supply/capacitor banks are The cooling requirements will not add additional load to
adequate for the conversion, after the plate modulators are the plant, as the modulator heat load will be removed, and
removed. The HV power supplies for DTL modules 2 the waster loads on the circulators and combiner are only
through 4 are rated for 40 kV maximum, at 35 Amperes dissipating transient loads during tuning and unbalances.
DC. With the existing capacitor banks, they were The water flow though each new FPA tube is 36% less
designed to drive the FPAs at 120 Hz, with 1200 uS than the present tubes, due to the more efficient
pulses. The DC voltage will be reduced from the present multiphase cooling regime in the tubes.
charging level. The module 1 power supply will also be 3 CONCLUSION
reused.
The 7835 triode requires 6900 Amperes of DC filament The proposed upgrade to the LANSCE DTL RF
current. The original filament power supplies are very powerplant is based on changing the FPA to a new type of
large. Removal of the present power supply will provide tetrode, which has demonstrated excellent performance
much floor space for the upgrade. The TH628 requires during testing. The other system changes will require RF,
less than 1000 Amperes, supplied from a small power electrical, mechanical and thermal engineering, but
supply without water-cooled cables. nothing appears to be significantly challenging to prevent
long term success. This project will be a significant
2.4 RF Output Components improvement to the LANSCE linac RF system.
The new FPA will be isolated from reflected power ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
from the DTL by using a coaxial Y-junction circulator.
Advanced Ferrite Technology has proposed a 35.5 cm The authors wish to thank the LANSCE-5 RF team for
coaxial device, which has less than 0.16 dB of insertion their assistance in keeping the RF plant operating with
loss and 25 dB of isolation. This is especially important high reliability and in their suggestions and assistance in
for the combined amplifiers for module 2, driving the all of the upgrades.
high Q DTL. A water-cooled dummy load will be
connected to the third port. REFERENCES
The power splitter and combiner for module 2 will be 3
dB hybrids, available from several manufacturers. [1] W. Harris, J. Lyles, M. Parsons, “Modulation
Examples of the successful use of power combiners of Improvements in the 201.25 MHz RF Generators at
this size are found at the MIT/Lincoln Labs ALTAIR LAMPF,” 20 t h International Power Modulator
radar in which two super-power triodes are combined at Symposium, Myrtle Beach, SC, June 1992.
160 MHz. At the CERN SPS, sixteen 35 kW tetrodes are [2] C. Friedrichs, J. Lyles, “LANSCE 201.25 MHz DTL
successively combined at 200 MHz for 500 kW, and four RF Power Status,” Proceedings of Linac Conference,
125 kW CW tetrodes are combined for 500 kW of total Geneva, Switzerland, August 1996.
power [6]. A water-cooled dummy load (waster) will be [3] G. Bolme, J. Lyles, A. Regan, “LANSCE Linac RF
required on the combiner, rated at one quarter of the Performance for a Long Pulse Spallation Source,”
overall power. Proceedings of Linac Conference, Geneva, Switzerland,
The full output power is to be transmitted to the DTL August 1996.
through the existing 35.5 cm diameter coaxial line. This [4] G. Clerc, J. Ichac, M. Tardy, “ICRH Thomson
line is theoretically capable of 40 MW peak and over 600 Tetrodes: From Long Pulses to CW,” 14th IEEE/NPS
kW of average power at 200 MHz when pressurized with Symposium on Fusion Engineering, San Diego, 1991, pp.
dry nitrogen, according to the manufacturer. The 488-491.
Brookhaven National Laboratory AGS Linac has used [5] Personal communication with D. Grier, CERN,
30.5 cm line for up to 6 MW peak at low duty factor [7]. Geneva, Switzerland, November 1996.
The present RF window seals the DTL vacuum while [6] H. Kindermann, W. Herdich, W. Sinclair, “The RF
passing through the coaxial center conductor to connect to Power Plant of the SPS,” IEEE Transactions on Nuclear
the drive loop. It is made of crosslinked polystyrene, or Science, Vol. NS-30, No. 4, August 1983, pp. 3414-3416.
Rexolite. Presently these windows are replaced about [7] J. Keane, R. McKenzie-Wilson, “High Power RF
every 2 years of service, or when the following damage is Transmission Line for the 200 MeV Linac at AGS,”
noticed during inspection: Excess radiation darkening, Proceedings of the 1970 Proton Linear Accelerator
evidence of streamer tracks, mechanical deformation, or Conference, Batavia, Illinois, October 1970, pp. 601-619.
evidence of sputtered metallization on the vacuum side.
Further work is anticipated to improve the voltage
230
ACCELERATOR PRODUCTION OF TRITIUM 700 MHz AND 350
MHZ KLYSTRON TEST RESULTS
D. Rees, M. Lynch, P. Tallerico
Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545 USA
Abstract achieved but found to be inconsistent with the 1.2:1
VSWR requirement at any phase. However, at the
The Accelerator Production of Tritium project (APT) nominal 68% efficiency into a matched load, the klystron
utilizes a 1700 MeV, 100 mA proton Linac. The radio achieves efficiencies in excess of 72% at some phases of a
frequency (RF) power is provided by 244 continuous wave 1.2:1 mismatch.
(CW) klystron amplifiers at 350 MHz and 700 MHz. All
but three of the klystrons operate at a frequency of 700 Table 1. Klystron Requirements
MHz. The 350 MHz klystrons have a nominal output
power of 1.2 MW at a DC-to-RF conversion efficiency of Frequency 350 MHz 700 MHz
65 %. They are modulating-anode klystrons and operate Output Power 1.2 MW 1.0 MW
at a beam voltage and current of 95 kV and 20 A. The Test Power 1.3 MW 1.1 MW
design is based on the CERN klystron. The 700 MHz Gain 40 dB Min. 40 dB Min.
klystron is a new development for APT. Three 700 MHz
Beam Voltage 95 kV Max. 95 kV Max.
klystrons are currently under development. Two vendors
are each developing our baseline klystron that has a Beam Current 20 A Max. 20 A Max.
nominal output power of 1.0 MW at a DC-to-RF Efficiency 65 % Min. 65 % Min.
conversion efficiency of 65%. A 700 MHz klystron is Bandwidth 1 dB +/- .35 MHz +/- .7 MHz
also under development that promises to provide an Collector Full Beam Full Beam
efficiency in excess of 70%. The 700 MHz klystrons Dissipation Power Power
operate at a maximum beam voltage of 95 kV and a VSWR Tolerance 1.2:1 Max. 1.2:1 Max.
maximum beam current of 17 A. The test results of these Any Phase Any Phase
klystrons will be presented and the design features will be Mod-Anode Yes Yes
discussed.
The CPI 700 MHz Klystron has demonstrated that the
1 KLYSTRON REQUIREMENTS klystron physics design satisfies our performance and
operating requirements; however, the entire klystron
The design requirements for the 350 MHz and 700 MHz package has not yet satisfied all electrical and mechanical
klystrons are included below in table 1. requirements and is still in process.
The 350 MHz klystron was supplied by English
Electric Valve (EEV). Two vendors developed the 700 2 KLYSTRON TEST RESULTS
MHz klystrons, EEV [1] and Communication and Power
Industries (CPI). The design parameters for these two 2.1 350 MHz Klystron
tubes are different but still within the requirements. EEV
The 350 MHz klystron is shown in Fig. 1. The klystron
chose a lower perveance design with respect to CPI. is a six cavity klystron with a second harmonic cavity.
In addition to the standard 700 MHz klystron design, As is seen in the picture, the klystron has a horizontal
EEV also pursued an advanced klystron design utilizing a orientation. Although there is some supplemental lead
second, second harmonic cavity just prior to the output shielding around the collector, the klystron is operated in
cavity. This klystron had to meet the requirements in a lead garage, and the supplemental shielding allows for a
Table 1 and the development was directed towards lead thickness of 0.125” to be suitable for suppressing x-
increasing the efficiency to 70%. ray radiation. The klystron output window is a coaxial
The 350 MHz klystrons have all been tested and window. The coaxial section containing the window can
installed on the Low Energy Demonstration Accelerator be seen in the picture protruding from the top of the tube.
(LEDA) [2], and have satisfied all design requirements. A t-bar is used to transition from the coaxial line to
waveguide. The klystron requires three cooling circuits.
The standard EEV 700 MHz klystron has been tested,
Up to 400 gpm is provided to the collector, and two body
demonstrated all requirements, and is being installed on circuits require up to 10 gpm. The RF window on the
LEDA. The high-efficiency EEV klystron has been tested klystron is air cooled. A small oil tank is included with
and demonstrated compliance with the baseline design the klystron for high voltage insulation and is visible in
requirements. In addition, the efficiency was increased the photos.
from the required 65% to 68%. Higher efficiencies were
231
Figure 2: CPI 700 MHz Klystron
Figure 1: EEV 350 MHz Klystron.
Table 3. CPI 700 MHz Klystron Recorded Data
Table 2 contains the recorded operating parameters and
characteristics of one of the 350 MHz klystrons. In Heater Voltage 21.2 V
addition to this data the tube undergoes a 24 hour run with Heater Current 19 A
only 2 tube-caused trips allowed at 110 % of rated power Main Focus Current 17 A
and also must demonstrate the full 1847 kW of beam Main Focus Voltage < 120 V
power into the collector for one hour. Output focus Current 22A
Output focus Voltage < 120 V
Table 2. EEV 350 MHz Recorded Klystron Data Beam Voltage 92 kV
Beam Current 16.6 A
Heater Voltage 22.8 V
Mod Anode Voltage 78 kV
Heater Current 22.8 A
Mod Anode Current 1.4 mA
Main Focus Current 6.4 A
Drive Power 12.3 W
Main Focus Voltage 227 V
Output Power 1000 kW
Output focus Current 8.2 A
Efficiency 65.5 %
Output focus Voltage 123 V
Body Power 3.7 kW
Beam Voltage 94.1 kV
Output Cavity Power 8.6 kW
Beam Current 19.63 A
Mod Anode Voltage 51.8 kV
Table 5 illustrates the efficiency of the EEV high-
Mod Anode Current 0.4 mA
efficiency klystron as it drives a mismatch of nominally
Drive Power 93 W
1.2:1 at variable phase. The table shows that for some
Output Power 1210 kW
phases of the mismatch very high efficiencies were
Efficiency 65.5 %
achieved. However, by noting the mod-anode current and
Body Power 3.5 kW
body power for the high-efficiency phases of the
Output Cavity Power 3.3 kW
mismatch, it can be concluded that some of the electrons
are being stopped and turned around and are not only
2.2 700 MHz Klystron hitting the tube body but also traveling back down the
beam pipe and impacting on the mod anode, increasing
The CPI version of the 700 MHz klystron is illustrated in the mod anode current. These returned electron can lead to
Fig. 2. At the level of detail allowed by the picture the
sideband oscillations [3,4]. During early testing an
differences between this klystron and the EEV klystrons is
not easily distinguishable, so in the interest of space efficiency approaching 70 % was achieved into a matched
conservation only the CPI photo is included. The EEV load but was unstable at some phases of a 1.2:1 VSWR.
klystrons do have a slightly longer output coax prior to The guide wavelength in WR1500 waveguide is 52 cm so
the T-bar transition to insure mode purity in the window each 4 cm change in position of the mismatch in Table 5
ceramic. represents a phase change of 28 degrees.
The physical description of the 700 MHz tube is Figs. 3 and 4 illustrate the power transfer curve of the
identical to the description provided above for the 350 CPI 700 MHz klystron and the klystron’s measured
MHz klystron and is not repeated. The 700 MHz frequency response. These plots are useful to the
klystrons also is subject to the 24 hour test at 110% of designers of the feedback circuitry to control the
rated power. accelerating-cavity amplitude and phase by modulation of
The recorded test data from the CPI 700 MHz klystron, the klystron drive signal.
the standard EEV 700 MHz klystron, and the high
efficiency EEV 700 MHz klystron are included in tables 3
and 4. Table 4 includes results for both the EEV standard
klystron and the high efficiency klystron.
232
1200
Table 4. EEV 700 MHz Standard Klystron Recorded Data
1000
800
Standard High Effic.
Effic.
600 Heater Voltage 22.8 V 22.8 V
400 Heater Current 23.8 A 24.3 A
Main Focus Current 12.8 A 12.3 A
200
Main Focus Voltage 141 V 163 V
0 Output focus Current 12.8 A 12.8 A
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Drive Power (Watts)
42 Output focus Voltage 91 V 106 V
Beam Voltage 95.1 kV 95.1 kV
Figure 3: CPI klystron power transfer curve. Beam Current 16.28 A 15.57 A
Mod Anode Voltage 51.52 kV 46.67 kV
Mod Anode Current 0.15 mA 0.3 mA
1200
Drive Power 75 W 96 W
1000 Output Power 1013 kW 1007 kW
800 Efficiency 65.4 % 68 %
Output Power (kW)
600
Body Power 4.0 kW 3.9 kW
Output Cavity Power 6.2 kW 6.9 kW
400
200
0
Table 5. EEV High-Efficiency Klystron Data as a
697.5 698.0 698.5 699.0 699.5 700.0 700.5 701.0 701.5 702.0 702 Function of VSWR
Frequency (MHz)
POS Ima Effic. Body 1 Output
Figure 4: CPI klystron frequency response. (cm) (mA) (%) Power Cavity
(kW) Power
3 CONCLUSIONS (kW)
Successful klystron developments have been completed 0 .2 61.1 4.2 6.0
for the APT project. The test data show the klystrons 4 .3 60.6 3.8 5.8
meet or exceed all requirements. Commencing in October 8 .4 65.2 4.4 7.0
we will begin to gather long term reliability data on these 12 1.0 70.8 5.6 6.6
klystrons with the LEDA accelerator. 16 .9 74.2 5.8 8.7
20 .3 72.8 4.4 6.6
4 REFERENCES 24 .2 65.7 4.1 5.9
[1] D. Bowler et al., “Design of a High Efficiency 1 MW
CE Klystron at 700 MHz For Low Energy
Demonstrator Accelerator,” EPAC 98.
[2] D. Rees et al., “Operation and Test Results of the
350-MHz LEDA RF System,” This conf.
[3] M. Yoshida et al., “Instabilities due to
multipactoring, modulation and anode emission found
for TRISTAN high power CW klystrons,” 6th
Symposium on Accelerator Science and Technology,
Tokyo 1987.
[4] H. Frischolz, “The LEP Main Ring High Power RF
System,” PAC 89.
233
ELECTROMAGNETIC COLD-TEST CHARACTERIZATION OF THE QUAD-
DRIVEN STRIPLINE KICKER
Scott D. Nelson and James E. Dunlap
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California 94550 USA
Abstract Due to beamline usage and the motivations for the cold-
test measurements, the kicker was tested in the LLNL
The first kicker concept design [1] for beam deflection Electromagnetics Laboratory using a variety of vector net-
was constructed to allow stripline plates to be driven; thus work analyzers (to sweep the frequency band) and time
directing, or kicking, the electron beam into two subse- domain impulse generators and scopes.
quent beam lines. This quad-driven stripline kicker is an
eight port electromagnetic network and consists of two
actively driven plates and two terminated plates. Electro-
magnetic measurements performed on the bi-kicker [2]
and quad-kicker were designed to determine: (1) the qual-
ity of the fabrication of the kicker, including component
alignments; (2) quantification of the input feed transition
regions from the input coax to the driven kicker plates; (3) Figure 2. The quad-kicker was tested using fre-
identification of properties of the kicker itself without quency- and time-domain scopes to cover the band
involving the effects of the electron beam; (4) coupling for the swept frequency tests and instantaneous
between a line current source and the plates of the kicker; impulse tests.
and (5) the effects on the driven current to simulate an
electron beam through the body of the kicker. Included in 2 KICKER PORT TESTING
this are the angular variations inside the kicker to examine Each of the eight input ports of the kicker were tested
modal distributions. The goal of the simulated beam was over a frequency band from 45 MHz to 500 MHz. Two
to allow curved path and changing radius studies to be per- ports connected to the input and output of each of the four
formed electromagnetically. The cold test results pro- plates through a tapered transition
duced were then incorporated into beam models [3]. region through a coaxial connector.
The pin on the plate connected
1 INTRODUCTION
directly to the center pin of the coax.
The original kicker design was conceived to allow for The results of the measurements
the diversion of the electron beam dynamically during a (shown in Figure 3) indicate a broad-
long pulse; thus acting like a beam splitter. Experiments band match with the exception of res-
performed on the kicker [4] detail the operating parame- onances caused by the feed regions.
ters of the system. This paper outlines the electromagnetic The comparison in Figure 4 illustrates the feed region
cold-test measurements performed on the kicker as part of effects based on experience learned from the bi-kicker and
the analysis and concepts for the kicker pulser require- quad-kicker development activities.
ments.
Figure 1. The quad-kicker in the Experimental Test Figure 3. The input impedance of each of the ports is
Accelerator (ETA-II) beamline as part of the verifica- shown vs. frequency (margin of error is +/- 0.3
tion experiments [4]. Note the four ports on each ohms). The spikes at 388.75, 414.0, 460 MHz are
end of the quad-kicker. These ports connect directly higher order mode resonances and correspond to Q’s
to the deflection plates. Two of the white pulser of 310 (quadrupole mode), 61 (dipole mode), and 29
cables are visible in the foreground. (dipole mode) respectively.
234
bi-kicker quad-kicker Figure 7. The quad-kicker plates are identical and
Figure 4. The input reflection coefficient (in dB) vs. each is connected to a 50-ohm coaxial port. For the
frequency (in MHz) of the bi-kicker was much more experiments [4] using the existing kicker pulsers, two
uniform due to the more gradual transition region of the plates were driven and the other two plates
after the coaxial feeds. The quad-kicker had a more were terminated in matched loads. Each plate is 78 o
abrupt transition after the coax and has a larger wide (12.87 cm radius) and is supported by rexolite.
input reflection coefficient. The spikes in the bi-
kicker response curve are due to the grounded plate 4 FORWARD COUPLING TERMS
resonances and were eliminated in the quad-kicker.
The kicker pulsers drive one end of the plates and the
other end is mated to reduce reflections on the plate struc-
ture. The loss along the plates is less than 1 dB and the
transfer function from one end of the plate to the other is
shown in Figure 8.
Figure 5. The complex input impedance of the kicker
is shown for one of the ports (the variance between
the ports is +/- 7 ohms due to fabrication differ-
ences). The three straight lines in the curve repre- Figure 8. The transfer function (in dB) vs. frequency
sent under sampling. from one end of the plates to the other end. In the
low frequency part of the spectrum, the curves for the
3 CROSS COUPLING TERMS various plates overlap to within 0.025 dB.
The cross-plate coupling terms of the kicker corre- 5 KICKER RESPONSE
sponded to the coupling between adjacent and opposite
ends of the various plates to each other. These coupling For identification of the transient properties of the
terms represent energy that couples from the kicker pulser kicker and the association between a simulated beam and
driven plate to those plates that are terminated, thus induc- the kicker ports, a ramp pulse (0.95V per 300ns) was used
ing fields onto plates that are not directly driven. These to excite the wire-current. The resulting waveform that
cross coupling terms are appreciable (8% and 20%) even was induced on the downstream output port is shown in
at the lower frequencies. Figure 9.
Figure 6. The magnitude of the coupling between Figure 9. The effect of the 300 ns ramp pulse cou-
adjacent plates vs. frequency shows significant cross pling from the wire-current to one of the kicker plates
coupling at multiples of 80 MHz. The adjacent plate being monitored at a downstream port. Notice that
coupling is 20% and the cross plate coupling is 8%. after about 70 ns, the coupling stabilizes to -0.005
Volts (corresponds to -0.53%). The spikes occur at
the transition of each 300 ns excitation ramp wave-
form.
235
When the central wire representing an electron beam 7 CONCLUSIONS
was excited through the main body of the kicker, the
‘‘pump-up’’ time of the kicker was observed as an equiva- Although the frequency range of interest for kicker
lent time constant of 70 ns. This corresponds to the cavity applications is in the low hundreds of megahertz range and
fill time between the simulated beam pulse and the ports. is based on the bandwidth of the kicker pulser, there were
initial concerns about beam induced effects. For this fre-
6 AZIMUTHAL VARIATIONS quency range: the cross coupling between adjacent ports
is less than 14 dB; the input impedance for each port is
During the course of the measurements, the azimuthal
between 50 and 90 ohms; transmission along the plates
variation caused by the offset-rotations of the current-wire
experiences less than 1 dB of loss; and cavity measure-
was measured and compared against the theoretical solu-
ments show a cavity pump-up time, and a dI/dt coupling
tion for an offset wire in an ideal
between the current-wire and the cavity.
kicker. A comparison between
this theoretical solution (dashed The input reflection coefficient for some higher fre-
line) for an electrostatic coupling quencies can approach 30%; but these frequencies are
case and that for the experimental expected to be outside of the normal operating range of the
cases at the peak coupling points kicker. However, in making the modifications from the bi-
of 68.4, 139.2, and 209.4 MHz is shown in the above plot. kicker design to the quad-kicker design, the frequency
The angular frequency spectrum of the above plots was band where these effects make a pronounced difference
taken to determine the relationships between the various was lowered and is closer to the operating band. Thus,
modes (Dipole, Quadrupole, and Sextupole) in the kicker subsequent changes in the kicker design would need to be
and those modal ratios are shown in the table below and are leery of this limit. It should be emphasized however that
the elimination of the shorted plates from the bi-kicker
static 68.4 139.2 209.4 eq (1) design substantially improved the operation of the quad-
VQ/VD 0.136 0.134 0.140 0.169 0.174 kicker [4].
VS/VD 0.0252 0.0315 0.0327 0.0351 0.0203 8 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
in a similar range to that determined by integrating the Thanks go to Brian Poole for numerous conversations
simple analytic representation [5] along the plate about kicker development and to Judy Chen and John Weir
boundaries shown in Equation 1, for their experimental activities. This work was performed
3φ under the auspices of the U.S. Department of Energy by
a
4q ----4- ∫ cos 3θ dθ the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory under con-
V b –φ 2 V
1 a sin 3φ 1 a sin 2φ tract No. W-7405-Eng-48.
------S- = ---------------------------------------
- = --
- - --------------
---- ------Q- = --- --- -------------- , ( 1 )
VD φ 3 b 2 sin φ VD 2 b sin φ
a 9 REFERENCES
4q ----2- ∫ cos θ dθ
b –φ
[1] G.J. Caporaso, Y.J. Chen, B.R. Poole, ‘‘Transmission
where φ is the plate half-angle (39 o) but 45o was used to be Line Analysis of Beam Deflection in a BPM Stripline
consistent with the theory since Eq(1) assumes no gaps, b Kicker,’’ 1997 Particle Accelerator Conference, Vancou-
ver, B. C. Canada, May 12-16, 1997, LLNL UCRL-JC-
is the plate radius (12.87 cm), and a is the radius to the
126073.
wire position (3.175 cm). Differences can be attributed to
gap effects between plates, end effects near the feeds, and [2] S. D. Nelson, ‘‘Electromagnetic (Cold Test) Character-
simplifications of the analytic representation. ization of the bi-Driven Kicker,’’ Lawrence Livermore
National Laboratory, UCRL-ID-129997, January 1998,
The equivalent circuit model for the kicker is composed http://www-dsed.llnl.gov/documents/em/sdnkick98/
of a series of transmission line sections and cross-coupling [3] B.R. Poole, G.J. Caporaso, Y. J. Chen, ‘‘Analysis and
terms representing the plate-to-plate effects. Modeling of a Stripline Beam Kicker and Septum,’’
LLNL, 1998 Linear Induction Accelerator Conference
(Linac98), Chicago, Ill. USA, August 24-28, 1998.
[4] Y.J. Chen, G.J. Caporaso, J. Weir, ‘‘Experimental
Results of the Active Deflection of a Beam from a Kicker
System,’’ LLNL, 1998 Linear Induction Accelerator Con-
ference (Linac98), Chicago, Ill. USA, August 24-28,
1998.
[5] A. W. Chao, ‘‘Physics of Collective Beam instabilities
in High Energy Physics,’’ John Wiley & Sons, Inc., pg 6,
1993, ISBN 0-471-55184-8.
236
SOLID-STATE SWITCH MODULATOR DECK FOR
THE MIT-BATES S BAND TRANSMITTER
C. Wolcott, R. Campbell, A. Hawkins, W. North (Consultant), L. Solheim, R. Trepsas, Defa Wang,
A. Zolfaghari, MIT-Bates, M. Gaudreau, M. Mulvaney, Diversified Technologies, Inc.
Abstract The switch itself consists of 8 Insulated Gate
This paper describes how to modernize and Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) modules, connected in series,
simplify the design of a pulse amplitude modulator for and a high-frequency inverter power source for the gate
klystron power amplifiers. The existing modulator design drive circuitry, designed to be compatible with immersion in
uses two parallel-connected Litton Injectron ™ Beam insulating oil. Each switch module contains four series-
Switch Tubes (BSTs) in series with the cathode of an RF connected IGBTs (actually two dual-IGBT assemblies), and
amplifier klystron. A vacuum-tube based modulator sends their associated control, over-voltage protection and
high-voltage pulses to the modulating anodes of the BSTs to diagnostic circuitry. Each IGBT is rated at 1200 V and 100
produce a current pulse through the klystron. In recent A continuous. The overall switch comprises 32 IGBTs in
years, the vacuum-tube circuitry that drives the BSTs and series, with a total voltage rating of 38 kV, shunted by over-
klystron has become difficult and expensive to maintain. voltage clamping which begins to conduct at a voltage of 22
The new design replaces this circuitry with a single switch, kV, utilizing DTI’s patented design. The eight switch
comprising multiple series-connected, high-voltage, high- modules and the associated switch power supply were each
current Insulated-Gate-Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs). Figure mounted on aluminum heat sinks, approximately 7” x 15”.
1 illustrates the basic design of the solid-state modulator These nine component modules were integrated into an
deck. insulating framework, and installed in the solid-state switch
The prototype of this system along with its control deck.
and feedback circuitry has been built at the Bates Linear
Accelerator Center and has been successfully tested in one 3 SOLID STATE DECK
of the Bates accelerator RF transmitters. The new cathode
switching design will not only replace obsolete and failing
technology but will also significantly improve the reliability
and performance of the accelerator and the RF transmitters.
1 INTRODUCTION
The MIT-Bates linear electron accelerator uses the
output of six S-Band RF transmitters to produce the high-
level electric fields that accelerate the beam. Each of these
transmitters contains two klystron power amplifiers. The
modulator in use today uses two parallel-connected Litton
Injectron™ Beam Switch Tubes (BSTs) in series with the
cathode of each klystron. A vacuum-tube based modulator
sends high-voltage pulses to the modulating anodes of the
BSTs to produce a current pulse through the klystron. In
recent years, the vacuum-tube circuitry used in the present
system to drive the BSTs and the klystron has proven
difficult and expensive to maintain. As part of the MIT-
Bates upgrade project, a new design has been created to
replace this old and obsolete technology. Figure 1: Basic Diagram of the Solid-State Deck
2 SOLID-STATE SWITCH The purpose of the modulator is to send pulses of
regulated current, up to 100 Amps, through the klystron
At the heart of the new modulator design is the
power amplifier. When timed correctly, the klystron input
17.5 kV 100 Amp Solid-State Switch (SSS). In the spring of
RF power is amplified and injected into the beam line to
1997, MIT Bates Linear Accelerator Center awarded a
accelerate the beam. The current pulses must have very
contract for a prototype 20 kV, 100-Ampere solid state
switch to Diversified Technologies Inc. of Bedford MA. quick rise and fall times (less than 1 µs) and must be very
This switch utilized the core elements of their commercial stable during the flattop portion of the pulse. The present
unit, the HVPM 20-150. design accomplishes this by sending pulses of high-voltage
(up to 15kV) to the mod-anode of the BSTs. The new
237
design accomplishes the same thing with a constant tap are provided to run the filaments cooler in order to
precision DC high voltage (.001% ripple, .001% regulation) prolong the tube’s lifetime. The taps above 12V are
applied to the mod-anodes and by the use of the SSS in provided for when the tube begins to deteriorate and the
series with the cathodes of the BSTs (see Fig. 1). With the filaments have to be run hotter to produce the desired
switch in the “open” condition, and with the mod-anode klystron current. The filaments are connected to the supply
power supply at a nominal level, high voltage (up to 170kV) in parallel and can be switched to a different tap by the use
is applied across the klystron, BSTs, and the SSS connected of a rotary switch.
in series. The only current flowing through the klystron in The dual solenoid power supply provides
these conditions is the SSS leakage current (less than 1mA). regulated DC current (8 Amps nominal) to the solenoids of
In this situation, the cathodes of the BSTs assume the each BST.
voltage, relative to the mod-anode, necessary to regulate
this small current. Depending on the individual BST, this 4 PROTECTION
voltage could even be a small amount more positive than
the mod-anode. The solid-state cathode switch is closed in Along with the basic building blocks that make up
response to fiber-optically-coupled pulses of light. When the solid-state switch deck, there are many devices that are
the switch closes, the current through the klystron rises (in integral to the reliability, susceptibility, and durability of the
less than 1 µs) to the level set by the mod-anode power design. First, all AC power circuits are protected with
supply. The switch stays closed for a time that is set by the correctly rated circuit breakers and varistors to provide
trigger control circuitry (from 1-50 µs) and then opens short circuit and transient protection. The SOLA AC
again. When the switch opens, the current falls back to the regulator of the filament power supply also provides
leakage level in less than 1 µs. This process can take place transient and inrush current protection. The mod-anode
at various pulse current levels (up to 100 Amps), various power supply is protected from arcs that conceivably could
occur from the BST collectors to a mod-anode of one of the
widths (up to 50 µs) and at various pulse repetition rates (up
BSTs. The first line of defense is a 17kV arc-gap connected
to 600 Hz.). The klystron current can be increased or
between the mod-anode of each BST and the negative high-
decreased by increasing or decreasing the mod-anode power
voltage rail. These gaps ensure that the mod-anode power
supply output voltage.
supply will never be destroyed by such a destructive
The peripheral equipment on the solid-state deck
occurrence. However, these arc-gaps take a small amount
includes the mod-anode power supply, the dual filament
of time before they fire. They also work more reliably when
power supply, and the dual solenoid supply. These power
supplies are all necessary to run the BSTs. the voltage across them ramps up slowly. The 2µF
The mod-anode power supply is a positive-output capacitor across the output of the mod-anode power supply
300-Watt high-voltage power supply that is adjustable to 20 provides the means to slow down the voltage transient and
kV. This power supply, manufactured by Bertan allows the arc-gaps to work more effectively. The capacitor
Associates, is an extremely precise supply. The ripple and is rated for 30kV and 5,000 Amps of transient current for
regulation specifications are both 0.001%. This amount of this purpose. The arc-gaps also provide protection to the
precision is necessary to regulate the klystron current mod-anode of the BSTs, the filament power supply, and the
without any noticeable pulse to pulse, phase, or amplitude SSS. If the mod-anode power supply output rises too high,
jitter (the phase-pushing factor of the klystron is all these circuits could be over-voltaged if not for the arc-
approximately 10 degrees per 1 percent beam voltage gaps.
change, or per 1.5 percent current change). Shunting the Another arc protection strategy uses the shield of
the BSTs themselves. The inner geometry of the BST is
output of the power supply is a 100,000Ω resistor and a 30
such that the collector of the BST is most likely to arc to the
kV, 2µF capacitor that together form a low-pass filter to
shield electrode. On the solid-state switch deck, the shield
further attenuate any ripple on the mod-anode voltage.
is tied directly to B-, the reference of the deck. In this way,
The dual-filament power supply provides AC
nearly every arc will go straight to the reference. The
power to the filaments of each BST. Each BST filament
cathodes of the BSTs and the SSS are also protected from
requires 10 Amps at 12 volts to ensure that the tubes are
arcs by two components. A wire wrapped tube is connected
never temperature limited. The dual-filament supply
between the cathodes of the BSTs and the SSS. In the event
consists of two transformers. The first transformer is a
of an arc to the cathode, which would damage the SSS, this
SOLA AC regulator. This device takes the AC power that
small inductance will limit the current and hold a portion of
is floating at high voltage and converts it to a regulated 120
the voltage during the arc. The second stage of this arc
VAC. The second transformer is a 500 VA multi-tapped,
protection is a very large metal-oxide varistor (MOV)
step-down, isolation transformer. This transformer provides
across the entire SSS, which provides a great deal of
isolation for up to 30kV, which is necessary because when
transient protection. The third stage is the protection
the SSS opens, the cathodes of the BSTs float at a voltage
circuitry in the SSS itself. With all these safeguard
near the mod-anode power supply output. The secondary of
strategies, the BSTs, the peripheral supplies, and the SSS
the isolation transformer is tapped at 10.5, 11, 12 (nominal),
are all protected.
13, 14, 16, and 18 VAC. The taps below the 12V nominal
238
5 INSTRUMENTATION the crowbar is fired. With any of these crowbar events, the
switch is latched in the open position. A 0-5 VDC voltage
Signals from the SSS, the mod-anode power that is converted to a 20kHz to 100 kHz fiber optic signal
supply, the solenoid power supply, and the filament power controls the mod-anode power supply. This control signal
supply are all transmitted from the deck, which is floating at must be as stable as the power supply in order to keep the
high voltage, to the ground level instrumentation via fiber ripple and stability percentages low.
optic links.
The SSS sends a fiber optic signal from each
7 PROTOTYPE PERFORMANCE
IGBT module that indicates whether or not the IGBT
module is open or closed. The mod-anode power supply During the week of December 1, 1997 the prototype solid-
sends back a 20kHz to 100kHz frequency signal that state-switch-deck was installed into the oil tank of one of
indicates the level of the power supply output. This signal the Bates transmitters after having been extensively tested in
is converted to a voltage and fed to a digital meter that air. On December 3, the deck was turned on and began to
displays the mod-anode power supply output in kilovolts. pulse. That day the transmitter was processed to a klystron
The solenoid power supply sends back a 0Hz to 100kHz current of 60 Amps with a pulse width of 20µs at 60 Hz.
frequency signal that indicates the current through the The system ran for 3 hours and experienced 3 major
solenoids. This signal is converted to a voltage and fed to crowbars as part of processing and remained undamaged.
another digital meter that displays the solenoid current in The next day the system was processed to 80 Amps with a
Amps. The AC current to each BST filament runs through width of 22µs and with a pulse repetition rate of 600 Hz.
a small transformer. Across the secondary of the The system ran at this level for 24 hours with no major
transformer is a resistor that is sized so that the output failures. Figure 2 shows an oscilloscope picture of the
voltage of the transformer, when rectified, is 9 VDC when klystron pulse current at 74 Amps at a pulse repetition rate
10 Amps AC is flowing through the filament. This voltage of 600 Hz. Trace #1 is the trigger input to the control
is converted to a frequency that is sent to ground via a fiber circuitry and trace #2 is the signal from the klystron
optic cable. This frequency is converted back to a voltage collector current transformer, which has an output ratio of
and the current through each filament, in Amps, is displayed 0.1 volts per Amp.
on a digital meter. In this way, all the necessary information
from the solid-state deck is conveyed to ground level and
displayed in the correct units.
6 CONTROL
The SSS is turned on and off by a gate signal that
is converted to a fiber optic pulse. This pulse is transmitted
to the SSS via a fiber optic cable and the switch is closed as
long as there is light at the end of the cable. The width and
frequency of the gating signal determines the width and
frequency of the current pulses through the klystron. Pulse
current transformers are used to monitor the collector,
cathode, and body current of the klystron. The collector
and cathode current can be viewed with an oscilloscope. In
the event of a klystron arc, the body current transformer will Figure 2: Klystron Current Pulse
produce a pulse and the SSS will be latched open. There is
also a ground current pulse transformer that monitors all This very successful test proved the functionality
currents through ground. This transformer will also of the solid-state switch deck. The full-power 24 hour heat
produce a pulse during a klystron arc but this pulse will fire run did not reveal any weaknesses and there were no
the crowbar of the transmitter, thereby de-energizing the reliability problems associated with this test.
main high-voltage power supply and the energy-storing
capacitor banks. It is undesirable to fire the crowbar in the 8 CONCLUSION
event of a klystron arc. Therefore, any signal from the The new solid-state deck at the Bates Linear Accelerator is
ground current transformer is integrated so that it does not a vast improvement over the old modulator designs of the
reach its crowbar trigger level for 10µs. In this way a past. The new design uses less power, is much smaller, uses
klystron arc may be extinguished without firing the crowbar, fewer components, is much more reliable, and is easier to
but any other fault through the ground path will fire the control. The system has been thoroughly tested in the air
crowbar after 10µs. and in the transmitters at Bates and has been proven to work
There is also a pulse current transformer that successfully. This new modulator design will greatly
monitors the amount of current difference between the two increase not only the efficiency of the accelerator overall,
BSTs. If this current becomes too large, as in a BST arc, but will improve the performance as well.
239
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR VERY HIGH POWER
RF WINDOWS AT X-BAND*
W. R. Fowkes, R. S. Callin, E. N. Jongewaard
D. W. Sprehn, S. G. Tantawi, A. E. Vlieks
Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, Stanford, California 94309 USA
Abstract TE11 windows are susceptable to conversion to TM11, TE12
RF window designs of the Pillbox type were capable of and TM12 in the transitions (tapered or stepped) going
transmitting peak rf power up to about 10 MW. The power from single moded to overmoded diameters. TE01
levels now being produced by advanced high frequency power windows are not as vulnerable to mode conversion with
sources is beyond the level that can safely be transmitted increases in diameter providing the mode converter has
through a single rf window of conventional design. New launched TE01 with good purity. Gradual tapers maintain
approaches are required to keep the rf electric fields at a
manageable level in the vicinity of the rf window.
TE01 mode purity but are not usually very compact.
This paper describes some of the recent rf window designs Stepped transitions to larger diameters are normally
at SLAC and elsewhere and some of the test results. Windows susceptible to conversion to higher order TE 0n modes
that operate in larger waveguide in higher order modes such as unless special attention is given to the step design.
TE01 and in a mix of modes such as TE11, TM11 and TE12 are
described. RF chokes and corona shields, circular polarization 2.2 TE01 TW Window with Compact
and forced electric field reduction are also discussed. Optimized Step
1 INTRODUCTION
The high power window presently used on all of the
SLAC X-band klystrons has been reported on previously
[1]. It is usually referred to as a TE01 reduced field
traveling wave window. A pair of symmetrically located
inductive irises are used to set up a standing wave in the
region between the irises and the 47 mm diameter
ceramic window surface. This results in “forcing” a lower
impedance at the window surface that exactly matches the
characteristic impedance inside the ceramic thereby
causing a pure traveling wave condition inside the
ceramic. This design has been tested successfully to over
100 MW in a traveling wave resonator (TWR) and has
been serving as a single output window on the 50 MW
XL-4 series klystrons. This design however, is considered
marginal at this power level. Fig. 1. Compact overmoded 65 mm diameter TE01 window.
The new 75 MW periodic permanent magnet (PPM) Field reduction is accomplish by a combination of the 2-stage
focussed klystron presently uses a pair the windows steps and irises. The double step is optimized to cancel TE02 that
described above, each passing 37.5 MW. Four TE10/TE01 is created at each indivdual step.
mode transducers are presently required—an expensive
luxury due to the cost of the mode transducers.
2 LARGE DIAMETER TE01 TW WINDOW
2.1 Larger Single Window
A single window alternative has been sought that will
safely handle the full 75 MW. The 47 mm TW window
described above is considered to be very reliable up to a
peak power level of about 40 MW where the peak rf
electric field at the window is 3.4 MV/meter. Using this
electric field level as a design criterion for a single 75
MW window, an increase in diameter to 65 mm would be
required. This assumes of course that TE 01 mode purity is
maintained and the reduced field TW scheme is used. A Fig. 2. Cold test results of window in Fig. 1 measured on HP
problem that must be addressed in all all overmoded 8510C NWA using old style “Flower-Petal” mode transducers
diameter circular windows windows is mode conversion. which have narrower bandwidth than the window.
*
Work supported by Department of Energy contract DE-AC03-76SF00515
243
This paper describes a compact 65 mm diameter TE01 and the total normalized iris susceptance that would give
TW window that is virtually free of higher order modes. σopt is given by
The maximum electric field at the surface of this window
B λg − λg '
at 75 MW is about the same as exists at for the previously
described window at 40 MW; 3.4 MV/meter. The TE01 = = 1.3476
mode is created in 38 mm diameter circular waveguide Y0 λg λ g '
using the recently designed compact wrap-around mode
transducer [2] shown in Fig 4. where λg and λg’ are the guide wavelengths in the large
diameter outside and inside the ceramic window
Frequency (GHz)
respectively [1]. The double-step reflection of 0.167
11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 corresponds to a normalized susceptance of 0.3388. The
0.00 difference is made up with symmetrical inductive irises
each having a normalized susceptance of
Unwanted TE02 relative to Total
-10.00
Transmitted Power (dB)
-20.00
B
-30.00
= 1.3476 − 0.3388 = 1.0088
Y0
-40.00
-50.00 located properly so that the stored energy between the iris
Optimized Double Step
Single Step
and the 2-stage step is minimum. It is important that the
-60.00
irises be located in the smaller (38.1 mm) port since an
-70.00
inductive iris will convert to TE02 in the larger (65 mm)
Frequency Response of Optimized Double Step port.
Fig. 3. Comparision of an optimized double step with a single TE 02 S en sitivity to Interm ed iate Step Len gth
step going from 38 mm to 65 mm with a launched TE01 mode. @ 11.424 G Hz
0
Unw anted Conversion to TE02 (dB
The input and output ports for this window design -1 0
are 38 mm diameter. The transition from 38 mm to 65 -2 0
mm is a two-stage step designed using MLEGO© which
-3 0
sets up the cancellation of the TE02 mode excited at each
step stage [3]. If one were to use a single sudden step in -4 0
diameter from 38 mm to 65 mm, the resulting mode -5 0
conversion is the following: S21 of 0.78 for TE01 and 0.62
-6 0
for TE02 with only TE01 exciting the smaller diameter port.
By going to a two-step design, the length and diameter of -7 0
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
the intermediate step is optimized to null out the natural Intermediate Step Length (mm)
conversion to TE02. The optimum intermediate diameter is
58.14 mm with a length of 19.48 mm. The residual S21 for Unwanted TE02 Sensitivity to Intermediate
TE02 drops to 0.00051. The effectivness of this optimized Diameter @ 11.424 GHz
step is shown in the graph in Fig. 3. It is compared with a 0
TE02 Below Transmitted Total (dB)
single abrupt step as a function of frequency. The -10
unwanted conversion from TE01 to TE02 is mimized for the
operating frequency of ll.424 GHz. -20
All this is accomplished at the expense of a residual -30
TE01 mismatch S11 of 0.167 in the 38 mm port. This
-40
residual mismatch, however, can be used along some help
from an additional iris to set up the standing wave that is -50
necessary to force the electric field down at the surface of -60
the ceramic. The result is a pure traveling wave inside the
ceramic. -70
50.00 52.00 54.00 56.00 58.00 60.00 62.00 64.00
It can be shown that the optimum VSWR needed to Intermediate Diameter (mm)
produce the TW condition within the ceramic is
Fig. 3a and 3b. The Double step from 38.1 mm to 65 mm has
λ been optimized to cancel out any TE02 conversion occurring at
σ opt = g each step at the operating frequency of 11.424 GHz. This was
λg ' accomplished using the mode matching code MLEGO. The
variable parameters are the length and diameter of the
intermediate step. The above graphs show the theoretical
sensitivity of the conversion to unwanted TE02 to each of these
parameters while the other is kept at the optimum value.
244
been built for these reasons. There was an effort to
modify this design to a larger diameter but we were
4
unable to solve the problem of mode conversion from
TE11 to TM11 and TE12 in the larger diameter portion of the
window.
3.2 Other Overmoded Windows
There have been some recent designs where the
conversion of TE11 to combinations of TM11, TE12, TM12
were exploited successfully by Sergi Kazakov in a
collaboration between BINP and KEK [4]. These designs
have window diameters of either 53mm or 64 mm. These
use the reduced field TW concept and in some cases the
y
z
total electric field at the braze fillet has been reduced
z
x
substantially and the axial component of electric field
1
from TM11 is also greatly reduced.
zoom
4 REFERENCES
y
[1] W. R. Fowkes, R. S. Callin, S. G. Tantawi, and E. L.
z
Wright, “Reduced Field TE01 X-Band Traveling
Wave Window”, Proceedings of 1995 Particle
Accelerator Conference, Dallas, May 1995 pp
1587-9.
u
y
[2] S. G. Tantawi, “The Wrap-around Converter: A
x
compact TE10/TE01 Mode Transducer” (to be
Fig. 4. HFSS output showing the geometry of the new compact published).
Wrap-around TE10/TE01 mode transducer that is used to excite
the TE01 mode in 38 mm circular waveguide.
[3] MLEGO© A mode matching code, Copyright S. G.
Tantawi.
3 OTHER WINDOWS
nd
3.1 Revisiting TE11 with Chokes [4] S. Y. Kazakov, Presented at 2 International Study
TE01 is preferred for technical reasons. The braze Group Workshop on Next Linear Collider, ISG2,
fillet is in a zero electric field region. The high cost of Tsukuba, Japan, July 1998.
the TE10/TE01 mode transducers however, diminishes the
attractiveness of the TE01 design. TE11 window designs are
not being abandoned entirely for some applications. A
window has been designed that uses RF chokes to block
RF from the region where the ceramic is brazed into its
sleeve. A pair of symmetically placed inductive irises set
up the reduced field TW condition similar the the TE01
version described earlier. The irises are necessarily thick
with a full radius to reduce the local surface electric field
as much as possible. A cold test version of this design
was built and tested at SLAC. The diameter of the
circular waveguide approaching the choke region is 27
mm while the cylinder housing the ceramic is 47 mm.
This diameter is larger than necessary and was used
because ceramic window blanks were available from the
TE01 design.
This design has two main drawbacks. The surface
electric field on the inside of the irises is high and there is
also a strong axial component of RF electric field
between the choke lobe tips and the ceramic surface, a
fact that was overlooked in the beginning until it was
modeled on a later version of HFSS that was capable of
resolving total electric field into axial and radial
components. A high power version of this design has not
245
STRATEGIES FOR WAVEGUIDE COUPLING FOR SRF CAVITIES
Lawrence R. Doolittle
Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility, Newport News, Virginia 23606 USA
Abstract
Table 1: Mode attenuations in beampipe
Despite widespread use of coaxial couplers in SRF cavi-
ties, a single, simple waveguide coupling can be used both
mode freq. (GHz) p attenuation (dB/cm)
to transmit generator power to a cavity, and to remove a TM010 1.497 2.405 5.31
large class of Higher Order Modes (HOMs, produced by TE111 1.72–1.97 1.841 2.83–3.33
the beam). There are balances and tradeoffs to be made, TM110 2.08–2.12 1.841 2.44–2.77
such as the coupling strength of the various frequencies,
the transverse component of the coupler fields on the beam
relatively tight ratio between the fundamental (which must
axis, and the magnitude of the surface fields and currents.
not be absorbed) and the lowest frequency HOM (which
This paper describes those design constraints, categories of
must be absorbed). The Cornell/Jefferson Lab cell shapes
solutions, and examples from the CEBAF Energy Upgrade
set a ratio of 1.72 to 1.50 GHz for this requirement. The
studies.
community’s history of HOM absorbers (often designed
to these tight frequency selectivity requirements) has been
1 USE OF COUPLERS less than trouble-free. One might hope that moving the
Fundamental power couplers form an important part of required absorption band edge from 1.7 GHz to 2.7 GHz
the design of any RF accelerating cavity, and have a his- could make for a simpler, more reliable filter.
tory of difficult development in superconducting 1 Note that the Qext required for HOM modes can be
designs[1]. Although waveguide couplers are relatively un- 100 times lower than the design point for Qext of the funda-
common in this arena, they offer some intriguing advan- mental: Storage rings typically need Qext less than 104 for
tages, including simplicity and the ability to operate while HOMs and 105 –106 for the fundamental, and linacs typi-
flexing mechanically. cally need Qext less than 105 for HOMs and 106 –107 for
The intended operation of a coupler is clear—it has to the fundamental.
convert the TM01 mode of the circular beampipe (and pos-
sibly higher order modes as well) to the TE10 rectangular 2 A =2 STUB DESIGN
waveguide mode, eventually connected through a window Cornell designed and tested a waveguide coupler for use in
and cold-warm transition to the power source. a storage ring. The basic design used a stub slightly shorter
Much of the following discussion depends on the prop- than =2, as shown in Figure 1[2, 3, 4]. The second stub is
agation of various modes down the circular beampipe. Ta- used for HOM purposes: the HOM coupler in that design
ble 1 shows the calculation of attenuation
A = 20= ln 10
p p=a
( )2 , (2f=c)2
was incapable of damping modes below 1.9 GHz, and there
are cavity TE111 modes in the 1.7 to 1.9 GHz range that
needed damping. The second stub enhanced coupling to
for the cavities (designed at Cornell) used at Jefferson Lab, these modes.
which have tube radius a = 3:5 cm. Most = 1 cavities This coupler length has some interesting advantages: the
fundamental can be rejected by a factor of sin(2x=)
1. This condition does not hold for non- TM010 modes
have similar behavior in this regard, although there will cer-
and HOMs, since is appreciably different at other fre-
tainly be small differences due to the HOM band structure
and the relative size of the beampipe. Note that the TM110
cavity mode couples to both the TM11 (p = 3:832) and quencies (1.7 vs. 1.5 GHz in the latter case). The resulting
TE11 (p = 1:841) waveguide modes, but the former decays strong coupling to the former mode set is of great interest
in a storage ring application, where the stub-on-stub design
was demonstrated to give a factor of two reduction in Qext
more rapidly and is unimportant for pipes longer than 2 cm.
for the 4=5 TM010 mode[3].
It is possible to ignore HOM properties of the coupler,
and assert that separate HOM filter/absorbers will be used
Figure 2 shows the electric fields of this coupler in the di-
(this is the approach of Jefferson Lab’s baseline design for
rection of the beam axis, as computed by HFSS[7]. Exami-
nation of these shows the large resonance (14 amplitude)
its energy upgrade). That places stringent requirements on
the HOM damping system. In particular it leaves intact a
set up between the beamline and the end of the stub. The
Work supported by the U.S. DOE Contract # DE-AC05-84ER40150 curve labelled “Real” is the component of a traveling wave
246
3.5 cm R 10.0 cm 3.5 cm R
11.0 cm 2.5 cm 8.5 cm 2.5 cm
13.5 cm 13.5 cm
8.0 cm
Figure 1: Schematic (interior dimensions) of =2 stub-on- Figure 3: Schematic (interior dimensions) of =4 stub FPC
stub FPC used by the Cornell/JLab cavity system. proposed for the CEBAF energy upgrade cryomodule.
that is in phase with the evanescent fields in the beampipe. length of beampipe between the coupler and end cell iris.
It is also the standing wave pattern when the cavity is filled, The coupler fields are quite asymmetric in the =2 stub
as would occur in steady state on resonance. The curve la- design. The resulting beam kick was cancelled (to first or-
belled “Imag” is the component of a traveling wave that is der) in the CEBAF accelerator by arranging the feeds in
in quadrature with the evanescent fields in the beampipe. It a + + , , , , ++ pattern for the 8-cavity cryomodule.
is also the standing wave pattern when the cavity is empty, Further study of coupler kicks[5] has in some cases placed
as would occur off resonance. extra restrictions on the setup of cavity gradients[6]. The
use of the stub to reject the fundamental mode also leads to
This design also provides a mechanism to tune Qext by
high fields in the coupler, and the stub must be well cooled
mechanical deformation of the stub. A bow in the wide
to keep it superconducting.
face of the waveguide will change , which in turn makes
a large change in sin(2x=) and therefore Qext . For large
changes in Qext , this might make sense. The complexity of 3 A =4 STUB DESIGN
producing a reliable cold mechanism makes this unattrac-
The same waveguide–beamline topology can result in a
tive for performing small adjustments, where an external
near-zero coupler kick, if the stub is =4 long, as shown
three-stub tuner can perform adequately.
in Figure 3. Figure 4 shows Ez along the length of the
When the cavity shape was incorporated in Jefferson coupler axis, again computed by HFSS.
Lab’s design for its Nuclear Physics accelerator, CEBAF, For a given intensity of fundamental evanescent fields in
the Qext tunability was used to shift from the (storage ring) the beampipe at the coupler location, this coupler design
design point of 3 105 to the (recirculating linac) design has a factor of 10 lower peak field in the coupler region.
point of 6 106. This factor of 20 reduction of sin(2x=) It passes a factor of 10 more wave intensity to its wave-
made for touchy bench adjustments and increased concerns guide port than the =2 stub design. To keep Qext the
about how stresses in assembly and cooldown could affect same, therefore, one could either put more beampipe be-
Qext . In retrospect, it might have been better to obtain tween the cavity and the coupler, or add a matching iris on
some or all of the gross increase in Qext by increasing the the rectangular waveguide section.
1.5 1.5
Real Real
1 Imag 1 Imag
Real x 0.1
normalized E_z
normalized E_z
0.5 0.5
0 0
-0.5 -0.5
-1 -1
-1.5 -1.5
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
x (cm) x (cm)
Figure 2: Electric fields in the centerline of =2 stub-on- Figure 4: Electric fields in the centerline of =4 stub FPC
stub FPC used by the Cornell/JLab cavity system. proposed for the CEBAF energy upgrade cryomodule.
247
While the use of a matching iris may sound silly, a super- Meeting all of these needs simultaneously turned out to
conducting filter constructed out of H -plane steps in wave- be a larger challenge than anticipated. Among other prob-
guide width can form an effective narrowband iris. An ex- lems, many of the windows installed at CEBAF have de-
ample design sets up a VSWR of 10 at 1.5 GHz, but less veloped pinholes during the years of operation[11].
than 1.2 at 1.72 GHz and above[8]. It takes only 56 cm of The baseline design of the cryomodules for CEBAF’s
waveguide length, zero beamline space, and does not in- energy upgrade uses a single ceramic window at room tem-
duce asymmetric coupler fields. perature, away from line-of-sight of the cavities. The cou-
pler system, window included, is not used for HOM damp-
4 POLARIZATION OF RF COUPLING ing, so the window can be implemented with a narrowband
design (allowing a thicker ceramic with better puncture re-
Normally the two polarizations of dipole (and higher rota- sistance). It still forms part of the beam vacuum envelope,
tional order) modes have slightly different frequencies, due and must be manufactured and assembled free of particu-
to broken cylindrical symmetry by manufacturing defects lates.
and couplers. In the worst case, a single HOM coupler
in the presence of otherwise degenerate polarizations will 6 CONCLUSIONS
break the degeneracy in such a manner as to couple only
one of the two polarizations. Conversely, a single coupler The ultimate simplicity of a waveguide coupler makes it a
can function effectively if the nodal planes are pinned at a worthy competitor to a conventional coaxial coupler. The
45 angle from the coupler plane. Cornell/Jefferson Lab experience has led to clearer under-
The lowest frequency mode (which is the hardest to sep- standing of how to use waveguide couplers to meet design
arate from the fundamental in conventional HOM filters) is goals. A coupler based on this work is now in the prototyp-
normally the TE111 dipole mode, so any attempt to extract ing phase at Jefferson Lab.
this mode from the fundamental power coupler (waveguide
or not) has to deal with polarization. The HOM coupler 7 REFERENCES
in the Cornell/Jefferson Lab cavity-coupler system is de-
signed to polarize the TE111 mode in the ideal direction. [1] M. Champion, “RF Input Couplers and Windows: Perfor-
mances, Limitations, and Recent Developments,” Proceed-
Most measurements of mode Q’s verify the success of this
ings of the Seventh Workshop on RF-Superconductivity, B.
plan. This effect was not checked during manufacturing, Bonin, editor, Gif sur Yvette, France, 195 (1995).
however, and in two cases (in Jefferson Lab’s Free Elec-
tron Laser) one of those modes shows very high Qext [9]. [2] J. Kirchgessner, “Preliminary Studies on LCY Fundamental
Power Coupler,” Cornell University, Laboratory of Nuclear
Some studies have shown [10] that polarized cells can be
Studies report SRF-820902-EXA (1982).
used to damp both polarizations with a single coupler. To
date, no beam testing or production manufacturing of such [3] J. Kirchgessner, “Measurements on LCY Coupler,” Cor-
cells has been attempted, so the cost and performance im- nell University, Laboratory of Nuclear Studies report SRF-
830103-EXA (1983).
pact can not be fully characterized. The polarizing effects
of the =4 stub waveguide coupler discussed here are rather [4] J. Amato, “Summary of HOM Measurements to Date,” Cor-
small, so there is hope that an intentional disturbance (such nell University, Laboratory of Nuclear Studies report SRF-
as an elliptical section of beampipe near the coupler) could 831002-EXA (1983).
swamp both residual manufacturing and inherent coupler [5] C. G. Yao, “Effects of Field Asymmetry in the Coupler,”
polarization, without the complexity of polarized cells. Jefferson Laboratory Tech Note CEBAF-TN-89-183 (1989).
[6] Jefferson Lab FEL Team, private communication.
5 RF WINDOWS [7] Ansoft HFSS, by Ansoft Corporation, http://www.ansoft.
com, commercially licensed software.
The design of windows is tightly bound to that of the cou-
[8] L. R. Doolittle, “Analysis and Design of Waveguide Filters
pler itself. In the original Cornell/JLab design, a cold win-
dow (originally KaptonTM, later ceramic) was used, pri- H
Based on -Plane Steps,” Jefferson Laboratory Tech Note
marily to keep the cells under clean vacuum during cry-
JLab-TN-98-034, http://recycle.jlab.org/ ldoolitt/hstep/.
omodule assembly. That window had to meet a set of ex- [9] Lia Merminga, I. E. Campisi, “Higher-Order-Modes and
treme design goals: Beam Breakup Simulations in the Jefferson Lab FEL Re-
circulating Linac,” these proceedings.
Low VSWR over a wide frequency range (because of [10] “Azimuthal Shaping of Cylindrical Accelerating Cavities
the HOM damping needs) for Improved Higher Order Mode Extraction,” J. C. Amato,
Tolerance of high radiation flux (it’s only 8 cm from et al., IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. NS-32, 3593 (1985).
the beamline) [11] L. Phillips et al., “Some Operational Characteristics of CE-
Low RF losses at the fundamental (since dissipation is BAF RF Windows at 2 K,” Proc. of the Particle Accelerator
taken by the 2 K helium circuit) Conference, 1993, 1007.
Particulate free during assembly and operation (to
avoid damaging cavity performance)
248
SYSTEMATIC DESIGN OF AN S-BAND PILLBOX-TYPE RF WINDOW
A. Jöstingmeier, M. Dohlus and N. Holtkamp, DESY, D-22607 Hamburg, Germany
hwi mag. wall
Abstract symmetry
11111111111
00000000000
The scattering matrix technique and the MAFIA computer
code are employed for the systematic design of an 75 MW
111
000
00000000000
11111111111
00000000000
11111111111
000
111
00000000000
11111111111
00000000000
11111111111 y
000
111
00000000000
11111111111
00000000000
11111111111 0000000
1111111
S-band pillbox-type window. It is shown that with the stan-
dard pillbox-type design the window cannot be matched
2r
pb 000
111
00000000000
11111111111
ε
000
111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
el. wall 1111111
r
0000000
x
0000000
1111111
bwg
using ceramic disks with a thickness in the range from 000
111
00000000000
11111111111
00000000000
11111111111
000
111
00000000000
11111111111
00000000000
11111111111symmetry
0000000
1111111
4 mm to 8 mm. Nevertheless such disks are mechanically 000
111
00000000000
11111111111
00000000000
11111111111
00000000000
11111111111
more robust and easier to manufacture than the usual 3 mm lpb awg
disks. Therefore a new design of the pillbox-type window
with an additional inductive iris is presented so that ceramic Figure 1: Schematic drawing of the pillbox-type rf window.
disks of arbitrary thickness may be used. Furthermore it
is demonstrated how the bandwidth of the window can be interact with the ceramic disk in a long window. Thus we
optimized by fine tuning the thickness of the ceramic disk. can apply the scattering matrix technique taking only one
The final design of the pillbox-type window with smoothed propagating mode into account. From this analysis we get
edges is validated by the application of the MAFIA time analytic expressions which are very useful for the window
domain module. design. Only the scattering matrix corresponding to the
waveguide transition will be calculated numerically using
1 INTRODUCTION MAFIA [4]. Hence the scattering matrix technique leads to
a numerically efficient formulation so that a large variety
The S-band linear collider at DESY requires approximately of parameter sets can be studied.
2600 klystrons operating at an output power of 150 MW, a Pillbox-type rf windows usually contain ceramic disks
pulse duration of 3 s and a repetition rate of 50 Hz. Until with a thickness of about 3 mm. Especially if high purity
1995 two klystrons have already been built and success- alumina is to be used it is desirable to increase the thick-
fully tested [1]. The klystron has two output waveguides ness of this disks from the mechanical point of view. The
which are split and recombined so that each of the four analytic design formulas show that such windows cannot
rf windows has to withstand a peak transmission-power of be matched if the thickness of the disk is in the range from
about 37:5 MW. The production costs of the klystrons can 4 mm to 8 mm because the input reflection of the transition
significantly be reduced if each tube contains only two rf from the rectangular to the circular waveguide is too small.
windows. In this paper we will report on the systematic Therefore a new type of rf window is presented which con-
design of such a window. tains additional inductive irises in order to increase the re-
Fig. 1 presents the schematic drawing of a pillbox-type flectivity of the waveguide transition.
rf window. The practical use of rf-windows in the high- Both features of the new window, which are an increased
power regime is still a challenging task although strong ef- thickness of the ceramic disk and a long pillbox cavity, lead
forts have been made during the past to improve their re- to a significant reduction of the bandwidth. Especially if
liability [2]. The mechanismen which is responsible for the SLED-option [5] is taken into account the VSWR must
an rf window failure has not yet been understood in detail. be less than 1:1 over a band of about 90 MHz centered at
Nevertheless it seems to be clear that multipactor electron 3 GHz. It is shown how a maximum bandwidth is obtained
bombardment of the ceramic disk [3] is mainly responsible by properly adjusting the thickness of the ceramic disk.
for a breakdown. In order to prevent the structure from arcing we have to
Computer simulations have demonstrated that the com- round off the sharp edges at the waveguide transition which
ponent of the electric field normal to the disk is mainly re- are characterized by y = constant. Although the inductive
sponsible for this phenomenon. Hence a long pillbox-type irises do not give rise to a singularity of the electric field
rf window has been suggested in [2] which has a length of they are also assumed to be rounded off in the final de-
more than 150 mm instead of 30 mm for the standard win- sign which is validated by the time domain module of the
dow. The axial electric field is effectively suppressed by MAFIA code.
this new geometry because only the TE11 mode is propa-
gating in the empty circular waveguide sections of the pill-
2 WINDOW DESIGN
box cavity.
The higher order modes which are excited at the transi- Let us assume that the dimensions of the rectangular
tion from the rectangular to the circular waveguide do not waveguide and the permittivity of the ceramic disk are
249
300
280
260 tiris
length of the pillbox in mm
240
ziris
rectangular circular
220 awg airis
waveguide waveguide
200
180
160
140
120
40 45 50
radius of the pillbox in mm Figure 4: Schematic drawing of the waveguide transition with an in-
ductive iris.
Figure 2: Distribution of possible solutions in the rpb - lpb plane. Pa- -10
rameter: hwi = 5 mm.
-15
0.7
reflection coefficient in dB
h_wi=2.0 mm -20
0.65 2.5 mm
3.0 mm
4.0 mm
0.6 5.0 mm -25
7.0 mm
reflection coefficient
0.55 10.0 mm
15.0 mm -30
transition
0.5
-35
0.45
0.4 -40
2.8 2.9 3 3.1 3.2
f in GHz
0.35
0.3
120 130 140 150 160 170 180
length of the pillbox in mm
190 200 210
Figure 5: Reflection coefficient of the window as a function of fre-
quency. Parameter: rpb = 46 mm, lpb = 144:9 mm, hwi = 5 mm,
ziris = 40 mm and airis = 57 mm.
Figure 3: Required reflection coefficient of the waveguide transition as
a function of lpb and hwi . Parameter: rpb = 46 mm.
8 mm if we choose a waveguide transition with a higher
input reflection.
awg = 72:14 mm, bwg = 34:04 mm and "r = 10.
In order to increase this quantity we introduce an induc-
From the application of the scattering matrix technique tive iris in front of the waveguide transition according to
it turns out that the rf window can only be matched if the Fig. 4. tiris is assumed to be 5 mm. For a given iris one gets
window parameters obey certain relations. Fig. 2 shows all a maximum increase of the reflectivity for ziris = 40 mm.
possible solutions for which the window can be matched in For the adjustment of a specific value of the input reflec-
the rpb - lpb plane assuming hwi = 5 mm. In the considered tion, which is necessary for the proper design of a window,
parameter range two sets of solutions are found which are the width of the iris airis is used.
separated just by one wavelength of the TE11 mode in the We have now all the data together which we need for
empty circular waveguide. a systematic design of the window. Let us start assuming
For the variation of the radius of the pillbox cavity some the following parameters: rpb = 46 mm, hwi = 5 mm and
transitions from the rectangular to the circular waveguide ziris = 40 mm. According to Fig. 3, the input reflection
have been analyzed using MAFIA. Actually the radius of of the waveguide transition has to be greater than 0:55 in
the pillbox cavity has been varied in steps of 2 mm. The this case. We choose an input reflection of 0:57 which cor-
scattering parameters at intermediate points are then found responds to an iris width of about 57 mm in order to show
by the application of an interpolation scheme. that really two solutions exist if the input reflection is larger
Fig. 3 presents the required input reflection of the wave- than 0:55. Applying the scattering matrix technique, we ac-
guide transition as a function of the length of the pillbox tually find two matched windows for lpb = 144:9 mm and
cavity for a cavity radius of 46 mm whereas the thickness lpb = 154:5 mm. Fig. 5 shows the input reflection of the
of the ceramic disk serves as a parameter. The input reflec- window for lpb = 144:9 mm.
tion of the waveguide transition is also given as a straight Both solutions have a bandwidth corresponding to a
line. VSWR = 1:1 of approximately 30 MHz which is much
Starting from hwi = 2 mm, the required input reflection too small. The bandwidth can significantly be enhanced if
of the waveguide transition increases. For hwi = 2 mm, we make use of both solutions simultaneously. For that the
2:5 mm and 3 mm, Fig. 2 predicts two solutions for each two frequencies at which the window is matched have to
thickness corresponding to different lengths of the pillbox be centered around the design frequency, see Fig. 6. This
cavity. But for thicker disks, the parabolas do not intersect is achieved by properly choosing the length of the pillbox
with the straight line so that no solution exists. Only if cavity.
we consider very thick disks, hwi > 10 mm, the required The reflection coefficient at the design frequency which
input reflection decreases again. Consequently, the window is related to the bandwidth of the window can then be ad-
can only be matched for disks in the range from 4 mm to justed by the thickness of the ceramic disk which is illus-
250
-10 d iris
h_wi=5.5 mm
-15 5.7 mm
5.8 mm
-20 5.9 mm
6.0 mm
reflection coefficient in dB
-25
-30
rectangular iris circular
-35
waveguide waveguide
-40
-45
-50 r iris
-55
-60
2.9 2.95 3 3.05 3.1
f in GHz
Figure 6: Reflection coefficient of the window as a function of fre- Figure 7: Schematic drawing of the waveguide transition with rounded
quency and the thickness of the ceramic disk. Parameters: rpb mm, = 46 edges.
lpb= 148 9
: mm, ziris mm and airis mm. = 40 = 57
# hwi in mm in MHz
f
0
VSWR = 1 05 VSWR = 1 1
: :
-10
1 5.5 – 94
reflection coefficient in dB
2 5.7 67 83 -20
3 5.8 60 77
-30
4 5.9 52 72
5 6.0 44 66 -40
Analytic model
MAFIA results
Table 1: Bandwidth as a function of the thickness of the ceramic disk. -50
-60
2.8 2.9 3 3.1 3.2
trated in Fig. 6. From Fig. 3 it is clear that the solutions f in GHz
move closer together if the thickness of the ceramic disk is
increased. This leads to a smaller reflection coefficient at Figure 8: Reflection coefficient as a function of frequency with rpb =
46 mm, hpb = 150 4: mm, hwi = 61
: mm, diris = 40
mm, riris =
the design frequency but also to a reduction of the band- 9 mm.
width. Thus one has to find a trade-off between these two
quantities. In Table 1, the bandwidth of the window is given the overall window is matched at the design frequency. It
for several values of hwi . E.g., the VSWR is still less than has been demonstrated by MAFIA computations that the
1:1 over a frequency range of 94 MHz for hwi = 5:5 mm. required input reflection of the waveguide transition can
However in this case one has to cope with a reflection co- be obtained by an inductive iris one quarter wavelength
efficient of ,28:9 dB at the design frequency. in front of the rectangular-circular waveguide transition.
For the final design of the window we use a waveguide Moreover it has been shown that the thickness of the ce-
transition with rounded edges according to Fig. 7. Detailed ramic disk has to be properly chosen for an optimum band-
investigations using the MAFIA electrostatic module yield width of the window. A final design of the window with
that a rounding radius of 10 mm leads to a field enhance- rounded off edges has been proposed; and the performance
ment of about 30% which seems to acceptable. Further- of this structure has been checked applying the time domain
more it is preferred to use semicircular irises with a radius module of the MAFIA computer code.
of 9 mm instead of those which sharp edges which is also
illustrated in Fig. 7. 4 REFERENCES
Fig. 8 presents the input reflection of the final window
design as a result of the scattering matrix technique and [1] D. Sprehn, “Final report on the development of a 150-MW S-
band klystron”, to be published in Proceedings of Pulsed RF
the MAFIA time domain module. The agreement between
Sources for Linear Colliders, 1996.
both methods is quite well. Optimizing the bandwidth
yields a useful frequency range of about 80 MHz and a [2] A. Miura and H. Matsumoto, “Development of an S-band
high-power pillbox-type rf window”, Proc. of Int. Conf. for
reflection coefficient at the center frequency which is less
than ,33 dB.
High Energy Accelerators, 1992.
[3] W. J. Gallagher, “The multipactor effect”, IEEE Trans. on
Nucl. Sci. , vol. NS-26, pp. 4280–4282, 1979.
3 CONCLUSIONS
[4] T. Weiland, “On the numerical solution of Maxwell's equa-
The scattering matrix technique and the MAFIA com- tions and applications in the field of accelerator physics”, Par-
puter code have been applied in order to design a modi- ticle Accelerators, vol. 15, pp. 245–292, 1984.
fied S-band high-power pillbox-type window. It has been [5] P.B. Wilson, “SLED: A method for doubling SLAC's ener-
shown that for a ceramic disk with a thickness in the range gy”, Technical Note SLAC-TN-73-15, Stanford Linear Ac-
from 4 mm to 8 mm the input reflection of the rectangular- celerator Center, Stanford University, Stanford, California,
1973.
circular waveguide transition has to be increased so that
251
DESIGN OF A HOM BROADBAND ABSORBER FOR TESLA
M. Dohlus, A. Jöstingmeier, N. Holtkamp and H. Hartwig, DESY, D-22607 Hamburg, Germany
Abstract
For the TESLA FEL operation very short intense bunches
of electrons have to be accelerated. These bunches excite a
broad spectrum of HOM (Higher Order Modes) up to fre-
quencies of some THz. Two HOM couplers per cavity are
foreseen in the present design proposal in order to extract
some of the low frequency HOM from the superconduct-
ing accelerating structure. In this contribution an additional
HOM broadband absorber is suggested which is to be in-
stalled between two cryogenic modules at a temperature of
70 K. Its task is to prevent that the really high frequency
HOM are absorbed in the accelerator structure at the 2 K
level. The absorption characteristics and the short range Figure 1: Schematic drawing of the waveguide array absorber.
wake of four structures which make use of SiC as absorbing
material are investigated using the MAFIA computer code. 0:3 mm in order to have a high attenuation of the wave-
The proposed structures are easier to manufacture and bet- guide modes. Furthermore it is obvious that the waveguide
ter suited for the operation under vacuum conditions than walls should be as thin as possible for a good efficiency
the recently suggested waveguide array absorber. of the absorber. A wall thickness of 0:1 mm has been pro-
posed which seems to be the lower limit from the mechan-
1 INTRODUCTION ical point of view. The TESLA beampipe has a radius of
35 mm; and approximately 100 mm of space are available
It is planned to operate TESLA in the FEL mode with very
for the absorber in the axial direction. Therefore the actual
short bunches ( = 25 m) [1] which excite wakefields
absorber consists of an array of about 140250 waveguides
with spectral components up to some THz. If we do not ex-
in the azimuthal and the axial direction, respectively.
tract these fields from the accelerating structure by a special
The manufacturing of such a structure is very difficult
absorber we expect a considerable reduction of the quality
even if etching techniques are applied [2]. Moreover the
factor of the superconducting cavities because the photon
problem of cleaning the waveguide array before it is in-
energy gets larger than the binding energy of the Cooper
stalled in the TESLA vacuum system has yet not been
pairs for frequencies larger than 700 GHz.
solved. Thus four new absorber structures are proposed
This phenomenon would consequently lead to an exces-
which do not have these disadvantages. The MAFIA com-
sive energy deposition in the 2 K cooling circuit which has
puter code [4] is used in order to study their absorption
to be prevented for the following reason: The time averaged
characteristics as well as their contribution to the short
power deposition due to the wakefields is about 25 W per
range wake.
module [1]; and a typical refrigerator requires about 800 W
of wall plug power per Watt dissipated at 2 K [2]. Thus we
would have to supply 20 kW of cooling power per module 2 PROPOSED ABSORBERS
which is not tolerable.
A HOM absorber which is sketched in Fig. 1 has already The absorbers which are investigated in this contribution
been proposed in [2]. This absorber consists of an array of are shown in Figs. 2-5. In each of these configurations
outward directed rectangular waveguides surrounding the the actual absorbing structure is accomodated in a shield-
beampipe. The extraction of the high frequency wakefields ing which is similar to a single cell of the TESLA accel-
from the beampipe by such an array has been investigated erating structure. For the simulations we have assumed
in detail in [3]. The outward propagating waveguide fields riris = 30 mm, rcell = 100 mm and lcell = 100 mm.
are attenuated by the ohmic losses of the stainless steel We have chosen SiC as absorbing material because it is
waveguides which are considerably high for frequencies suitable to be used in a vacuum system; and it has a large
above the cutoff frequency of the fundamental waveguide loss-tangent which is about 0:3. This number has been con-
mode which is 100 GHz. Note that low frequency spectral firmed by measurements at room temperature up to a fre-
components cannot penetrate much into the absorber. quency of 20 GHz. For our simulations we assume that it
A cutoff frequency of 100 GHz corresponds to a width of is still valid in the THz region and that it does not change
the waveguides of 1:5 mm. The waveguide height is only significantly if the absorber temperature is 70 K.
252
lcell lcell
SiC
rcell rcell
SiC
rabs rabs
rint
riris riris
lslice ldist
Figure 2: Solid SiC absorber. Figure 4: Combined absorber.
lcell lcell
rcell rcell
SiC SiC
rabs rabs
riris riris
lslice ldist lmet lslice ldist
Figure 3: Laminated SiC absorber. Figure 5: Metallized laminated SiC absorber.
For each proposed HOM absorber we are going to con- the really high frequency HOM by ohmic wall losses sim-
sider two versions. In the original version we have rabs = ilar to the previously discussed waveguide array absorber.
riris. This seems to be favourable for a good coupling In these structures SiC is used to suppress the long range
between the absorber and the HOM. On the other hand, wake. For this purpose it is sufficient that it has good damp-
the absorber itself also contributes to the beam impedance. ing properties up to a frequency of some 10 GHz. Hence
This contribution can be decreased if we hide the absorb- the required bandwidth of the absorbing material is much
ing structure behind the iris of the shielding cell. A bunch less for these structures than that for the solid and the lam-
does not see thepactual absorbing structure if the relation inated absorber.
rabs , riris 5lcell is fulfilled. In this case the short The difference between the combined and the metallized
range wake of the HOM absorber is equal to that of a single laminated absorber is that in the latter one the low fre-
accelerating cell. Bearing in mind that a module contains quency fields are continuously damped by the absorbing
72 such cells, the additionally introduced beam impedance material while they are propagating outwards whereas they
due to the HOM absorber seems to be tolerable. are absorbed at the ends of the waveguides in the com-
p in the above relation rabs , riris is propor-
Note that
tional to which means that the absorbing structure may
bined absorber. The parameters of both structures read:
lslice = ldist = 1 mm and rint = 80 mm. Note that the
be arranged close to the beampipe for short bunches. Nev- actual thickness of the metallization lmet which is very thin
ertheless it must also be possible to operate TESLA with can be neglected for the field analysis. In the MAFIA sim-
1 mm long bunches for which the condition for rabs , riris ulations we have assumed that lmet is equal to the thickness
cannot be satisfied if we are interested in a good coupling of one mesh layer.
between the HOM and the absorber. Thus we have to find
a trade-off between the efficiency of the absorber and its 3 SIMULATION RESULTS
contribution to the beam impedance. For our simulations
we choose rabs , riris = 5 mm. The absorption characteristics of the proposed absorbers
The first proposed absorber is a solid SiC tube accomo- are given in Fig. 6. Here it is assumed that riris = rabs.
dated in the shielding cell. This configuration is shown in
Fig. 2. Since the permittivity of SiC is large ("r 30)
1
solid
laminated
combined
we expect considerable reflections at the SiC-vacuum in- 0.1 metallized
terface. Therefore the second structure which is presented
Normalized energy
in Fig. 3 consists of a stack of 50 SiC washers with lslice = 0.01
ldist = 1 mm in order to reduce the effective permittivity 0.001
of the absorbing structure.
The idea of the combined and the metallized laminated 0.0001
absorber which are shown in Figs. 4 and 5 is basically dif-
1e-05
ferent than that of the first two structures in which all spec- 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
t / ns
tral components of the HOM are damped by the absorb-
ing material in the shielding cavity. The combined and the Figure 6: Absorption characteristics of the investigated structures.
metallized laminated absorber additionally contain a stack The curves represent the total energy normalized to its
of stainless steel parallel-plate waveguides which attenuate value at the time t = 0. At this time the exciting bunch
253
3.5
has just left the absorber cell. The transient behaviour is empty TESLA cell
then computed for the next 33 ns. An ultra-relativistic par-
with absorber (hidden)
3 with absorber (not hidden)
Longitudinal wake in ( V / pC )
ticle just travels 10 m during this time interval. 2.5
Two classes of absorbers can be well-distinguished with 2
respect to their absorption efficiency. In the solid and the 1.5
metallized laminated absorber the energy drops to about
10,4 of its initial value after 33 ns. On the other hand, the
1
0.5
absorption of the laminated and the combined absorber is
0
approximately two orders of magnitude less. 0 2 4 6 8 10
s in mm
The transient absorption behaviour of the combined and
the metallized laminated absorber and the corresponding Figure 9: Short range wake of various structures for = 1 mm.
hidden structures are compared in Fig. 7. It is expected that
Fig. 9 shows the longitudinal short range wake of the
1
empty TESLA cell, the laminated absorber with riris =
rabs and the hidden version of this structure. The wake of
combined
combined (hidden)
the empty cell, which has a maximum value of 2:2 V/pC,
metallized
0.1 metallized (hidden)
is smaller than that of the two other structures as it is
Normalized energy
0.01
expected. The wake function corresponding to the non-
0.001 hidden absorber is about 50% higher than this value. On
the other hand, the short range wake is only 15% increased
0.0001
for the hidden version of the absorber which is acceptable.
1e-05
0 5 10 15
t / ns
20 25 30 35
4 CONCLUSIONS
Figure 7: Comparison between the original and the hidden structure. Four types of HOM absorbers for TESLA which are easier
to manufacture and more appropriate to be used in a vac-
the hidden structures are less efficient than the correspond-
uum system than the previously suggested waveguide array
ing absorbers with riris = rabs. It is found that this is in
absorber have been investigated in this contribution. It has
fact true for the metallized laminated absorber. Neverthe-
turned out that two of the absorbers, namely, the solid and
less the efficiency of the hidden version of this absorber is
the metallized laminated absorber have good absorption
only slightly less than that of the original structure. For the
properties; and that the efficiency of the absorbers is not
combined absorber it even turns out that the absorption can
significantly decreased if we hide the absorbing structure
be improved a little bit if we hide the absorbing structure.
behind the iris of the shielding. The short range wake of
In order to illustrate the different absorption mechanisms such a hidden structure is equal to that of a single TESLA
of the metallized laminated and the solid absorber the rela- accelerating cell for short bunches; and it is still tolera-
tion between the total energy and that which is stored in ble for an intermediate bunch length. The solid absorber
the beampipe is shown in Fig. 8. Both energies are approx- is less complicated concerning manufacturing and installa-
tion than the metallized laminated one. Nevertheless the
1
total, metallized
beampipe, metallized
simulation results for the solid absorber are based on the
total, solid
0.1 beampipe, solid assumption that SiC has the same favourable attentuation
properties in the THz region at a temperature of 70 K as in
Normalized energy
0.01
the frequency range up to 20 GHz at room temperature.
0.001
0.0001
5 REFERENCES
[1] R. Brinkmann et al. (ed.), Conceptual design of a 500 GeV
e+ e, linear collider with integrated X-ray laser facility,
1e-05
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
t / ns
DESY 1997-048, 1997.
Figure 8: Total energy and energy which is stored in the beampipe. [2] M. Dohlus, N. Holtkamp, A. Jöstingmeier, H. Hartwig and
imately the same for the solid absorber. This means that the D. Trines, “Design of a HOM broadband absorber for
electromagnetic field cannot penetrate significantly into the TESLA”, Meeting note: 31 Linear collider project meeting
at DESY, 1998.
absorbing material because it is absorbed in the immediate
vicinity of the dielectric-vacuum interface. [3] A. Jöstingmeier, M. Dohlus, N. Holtkamp and M. Shahabadi,
“Application of the mode matching technique for the com-
On the other hand the total energy is much larger than the
putation of the beam parameters of an infinite periodic struc-
beampipe energy in the metallized laminated absorber be- ture”, will be published as TESLA report, 1998.
cause the electromagnetic field propagates a considerably
[4] The MAFIA collaboration, User's Guide MAFIA Version
large distance into the parallel-plate waveguides before it
3.2, CST GmbH, Lauteschlägerstr. 38, D64289 Darmstadt.
is finally absorbed.
254
BIPERIODIC DISK-AND-WASHER CAVITY FOR ELECTRON
ACCELERATION
H. Ao, Y. Iwashita, T. Shirai, A. Noda and M. Inoue,
Accelerator Laboratory, NSRF, ICR, Kyoto Univ.,
T. Kawakita and M. Matsuoka, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd.
Abstract detail, however, has not been made clear yet. We discuss
about this problem in a later session.
Fabrication of the disk-and-washer(DAW) cavity is in the
stage of high power model fabrication. In order to deter- Assuming the reproducibility of fabrication process of
washer part, we decided to tune the frequency to an op-
mine the final dimensions, we measured the frequencies of
eration one by correcting the dimensions of cavity. The
OFC models which were fabricated with the same fabrica-
tion process as the final cavity. This paper describes these frequency was measured for several sets of dimensions to
accumulate correction data. All these measurement were
measurement results.
performed on the G2-model for accuracy of dimensions.
1 INTRODUCTION
2 MEASUREMENT RESULTS
The biperiodic DAW [1] cavity has been investigated for
these years. Basic dimensions of the DAW cavity have 2.1 Parameters of dimensions
been studied by computer simulations and measurements
Figure 1 shows the schematic view of the biperiodic L-
on aluminum models (cold model). Eight units of such cold
support DAW. Frequencies were measured varying the
model were fabricated. The RF characteristics and the de-
washer radius (Rw), the inner radius of disk with supports
pendence of frequency on the number of units have been
(Rds) and the inner radius of disk without supports (Rdn).
measured by these models. Before making a final high
power structure, another test cavities made of OFC(OFC
model) and high accuracy aluminum models(G2 model)
were fabricated. The G2 model and the OFC model cavities
were machined at the same shop. The OFC models were
used for studying a fabrication process and final properties beam
of cavities. The G2 models which had the same dimensions
of OFC model on the drawing were used for optimization
of the final dimensions. The G2 model is different from washer
the OFC model in only two points: (i) the material is alu- support disk with supports
minum, (ii) each part is fixed by screws without brazing.
Table 1 shows the frequency measurement results of these disk without supports
models.
Figure 1: Disk-and-Washer structure
cold model G2 model OFC model
fa [MHz] 2857.4 2863.0 2859.6
fc [MHz] 2872.2 2873.0 2876.3 2.2 Accelerating mode
Table 1: Frequency of cold model, G2 model and OFC Coefficient of washer radius (Rw) The fre-
model. In the DAW structure, two modes should be quencies were measured with three washer sizes:
tuned to an operating frequency(2857[MHz]). One is an Rw=44.0(original), 44.05, 44.5. (See Figure 2)
accelerating mode(fa) and the other is a coupling mode(fc). The frequency dependence of the number of units in
In the accelerating mode, strong electric field is generated Rw=44.0 or 44.05 is different from that of Rw=44.5. This
between the acceleration gap. is because an end plate has its intrinsic frequency tuned to
2857[MHz] (operating frequency), and thus the effect from
both the end plates falls off with increase of the number of
This results shows the slight difference in frequency units. The intrinsic frequency of Rw=44.0 or 44.05 cavity
among these models. The actual dimensions of each model is higher than 2857 [MHz], while that of Rw=44.5 is lower
measured by a coordinate measuring machine showed that than 2857[MHz]. The coefficient for the frequency correc-
there was no significant difference in the measurable re- tion was calculated from the extrapolated frequencies at 24
gion. The cause of frequency difference have been investi- units: the number of units in the high power model. Figure
gated, and it seemed to arise from the washer part [2]. The 3 shows the plots of the extrapolated value. Because the
255
2862 2874
2860 2872
2858
2870
2856
fa [MHz]
fa [MHz]
2868
2854
2866
2852
Rds=44.5
Rw44.0 2864 Rds=45.4
2850 Rw44.05 Rds=46.5
Rw44.5
2848 2862
2846 2860
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
Number of units Number of units
Figure 2: Frequencies as functions of the number of units Figure 4: Frequencies as functions of the number of units
at three Rw values at three Rds values
three frequencies (Rw=44.0,44.05,44.5) are lined up along from one unit setup, which had no Rdn disk, as the one data
a line, the linearity can be assumed. The correction coeffi- point. Thus the extrapolated frequency at 24 units was esti-
cient for Rw was calculated as -32.8 [MHz/mm] from these mated and the correction coefficient for Rdn was obtained
results. as -8.7 [MHz/mm].
Coefficient of disk radius (Rds) Figure 4 shows the 2.3 Coupling mode
measured frequencies as functions of the number of units,
in a similar way as Rw. The extrapolated frequency at 24 Coefficient of washer radius (Rw) Figure 5 shows the
units was calculated for each Rds size. Thus the coefficient measured frequencies for each washer radius. The depen-
of Rds was obtained as -6.9 [MHz/mm]. There was a good dence of the number of units in the coupling mode is larger
linearity in these three points. than that of the accelerating mode. It should be noted that
the scale of vertical axis is larger than that of accelerat-
Coefficient of disk radius (Rdn) N units setup are re- ing mode in previous subsection. The extrapolated fre-
quired for N Rds disks and N-1 Rdn disks. Because there quency was estimated by similar way in the accelerating
were only three G2-model cavity units, only two points mode and the correction coefficient was calculated as -32.8
data could be measured, while three data points at least [MHz/mm].
are required for a curve fitting. Hence, we used the result
2860
2865
2850
2860 2840
fc [MHz]
fa [MHz]
2830
2855
Rw=44
2820 Rw=44.05
Rw=44.5
2850 fa
2810
0 1 2 3 4
2845 Number of units
44 44.5
Rw [mm] Figure 5: Frequencies as functions of the number of units
at three Rw values (coupling mode)
Figure 3: Correction coefficient for washer radius Rw
256
Coefficient of disk radius (Rds) With similar way, the evaluate the correction value. Table 2 shows the summary
coefficient was obtained. Figure 6 shows the measurement about the coefficients obtained from these measurements.
results. The calculated coefficient was 9.8 [MHz/mm].
2860 df/dRdn df/dRds df/dRw
fa [MHz/mm] -8.7 -6.9 -32.8
fc [MHz/mm] 14.2 9.8 -19.4
2840
Table 2: Summary of correction coefficient
2820
fc [MHz]
As the coefficients of accelerating mode, df/dRdn=-9.2
2800 [MHz/mm], df/dRds=-7.3 [MHz/mm] and df/dRw=-28.4
[MHz/mm] were calculated by SUPERFISH. These values
Rds=44.5 are compatible with the measurement results. For the cou-
2780 Rds=45.4
Rds=46.5 pling mode, it is difficult to estimate the coefficient by SU-
PERFISH because the support effect was too large.
2760
0 1 2 3 4 3.2 Frequency difference among three models
Number of units
The frequency difference seems to arise from the washer
part. Because washer has a curved surface (nose), it is
Figure 6: Frequencies as functions of the number of units
difficult to measure all dimensions precisely. We tried to
at three Rds values
measure the more fine shape of nose part by a contracer
(contour measuring device). An output from our device,
however, is only a line drawing. The obtained data are an-
alyzed to estimate the frequency difference. The shape of
Coefficient for disk radius (Rdn) Figure 7 shows the
nose part is very sensitive to the accelerating frequency. It
measurement results, and the coefficient was calculated as
is important fabrication technology to fall in with the toler-
14.2 [MHz/mm].
ance of frequency keeping the reproducibility of RF prop-
2860 erties with available machining technique.
The curved surface is considered most critical point in
the fabrication of the DAW. It is important fabrication tech-
2850
nology to control the frequency with keeping the repro-
ducibility of RF properties.
2840
fc [MHz]
4 REFERENCES
2830
[1] Y. Iwashita, ”Disk-and-washer structure with biperiodic sup-
port”, Nucl. Instrm. and Meth. in Phys. Res. A 348(1994)15-
2820
Rdn=43.6 33
Rdn=43.8
Rdn=44.0 [2] H. Ao, et al., ”Fabrication of disk-and-washer cavity”, Proc.
2810
of the First Asian Particle Accelerator Conference, Tsukuba,
Japan, in printing.
2800
0 1 2 3 4
Number of units
Figure 7: Frequencies as functions of the number of units
at three Rdn values
3 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
3.1 Correction coefficient
Because the frequency depends on the number of cavity
units, an extrapolated frequency at 24 units was used to
257
THE ESTIMATIONS FOR MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS OF
STEMS-LIKE ELEMENTS IN RF CAVITIES
A.S. Levchenko, V.V. Paramonov, R.S. Ter-Antonyan
Institute for Nuclear Research, 117312, Moscow, Russia
Abstract 2 MECHANICAL OSCILLATIONS
Let consider the stem with the mass m rigidly fixed at one
In such elements of accelerating cavities as stems, posts,
end. At the another end of the stem the drift tube with the
mass M are fixed. Two cases should be considered.
spirals, split rings low frequency (several tens Hz) mechan-
ical oscillations may excite. Analytical expressions for res-
onant frequencies are presented. If the channel for cooling
liquid is placed inside the element, depending on flow pa- 2.1 The heavy drift tube
rameters the source of noises may exists from turbulence. If the mass of the drift tube M m, we can neglect the
Estimation for flow parameters and possible spectrum of mass of the stem m and consider oscillations of the heavy
noises are given. solid body at the weightless elastic stem. Supposing y is
the displacement in the direction perpendicular to the stem
axis one get [1] equation for small transverse oscillations:
Ic E dd2 xy + M (l , x)( dd2yt )x=l = 0;
1 INTRODUCTION 2 2
(1)
A lot of rf cavities have in the design thin and long stem-
like elements. It may be stems for drift tubes support in where x is the current coordinate along the stem axis. Ic is
DTL structure (Fig. 1), post couplers for stabilisation of the the moment of inertia of cross section:
accelerating field distribution (Fig. 1), straight (Fig. 2) or
Z
circular (Fig. 3) central conductors in double gap bunching Ic = y2 dS; (2)
S
cavities. In such thin elements small low-frequency me-
chanical oscillations may excite. This mechanical oscilla- E is the Young modulus of the material of the stem, l is the
tions will lead to small changes in the resonant frequency of length of the stem. We suppose the mass M is concentrated
the cavity and amplitude modulation of accelerating volt- in a point at the end of the stem. The eigenfrequency of this
age. If the external source of noises exists, it simplifies the oscillations fh :
excitation of oscillations. One possible source of excitation r
are the noises due to turbulent flow of the cooling liquid. In Ic E ;
fh 2 3Ml
1
(3)
3
this paper the qualitative estimations for own frequencies
of mechanical oscillations are presented and parameters of It should be pointed out here strong dependence of fh from
the liquid flow are considered. the length of the stem.
To simplify manufacturing procedure, DTL cavities are
usually at constant radius and the radius of drift tubes is
constant also. So, the stems have the same length, but
the mass of drift tubes (together with the length of tubes)
changes. For typical 200 MHz DTL, for example for
0:04 0:4 with copper hollow stems (outer radius
of the stem R2 = 20 mm, the inner one R1 = 15 mm, the
length l = 400 mm, Ic = =4(R24 , r14 )) and drift with the
mass M from 3.5 kg to 30 kg one will get estimation for
fh (58 18) Hz.
2.2 The stem without drift tube
Another case to be considered is the case M m and we
can assume M = 0. This case describes oscillations of
post couplers (Fig. 1) and may be good approximation for
oscillations in central conductors of bunching cavities (Fig.
2, Fig. 3). Considering small transverse oscillations [1]:
Figure 1: A sketch of DTL structure
Ic E dd4 xy + S dd2yt = 0;
4 2
(4)
258
and eigenfrequencies fln are: and for the case considered in (2.1) (lt = 46 380 mm,
s Rt = 75 mm) fth (300 30) Hz.
If It Is we can neglect It (the case of the post coupler)
fln 2aln2 IS
cE
2
; (5) and the frequency for oscillations of rotation ftl may be
where is the density if the stem material, S is the square of rC
estimated as [1], [2]:
s
the stem cross section, an are the roots of the characteristic ftl 2 lI
1
=
1 E (R22 + R12 ) :
2 2Ml (1 + )
(10)
equation: s
For the case considered in (2.2) ftl 450Hz.
cos(an )ch(an ) = ,1; a1 = 1:876; a2 = 4:675:::: (6)
For the hollow copper post coupler with outer radius R2 =
40 mm, the inner one R1 = 30 mm, the length l = 400 mm
one will estimate fl1 140Hz.
For circular central conductor of bunching cavity estima-
tion (5) may be applied, if R R2 , with transformation
l = R (Fig.3).
Figure 3: The double-gap bunching cavity with the ring
central conductor
3 PARAMETERS OF LIQUID FLOW
It is known well that the character of the liquid flow in the
channel is defined by the Reynolds number Re:
Figure 2: The double-gap bunching cavity with the straight
central conductor Re = Vd ; (11)
where V ia the average velocity, d is the characteristic di-
2.3 Oscillations of rotation mension of the channel and is the kinematic viscosity of
Let consider oscillations of rotation with respect the axis of the liquid (for water 10,6 m2 =sec). If Re Recr ,
the stem. Also two cases should be distinguished in com- the flow in the channel is turbulent. For cylindrical channel
parison of inertia moments of the drift tube It and the stem Recr 1800, for coaxial one Recr 1000 [3].
Is with respect to the stem axis. If It Is , the frequency The main parameter in the cooling of accelerating cavities
for oscillations of rotation fth is [1], [2]: is usually the expenditure Q of the cooling liquid, because
rC stabilised temperature of the cavity is needed. So, the av-
erage velocity of the flow may be estimated as V Q=Sc,
fth 2 lI ;
1
(7)
where Sc is the square of cross section of the channel.
t
In most practical cases flow is the channel is turbulent ,
where C is the rotational rigidity, which strongly depends due to limited S and Q given. Another reason is because
on the shape of cross section of the stem and for the coaxial the heat exchange coefficient for turbulent flow is higher
tube is [1]: than for laminar one. (It is important to avoid case with
4 , R4 )
C = E4(1
(R2
+ )
1
; (8) Re Recr , because for Re 6000 in circular pipe the
flow becomes unstable [3]. Due to this reason V is usually
where is the Poisson coefficient. For cylindrical drift tube not higher than 5m/sec.)
with radius Rt and the length lt the inertia momentum It In the turbulent flow the unstability with the frequency
needed is [2]: ff l V=d can exists in the stream [3]. Estimating ff l :
It = M (3R12t + lt ) ; ff l Vd Re ;
2 2
=
(9)
d2 (12)
259
for most practical cases ff l (100 200) Hz.
It means, that for correctly designed cooling channel the
possibility of excitation for mechanical oscillation is low
enough and this effect is not the main reason.
4 SUMMARY
Analytical estimations for resonant frequencies for differ-
ent types of oscillations in stem-like elements are pre-
sented. It is shown that for typical dimensions of accel-
erating cavities the frequency range of oscillations may be
from several tens Hz to hundreds Hz. This results are use-
ful in the cavity design to take care from possible sources
of noises from equipping hardware (cooling, pumping and
so on).
5 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors thank Dr. Yu.V. Bilinsky for the discussions,
6 REFERENCES
[1] L D. Landau, E.M. Lifshiz, Theoretical physics. v. 7, Theory
of elasticity, Nauka, Moscow, 1987 (in Russian)
[2] L D. Landau, E.M. Lifshiz, Theoretical physics. v. 1, Me-
chanics, Nauka, Moscow, 1973 (in Russian)
[3] L D. Landau, E.M. Lifshiz, Theoretical physics. v. 6, Hydro-
dynamics, Nauka, Moscow, 1988 (in Russian)
260
FABRICATION OF THE C-BAND (5712 MHz) CHOKE-MODE TYPE
DAMPED ACCELERATOR STRUCTURE
H. Matsumoto, T. Shintake and N. Akasaka
KEK High Energy Accelerator Research Organization, 1-1 Oho, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305, Japan
Wakefield Absorber ElectroplatedCopper*
Abstract SiC Ring
The first high power model of the C-band (5712 MHz)
accelerating structure for the e+e- Linear Collider project Choke Filter
is under construction. This is a full spec version: equipped λ/4
Trapped
λ/4
with the Choke-Mode cavity for the higher-order mode Accelerating
Mode
damping, the double feed coupler for the symmetric
140
150
15
44
BEAM
power feed at input/output, and RF-BPM for the beam-
based alignment at both ends.
Fabrication of the total 91-cells and their frequency
tuning were completed. The cells were assembled in one
structure by the electroplating of copper.
The integrated phase shift were measured, it was
within ±5 degree at operation condition. It was confirm 19.7
MC-Multilam spring
that a Higher-Order-Mode (HOM, TM110) is successfully
damped by a choke-mode cavity with an SiC type rf Figure 1: A cut of view of the C-band (5712 MHz)
absorber [1]. Choke-Mode structure.
1 INTRODUCTION
In the e+e- linear collider for 300-500 GeV C.M.
energy region, one of the most important R&D issue for
the accelerating structure is how to control the beam
induced wakefield effects to achieve the nano-meter size
beam at collision point.
From the beginning of the linear collider project,
many ideas were proposed for damping the wakefield.
However, most of those were not realistic; structure was
very complicated, thus it was not suitable for mass
production at a reasonable cost. In 1992, T. Shintake of
KEK proposed a very simple HOM-free structure, so
called Shintake-type “Choke-Mode” damped structure. Figure 2: C-band structure with SiC rf absorber.
[2] It is a kind of an open cavity. The beam induced lathe, the choke-mode type cavity has a big advantage on
power (HOM power) is strongly damped by the manufacturing than the other ideas proposed before.
electromagnetic radiation through a radial line into open The Choke-Mode concept has solved the multi-bunch
space, while the rf power necessary for the beam problem. However, there is still another type of wakefield
acceleration is trapped inside the cavity by a choke filter. field problem. The short-range transverse wakefield
Its concept was confirmed by the experimental test causes the bunch shape deformation, resulting in loosing
performed at ATF-KEK in 1994, where the bunched luminosity. This wakefield is a strong function of the iris
electron beam was successfully accelerated in a prototype aperture, its is proportional to a-3.5, thus it becomes very
with S-band microwave power. strong at higher frequency bands. Considering the
Figure 1 and 2 show the C-band model. The technical difficulties related to the tight tolerance, we did
accelerating cavity, the annular slot for the choke and a not use higher frequency, but chose the C-band
room for the HOM absorber are machined on a copper (5712MHz) as the best frequency. The straightness
disk on a turning lathe. The vacuum seal and mechanical tolerance is ±50 µm (maximum bow) for 1.8 m long
structure is maintained by simply stacking them and structure. At the higher frequency bands, straightness
plating copper layer from outside. The SiC ceramic ring is becomes close to ±10 µm or less for 1.8 m-long structure.
the HOM absorber, which is mounted in the disk with a In 1996, hardware R&D on the C-band rf system was
metal spring insert (MC Multilum-contact). Since all parts started at KEK. The first high power 1.8 m-long Choke-
are axial-symmetric, which can be machined on tuning
261
RF-BPM Choke-Mode Cavity Matsumoto-Type Coupler
Common Mode Free Wakefield Damping Symmetric Field
91 Cells
BPM1
BPM3
BPM2
1.8 m
Figure 3: 1.8 m long high power C-band choke-mode structure.
mode structure is under fabricating at MITSUBISHI
HEAVY INDUSTRIES Ltd. The structure to be tested at Figure 4: Machined copper parts of field
ASSET in SLAC in December this year. symmetric double feed coupler. They will be
This paper describes details on fabrication of the cell brazed together and mounted at both ends of
and tuning on the acceleration mode. Optimization on the the structure by the electron-beam welding.
HOM damping performance is described in a separate
paper [1]. cavity cell, it is around ±30 µm. The electric field
gradient is also lower in the choke slot, thus the surface
2 CHOKE-MODE STRUCTURE roughness of 3-6 µm is enough. Therefore, machining of
choke can be made on ca standard turning lathe, and it
The first high-power model of the C-band choke- does not increase the fabrication cost
mode structure is composed of the regular section (89
choke-mode cells), input/output couplers attached at each Table 1: Main parameters of the accelerating structure
end, two common-mode-free RF Beam-Position-Monitor
Frequency 5712 MHz
(RF-BPM) as shown in Fig.3. A wake-field monitor is
Phase shift per cell 3π/4
prepared in the center cell, by which we can observe the
beam induced HOM spectrum, and determine the beam Field distribution C. G.
position. To avoid unwanted transverse kick due to Number of cells 91 cell
asymmetric field, the double-feed coupler using J-shaped Active length 180 cm
waveguide is used in the input/output couplers as shown Iris aperture (2a) : up-stream 1.74 cm
in figure 4. : down-stream 1.254 cm
Cavity diameter : up-stream 4.53 cm
2.1 Main Parameters of the structure : down-stream 4.33 cm
Disk thickness: t 0.3 cm
The main parameter of the accelerating structure Quality factor: Q 10.7-10.3 ×103
designed for 500 GeV C.M. energy linear collider is listed Group velocity : up-stream 0.035 c
in Table 1. To increase the shunt impedance, we changed : down-stream 0.012 c
the disk-thickness from 4 mm of initial design to 3 mm. It Average shunt impedance: rs 53-67.3 MΩ/m
improved the shunt-impedance by 13%. Attenuation parameter 0.53
Filling time: Tf 286 nsec
3 MANUFACTURING AND
ASSEMBLING 3.2 Assembling the SiC RF Load
3.1 Machining of the cavity In order to mount the rf load on the cavity, we decided
to uses a thin metal spring, which was inserted between
The choke-cell, and the coupler cavity are made of the the SiC- ring and the outer-groove as shown in figure 6.
high purity Oxygen Free High Conductivity (OFHC, The reason why the brazing was not used is to eliminate
>99.99%) copper. The final machining uses a very high- the high temperature bonding process, which causes
precision tuning lathe with a diamond cutting-tool of dimensional changes in the structure, resulting in a big
rounded shape (R0.5). The dimensional accuracy of the error on straightness, which can exceeds the 50 µm limit.
accelerator cavity was kept within 2 µm, except for the The cooling of SiC-ring is not a big issue in this case,
rounded part of the beam hole, where it is 5 µm, which since the estimated wakefield power per cavity is as low
provides the frequency valuation of within ±100 kHz. as 2 W only. The leakage power of the accelerating field
The surface roughness was kept to 30 nm at cavity is also quite low, because the choke has enough isolation
inner surfaces and within 500 nm around the beam hole gain as high as -90 dB.
[3]. Since the stored energy in the choke slot is much When a HV-discharge is happen in a choke, the
smaller than that in the acceleration cavity, the acceleration field will flow into the SiC. However, it also
dimensional tolerance is much looser than that in the causes the detuning of the cell frequency and the traveling
262
vacuum. As can be seen in figure, all the data obtained
within the specified frequency of ±200 kHz.
5690.0
IN VAVUUM, 30 DEG. C
400
5680.0
DEVIATION FROM TARGET [kHz]
TARGET FREQUENCU [MHz]
200 5670.0
5660.0
0
5650.0
-200 5640.0
TARGET
Figure 5: An SiC rf absorber components. Left: choke- MEASURED
5630.0
-400
mode cavity. Center: metal spring belt. Right: SiC rf DEVIATION
absorber ring. An SiC rf-absorber ring is inserted 0 20 40 60 80 100
5620.0
smoothly into the outer groove by using a simple jig with CAVITY NUMBEER
pressure around 30 kgf.
rf power is reflected back to upstream. Only the stored Figure 7: Frequency deviations from the target of each
energy in one cell will be dissipated on the SiC, which is acceleration cavity.
only 0.2 J or less.
5 ELECTROPLATING
4 RF MEASUREMENT
To meet the straightness tolerance, we decided to uses
After the precision machining, each cavity was the “Electroplating Method” (not to be confused with the
stacked, and resonance frequency was measured. Since prior electro-forming method), which plates a thick
the relation between π/2 and 3π/4 modes are known in copper layer of 5 mm on the outer surface of stacked
advance, the π/2 mode frequency (cell resonance) was cavities. During this process, temperature of the structure
used for this check. The deviation from the target raises, but only around 40 °C, which does not cause the
frequency of each cell was adjusted by slightly machining dimensional changes in copper material and keeps the
the inner dimension (2b) of the disk. structure straightness [4].
4.1 Choke Slot 6 SUMMARY
The center frequency of the choke filter was measured The deviation frequency from the target of the choke
with a special rf jig. The acceleration cavity part is and accelerating cavity were obtained within each target
electrically shorted by a metal disk, then a rf-signal is fed value of ±1 MHz and ±200 kHz. An integrated phase
from the center terminal. The transmitted power through error is around ±5° for 87 cavities.
the choke is monitored by two pick-up antennas. Figure 6 It was confirmed that the conventional hardware
shows the typical frequency response. The deviation of technique, which has been used in fabrication of S-band
the center frequency from the target of all the cavities accelerating structures, is enough to develop the C-band
were within the specified values of ±1 MHz. structure.
The fabrication will be completed in this fall, and its
HOM performance will be tested with ASSET beam line
at SLAC end of this year.
REFERENCE
[1] N. Akasaka et al., “Optimization on Wakefield
Damping in A-band Accelerating Structure”,
Proceedings of LINAC98, Chicago, USA, August
-90 dB 23-28, 1998
[2] T. Shintake, “The Choke Mode Cavity”, Jpn. J. Appl
Phys. Vol. 31, pp. L1567-L1570, Part2, No. 11A 199.
Figure 6: Frequency response of choke cavity. [3] H. Matsumoto et al., ”An Electroplating Fabrication
Method for Electron Accelerator Structure”,
4.2 Accelerating cavity Proceedings of LINAC98, Chicago, USA, August
23-28, 1998..
The cell resonance frequency was measured by a
[4] K. Kubo et al., “Alignment Issues for C-band Linear
special jig, which detunes the neighboring cells and
Collider”, Proceedings of the EPAC96, June 10-14,
resonates at π/2 mode. Figure 7 show the frequency 1996, Sitges, Barcelona, Spain
deviations from the operating point of 5712 MHz in
263
AN ELECTROPLATING FABRICATION METHOD
FOR ELECTRON ACCELERATOR STRUCTURES
H. Matsumoto and T. Shintake
KEK High Energy Accelerator Research Organization, 1-1 Oho, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305, Japan
Y. Iino and Z. Kabeya
Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd., 10 Oye, Minato-ku, Nagoya, 455, Japan
Abstract motivation was to improve the accuracy in the phase-shift
per cavity, while ensuring mass productability. They
An electroplating fabrication method has been used introduced a high-precision machining lathe, and
since 1962 for S-band frequency electron accelerating succeeded in fabricating accelerating structures, which
structures in Japan. The electrical contact between disk did not require frequency tuning of any method after the
and cylinder, and the vacuum integrity are maintained by copper plating.
an electroplated copper layer 5 mm thick, without any In 1978, 160 accelerating structures were made this
metal brazing. The typical integrated phase error after method and installed in the 2.5 GeV PF-injector at KEK.
plating was kept below ±2° without any frequency tuning. Recently, 68 more structures were added for an energy
The mechanical straightness was within ±100 µm over the upgrade to 8 GeV for the KEK-B project [6,7].
2 m length of the S-band accelerating structure. Figure 1 shows the temperature dependence of the
Since this method does not require any high- tensile strength, and also the dimensional elongation of
temperature processes, such as the metal brazing high purity Oxygen-Free-High-Conductivity (OFHC,
commonly used for accelerator fabrication, the copper 99.996%) copper.
material does not crystallize and maintains a higher 40
TENCILE STRENGTH ELOGATION
50
tensile strength. That makes this method very attractive
TENCILE STRENGTH [kgf/mm ]
for fabrication of the high-performance structures which
2
40
will be required in various future projects, and especially 35
ELONGATION [%]
for e+e- linear colliders.
30
SAMPLE SIZE: φ2 mm
30 OFHC COOPER: 99.996%
1 INTRODUCTION (HITACHI CABLE Ltd.)
20
+ -
A special requirement for a large scale e e linear 25
collider for 300-500 GeV C.M. energy reasion is to be 10
able to accelerate a low emittance beam while achieving a
nano-meter size beam at the collision point in order to 20 0
100 150 200 250 300 350 400
provide the required high luminosity. One R&D issue for HEAT TEMPERATURE [Deg. C for 5 min.]
the accelerating structure is how to control beam induced
wakefield effects. The multi-bunch instability problem Figure 1: Mechanical properties of OFHC copper as a
has been mostly solved by the Choke-Mode concept and function of temperature. Each sample was heated up to a
the detuned-structure. However, single bunch instability target temperature, and held there for 5 minutes.
due to short-range wake-field is still a problem. Trade- As can be easily seen in the figure, at temperatures
offs are involves since lower rf frequencies minimize over 200 °C the tensile strength drops sharply and
these instabilities, while higher frequency bands provide elongation becomes pronounced.
higher shunt-impedance which is also preferable. From It is very clear that conventional brazing methods,
consideration of the required straightness tolerance, we which require temperatures of around 700-900 °C, present
chose a compromise at the C-band frequency (5712MHz), difficult problems with respect to mechanical
where the straightness tolerance becomes ±50 µm performance. On the other hand, when using
(maximum bow) for a 1.8 m-long structure. At the higher electroplating to join the cavities, the maximum
X-band frequency, straightness becomes on the order of temperature raise is only about 40 °C. From this fact, we
±10 µm for the 1.8 m-long SLAC Detuned-Damped- believe that the electroplating method is a very attractive
Strucure [2,3]. It is clear that no laboratory or industry candidate for the preferred fabrication method for high-
group currently has any experience with fabricating so performance accelerators requiring tight mechanical
many structures at this extraordinary level of accuracy. tolerance and frequency control.
Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Ltd. (MHI) and Professor In this paper, we will describe the elector-plating
J. Tanaka of KEK developed an electroplating fabrication fabrication method, and its related techniques.
method (not to be confused with the prior electro-forming
method) for electron accelerator structures [4,5]. Their
264
2 MANUFACTURING
The regular section of the accelerating structure is
composed of disks and cylinders. They are stacked
alternately in series and held in place as a single structure
by the electroplated outer copper layer as shown in figure
2. The disks and cylinders are made of high purity OFHC
copper, and machined by a high-precision turning lathe.
The electroplated copper layer is 5 mm, which provides
good enough electrical contact as well as vacuum
tightness without further metal bonding, such as the high-
temperature brazing process.
ELECTRO-PLATED COPPER LAYER
5 UNIT: mm
Electroplated
DISK CYLINDER
2b±0.002
2a±0.002
Figure 3: Figure 3: The final machining of a disk with a
t±0.002 diamond tool.
5 D±0.002 junction
35
OFHC
300 nm
Figure 2: Figure 2: Left: cut away view of the structure.
The thickness of the electroplated copper layer is 5 mm.
Right: an expanded view of the electroplated layer (top), 30 nm
and OFHC copper (bottom). A horizontal dark black line
shows boundary of electroplated copper and OFHC.
Figure 4: This photograph, taken by an optical
2.1 Disk and Cylinder Manufacture interferometric method, shows the typical surface
roughness of a copper disk machined on a precision
The disk, cylinder, and the coupler cavity are made of turning lathe. The distance between dark lines is 300 nm
the high purity OFHC ( >99.99%) copper. Figure 3 shows (half-wavelength). Any deviation of the dark line from
a photograph of the machining of the disks for KEKB 8 straightness shows the surface roughness. The peak to
GeV linac. The final machining uses a very high- peak surface roughness is about 30 nm in this case.
precision tuning lathe with a diamond cutting tool of
round shape (R0.5). 2.3 High Speed Electroplating
The dimensional accuracy was kept within 2 µm,
After frequency checks of all the cavities for an
except for the rounded part of the beam hole, where it is 5
acceleration structure, they are stacked together
µm. The surface roughness was kept to 30 nm at disk flat
horizontally (56 cavities for 2 m length) on a precision
surfaces and within 500 nm around the beam hole. The
support-bed. A steel mandrel is inserted through the
inner surface of the cylinders have 30 nm of roughness.
staked cavities and tightened to a tension of 2500 kgf to
Figure 4 shows the typical surface roughness at the disk
which will be held during the electroplating. The mandrel
surface measured by an optical interferometer using a
has a bar-shape and is made of high-tensile-strength steel
600-nm wavelength monochromatic light source.
to maintain the tension throughout the electroplating
procedure.
2.2 Assembly Accuracy Check The oxide layer on the outside of the structure is
removed by mechanical brushing, and then it is rinsed in
The dimensional tolerances for the disk and cylinder pure water to remove any foreign matter such as dust
are ±2 µm as shown in figure 2, which corresponds 80 which may be stuck on the surface. The structure is then
kHz in frequency error, and 0.34 degree of the phase error immersed in the electroplating process fluid in a vertical
at vg of 0.01c at the S-band frequency. This result made it bath.
possible to eliminate the final phase adjustment such as A high-speed electroplating method is chosen [8,9].
the dimpling procedure which is needed after brazing the In order to plate the copper at high current densities of 10
structure. The target resonant frequency of each cavity A/dm2 or more, additives are included to the copper-
was intentionally lowered by 200 kHz from the operating sulfate. It takes 70 hours to deposit a layer 5 mm in
frequency to allow for the mechanical compression effect thickness. The processing fluid mainly consists of copper-
associated with the electroplating process. The sulfite, sulfuric-acid (H2SO4, >95%), hydrochloric-acid
electroplated copper tends to shrink, and produces a small (HCl, >35%) and ion-exchanged-water. During the
change in the resulting mechanical dimensions, mainly in plating the plating fluid temperature was controlled at 30
that the cylinder diameter becomes smaller. °C ± 1 °C. Also, close purity control of the plating fluid
265
is very important to prevent defects in the copper crystal BEFORE ELECTROPLATING
structure such as the so called star and wrinkle defects. 120
The possibility of fluid leakage through a gap between
disk and cylinder is very low. A key point in this is the RMS PHASE ERROR
surface smoothness. It is around 30 nm after the precision :0.54 degree
machining and the dimensional accuracy is also 2 µm.
When the disk and cylinders are compressed with an 0
appropriate contact pressure, the resulting vacuum
tightness reaches the order of 10-4 Torr.
After the electroplating, the surface of the plated
copper is machined to back to a 5 mm thickness. The
hardness of the plated copper layer is really high, and is 240
comparable to iron. This is due to the compaction force of
ionized copper. During the plating the temperature rises, AFTER ELECTROPLATING
but only to 40 °C. 120
2.4 Assembling the Completed Accelerating RMS PHASE ERROR
Structure :1.4 degree
After assembling, an accelerating section has a 0
coupler attached at each end by electron beam welding
(EBW) while pressure is applied by the mandrel. The
position for the weld is designed to avoid excessive stress
concentration and to obtain a good electrical contact. The
structure is cooled with a water-jacket type pipe, which 240
has both ends TIG welded to the couplers.
Figure 5: Typical phase characteristics of an electroplated
3 RF MEASUREMENT RESULTS S-band 2 m-long structure as measured by the Nodal-
Shift method.
The structure is assembled from highly accurate disks
and cylinders; it is easily checked for the specified REFERENCE
resonance frequencies, thus in principle we see that it is
[1] T. Shintake et al., “Result from Hardware R&D on C-
possible to mass produce a high precision accelerating
band RF-System for e+e- Linear Collider”,
structure. However, the proof is in the final check to
Proceedings of LINAC98, Chicago, USA, August 23-
measure the phase shift of the all the cavities by Nodal-
Shift method. Figure 5 shows the typical measured 28, 1998.
Nodal-Shift data before and after the electroplating [2] T. Shintake, "The Choke Mode Cavity", Jpn. J. Appl
process. The three solid lines in figure 5 are the specified Phys. Vol. 31, pp. L1567-L1570, Part2, No. 11A 199.
phase-shifts (0°, 120° and 240°), the measured phase [3] K. Kubo et al., "Alignment Issues for C-band Linear
Collider", Proceedings of the EPAC96, June 10-14,
shifts of the cavities for 2π/3 mode at the operating
1996, Sitges, Barcelona, Spain.
frequency are marked with open circles. As can be seen
[4] J. Tanaka et al., "On Electroforming of Disk-Loaded
from figure 5, the integrated phase errors are within ±2°
of Linear Accelerator", Applied Physics in Japan 31,
for the 2 m-long structure (two couplers and 54 regular
1962, 146.
cavities). After the electroplating process, the integrated
[5] N. Yamaguchi, "Mitsubishi Linear Accelerator tube
phase errors slightly increase, but still only to 0.86 degree
Manufactured by Electro-forming method with copper
in rms. From this we conclude that the electroplating
spacer", Internal report of Mitsubishi Heavy Industries
effects can be controlled quite precisely.
Ltd.
[6] A. Entomb, "Upgrade to the 8-GeV Electron Linac for
4 CONCLUSIONS KEKB", Proceedings of LINAC96, August 26-39,
1996, Geneva, Switzerland.
We conclude that the electroplating method is a [7] S. Yamaguchi et al., "Design if Input and Output
attractive candidate for fabrication of the next generation Coupler for Linear Accelerator Structures",
advanced accelerators. As for the related technology, we Proceedings of LINAC96, August 26-39, 1996,
have also shown that the simple frequency measuring of Geneva, Switzerland.
the assembly check can be use to obtain the same [8] K. Takahashi, Internal report (in Japanese) of
accuracy of the Nodal-Shift method. Finally, the Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Ltd.
straightness of the structure can be improved to within [9] S. Yoshida, Internal report (in Japanese) of Mitsubishi
less than 30 µm of the target value. Heavy Industries Ltd.
266
STATUS OF ENGINEERING DEVELOPMENT OF CCDTL FOR
ACCELERATOR PRODUCTION OF TRITIUM*
R. L. Wood, J. H. Billen, W. T. Hunter, P. O. Leslie, R. J. Roybal, F. E. Sigler
Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545 USA
Abstract
2 ARCHITECTURE
The Coupled-Cavity Drift Tube Linac (CCDTL) is a
The APT LEL has evolved significantly since the
relatively new RF accelerator structure which plays a
presentation of the Conceptual Design, mostly in response
major role in the APT Low-Energy Linac (LEL) design.
to practical engineering considerations.[3][4] There are
Engineering development is pushing ahead on several
still three distinct types of CCDTL (single 2-gap, single 3-
fronts, including thermal management, fabrication
gap, and double 2-gap segments) to carry the 100 mA
procedures, cavity and coupling slot tuning, high-power
proton beam from 6.7 to ~100 MeV, but the transition
prototype fabrication and testing, supports and alignment,
points have been moved to eliminate mixing of types
vacuum, and provisions for beam diagnostics. Fabrication
within a RF module. This mixing caused a variety of
of the CCDTL Low-Beta Hot Model is nearly complete,
mechanical issues in earlier versions of the design, but
and high-power RF tests will commence soon. In 1999,
there is not enough space to discuss them here.
we will begin the fabrication of 11 meters of CCDTL to
Marked changes in the focusing period were made to
be added to the Low-Energy Demonstration Accelerator.
provide needed empty space for magnets and beam
In 2001, it will take the 100 mA beam from 6.7 MeV to
diagnostics in the 10-to-50 MeV range. This in turn
10.05 MeV, producing the world’s most powerful proton
prompted a change from 6-cell to 7-cell CCL segments in
beam. We are also starting the design of a CCDTL 96
the >100 MeV portion of the LEL [4].
MeV Hot Model to demonstrate cooling of an
This lattice change indirectly causes a “tolerance stack-
intermediate-beta version of the structure. The 14 cm-
up” problem in the CCDTL which is remedied by
long, 9 cm diameter 96 MeV drift tube dissipates roughly
changing to 3-cell bridge couplers to join the brazed
5 kW. This all leads to the final mechanical design of the
sections (see below). This solution does not work in the
113 m long CCDTL for the APT plant linac.
10-to-21 MeV portion, where the 3-gap CCDTL type is
used.
1 INTRODUCTION
The CCDTL concept was invented in 1994 [1] to 3 RF STRUCTURE MATERIALS AND
answer the stringent demands of the waste-transmutation FABRICATION METHODS
and tritium production accelerator applications. Although
several low-power aluminum “Cold Models” have been Several of the CCDTL’s new mechanical features have
built and tested, no CCDTL has yet been operated at high been under development for the last three years. Most
power or with particle beam. Before taking that step, there have to do with either fabricating or cooling drift tubes.
are many “trivial” engineering details which must be We have previously reported on the design and predicted
worked out. This would be a significant effort, even if the performance of coolant passages within the drift tubes[5].
first application were low power. Some unique fabrication Recently, we have performed experimental measurements
and tuning methods must be developed, while vacuum which suggest that these passages are actually much more
pumping, cooling, resonance frequency control, and RF effective than originally thought[6]. We will be repeating
interfacing must be adapted from similar systems used on these measurements on drift-tube prototypes from a
common Coupled Cavity Linacs (CCLs). different part of the LEL to further prove the cooling
This paper presents the status of this engineering effort, scheme before actual RF structures are built.
without giving much background about how we got here, Material properties and brazing continue to be areas of
or why. The following discussion covers topics, results, concern, primarily with vacuum and RF attachments to
and plans in four areas: mechanical prototype tests, RF OFE copper structures. Originally, we had chosen to use
cold models, the CCDTL Low-Beta Hot Model (LBHM), alumina-dispersion strengthened (Glidcop) copper for
and the APT Low-Energy Demonstration Accelerator all components which are exposed to RF and require
(LEDA), phase 3A (6.7-8 MeV) and 3B (8-10 MeV)[2]. strength, such as drift-tube stems and accelerating cavity
flanges. Until recently, large equatorial flanges were
planned to join the 1-to-1.6-m-long brazed sections into
* Work supported by the US Dept. of Energy, Defense long RF modules. The aforementioned tolerance stack-up
Programs. problem made it easy to choose to eliminate the flanges
267
from the design, but, as previously mentioned, we have
not found a practical alternative for the 10-to-21 MeV 5 ELECTROMAGNETIC QUADRUPOLES
portion of the LEL. For now, at least, there are about 15 (EMQ)
of these flanged joints still in the plan.
Our first attempts at brazing OFE drift tubes and The spatial constraints placed on the LEL EMQs are
Glidcop stems into OFE cavities were very good, but very stringent, requiring an innovative approach to their
recent attempts have had some problems. The 50-50 Au- design. A 2-fold symmetric geometry has been
Cu braze alloy has produced all leak-tight joints, but they developed, several prototype versions have been built and
do not look like the kind of clean cosmetic joints we want tested, and a “final” LEDA version is in the final design
inside a high-power RF cavity. Although copper plating stage.
is expected to help, this added step may tip the scales back
toward plated stainless steel.
There have also been several improvements made in
our machining and braze fixturing which should insure
good parts in our future fabrications.
The vehicle for much of this development is the
LBHM, a 1-m-long piece of CCDTL corresponding to
7.6-8.8 MeV in the original LEDA design. At the time of
this conference, all of the pre-tuning fabrication and
brazing are complete, and cavity and slot tuning activity is
about half complete. Following tuning, the assembly will Because of the large number of magnets, and the
go through its final assembly braze, be installed on its test overall congestion of all areas around the beam line,
stand, and tested at up to 135% of its intended RF fields. alignment of the magnets after installation could be a
problem. For this, and to minimize personnel radiation
4 RF STRUCTURE TUNING exposure, we will be pre-aligning all of the magnets off-
line, to a common standard, on semi-kinematic mounts.
Although 2-D and 3-D modeling can give us a very The calibration and pre-alignment standard has been
good understanding of the CCDTL cavities, we find that designed, and is being assembled by General Atomics.
simple, relatively inexpensive aluminum “cold models”
are the only sure way to determine complex 3-D 6 SUPPORTS AND ALIGNMENT
properties like coupling coefficients and frequency
dependency on coupling. Several cold models have been All alignment-critical components are mounted on
built to simulate various cavities in the 6.7-10 MeV range hardened rails within the linac tunnel. The ultimate
and we have developed many refinements in our testing alignment of these components depends on the stable
and tuning methods[7]. “straightness” of these rails. The rails are mounted atop
These methods are being put to the test in the tuning of rigid steel chassis, ranging from 2 to 4 meters in length,
the LBHM, now underway. Despite our earlier cold which are placed end-to-end for the entire length of the
modeling, we have encountered several new problems. LEL. An afocal optical system is used to straighten the
Specifically, although the coupling slot predictions are rails to within 25 µm. Internal optics and loading
very close, the accelerating cavity frequency predictions hardware provide means to sense and correct the mid-
are off by more than 5MHz in some cases (<1%). Since point deflection of each chassis, which will return the rails
the LBHM will not be used with beam, we have to within 10 µm of its original shape for almost any
aggressive ways to deal with this, but this will not be conceivable loading condition[8].
acceptable on LEDA. Apparently, extrapolations from A detailed design and prototype are the next step.
too few cold models is not a good idea, and 2MHz tuning LEDA hardware is due by December 1999.
range might not be enough, even with better data.
Our approach for LEDA phase 3A is to build more cold 7 RESONANT FREQUENCY CONTROL/
models, matching the 6.7 and 8 MeV endpoints, in hopes COOLING AND VACUUM SYSTEMS
that interpolation over a short range of β will yield
Again, the LBHM has been the vehicle for
cavities which are closer to the target frequency. The 6.7
development. A cooling and resonant frequency control
MeV Cold Model has already been built and is being very
system has been fully implemented in miniature, by
thoroughly tested. An extensive 8 MeV Cold Model has
Allied Signal, for use on the 30-40 kW LBHM. The test
been designed, but we are waiting to see what new data
of this system is one of the key objectives of the LBHM.
will come from the 8 MeV LBHM and the 6.7 MeV cold
A brute-force approach has been taken for the vacuum
model before starting fabrication. We hope to complete
system for the LBHM, but a conceptual design for the
all work on these new cold models by December 1998.
LEDA CCDTL vacuum system is under development at
268
LLNL. For maximum cost/performance and reliability, dimensions from spreadsheets, and the models and
each 2 to 4 m chassis will have a dedicated large diameter drawings will be automatically updated. Again, we are
manifold with 2 to 4 large ion pumps and one turbo pump hoping for completion of the cold models by Dec. 98, the
attached. Detailed design of the LEDA Phase 3a cavity tables by Jan. 99, and completion of the LEDA
hardware will commence soon, followed by fabrication, Phase 3A drawing package by Feb. 99, fabrication to
ready for installation in January 2000. commence immediately afterward.
8 CCDTL LOW-BETA HOT MODEL 10 96 MEV HOT MODEL
EXPERIMENT Most of the work described above is aimed at the low-
The LBHM will be the first high-power test of the energy end of the CCDTL, since that will be built and
CCDTL concept, and the driving force for fabrication and operated first. But the worst case thermal problems are at
tuning method development. Various aspects of this the other end of the CCDTL. We are planning to build
effort are covered in the previous sections. The main and test a 1.4m-long high-power prototype of the final
objectives include the refinement of cooling and two CCDTL segments (@ 96 MeV) to address this part of
resonance control system designs, and to measure the the parameter space. Fabrication is expected to begin by
system’s ability to cope with errors in local coolant flow mid-1999, with tests to begin by early-2000.
rates. We expect to install the completed LBHM in Oct The drift tubes in the 96 MeV cavity are roughly the
98, and to complete high power experiments by January size of a beverage can and dissipate ~5 kW of RF power.
99. This data will be immediately applied to the design of This drift-tube will require a very dense coolant passage
the LEDA and plant accelerators. network. Prototypes are being fabricated now, and
cooling experiments conducted as before.
11 CONCLUSION
Despite less than overwhelming funding to date,
significant progress has been made toward the systematic
completion of the APT LEL design. Key design topics
have been, or soon will be, explored, leading to the
completion of the LEDA Phase 3a CCDTL over the next
two years. Subsequent steps are planned to cover any and
all remaining topics.
12 REFERENCES
[1] J. H. Billen et al., “A New RF Structure for
Intermediate-Velocity Particles,” Proc. 1994 Int.
Linac Conf., Tsukuba, p341 (1994).
[2] H. V. Smith Jr. et al., “Status Update on the Low-
Energy Demonstration Accelerator”, this conf.
[3] J. H. Billen et al., “ A Versatile, High-power Proton
Linac for Accelerator-Driven Transmutation
Technologies” . Proc. 1995 Particle Accelerator
Conf., Dallas, p1137.
[4] L. M. Young et al., “Beam Dynamics Design of the
211 MeV APT Normal Conducting LINAC”, this
conf.
9 LEDA PHASE 3A CCDTL DESIGN [5] R. L. Wood et al., “Thermal/Structural Design and
Fabrication Development Of High Power CCDTL
While we await the completion of the cold modeling And CCL Structures”, Proc. LINAC96, Geneva.
effort, we have proceeded with the mechanical design of [6] P. O. Leslie et al., “Heat Transfer Coefficient in
the 5 meters (24 accelerating segments with 20 Serpentine Coolant Passage for CCDTL”, this conf.
“sideways” coupling cavities in four brazed sections, plus [7] M. Cole et al., “Test Results for a Cold Model of a 2-
the three 3-cell bridge couplers) of LEDA Phase 3a gap to 3-gap Transition Section for LEDA,” this conf.
CCDTL. Unigraphics Parametric Solid Modeling is [8] R. L. Wood, “Conceptual Design for Support Chassis
used heavily, allowing us to “complete” most of the for LEDA CCDTL”, Los Alamos National
drawings without the final dimensions. Once the missing Laboratory internal memorandum LANSCE-1:TNM-
values are finalized, software will read the physics 98-040 (Feb.5, 1998).
269
TUNING THE LEDA RFQ 6.7 MEV ACCELERATOR*
Lloyd M. Young and L. Rybarcyk
Los Alamos National Laboratory, MS H817, Los Alamos, NM 87545, USA
Abstract agrees so well with the design field that in this figure it is
difficult to distinguish between the two lines except for
This paper presents the results of tuning the 8 meter
the fact the design field has no bumps. These bumps in the
long Radio Frequency Quadrupole (RFQ) [1] built for the
fields are caused by the tuners. In Figure 1, the crosses (+)
Low Energy Demonstration Accelerator (LEDA)[2]. This
indicate locations between tuners where the measured
350-MHz RFQ is split into four 2-meter-long-RFQ’s.
field is valid. These bumps in the measured magnetic
Then they are joined with resonant coupling to form an 8-
fields do not appear in the electric fields on axis. The
meter-long RFQ[3]. This improves both the longitudinal
large dips in the measured quadrupole fields are caused by
stability and the transverse stability of this long RFQ. The
the bead passing through holes in the coupling plates. The
frequencies of the modes near the RFQ mode are
coupling plates join the four 2-meter-long RFQ’s.
measured. We show the effect on the RF fields of an error
in the temperature of each one of the 2-meter-long RFQ’s. 2 TUNING STEPS
Water-cooled copper slugs distributed along the outer
walls tune the RFQ. The program RFQTUNE [4] is used The first step in the tuning of the LEDA RFQ occurred
to determine the length of the slug tuners. The tuners are before the final brazing. Each 1-meter-long segment was
machined to length when the final tuning is complete. checked for correct frequency and fields. The undercuts
on one end of each segment have a large effect on the
1 INTRODUCTION field tilt. Figure 2 shows the fields in section A1. The
quadrupole fields are very nearly equal to the design
The final tuning of the LEDA RFQ has been
fields, which means that the vane undercuts on the low-
completed. All the tuners have been machined to length
energy end are correct. The dipole fields of about 20% are
and installed. The RF drive ports are plugged with
correctable with the tuners. This measurement was
temporary inserts that are flush with the interior wall of
performed with the tuners flush. The frequency is adjusted
the RFQ. Figure 1 shows the measured fields versus
by machining the braze surfaces on the major vanes and
position along the RFQ. The RF magnetic fields near the
moving the minor vanes in or out. Typically, the
outer wall are measured using the bead-perturbation
frequency of each 1-m segment was correct when the vane
technique. The vane gap voltage is inferred from the
gaps were adjusted to the design dimensions.
measured magnetic fields by comparison to SUPERFISH
calculations of the RFQ cross section every 10 cm along
the RFQ. In Figure 1 the measured fields are the lines with
bumps. The smooth line through the measured quadrupole Measured RFQ
fields is the design field. The measured quadrupole field field profile.
File LEDA7_67.MBD RFQ is 798.96cm long; frequency 349.879 Mhz Design RFQ
Dipole X 5. Quadrupole X 1.
140 field profile.
120 Quadrupole field
100
FIELD (%of Quadrupole)
80
60
40
20
0
-20 Figure 2. Perturbation measurement of the fields in section A1
-40 before brazing. The measurement was performed with
Dipole fields X 5
-60 a short RFQ piece attached on the high energy end.
Bumps caused This short piece has a vane undercut designed to
-80
by the tuners. properly terminate the RFQ with flat fields.
-100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Figure 1. RFQ fields measured with the bead perturbation The next step in tuning occurred after the final section
technique. The measured fields are within 1% of the brazes. This step established the length of the dipole
design values. The dipole fields are multiplied by a stabilizer rods. These rods, four of which are mounted on
factor of 5. each of the end walls and on both sides of each coupling
plate, adjust the frequency of the dipole modes. The
*Work supported by the US Department of Energy.
270
length of the rods are adjusted to approximately equalize machined tuners raised the frequency slightly with respect
the frequency difference between the quadrupole mode to the movable tuners, this step was done in three stages.
frequency and the nearest dipole mode above and below First 50% were replaced, then 25%, and finally the last
the quadrupole mode. Figure 3 shows the quadrupole 25%. After each stage the RFQ tuning was checked and
modes in the frequency region near the operating mode the remaining tuners adjusted as necessary.
that is free of dipole modes. This tuning scheme Step five in the tuning was to adjust the waveguide
minimizes the dipole component in the quadrupole mode coupling irises. This RFQ is driven with three 1.2-MW
caused by asymmetric perturbations. The water cooled klystrons. The RF power from each klystron is split 4
stabilizer rods are 1.27 cm in diameter and 15 cm long. ways to reduce the power on the waveguide vacuum
Step three in tuning adjusted the gap between the windows. The total coupling beta without beam with all
vane-tip ends at the segment joints. These gaps provide three klystrons operating was chosen to be 2. The RFQ
capacitive coupling between adjacent pairs of the four 2- will be over coupled when all three klystrons are
meter-long RFQ’s. The size of these gaps determines the operating, but this RFQ is also expected to operate with
capacitance between the vane-tip ends and thus the only 2 of the 3 klystrons. With 2 klystrons operating, the
frequency of the coupling mode. The goal is to have the total coupling beta without beam will be 1.33 and the
coupling mode frequency equal to the operating mode, RFQ will be under coupled with full beam current. A
which closes the stop band at the zero-phase-shift point in coupling beta of 1.58 would give the best match at full
the dispersion curve shown in Figure 3. The fact that the beam current.
dispersion curve is smooth through the operating mode A coupling beta of 2 with all twelve waveguides
shows that the frequency of the coupling mode is nearly coupled to the RFQ requires each waveguide to be
equal to the RFQ operating mode. The operating mode coupled with a beta of 0.167. To achieve this coupling a
has zero phase shift between the segments so the structure tapered ridge-loaded waveguide section reduces the size
acts like one long RFQ. The resonant coupling provides of the half-height WR2300 waveguide to 17.78 X 2.54 cm
longitudinal stability that is nearly as good as in a 2- at the RFQ. The RF fields in this tapered section increase
meter-long RFQ.[5] to the point where an iris only 9.144 cm long and 0.1575
cm wide is sufficient to achieve this coupling. The 12 RF
359
waveguide ports were plugged with a copper piece flush
with the interior walls during tuning. After the iris size
357
was determined, the penetration of the tapered-waveguide
355 test section was adjusted for minimum effect on the RF
Dipole mode fields and frequency. This adjustment allows the final
Frequency MHz
353
free region. tuning to be completed with all the water-cooled tuners
machined to length and installed before the waveguides
351
RFQ operating are installed. Because the manufacturing of the tapered
mode waveguides is taking longer than originally expected, we
349 have completed the final tuning even though the fields
may change a small amount after the waveguides are
347 installed.
345
3 TUNING ERRORS
343
The RFQ cooling system controls the resonate
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 frequency of the RFQ. The frequency is controlled by
Phase shift (π) adjusting the temperature of the cooling water in the outer
walls of the RFQ and maintaining 50° F water in the
Figure 3. Quadrupole dispersion curve showing the RFQ cooling passages near the vane tips. A +1° F change in
operating mode and the frequency gap between the temperature of the outer wall cooling water raises the
nearest dipole modes and the operating mode.
resonant frequency of the RFQ by 17 kHz for constant
Step four in the tuning adjusted the RF field to the temperature of the tip cooling water. Whereas if both the
design values. This was done by moving the 128 movable tip cooling and the wall cooling water raises by 1° F, the
tuners in accordance to the code RFQTUNE. A number of frequency of the RFQ will drop by 3.27 kHz. This dual
iterations were performed to adjust the field to within 1% temperature cooling system is required to keep the RFQ
of the design value. Figure 1 shows that the dipole tuned to 350 MHz when dissipating 1.2 MW of RF power.
component is less than 1% in over 90% of the RFQ. The The RFQ is tuned to 350 MHz at 70° F with low RF
D(2-4) dipole component is about 2% from 400 cm to 450 power. When it is operating, the average temperature will
cm. When this tuning was completed the movable tuners be ~84° F.
were replace with water-cooled tuners machined to the
final penetration of the movable tuners. Because the
271
the outer walls in each section have a cooling loop which
mixes some of the cooling water heated by that section
with the water from the outer cooling loop. This mixing
ratio is adjusted manually with a remote control valve. An
outer cooling loop mixes the water returning from all 4
inner loops with the 50° F supply water to control the
resonate frequency of the RFQ. This outer loop is
controlled by a PID feedback circuit.
The adjustment of the 4 manually controlled mixing
valves will be performed by inspection of the field errors
in the RFQ. RF pickup loops placed in 64 of the 128
tuners will measure the RF field distribution. Inspection of
the errors in the field distribution will allow adjustment of
the mixing valves. Figures 4, 5, and 6 show the changes in
Figure 4. Change in quadrupole fields when segment “A” (0- the quadrupole field for a temperature error in the outer
200 cm) is tuned high in frequency by ~400 kHz. This
wall cooling water in sections A, D, and B. The changes
corresponds to a cooling water temperature error of
in the quadrupole field for section C looks like the mirror
+23° F.
image of B. This type of perturbation does not effect the
dipole component in the operating quadrupole mode.
Thus a cooling water temperature error of +23° F
results in a maximum field error of only 8%. Therefore, it
should be easy to set the manually controlled mixing
valves to minimize the field errors by setting the mixing
valves to obtain the predicted temperatures. The predicted
temperatures of the 4 loops are 71, 65, 63, and 61 o F
respectively.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Many people have been involved in the design and
manufacturing of this RFQ. They include: D. Schrage, P.
Roybal, A. Naranjo, D. Baca, W. Clark, F. Martinez, H.
Figure 5. Change in quadrupole fields when segment “D” (600-
800 cm) is tuned high in frequency by ~400 kHz. This
Haagenstad, J. Mitchell, D. Montoya, A. Rendon, F.
corresponds to a cooling water temperature error of Krawczyk, T. Davis, D. Casillas,A. Gonzales, G.
+23° F. Gonzales, S. Hidalgo, E. Kettering, G. Leeches, B.
Ormond, R. Reinert, O. Smith, and J. Tafoya.
REFERENCES
[1] D. Schrage et al., “CW RFQ Fabrication And Engineering,”
these proceedings.
[2] H. V. Smith, “Status Update for the Low-Energy
Demonstration Accelerator (LEDA),” these proceedings.
[3] L. Young, “Simulations of the LEDA RFQ 6.7 MeV
Accelerator,” Proceedings of the 1997 Particle Accelerator
Conference.
[4] L. Young, “Tuning and Stabilization of RFQ’s”
Proceedings of the 1990 Linear Accelerator Conference,
September 10-14,1990 Albuquerque, NM.
[5] L. M. Young, “An 8-meter-long Coupled Cavity RFQ
Figure 6. Change in quadrupole fields when segment “B” (200-
Linac” Proceedings of LINAC94, Tsukuba, 1994
400 cm) is tuned high in frequency by ~400 kHz. This
corresponds to a cooling water temperature error of
+23° F.
The cooling system has a separate cooling loop for
each 2-meter section of the RFQ because each section
dissipates a different amount of RF power. The cooling to
272
TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION CALCULATIONS ON BERYLLIUM
WINDOWS IN RF CAVITIES FOR A MUON COLLIDER
Derun Li, J. Corlett, W. Turner, LBNL, One Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
Abstract the beam iris aperture covered by thin Be foils. The struc-
We report the temperature distribution calculations on ture produces an on-beam-axis field equal to the maximum
beryllium windows in RF cavities for a muon collider. The surface field (e.g. Eacc=Esurface = 1) while for conven-
cavity resembles a closed pill-box cavity with the conven- tional RF structures with beam iris Eacc=Esurface 0:5.
tional beam iris aperture covered by thin beryllium (Be) Moreover the muon beams traverse these foils with negli-
foils to enhance the electric fields on the beam axis. The gible energy losses. MAFIA simulations indicate the cavity
design resonant frequency for the cavity is 805 MHz. To re- has an effective shunt impedance of 37 M
/m at = 0:87
duce the RF power losses, the cavity may be operated at liq- [2]. To further reduce RF power loss (or the costs for RF
uid nitrogen (LN) temperature. The heating caused by RF sources) the cavity may be operated at LN temperature. Po-
power dissipations on the Be windows is a concern for ei- tential benefits operating at LN temperature will depend on
ther at the room or at the LN temperature operations. Based both the electrical and thermal properties of the Be win-
on the MAFIA simulations, considering the heat conduc- dows. However, these properties at low temperature are
tion inside the Be windows only, a pill-box and an approx- not very well known. The thermal property in particular
imated linear model are used to calculate the temperature has strong influence on the mechanical and engineering de-
distributions analytically on a flat and a tapered window, signs for the windows and cavities. Experimental explo-
respectively. Preliminary calculations suggest that no spe- ration on these issues is currently in progress at BNL. Nev-
cial cooling designs be needed for 0.127 mm thickness of ertheless based on the limited data [4], we have estimated
Be windows while the cavities operate at 30 MV/m of elec- the temperature raise the Be windows so that proper tem-
tric fields on beam axis with 30 s pulse length and 10 Hz perature control or special cooling designs are employed
repetition rate. if necessary. Two models, a pill-box and an approximated
linear have been used to calculate the temperature distribu-
1 INTRODUCTION tions. Analytical formulae and numerical results are pre-
sented and compared. The linear model is also used for the
Significant efforts have been devoted to exploring the fea-
calculation of tapered windows.
sibility of designing and constructing a high luminosity
muon collider. Among many technical challenges, experi-
mental demonstration of ionization cooling for high inten-
sity + and , beams is one of the most critical paths to-
wards the building of a muon collider. Initial simulation
studies have indicated that the six-dimension phase space
volume of muon beams can be cooled by as much as a fac-
tor of 105 or 106 through an ionization cooling channel [1].
The cooling channel under study is composed of 20 to 30
sections, while each section consists of liquid hydrogen ab-
sorber and RF acceleration cavities surrounded by alternat-
ing super-conducting solenoids. The muon beam loses its
momentum (energy) both transversely and longitudinally
while passing the absorber. Nevertheless the longitudinal
momentum loss is compensated by coherent acceleration
fields in the RF cavities and therefore a net transverse mo-
mentum loss is left ) transverse cooling! A highest pos-
sible acceleration gradient RF structure is a must for restor- Figure 1: An interleaved =2 SW RF structure proposed for a
ing the longitudinal momentum loss in the limited lifetime muon cooling experiment at FNAL. Two cavity chains are inter-
of the muon beam. Among few proposed RF structures [2], leaved with a =2 phase shift. Each chain operates at its own =2
an interleaved =2 standing wave (SW) structure, shown in mode separately. Each cavity cell has a resonance frequency of
Figure 1, is favored. The accelerating cavity cell resem- 805 MHz. Conventional beam irises are covered by thin Be foils
bles a regular closed cylindrical pill-box cavity, but with with radii of 8 cm. RF coupling between the cells is conducted
through open slots on adjacent walls. The accelerating resembles
This Research Work is supported by the Director, Office of En-
a closed pill-box cavity and the coupling cell is a loaded coaxial
ergy Research, Office of High Energy and Nuclear Physics, High Energy
type cavity.
Physics Division, of the U.S. Department of Energy, under Contract No.
DE-AC03-76SF00098
273
2 RF POWER LOSSES 2.1 The Pill-Box Model
The electro-magnetic field continuously loses its energy to For the TM010 mode in a pill-box cavity, its electro-
the cavity wall. In order to maintain the field, the energy magnetic fields can be expressed as,
r
loss has to be provided by rf sources. The total RF energy
0
(power) flowing from the field into the wall can be com- Ez = E0J0 (kr); H = Ht = E J (kr): (3)
puted by 0 0 1
I
Rs
P= Ht Ht ds; The power loss and density functions are then given by,
2 S
(1)
where P is average power loss over one RF period; Rs = Ppb (r) = 2 Rs 0 E0
0 2 r2 J 2 (kr) + J 2(kr)
0 1
p
2 is surface resistance of the wall; Ht is tangential
0 !
, 2kr J0 (kr )J1 (kr)
component of magnetic field on the surface; S is the area pb (r) = R2s 00 E02 J12(kr)
of the cavity wall being studied. Equation (1) holds only
(4)
where k = (!=c) = (u01=a), with u01 as the first root
if the conductor thickness and radii of curvature are much
greater than , the skin depth. This is the case for most
of zero order Bessel function and a the outer radius of the
of the accelerator applications. Ht usually has to be ob-
accelerating cell; is the duty factor of the RF source.
tained from numerical simulation codes such as MAFIA
and SUPERFISH etc.. In some special cases (simple ge- 2.2 Linear Approximation Model
ometry), analytical solutions are available or can be used
as good approximations. The =2 interleaved SW struc- As indicated in Equation (3), Ht / J1 (kr) k2 r when
ture, for example, the field in the accelerating cell can be r << a. We are interested only in the power loss on
well approximated by pill-box solutions. Using the analyt- the Be windows with 8 cm of radii (0 < r < R =
ical solutions and a linear approximation model solution in 8 cm and R=a < 0:6), we therefore may p assume Ht to
particular greatly simplify the calculation for temperature be linearly dependent on r, e.g. Ht = r and name it
distributions. Considering the cylindrical symmetry of the as the linear model. The power loss density in this case is
accelerating cells, it is convenient to define a power loss given by,
and a density functions, P (r) and (r) by re-writing Equa- ln (r) = r2; (5)
tion (1), which is quadratically proportional to r. The linear model
Z r
R diverges more from the pill-box solutions while r is ap-
P (r) = (r0 )(2r0 )dr0; (r) = s Ht Ht ; (2) proaching to R. To compensate this deviation, we calculate
0 2 by requiring,
where we have assumed that only TM010 is the mode of our
interest and P (r) and (r) depend on r only. 1 Pln (r) = PBe
r 4 2P
; = Be4 : (6)
R R
Where PBe is the total average RF power loss on the Be
window (one side). PBe may come from the MAFIA simu-
20
+ : MAFIA Simulations lations, analytical formulae from the pill-box model or even
Pill-Box Model experimental measurement. For either cases we assume,
Power Loss (watts)
15
Ppb (R) = Pln (R) = PBe : (7)
10
With this assumption the power loss function by the lin-
ear model agrees well (within 6 %) with both the pill-box
5
model and the MAFIA simulations. Nevertheless the lin-
Linear Model ear model is much simpler mathematically, and therefore
0
-3
makes it possible for calculating the temperature distribu-
0 20 40 60 80x10
tion analytically tapered windows. As a comparison, Fig-
ure 2 shows the power loss calculations versus r on a flat Be
Radius (m)
window by different models. For all the calculations, we
have assumed E0 = 30 MV/m; = 5:8 107 /(
m) (cop-
Figure 2: Power loss distribution on a flat Be window (conduc-
per); d = 0:127 mm; = 200 W/mk and = 3 10,4 (10
tivity of copper was used for this calculation, it should be easy to
scale to the Be case once the data is available) calculated from the
MAFIA simulations (+ sign), analytical formulae for the pill-box Hz repetition rate and 30 s pulse length).
cavity (solid line) and the linear approximation (dotted line). The
resonance frequency of the cavity is 805 MHz. 3 TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTIONS
1 The coupling slots in the cavities may introduce asymmetric field The RF power loss on Be windows is dissipated in the form
components, but these components are usually small and have negligible of heat. The heat may be transfered by conduction, con-
effects on on the power loss distribution. vection and radiation. However, the dominant form of the
274
2 ,
transformation in metals is conduction. For the temperature
distribution calculations we consider the heat conduction
(r) = 3 1 , r0 (r , r0 ) + 2 2 1 , r0 r2 , r02
, 3 h i
within Be windows only. + 3 r3 , r03 , 4 1 , r0 ln ++rr0 ;
(13)
3.1 Heat Equation where = R , r0
d
d ,d
. For the tapered window simulations in
It is well known that the conduction of heat obeys [3], Figure 3, in addition to the same parameters used in Fig-
ure 2 we have taken d = 2d and r0 = 0:04 m.
dQ = ,A dT [watts];
dt dr (8)
40
Pill-Box Model
where Q is the heat flow across area A, is a constant
and known as the coefficient of thermal conductivity for 30
the material of interest, and dT
dr is the temperature gradient
Linear Model
at r. Considering the cylindrical symmetry, and neglect-
Temperature (K)
20
ing ionization energy loss of muons by passing through the
windows, we assume the temperature distribution T (~r) de-
Tapered Window
pends on r only, e.g. T (~r) = T (r). Equation (8) then can 10 r0
be re-written as, d d*
Z
dT = , 1 1 (r0 )r0 dr0 ;
r
0
R
dr d r 0 (9) -3
0 20 40 60 80x10
Radius (m)
where d is the thickness of the Be window, for tapered win-
dows d is dependent on r. Figure 3: Temperature distribution on a flat Be window with
thickness of 0:127 mm and on a tapered window with d =
3.2 The Pill-box Solution 0:254 mm. Note the temperature difference of T (0) T (R) is ,
plotted here. T (R) 77 K and T (R) 300 K for the LN and
Substituting the power loss density function in Eq. (4) into room temperature, respectively. The temperature raise of the ta-
Eq. (9), for a flat window we obtain, pered window is about 15 K lower than the flat one.
Tpb (r) = Tpb (0) , R4s 00 Ed0 r2 J02 (kr ) + J12(kr)
2
4 CONCLUSION
, kr J0 (kr)J1(kr) + k12 J02 (kr) , 1 :
(10) Analytical formulae have been given for the temperature
Where Tpb (0) is the temperature at the center of the win- calculations. Numerical results presented here are for cop-
dow. Note the hottest spot is always at the center of the per windows. It canq
be easily scaled to Be windows accord-
window (see Figure 3). We have assumed the cooling will ingly by TBe (r) = Cu T (r) once the Be data becomes
Be Cu
keep the out-most edge (r = R) at a constant tempera- available. Note both Be and kBe may vary with the tem-
ture T (R). The heat at the center takes the longest path perature, but we did not take this into account in our mod-
to reach the cooling point even though there is no direct els. However within small temperature range the models
heating source in the center. still give good approximations. Preliminary results show
that the tapered window is better for the heat conduction
3.3 The Linear Model Solutions and even a 0.127 mm thick flat window does not need spe-
Similarly by substituting the linear model solution in cial cooling designs and yet gives acceptable results from
Eq. (5) into Eq. (9), we attain the temperature distribution the viewpoint of beam dynamics for the muon cooling.
for a flat window,
5 REFERENCES
Tln (r) = Tln (0) , 8Pd
Be r 4
R (11) [1] R. Palmer, Muon Collider: Introduction and Status, The
Muon Collider Collaboration Report (1998)
with Tln (0) = T (R) + PBe=(8d). [2] Derun Li, et al, RF structure options for the muon collider; A.
Based on the linear model solution, temperature distri- Moretti, An =2 Interleaved SW Structure; Y. Zhao, A 2=3
bution on a tapered Be window (see Figure 3) can also be Interleaved SW Structure, Muon Collider RF Workshop at
calculated. We give the analytical formula below and with LBNL (1998); W. Turner, et al, RF system concepts for a
some numerical calculations shown in Figure 3. muon cooling experiment, EPAC’98
( [3] F. Tyler, Heat and Thermodynamics, Edward Arnold (Pub-
r 4
,
Tlntp (0) , 8Pd
Be if r < r0
Tlntp (r) = Rn o lishers) Ltd. (1964)
Tlntp (0) , 2dR
PBe
4
r04
4 + (r) if r > r0 [4] Richard P. Reed and Alan F. Clark, Materials At Low Tem-
peratures, American Society For Materials
(12)
275
CONCEPTUAL DESIGN OF THE SNS RFQ *
A. Ratti, C. Fong, M. Fong, R. MacGill, R. Gough, J. Staples, M. Hoff,
R. Keller, S. Virostek, R. Yourd
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA
Abstract
Structure Type 4 vane
The conceptual design of the RFQ included in the front Total Length 3.723 m
end injector of the Spallation Neutron Source is described. RF Frequency 402.5 MHz
The RFQ operates at 402.5 MHz, with a maximum H-
Input Energy 65 keV
input current of 70 mA and 6% duty factor. It is 3.72 m
Output Energy 2.5 MeV
long and made out of four equally long modules. A brazed
copper structure has been chosen due to the high power, Peak output Current 56 mA
high duty factor operation. The 800 kW peak r.f. power is Design Transmission > 90 %
coupled into the structure via eight ports, two per section. Rms Beam Size 0.7 mm
A set of tuners is provided for final frequency adjustment Norm. H rms Emittance 0.156 π mm mrad
and local field perturbation correction. Quadrupole mode Norm. V rms Emittance 0.156 π mm mrad
stabilization is obtained with a set of π-mode stabilizing Vane-to-vane Voltage 83 kV
loops. The conceptual design, assembly processes and Peak Field 1.85 kilpatrick
status report are presented. This paper reports and updates Total Peak RF Power 800 kW
the status of the design since it was last described [1]. Beam loading 17 % @ 56 mA
RF Duty Factor 6.2%
Rep. Rate 60 Hz
1 INTRODUCTION
Vacuum < 1 10-6 Torr
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory has been given
the responsibility within the SNS collaboration of Table 1- Main RFQ Design Parameters
designing, building, installing and commissioning the
Front End. This 2.5 MeV injector comprises the ion The RFQ is made of 449 cells, which are apportioned
source, an electrostatic beam transport into the RFQ as 8 in the radial matcher, 48 in the shaper, 328 in the
accelerator and the beam transport line that will deliver buncher ending at an energy of 780 keV, and 65 in the
and match the beam into the linac. The radio frequency final accelerator section. The parameter selection is
quadrupole (RFQ) accelerator is responsible for the conventional, with the exception that the buncher section
bunching and acceleration of the beam from the energy of is slightly longer than usual to allow the longitudinal
65 keV after the source to the 2.5 MeV injection energy output emittance to remain below 95 keV-degree at 60
into the linac. A summary of the status of the SNS Front mA output and 75 keV-degree at 30 mA output, rather
End is presented in another paper at this conference [2]. than increasing due to excessive bunching at lower
Intensive modeling has been done to support the RFQ current.
conceptual design. The modeling results are in a separate
paper [3]. Eight-term RFQ beam dynamics simulations have been
used in optimizing the buncher and acceleration section
2 PHYSICS DESIGN parameters, giving a normalized rms input acceptance of
The main parameters of the RFQ are summarized in 0.2 π mm-mrad. In such simulations, the beam
Table 1. The RFQ accelerates the 65 keV H- beam to 2.5 transmission is better than 95% at 60 mA of current,
MeV in a 3.72 meter long cavity resonant at 402.5 MHz. increasing to better than 99% at 30 mA.
The choice of operating frequency is dictated by the
required peak output current, the desire of a compact The peak vane-to-vane voltage is 83 kV for a peak
structure and the need to inject into the higher energy surface field of 1.85 kilpatrick, with a flat field
sections of the linac (805 MHz) with an integer frequency distribution along the length of the RFQ to minimize
ratio. This frequency also allows for the possibility of longitudinal currents at the joints between the four
beam funneling in the first part of the linac. modules that comprise the accelerator.
*
This research is sponsored by the Lockheed Martin Energy Research Corporation under the U.S. Department of Energy, Contract
No. DE-AC05-96OR22464, through the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory under Contract No. DE-AC03-6SF00098
276
The vane tip is machined with a constant transverse watts/cm2. Each π-mode stabilizer rod will dissipate less
cross section of .351 cm, the same as r0, the mean vane than 10 watts.
tip displacement from the axis.
The RFQ will be equipped with 80 tuners, 5 per
module per quadrant, with a range of 2 MHz. Most, if
3 RF CAVITY DESIGN not all, the tuners will be fixed, with the RFQ frequency
The 3.723 m long RFQ is built in four modules, each fine control provided by a two-temperature water cooling
93 cm long. The vanes and vacuum shell are made of system. In this scheme, the RFQ body is held fixed above
OFE copper, with each quadrant brazed to a Glidcop (C) ambient and the vane cooling channel temperature is kept
backbone to provide bolting strength for exterior at a lower and adjustable value.
components. The modules are joined with a copper-to-
copper r.f. compression joint, backed up by a canted 4 MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION
spring ring to provide a backup rf seal and a Viton O-ring The RFQ mechanical design incorporates four separate
vacuum joint. All this within the OFE part of the cavity. vane quadrants containing the precision machined vane and
Figure 1 shows a conceptual view of one module. cavity profiles. The quadrants are wire-brazed together to
create the final cavity configuration. This design
eliminates the need for demountable r.f. joints in the
regions of high azimuthal r.f. wall currents. The vane and
cavity wall surfaces are machined from solid blocks of
oxygen-free copper (OFE). Since the copper is fully
annealed during the brazing process, a 1" thick slab of
GlidCop AL-15 is wire-brazed onto the rear surface of
each copper quadrant to provide additional strength. This
joint is obtained by brazing the copper cladding of the
Glidcop to the OFE inner part. Provision has been made
that no vacuum joint will cross the OFE-Glidcop braze.
Figure 2 shows the final assembly of the four quadrants,
as well as the external GlidCop layer.
The four completed modules are joined by means of a
bolted connection. Rather than incorporating flanges at
the ends of the RFQ modules, the joint design is
preloaded by axial bolts recessed into the GlidCop outer
Figure 1 - Schematic view of one RFQ module layer, as shown in Fig. 1. Benefits of this type of joint
include higher strength, reliable seal loading and a low
The quadrupole-dipole mode separation for the profile. A slightly raised surface at the module ends
fundamental mode is 35 MHz, provided by π-mode around the perimeter of the cavity is used to provide a
stabilizer loop pairs [4] separated by 15.5 cm, for a total copper-to-copper r.f. compression joint. A canted spring
of 24 stabilizer pairs. The quadrupole mode frequency is ring seal provides back up to the r.f joint and protects an
decreased by 11 MHz and the dipole mode frequencies are outer Viton O-ring vacuum. Canted springs are also used
increased by 36 MHz by the stabilizers. Perturbation tests to ensure good electrical contact between adjoining vane
show that changing the frequency of one RFQ quadrant by tips. The r.f. and vacuum seals are all contained within
1.53 MHz changes the azimuthal field symmetry by less the OFE portion of the cavity.
than 2.7 percent. The RFQ is 5 free-space wavelengths
long, and while no longitudinal stabilization is provided, To conduct cooling water along the structure, the RFQ
the beam loading (for 60 mA) accounts for less-than 17% design uses milled channels in the back side of the OFE
of the total power. Eight r.f. drive ports equally quadrants which are covered by the brazed-on GlidCop
distributed in the four modules are expected to maintain layer. This configuration allows internal manifolding and
the longitudinal field distribution within limits better than increased flexibility in the routing of the cooling
+/- 1%. passages. The integrity of the RFQ vacuum is maintained
since no passages penetrate the ends of the modules.
The average wall power density for 6% duty factor is
1.7 watts/cm2, assuming the real losses to be about 67% This design has been studied with regards to cooling
of the ones in pure copper; computer simulations show and stresses. Preliminary 2D finite element analyses have
that small areas near the vane end cutbacks approach 10 shown the RFQ operating temperature to be uniform
within 3o C and thermal stresses to be 1200 psi or less.
277
Although the RFQ operating parameters call for a 6.2% cm long module will be built; it is designed with full
duty factor, all thermal analyses are performed for capabilities, including vacuum, rf power, tuning and
operation at 10% to allow for possible future upgrades to cooling. This module is intended to be identical to any of
a longer pulse length. the four modules of which the RFQ will be built, apart
from the specific vane modulations. The RFQ design and
manufacturing procedures, as well as the operation under
full r.f. power, will be tested with this device. A 1 MW
klystron has been made available from the LANL
collaborators and has been recently delivered to LBNL; its
installation at LBNL is underway.
Upon successful completion of the first module’s test,
a full size prototype will be built incorporating the
necessary changes that might be needed. This prototype
RFQ will also be tested with beam.
7 ACNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge the generous
help received from many colleagues. In particular, we
Fig. 2 – Four Quadrant RFQ cavity assembly would like to acknowledge the tremendous support
provided by Dale Schrage and the design team for the
Vacuum ports are arranged in arrays of slots designed to LEDA RFQ project, by the LANL SNS collaborators
attenuate the r.f. transmission into the vacuum system. Paul Tallerico and Bill Reass and by many LBNL
The ports are incorporated identically in all four quadrants colleagues, including R. Rimmer, K. Kennedy, J. Ayers,
to ensure r.f. symmetry. In addition, nearby tuners are J. Greer and J. Remais.
used to compensate the locally depressed cutoff frequency
near the pumping ports, leveling out local variations in 8 REFERENCES
the vane tip voltage distribution. The RFQ vacuum level
is maintained in the low 10-7 Torr range. All penetrations [1] M. Hoff, et al., “NSNS RFQ Mechanical Design”,
into the RFQ vacuum have been designed such that the PAC97, Vancouver, BC, Canada
GlidCop-to-OFE braze joint is not exposed to vacuum.
[2] J. Staples, et al, “The SNS Front End Accelerator
Systems”, Paper MO4056, LINAC98, August 1998,
5 RF POWER SYSTEM Chicago, IL USA
The peak power calculated is approximately 800 kW,
[3] A. Ratti, et al, ”Prototype Models for the SNS
including beam loading, when an additional 50% of power
RFQ”, Paper TU4048, LINAC98, August 1998,
is allowed as the difference between the theoretical model
Chicago, IL USA
of the RFQ and the real device built. This power is
delivered by a single klystron, capable of 1.25 MW, that
[4] A. Ueno, et al, “Beam Test of the Pre-Injector and the
feeds the coupling ports via a circulator and a commercial 3-MeV H- RFQ with a New Field Stabilizer PISL”,
eight-way power splitter. This splitter provides better than LINAC96, August 1996, Geneva, CH
40 dB of port-to-port isolation; at present no external
longitudinal stabilization is planned.
The power is coupled in the cavity with a set of two
coupling loops per module, with a total of eight ports.
Each port will therefore carry a peak rf power of 100 kW,
at a 6.2 % duty factor.
6 STATUS
A separate paper in this conference describes in detail
the ongoing modeling efforts to support the conceptual
design of the RFQ [3]. Benefiting from the results of such
modeling, the detailed design of the first test module has
begun. In the next months, a full cross-sectional size 93
278
TEST RESULTS FOR A COLD MODEL OF A CCDTL TWO GAP TO
THREE GAP TRANSITION REGION*
M. D. Cole, H. Bluem, Advanced Energy Systems, Northrop Grumman Corp. Bethpage New York
11714 USA,
J. H. Billen, P. O. Leslie, Los Alamos National Lab, Los Alamos New Mexico 87544 USA
Abstract 1) Could the required E0 field tilt between the 2-gap
and 3-gap cavities be established. Nominally the E 0TL
As part of the APT [1] project we have tested several for the two cavities should be equal, ignoring any
cold models of a Coupled Cavity Drift-Tube LINAC additional field ramp? Since the 3-gap cavity is
(CCDTL) [2,3] 2 to 3 gap transition region. This is the approximately 3/2 longer than the 2-gap cavity, the E0
region where cavities change from having 2 gaps and 1 for the 3-gap cavity needs to be approximately 2/3 that of
drift tube per cavity to having 3 gaps and 2 drift tubes the 2-gap cavity. We needed to know if the tilt could be
per cavity. We have established that frequency effects of predicted accurately enough to minimize the required
coupling slots can be accurately predicted allowing slot tuning range. The tilt is set by the difference in
calculation of the cavity frequencies within the allowed coupling between the respective cells and the common
tuning range. The base cavity frequency is very coupling cell.
accurately predicted by SUPERFISH and correction for 2) Could the coupling produced by a given slot size be
stems and tuners is well established, the major calculated accurately enough to allow a minimum of
uncertainty prior to these tests was predicting the extra material to be left in the slot region, allowing the
frequency effect of the coupling slots. These tests have maximum use of available space in cramped areas? We
also shown that the cell-to-cell coupling for a given slot are calculating the coupling produced by a given slot
geometry can be predicted accurately enough to allow a along the line described by J. Gao [1]. In addition if the
minimum of slot tuning range to be left in the structure. coupling can be predicted accurately then the slots can
A large desired field tilt between the two coupled be cut close to (or right on) the final dimension,
accelerating cavities can be set up by varying the cell-to-
cell couplings between the accelerating cells and the
coupling cells. Further, the tilt can be predicted
accurately enough to allow a minimum of slot tuning
range to be left in the structure.
1 INTRODUCTION
We have tested and tuned 3 cold models (CMs) of a
CCDTL 2-to-3 gap transition region. These three cold
models differed only in detail dimensions, the first cold
model was not extensively tested. The transition is the
region in a CCDTL where the CCDTL cavities change
from having 2 gaps and 1 drift tube (DT) per cavity to
having 3 gaps and 2 DTs per cavity. The CMs are of
structures from an early version of the APT LEDA [4],
designed for a transition 8.09 MeV. A drawing of one of
the CMs is shown in figure 1. In this design the
transition occurred between Acc24 (accelerating cavity
24) and Acc25 (accelerating cavity 25). The CMs
include ½ of a 2-gap cavity (Acc24), a complete
coupling cavity (CC24-25), and ½ of a 3-gap cavity
(Acc25). The current version of LEDA has the transition
at 10.16 MeV between Acc49 and 50.
There were three principle issues to be addressed by
these tests.
*
Funding provided by U.S. Department of Energy. Figure 1: Drawing of transition region cold model.
279
minimizing the coupling slot tuning required.
3) Could the frequency of the accelerating and
coupling cavities be predicted accurately enough so that
the cavities would be within the allotted tunable range?
The base cavity frequency is very accurately predicted
by SUPERFISH and corrections for stems and tuners are
well established. The major uncertainty was predicting
the frequency effect of the coupling slots.
2 FIELD TILT AND COUPLING
MEASUREMENTS
The second cold model to be fabricated was slightly
off frequency but was tunable and usable for field and
coupling measurements. Table 1 shows the frequencies
of Acc24, Acc25, and CC24-25 measured with the other
cells shorted (with rods shorting the cavity gap along the Figure 2: Results of beadpull on the cold model after
frequency tuning.
cavity axis) as the cavities were tuned to 702 MHz with
two rounds of tuning cuts. actual couplings need not be measured. The field profile
Table 1: Measured individual cavity frequencies for the was measured by performing a bead-perturbation
second cold model with all other cavities shorted. measurement after the cavities were tuned. Figure 2
Meas 1 2 3 shows the plotted beadpull data. The plot shows (from
Acc24 Fmeas 702.013 702.040 701.996 left to right) the field in the gap in Acc24, the field in the
Acc25 Fmeas 705.253 702.639 702.589 first full gap in Acc25, and the field second (half) gap in
Acc25. The measured field in the second (half) gap in
CC24-25 Fmeas 707.645 702.310 701.982
Acc25 is not used in the analysis since the terminating
wall and bore hole distort the field. A numerical
During each tune step the mode frequencies were
integration of the fields in the Acc24 and Acc25 gaps
measured. These mode frequencies are used in the modal
was performed to generate a value for EoL for each gap.
analysis program DISPER [2] to calculate the
The Eo value for a full Acc24 and a full Acc25 cavity
accelerating cavity frequency, the coupling cavity
was then calculated. For Acc24 the measured EoL was
frequency, and the coupling for an infinite string of
simply doubled then divided by the actual full cavity
coupled cavities assuming that all of the coupling
length. For Acc 25 the cavity field profile from
cavities, all of the accelerating cavities, and all of the
SUPERFISH was used to calculate the EoL in the middle
couplings are the same. The “average” coupling,
gap from the measured EoL in the first gap, the result
calculated by DISPER, is the best available for
was added to twice the first gap EoL and the sum divided
evaluating the cold model and is used throughout these
by the actual full cavity length. The “measured” values
tests. Table 2 shows the measured mode frequencies and
for the single gap EoL and the cavity Eo along with the
the Acc and CC cavity frequencies and coupling
SUPERFISH values are shown below for Acc24 and
calculated by DISPER. The final kavg value calculated by
Acc25 in Table 3. Table 4 shows the “measured” field
DISPER is 4.63%, 93.72% of the target average
ratios, the target values, and the ratio of the measured to
coupling of 4.94%.
target values.
Table 2: Measured Mode frequencies, and DISPER
Table 3: Relative single gap EoL and full cavity Eo.
calculated cavity frequencies and couplings.
Acc24 Acc25
Meas 1 2 3
Measured single gap EoL 0.716757 0.445895
0 Mode 689.900 686.764 686.602
SUPERFISH single gap 106.297 73.6647
π/2 Mode 703.300 702.369 702.337
EoL
π Mode 723.300 719.340 719.150 Measured full cavity Eo 0.17124 0.094548
Disper Acc Favg 703.300 702.369 702.337 SUPERFISH full cavity 2.5395 1.562
Disper CC Favg 708.748 702.603 702.285 Eo
Disper Kavg 4.66% 4.63% 4.63%
Table 4: Measured field ratios, and target ratios.
There is no way to measure the individual couplings Measured Target Meas/Target
from the coupling cavity to each of the accelerating EoL Ratio 62.21% 69.30% 89.77%
cells, however, the field tilt that results from the Eo Ratio 55.21% 61.51% 89.77%
different coupling values can be measured directly. The
280
The coupling can be increased by the small amount Table 6: Tuning Step effects for Acc24 and Acc25.
required during the assembly tuning phase, there is Acc24 Acc25
adequate space for the slots to be enlarged by the SF Frequency with no step 699 699
required amount. The Eo tilt of Acc25/Acc24 was Tune Step Height (in) .099 .099
55.21%, 89.77% of the target 61.51%. Reducing the tilt Meas Tune Rate (MHz/in) -16.7299 -34.3182
can be done during the assembly tuning phase while the dF from step 1.656259 3.3975
average coupling is increased.
Expected Fab Freq 700.6563 702.3975
The results of coupling and field tilt measurements
Actual Fab Freq 700.541 702.766
with a third cold model were also quite good. The final
kavg value of 4.72% calculated by DISPER is 94.21% of Error -0.11526 0.3685
the target average coupling of 5.01%. The Eo tilt of
Acc25/Acc24 for this cold model was 58.00%, 94.30% of The agreement between the expected and actual
the target 61.51%. fabrication frequencies is within the tuning range
provided by the tuning ridge. For Acc25 the agreement
3 FREQUENCY MEASURMENTS between the SUPERFISH tune rate and the measured
tune rate is also good. It is not clear why it is not as good
Since we had good results with coupling and field tilt for Acc24.
using the second cold model, the primary goal for the
third cold model was to evaluate our frequency 4 CONCLUSION
predictions.
All of the accelerating cells were designed with the We are quite satisfied with the results obtained with
intention having a small tuning range. This would be the transition region cold models. We have established
accomplished by nominally leaving a small amount of a that frequency effects of the slots in this region can be
fixed tuning ridge in place after the cell was tuned to predicted allowing calculation of the cavity frequencies
700 MHz. The cells would be fabricated with an within the allowed tuning range. We have shown that the
additional amount of this ridge in place, hence the coupling can be predicted accurately enough to allow a
nominal fabrication frequency target of greater than 701 minimum of slot tuning range to be left in the structure.
MHz. In theory, with all of the ring removed the Finally, we established that the required Eo tilt can be set
frequency of the cells should be 699 MHz. For this up and that it can be predicted accurately enough to
model, the extra tuning ridge left in place was fixed at allow a minimum of slot tuning range to be left in the
about 2.5mm for Acc24 and Acc25. The effect of this structure.
step on Acc24 and Acc25 is shown below for both the
SUPERFISH predicted tune rate in Table 5 and the 5 REFERENCES
measured average tune rate in Table 6 (For these [1] G. Lawrence, "High Power Proton Linac for APT;
measurements, the cavity frequencies were not corrected Status of Design and Development", these
for T, relative humidity, barometric pressure, or referred proceedings.
to vacuum). [2] J. H. Billen, et al, “A New RF Structure for
Intermediate-Velocity Particles”, Proc. 1994 Int.
Table 5: Tuning Step effects for Acc24 and Acc25. Linac Conf., Tsukuba, Japan, p341 (1994).
Acc24 Acc 25 [3] R. Wood, et al, "Status of the Engineering
SF Frequency with no step 699 699 Development of CCDTL for the Accelerator
Tune Step Height (in) 0.099 0.099 Production of Tritium", these proceedings.
SF Tune Rate (MHz/in) -22.0499 -36.0754 [4] H. V. Smith, "Status Update for the Low-Energy
dF from step 2.18294 3.571464 Demonstration Accelerator (LEDA)", these
proceedings.
Expected Fab Freq 701.1829 702.5715
[5] J. Gao, “Analytical formula for the coupling
Actual Fab Freq 700.541 702.766 coefficient β of a cavity-waveguide coupling
Error -0.64194 0.194536 system”, Nucl. Instr. And Meth., A309 (1991) p. 5.
[6] DISPER coupled cavity modal analysis program
maintained and distributed by the Los Alamos
Accelerator Code Group
281
EFFECTS OF ALTERNATING CELL MISALIGNMENTS ON THE DDS
R.M. Jones†, N.M. Kroll†‡, R.H. Miller† and T. Higo¥
†Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, M/S 26, P.O Box 4349, Stanford, CA 94309
‡University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0319
¥
KEK, National Laboratory for High Energy Physics, 1-1 Oho, Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki-ken 305, Japan
Abstract Implicit in the above is the assumption that localized
cell displacements can be taken into account by replacing
We study some effects of cell misalignments in them with localized beam displacements in the equivalent
accelerator structures in which each cell is displaced the circuit theory. In reference [4], which discusses the
same amount and direction but with sign which alternates computation of wake functions associated with actual
from cell to cell. In particular we study the manifold beam misalignments as well as with structure
radiation in a damped detuned structure (DDS1) and misalignments, the same assumption is made. Also the
wakefield effects in a uniform constant impedance computational and experimental evidence does not really
structure. A synchronous wave aliasing phenomenon is support the above simple picture for sharp discontinuities
observed. In previous treatments the effect of cell (such as actually occurred in DDS1).
misalignment has been modeled by replacing it by beam The remainder of this paper is devoted to a partial study
displacement. Here we compare finite difference of the effect of a special misalignment. We assume the
simulation of cell misalignment with the beam cells to be displaced alternately upward and downward by
displacement model. We conclude with discussions about equal amounts as one proceeds along the structure.
the relevance of our results for general misalignment Because this is the opposite of a smooth misalignment it
profiles. has some bearing on the issues raised above. It is also
simple enough to allow a direct test of the equivalence of
1 INTRODUCTION localized beam displacement and cell displacement. Such
In a damped detuned accelerator structure the dipole a structure can be analysed by treating each cell pair as a
modes are detuned such that their synchronous single cell and carrying out an analysis completely
frequencies vary with error function profile along the analogous to the standard DDS theory. While we have
length of the structure, so that the frequency distribution carried out only a small part of such a program, a number
function is Gaussian. In addition four damping of interesting phenomena have emerged. The concluding
manifolds, connected to each cell, extend along the length section includes some discusions on the applicability of
of the structure. The detuning leads to a rapid initial fall what we have learned to the more general misalignment
off of the transverse wakefield and the damping prevents problem.
the recoherance reappearance which would otherwise
occur [1]. The utility of the manifold radiation as a 2 RELATIVE DISPLACEMENT OF 2
source of information about beam position within the IDENTICAL STRUCTURES
structure and about structure misalignment is discussed in
The study of both the detuned structure without
[2] and [3]. The spectral distribution of manifold
damping and the DDS begins with the study of individual
radiation, computed by means of the equivalent circuit
cells as part of a uniform structure. Proceeding
theory, was found to be in good agreement with
analogously here we consider a cell pair as a unit in a
observations [2, Fig. 1]. Furthermore it was shown, by
structure of period 2p, where p is the period of the
computing the effect of beam displacements localized to a
structure when the cell to cell displacement 2d vanishes.
few cells within the structure, that there was a strong
Mode patterns and frequencies as a function of phase
correlation between the localization position and the
advance over the 2p period were obtained from the finite
frequencies emitted into the manifold [2, Fig. 2] allowing
difference program GdfidL [5] for a typical cell, similar
manifold radiation frequency to be mapped onto cell
to cell 103 of a detuned structure. The mesh for these
position. Reference [3] reports measurements of beam
calculations is shown in Fig. 1. Considerable care in
position which minimizes manifold radiation as a function
mesh construction is required to preserve the symmetry of
of frequency. By assuming that this minimum position is
the problem, obtain sufficient accuracy, and avoid the
centered with respect to the cells which provide the
introduction of mesh artifacts as d is varied. The
frequency being observed and applying the mapping
Brillouin (dispersion) diagram for the accelerating mode
function defined above, one obtains a measure of cell
and first two dipole modes is shown in Fig. 2.
position as a function of cell number and good agreement
As is conventional the diagram is folded so that the
with mechanical misalignment measurements.
phase advance range is limited to 0 to 180 degrees. Also
285
shown on Fig. 2 is the (folded) light line. Computations We next discuss what happens when one cell of the pair
were performed for d = 0, 0.1825, and 0.365 mm. For is offset to the left a distance d and the other offset to the
comparison we note that the diameter of the iris aperture right by d. As far as the Brillouin diagram is concerned
2
is 9.5926 mm. there are small frequency shifts, varying as d , at each
phase advance. The shifts of the six synchronous
frequencies in KHz for d = 10 micrometers were inferred
from the simulations to be -7.58, -13.2, 15.3, 27.5, 17.8,
and -6.95 respectively, starting from the lowest frequency
to the highest. Numbering them one to six, the odd
numbers correspond to the alias cases. The fact that the
coincidence of the curve pairs remains at 180 degrees is
evidence that the mesh variation as d is varied is under
control. The curves separate if the cells differ from one
another.
The interaction of a v = c beam with a mode of the
structure is controlled by the longitudinal voltage integral:
P
∫
V P ( x, y ) = E z ( x, y, z ) exp( jωz / c )
0
dz
where P is the structure period (p or 2p in our case), and
Ez and ω refer to the mode under study. We base our
Figure 1: GdfidL mesh used for double period structure, comparison of beam displacement with cell displacement
viewed from the y symmetry plane. A coarse mesh is on the behaviour of Vp and V2p.
used to illustrate the geometrical features. We consider the beam displacement model first. The
beam displacement approximation is based upon the d = 0
structure, a structure with period p. At a synchronous
20 point we have besides the expression given above:
Frequency (GHz.)
2p
∫
Frequency (GHz.)
18
20
18
V p ( x, y ) = E z ( x, y, z ) exp( jωz / c) dz
16
p
14
16 12
while for the alias synchronous modes this relation is
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175
2p
14 Phase (Deg.)
V p ( x, y ) = − ∫ p
E z ( x, y, z ) exp( jωz / c) dz
12 Thus at a synchronous point the beam displacement
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 model yields V2p(x,y) = Vp(x-d) + Vp(x+d), while at an
alias synchronous point it yields V2p(x,y) = Vp(x-d,y) -
Phase (Deg.) Vp(x+d,y). We recall that at a synchronous point of a
periodic structure, Vp is a solution of the 2D laplace
Figure 2: Brillioun diagram for double period structure equation at all points within a region A defined by the
with 0mm displacement of structure. area common to the beam apertures. Since the d = 0
structure is also rotationally symmetric about the beam
We first discuss Fig. 2 for the case d = 0. In that case axis, within A Vp is constant for the monopole case and a
the structure is periodic over the distance p (as well as constant times x or y for the two dipole mode
2p), and the conventional Brillouin diagram, folded with polarizations. Hence for all synchronous cases of the
respect to p rather than 2p, is shown in the Fig. 2 inset. modes we study here, V2p = 2 Vp. Away from a
One sees that the single mode curves of the conventional synchronous point Vp no longer has this simple behaviour.
form become doubled by folding back the 90 to 180 However the departure from it is found to be very small,
degree sections, leading to the paired curves of the 2p and the symmetry properties under reflection are
representation connected at 180 degrees. One also sees preserved. It follows that
that the three synchronous frequency points (light line
V2p = -2d(d/dx)Vp
intersections) of the conventional representation become
supplemented by three more which we refer to as alias to an excellent approximation. This means that the alias
synchronous frequencies. The longitudinal voltages for synchronous modes have their x reflection behaviour
velocity of light particles vanish identically at these reversed in parity. The monopole becomes an x dipole,
frequencies. the x dipoles become monopoles, and the y dipoles
become quadrupoles. Note that to the extent that Vp
286
satisfies pure 2D laplacian behaviour the x dipoles behave manifold damping these modes are of little practical
like a pure monopole and the V2p vanish for the monopole wakefield interest.
and y dipoles. Hence the alias dipole and quadrupole
effects are very weak. 3 MANIFOLD RADIATION PHENOMENA
We have compared these results with the behaviour of An equivalent circuit computation of the manifold
GdfidL simulations at y = 0 and values of x over the radiation spectrum from DDS1 for beam displacements
interval [-4,4] mm. To compare different cases we alternated from cell by equal amounts yielded a striking
require that all have the same stored energy over the shift in the spectrum which we interpreted as implying
[0,2p] interval. Also since the GdfidL simulations have that each cell was excited at its aliased synchronous
an arbitrary overall phase, we compare absolute values of frequency rather that its actual synchronous frequency. In
V2p. the future we plan to investigate the extent to which this
Comparisons were made at d = 0.365 and 0.1825 mm. effect is localised. The other striking result was the the
First a few general observations. Since all modes are fact that the radiation was predominantly upstream rather
synchronous with respect to the 2p period, all of the V2p than downstream, an effect which was consistent with the
satisfy the 2D laplace equation. The rotational invariance explanation of directional asymmetry given in [1].
about the beam axis is, however, broken, and hence the
simple x dependence of pure multipoles may be altered. 4 CONCLUDING COMMENTS
On the other hand, one can show that the behaviour under While the evidence is limited to the special situations
x reflection should be preserved. Hence we expect the that we have studied, we attempt here to draw some
alias monopole to be principally dipole, and the alias x tentative general conclusions. First, frequency shifts due
dipoles to be principally monopole, an expectation born to misalignments are unimportant compared to those
out by the simulations. likely to arise from dimensional errors in the cells.
We discuss the even numbered modes first. For the Second, for the computation of transverse wakes due to
monopole case, there is no detectable difference between dipole modes the displaced beam approximation is
the displaced beam model and the simulation at 0.1825 reliable. These misalignment may also cause a
and no detectable variation from pure monopole longitudinal wake from the dipole modes, but it is small
behaviour. For the first dipole there is a 0.1% deviation and of little practical importance. Third, we have no
for d = 0.1825 and 0.25% for d = 0.365 and no evidence evidence that misalignment produces any significant
for departure from pure dipole behaviour. For the second effect on the accelerating mode band. The transverse
dipole the discrepancy was 10% at d = 0.1825 and 30% at wakes from aliasing are very small, and we have no
d = 0.365 and there was slight evidence for a deviation evidence of transverse wakes produced directly by the RF
from pure dipole behaviour. We note that the voltage drive.
integral is abnormally small for this mode and therefore
seems to be more sensitive to field changes associated 5 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
with the displacement. The discrepancy does appear to be
This work is supported by Department of Energy grant
decreasing with d and may well become very small at d
number DE-FG03-93ER40759‡ and DE-AC03-
values likely occur in practice. These results provide no †
76SF00515 . We are pleased to acknowledge the timely
evidence against the use of the displaced beam
advice and support of Dr. W. Bruns, the author of GdfidL.
approximation for calculating the transverse wakefunction
as was done in [4]. 6 REFERENCES
For the odd numbered modes, which correspond to the
aliased synchronous modes, the comparison is much [1] N.M. Kroll, The SLAC Damped Detuned Structure,
poorer. The departure from pure multipole behavior is Concept and Design, SLAC-PUB-7541, PAC97
substantial but not significant at beam displacements Proceedings*. [2] R.M. Jones, et al, Analysis and
which are likely to occur in practice. The result of most Application of Microwave Radiation from the Damping
practical interest is the deflecting mode 1, which occurs at Manifolds of the SLAC Damped Detuned Structure
a frequency within the accelerating mode band and would (DDS), SLAC-PUB-7589, PAC97*
thus be unaffected by manifold damping. The magnitude [3] M. Seidel, Studies of Beam Induced Dipole-Mode
is 8 times as large as that given by the beam displacement Signals in Accelerating Structures at the SLC, PAC97
model and appears to be proportional to d. The kick Proceedings.*
2
factor associated with it then varies as d , and assuming [4] R.M.Jones et al, Spectral Function Calculation of
3
this to be the case is a factor 10 smaller than a typical Angle Wakes, Wake Moments, and Misalignment Wakes
first band dipole mode for d = 36 µm. For mode 3 the of the SLAC Damped Detuned Structure (DDS), SLAC-
dominant monopole component is over estimated 15% for PUB-7538* [5] W. Bruns, A Finite Difference Program
d = 0.1825 and 20% at 0.365 by the beam displacement with Reduced Memory and CPU Usage, PAC97
model. The figures for mode 5 are 65 and 75% Proceedings.*
respectively. Being non deflecting and subject to * http://www.cern.ch/accelconf/
287
APPLICATION OF A MAPPING FUNCTION TECHNIQUE TO THE
DESIGN OF DAMPED DETUNED STRUCTURES AND TO THE RAPID
CALCULATION OF THEIR WAKEFIELDS
R.M. Jones†, N.M. Kroll†‡ and R.H. Miller†
†Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, M/S 26, P.O Box 4349, Stanford, CA 94309
‡University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0319.
synchronous frequency only. The new set of new
Abstract synchronous frequencies, dictated in our case by the
requirement that 2Kdn/df be Gaussian, allows the 206 x
In order to reduce the dipole wake encountered by the 10 new characteristic parameters to be calculated.
first few bunches accelerated in a multi-bunch NLC Similarly the 5 parameters, which define the geometry of
scenario the DDS (damped detuned structure) was re- the structure (the iris radius a, cavity radius b, iris
designed such that a much improved Gaussian fall-off thickness t, the radial distance of the edge of the manifold
occurs in the initial wake-function. From the 9 from the center of of a cell, H and the height of the
parameterised model of DDS1 we use a mapping manifold L) are also functionally dependent on the
function to allow DDS 3 & 4 to be modeled and hence synchronous frequency of the beam and, under a new set
avoid additional and prohibitively time consuming of frequencies, 5 x 206 new dimensions are calculated
MAFIA runs. The equivalent circuit parameters and for the DDS. Thus, in order to obtain the wake function
geometrical parameters are treated as functions of the and new geometrical parameters for fabrication all that is
synchronous frequency and are readily mapped onto the necessary is to obtain 15 functions.
new synchronous frequencies. The new geometrical However, under this new mapping one might express
parameters form a family where each is associated with some concern as to whether the properties of the
the iris diameter. fundamental (i.e. accelerating) mode have been adversely
affected and so with this in mind we conducted an
1 INTRODUCTION
intensive investigation as to the deviation of the cell
The first ever manifold DDS was designed such that the dimensions, parameterised by the cavity diameter 2b,
geometrical parameters (iris radius and cavity radius) of from their values designed in DDS 2 (all dimensions form
the cells were inverse functions of error functions, Erf. an invariant family parameterised by the cavity diameter
Further, the mode density function (the reciprocal of the b). This is detailed in section 4 and successive sections.
derivative of the uncoupled frequencies with respect to
mode number: dn/df) was prescribed to be Gaussian. 2 THE MAPPING FUNCTION
However, the short range dipole wake function, is given In our design of DDS 2 we chose eleven representative
by twice the inverse transform of the dipole kick-factor sections to obtain frequency-phase pairs from detailed
(K) weighted density function and under a Gaussian MAFIA simulations and hence obtain ten model
prescription of dn/df, 2Kdn/df is markedly asymmetric. parameters (nine circuit parameters plus the cell kick-
The consequence of the asymmetry is a poor definition of factors) for each of the eleven sections. Parameters for all
the minima in the short range wake function. DDS 3 & 4 sections are subsequently obtained by error function fits
have been re-designed under a Gaussian 2Kdn/df and interpolation. A similar procedure may be followed
prescription with a bandwidth of 4.71 units of sigma (with to determine the five geometric parameters (i.e., cell and
sigma 2.125% of the central frequency of the Gaussian) manifold dimensions) for all the sections from those for
and this leads to a significantly improved short-range the original eleven. This is a substantial task for each
wake function. structure design. However, as we now have all fifteen
The inverse Fourier transform of the spectral function parameters as a function of synchronous frequency, we
[1] allows the global wake-function to be evaluated. can take advantage of this functional dependence to
However, in order obtain the new spectral function, all explore new design distributions and to obtain the set of
nine parameters of the structure must be obtained for 206 section dimensions which would be needed to realize
cells. This is a substantial computational task in running them.
the MAFIA code required for the spectral function and in Based on our fit parameters we prescribe a smooth
the careful fitting procedure required for all the new uncoupled spectral function, S 0 (fs )λ and impose the
functions. However, the method used herein obviates condition that: 2 K(fs )dn / df = S 0 ( fs )λ , where K is the
this excessive computational work and requires that we fit
uncoupled kick factor, f s the synchronous frequency and,
all the 9 circuit model parameters together with the beam
λ is a scale factor to be determined. The upper and lower
kick-factor to ten functions which all depend on the
288
truncation bounds on the synchronous frequencies are 2 [1] and is shifted with respect to the 2Kdn/df curves, as
imposed, fs1 and fsN and the normalisation condition is given in Fig. 1. The difference between the respective
obtained: curves in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 becomes more pronounced for
f sN higher frequencies and this is a consequence of the
λ = N/ ∫ f s1
( 12 S0 / K )df s (2.1) synchronous frequencies becoming more highly perturbed
Then the new synchronous frequencies are determined as one progresses down towards the higher energy end of
according to: the structure where the coupling to the manifold has been
designed to be largest. These coupled synchronous
∫
f sn +1
1
2K
λS0 df s = 1 (2.2) frequencies will be discussed in a future publication [2]
f sn
100
This enables all the cell synchronous frequencies to be DDS 3
determined and hence the new ten parameters are
80
determined. DDS 2
Spectral Fn (V/pC/mm/m/GHz)
DDS 2
DDS 3
This procedure is implemented in the following section 60
to calculate the spectral function and associated wake
function for DDS 3. 40
3 CALCULATION OF THE WAKE 20
FUNCTION 0
14 14.5 15 15.5 16
Freq. (GHz)
In the revised design for DDS 3 we chose a truncated
Gaussian distribution for the uncoupled 2Kdn/dfsyn Figure 2: Spectral function for DDS 2 and DDS 3
distribution, with a bandwidth of 4.71 units of sigma, (a
It is important to note that the sharp, rather precipitous,
bandwidth of 10.159% of the central frequency and sigma
fall-off in the spectral function in DDS 2 at approximately
is 2.125% of the central frequency) and this provides a
15.8 GHz has detrimental affects on the short range wake
basis for the determination of the 206 synchronous
function. In DDS 3 the spectral function falls off
frequencies. The kick factor weighted density function
smoothly and gradually and this has beneficial effects on
for DDS 3 and DDS 1 are shown in Fig 1.
the range wake function in that it enables a faster fall-off
to occur. Indeed for a perfectly smooth termination,
which we refer to as our idealised case [1], it is possible
to achieve more than an order of magnitude weaker wake
function at the 90 bunch point.
It is interesting to note that the maxima of DDS 3 is a
little larger than that of its counterpart DDS 2. However,
the area under the curve (bounded by the upper & lower
synchronous frequencies for each structure)
corresponding to DDS 3 is slightly smaller than DDS 2.
This reduction in the area of the curves is indicative of a
reduced wake function at the origin (since the wake
Figure 1: Twice the kick factor weighted density function for function is given by the inverse transform of the spectral
DDS 2 (shown dashed) and the corresponding function for the function) and this is in itself a consequence of the larger
re-designed DDS3 and 4 iris dimension in DDS 3.
It is evident that DDS 2 is markedly asymmetric and 100.
this adversely affects the sharpness and depth of the
minima for the short range wake
Wake Function (V/pC/mm/m)
10.
In order to calculate the wake function we first are
required to calculate the spectral function associated with 1
the 9 mapped parameters. This spectral function
DDS 3
calculated for DDS 3, and shown in Fig 2, maintains the 0.1
Gaussian characteristics imposed upon it from the DDS 2
synchronous frequency distribution but modulated with 0.01
10 20 30 40 50
oscillations of large amplitude (resulting in a large part s (m)
from reflections occurring in the higher order mode
couplers in the manifold). Figure 3: Long range wake function for DDS 2 (shown dashed)
Also, the spectral function exhibits the underlying and DDS 3. The points are at the location of each of the
bunches, of which there are ninety.
damped mode structure as mentioned previously for DDS
289
Iris Thickness
4 GEOMETRICAL PARAMETERS 2
Each of the five geometrical parameters are fitted with 1.8
an interpolation function, the independent variable in DDS 2
Iris Thickness (mm)
each case being the synchronous frequency. Thence, 1.6
DDS 3
armed with these new synchronous frequencies the new
206 x 5 parameters are readily obtained. Both a new and 1.4
mapped cell parameter is shown in Fig. 4 and a manifold
1.2
parameter in Fig. 5. The end points of DDS 2 and DDS 3
are identical by design so that no extrapolation is required 1
in the determination of the DDS 3 parameters. Thus, in 0 50 100 150 200
Cell #
determining all parameters only third order interpolation
between cell points has been employed, with a view to Figure 4: Cell geometrical parameters: iris thickness, t.
minimising any error in the generation of the new points.
Manifold Parameter H
It is evident from the curves that in the downstream end
(or low energy end) of the structure the parameters are
14
very close to that of the DDS 2 design whereas in the
Manifold Parameter H (mm)
upstream end both the iris and the cavity diameter are 13
increased significantly. This is a consequence of the 12
asymmetry in the original design in which the kick factor
weighted distribution reached too low a level in the 11
DDS 3
upstream location of the structure and this has been 10
corrected for in DDS 3. The thickness of the irises DDS 2
9
however, is reduced with respect to DDS 2, but this
reduction is sufficiently small that the structure still 0 50 100 150 200
maintains its mechanical integrity. Cell #
The manifold is tapered as one goes down the structure Figure 5: Manifold geometrical parameters: radial distance of
to enhance the coupling. This increased coupling is the edge of the manifold the from center of a cell.
necessary because the modal composition of TE/TM is
reduced as one moves towards the upstream end of the 5 CONCLUSIONS
structure and to achieve a Q value in the neighborhood of We have developed a method to rapidly design new
a 1000 or so, increased coupling is required. There is a DDSs based upon a mapping procedure. This method
reverse in the taper towards the end cells in the upstream enables both the wake function and the new geometry of
end and this is instituted in order to lower the cut-off the structure to be evaluated. Indeed, we have applied
frequency of the HOM (higher order mode) coupler and this method to calculate the short range wake function for
hence improve the match of the mitered bend of the DDS 3 and we find that, on average, the wake function is
HOMs at the lower frequency end of the band. reduced by a factor of 5 or more. The new geometrical
It is necessary to have well-matched HOM loads parameters form an invariant family which are
because the wake function is very sensitive to the power functionally dependent on the cavity iris diameter, 2 and
reflected back into the accelerator [1]. However, under the deviation of the new family of parameters from the
the mapping the middle cell has effectively shifted old provides an indication as to the accelerating mode’s
forward by 11 cells and hence the upward taper (which phase advance of the new structure.
occurs in cells 182 to 202 for DDS 2) maps the up-taper
into a region where there are no manifold cells. Thus, in
DDS 3 we change the mapped taper in this region by 6 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
increasing the gradient of the taper and withdrawing its to This work is supported by Department of Energy grant
cell 202. This will adversely affect the wake function but ‡
number DE-FG03-93ER40759 and DE-AC03-
we are confident that its deleterious effect will minimal. †
76SF00515 .
7 REFERENCES
[1] R.M. Jones, et al. A Spectral Function Method
Applied to the Calculation of the SLAC Damped
Detuned Structure. Proc. Intl. Linac Conf. Geneva
Switzerland, 1996 (and SLAC-PUB 7287)
[2] N.M. Kroll, The SLAC Damped Detuned Structure,
Concept and Design, SLAC-PUB7589, PAC97
290
OPTIMUM OPERATING TEMPERATURE OF
SUPERCONDUCTING CAVITIES
H. Safa
Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, 87545, NM, USA
& C.E.A. Saclay, 91191 Gif/Yvette Cedex, France
Abstract PAC =
R
(1)
Superconducting radiofrequency (SCRF) cavities require η
cryogenic temperature to operate in the superconducting
state where the RF power losses are extremely low. But This will be the most important cost item in operation.
this power has to be removed at very low temperatures The change in other operation costs of the cryoplant
using a refrigerator. While reducing the operating components (manpower, maintenance, etc.) will be
temperature results in lower losses for the cavities, it may assumed to be of second order when compared to AC
severely impacts the cryogenic plant, drastically reducing power, and will be neglected here. Assuming a running
its efficiency. On the other hand, the exponential time of 80% and an average price of (0.05 $/kWeh), the
dependence of the BCS surface resistance with operating cost will amount to:
temperature will ask for much higher refrigeration power C op = 0.35 × PAC ($/year) (2)
at higher temperatures. Therefore, an optimum working
temperature results, depending on frequency, accelerating The total operating cost is obtained by multiplying Cop by
field and cavity performance. This temperature should be the total lifetime of the accelerator.
determined by cost, performance, and risk minimization. 2.2 Capital Cost
1 INTRODUCTION The change in capital cost Ccap with respect to operating
temperature is assumed to be mostly due to the cryogenic
While it is obvious that for frequencies over 1 Ghz, SCRF plant. Green et al. [3] from Berkeley have estimated the
niobium cavities must operate in superfluid helium [1], the capital costs of helium refrigerators and liquefiers based
use of an intermediate frequency as 700 MHz for future on a collection of existing systems, ranging from a few
proton linear accelerators requires a more thorough watts to 30 kW. They devised a simple formulaa relating
evaluation. For the sake of convenience, the APT the cost C (in $) to the refrigeration power R (in W)
(Accelerator Production of Tritium) high energy part [2] η
C cap = 12000 ( 4.5K R )0.7 (3)
will be taken as an example. While reducing the operating η
temperature results in lower losses for the cavities, it
severely impacts the cryogenic plant, reducing its η4.5K is the overall efficiency at 4.5 K.
efficiency (for example, going down from 2.0 K to 1.8 K These evaluations were mostly done for 4.5 K
will have a tremendous impact on the cryoplant’s cold refrigerators of relatively small sizes. To take into
compressors, while achieving very little reduction of the account the additional needs for cold compressors while
cavity losses). On the other hand, a high operating going to lower temperatures, a slightly modified formula
temperature would require a very high-power will be used. The capital cost for one cryogenic system
refrigeration, due to the strong dependence of the BCS producing a refrigeration power R at temperature T will be
surface resistance with temperature (for example, taken asb :
operating at 4.5 K would require seven times more 4.5 η 4.5K
refrigeration power than for 2 K operation). Therefore, an C cap = 3000 (3+ )( R )0.7 (4)
T η
optimal working temperature should exist in between
these two limits. If the accelerator requires an unusually large amount of
refrigeration power, it will be assumed that the cryogenic
2 COSTS ESTIMATION plant is made of N identical cryogenic systems, each
producing (1/N) of the total power.
2.1 Operation Cost C captotal (R ) = N × C cap (R / N ) (5)
To properly optimize the operating temperature, all the For APT, N = 3 will be taken. Although increasing the
items that may vary with this parameter should be taken capital cost, this approach enables flexibility, enhances
into account. First, the two main items are the cryogenic
plant and the electric power required to maintain the a
The factor has been adjusted to give the cryogenic power R in Watts.
cryogenic temperature. The choice of the operating b
The temperature dependence should be theoretically already taken in
temperature will directly affect the total cryogenic power account in the efficiency factor η. However, it will be assumed that the
R required, which, in turn, will size the cryogenic plant. need for helium cold compressors will turn into additional costs higher
The AC electric power of the cryogenic plant can then be than the efficiency ratios, taken here to increase linearly with (1/T).
deduced using an overall efficiency η : Whereas a lot of data points are available at 4.5 K, only a few are at 2 K
(the most significant of these being CEBAF CHL).
291
availability, and relies on existing systems without The residual value is strongly dependent on the
requiring major technological developments. environment, as well as on the quality of the cavity
2.3 Efficiency niobium, fabrication, and preparation. An average value of
(20 nΩ) will be taken with a uncertainty of ± (15 nΩ).
The thermodynamic efficiency of the refrigerator system is
roughly proportional to the ideal Carnot efficiency: Table I - APT 5-cell Cavity Parameters
T l
ηCarnot = (6) E acc (R /Q) G
(Ta − T ) (MeV/m) (m) (Ω ) (Ω )
β = 0.64 4 ,8 0 ,6 8 5 8 5 ,7 151
where Ta is the room temperature (generally taken as β = 0.82 5 ,5 0 ,8 7 8 1 3 4 ,0 208
310 K). Some systems can achieve up to 40% of Carnot
efficiency. The efficiency goes up with size [3] and with
temperature. If ηr = η/ηCarnot is the ratio of the actual 5 TOTAL HEAT LOADS
efficiency to the Carnot efficiency, the following
approximatec formula will be used: Considering the above uncertainties, three different cases
are labeled as “average,” “best,” and “worst.” The
“average” case will be most likely observed in the actual
ηr = 0.035 Ln(R ) tanh(T / 3) (7) accelerator, if all the steps and procedures are properly
(In the case of a liquefaction mode, this efficiency is lower followed. The “worst” case will give the maximum heat
load that will drive the total refrigeration capacity,
and has to be multiplied by a factor 75%±10% ). whereas the “best” case would be the minimum that could
The overall efficiency will be: possibly be achieved. Table II summarizes the heat loads
η = η r . η Carnot (8) in each case, from which the required power for sizing the
refrigerator and calculating the operating cost can be
3 CRYOGENIC POWER REQUIREMENTS deduced.
The cryogenic power required is obtained by estimating Table II - Residual Resistance and Non-cavity Losses in
the cryomodule heat loads which are the sum of the cavity the Three Cases Considered. (All powers are in Watts)
losses plus a fixed heat flux amount (due to static losses, AVER AGE BE ST WORS T
power couplers, transfer line losses, etc.). The latter losses
Residual resistance R 0(n Ω ) 20 5 35
(at the operating temperature T) are estimated for the time
being to be around (10 W) per cavity in all cryomodules Cryomodule losses / cavity 10 5 15
with an uncertainty of (± 5 W). Additional heat loads T otal L osses (excluding cavities) 4100 2050 6150
removed at the intercept temperature, assumed here to be
20 K, have to be added. Although these amount to 6 RESULTS
roughly (80 W/cavity), they will play a minor role in the
overall optimization and can be reasonably assumed to Cost results will be given for the three heat loads cases:
remain constant. worst, average, and best. Most of the conclusions will be
given using data from the average case.
4 CAVITY LOSSES
6.1 Capital Cost
Cavity losses will be the main item driving the
optimization. The dissipated power in the cavity is : First, the “worst” case will be used to size the needed
2
refrigeration power R (including a 50% margin). That
V2 E acc l2 R s will determine the total capital cost Ccap, using
Pd = = (9)
2R 2(R ) G equation (5). This cost, together with the refrigeration
Q power R, is shown in Figure 1 for temperatures ranging
between 1.8 K and 3.0 K.
where (R/Q) and G are both geometrical factors. Eacc is the
accelerating field and l is the cavity accelerating length. Based exclusively on capital cost, the temperature
Table I gives these numbers for the APT cavities. The giving the lowest cryogenic plant cost is 2.70 K. But that
surface resistance Rs can be calculated using the minimum is very broad (any temperature between 2.10 K
theoretical BCS value RBCS (which increases exponentially and 3.40 K would be within 15% of that minimum cost,
with temperature) and adding a fixed residual resistance while the formula used should not be trusted to that
R0 due to the residual static magnetic field, Q-disease, and accuracy). An operation at 2.0 K would result in adding
surface impurities [4]. 22% (13.2 M$) over the lower cost.
R s = R BCS (T) + R 0 (10) 6.2 Operating Cost
As expected, the operating cost, shown in figure 2,
c
Ideally, this ratio should be almost constant. The variation with power strongly varies with the cavity losses. There is a
is fitted from the curve given in [3]. The variation with temperature is significant cost difference between the “best” and the
extrapolated to other temperatures using a linear variation at low “worst” case (it more than doubles at 2.0 K). This reflects
temperatures. The formula (7) used here is conservative.
292
the importance of trying to increase the cavity quality cost (fig. 3) are very similar in shape to those shown in the
factor Q. While the cost may widely change with cavity preceding figure. The overall optimum temperature
performance, there is no drastic variation of the optimum slightly shifts to higher values due to the lower capital
temperature. It increases from (2.00 K) in the best case to cost. It moves from 2.20 K for the best case to 2.50 K for
(2.50 K) in the worst, the average being (2.30 K). Again, the worst, with a middle value of 2.40 K.
this minimum is very broad and operating between
(1.90 K) and (2.70 K) will only give less than 10% 8 THE QUENCH FIELD
additional cost over the optimum.
P cryo/cavity = 15 W @ T + 100 W @ 20 K The above discussion implicitly assumes the cavities will
R R R =250, R es idual = 35 nΩ
reach the desired accelerating fields without any problem
100 100
(no field emission, no quenches). But heat removal in a
Capital Cost
90 90
3 P lants + 50% margin
80 80 superfluid bath (He II at T < Tλ= 2.17 K) is much more
(in M$)
70 70 effective than a normal liquid bath where nucleate boiling
60 60
can occur that will limit the cavity performance at lower
Power (in kW)
Refrigeration
50 50
40 40 fields [5]. Boiling helium can also induce additional
30 30 pressure vibrations that add to the microphonics induced
20 20
in the SCRF cavities. This may result in a demand for
10 10
0 0 additional RF input power which have to be carefully
1,8 2,0 2,2 2,4 2,6 2,8 3,0 accounted for, as each additional 1% on the RF power is
Operating T emperature (K) equivalent to adding 20% on the total cryogenic AC
Figure 1 - Refrigeration power and capital cost as a power. The expected quench field values in the normal
function of the operating temperature. fluid regime are around 50 mT as compared to more than
80 mT in superfluid helium. Therefore, superfluid
7,0 operation can offer a much more comfortable margin in
6,5 AVE R AGE that respect. Moreover, the higher the helium temperature,
6,0 BEST
the more heating one will have to extract from the RF
WOR S T
Operating Cost
5,5
surface, and the lower the quench field will be. This
(in M$/Year)
5,0
4,5 quench field issue is a very serious drawback that must be
4,0 thoroughly addressed if operation above the λ point is
3,5
decided.
3,0
2,5
2,0 9 CONCLUSION
1,5
1,8 2,0 2,2 2,4 2,6 2,8 3,0
Operating T emperature (K)
The total cryoplant cost (including capital and operation)
has been evaluated as a function of SCRF cavities
Figure 2 - Operating cost per year for the three cases temperature at a frequency of 700 MHz. The optimum
considered. operating temperature is found to be (2.4 ± 0.2) K. This
optimum is broad and any operation between (2.0 K) and
350
(2.8 K) would lead to less than a 10% excess cost. But
AVE R AGE
300 BEST operation in normal helium is risky, as performance may
WOR S T not even be achieved while gaining less than 3.5% on the
total cost. Therefore, it is recommended that the operating
Total Cost
250
(in M$)
temperature would be chosen in the superfluid helium
200 regime (below 2.17 K).
150
REFERENCES
100
1,8 2,0 2,2 2,4 2,6 2,8 3,0
[1] “Cryogenic Optimization for Cavity Systems”, C.H. Rode &
Operating T emperature (K) D. Proch, 4th Workshop on RF Superconductivity, 751,
Figure 3 - Total cost for 40 years of operation. Tsukuba, Japan, Aug. 1989
[2] “A feasibility study of the APT Superconducting Linac,”
7 TOTAL COST K.C.D. Chan, LA-UR-95-4045, April 1996.
[3] “Estimating the Cost of Superconducting Magnets and the
The total cost is deduced by adding the capital to the Refrigerators Needed to Keep them Cold,” M.A. Green et al.,
operating cost integrated over the accelerator lifetime : Advances in Cryogenic Engineering, Vol. 37, Feb. 1992.
C Total = C cap + 40 × C op (11) [4] “High Gradients in SCRF Cavities,” H. Safa, 8th Workshop
on RF Superconductivity, Padova, Italy, October 1997.
This total cost is plotted in Figure 3 as a function of [5] “An analytical approach for calculating the quench field in
temperature for the three cases. As expected, because the superconducting cavities”, H. Safa, Proc. of the 7th Workshop
operation part amounts to 75% of the total cost, it will be on RF Superconductivity, Gif-sur-Yvette, France (1995), p.413.
driving the optimum temperature. The figures of the total
293
AN ACCELERATOR-ASSISTED NUCLEAR FUEL ASSEMBLY
FOR A FUTURE PROJECT AT KURRI
Y. Kawase and S. Shiroya
Research Reactor Institute, Kyoto University, Kumatori. Sennan, Osaka 590-0494 Japan
M. Inoue
Institute for Chemical Research, Kyoto University, Uji, Kyoto, 611-0011 Japan
Abstract arising up recently according to the advancement in each
field. To meet the requirements, a "new neutron source" has
A nuclear fuel assembly assisted by a linear accelerator been discussed in the working group of the future plan
has been proposed as a future neutron source of the committee of KURRI. A combination of a proton
Research Reactor Institute, Kyoto University (KURRI). accelerator and a nuclear fuel assembly is proposed as one of
The injector linac provides 300 MeV, 0.3mA protons to possible candidates.
produce neutrons by a spallation reaction. Final goal of
this project is to multiply neutrons by a subcritical nuclear 2 INJECTOR LINAC
fuel assembly. This system is expected to bring new
opportunities as a second generation neutron source at The primary particles to produce neutrons efficiently
KURRI and also to play an important role in the basic are high energy proton and deuteron which can be
studies of the future hybrid reactor. accelerated advantageously by a linear accelerator(LINAC)
at high beam intensity[1]. In order to obtain intense
1 INTRODUCTION neutrons, it is desirable that the reactor technology is
effectively applied to produce neutrons in combination
The Kyoto University Reactor(KUR) has been with a moderate size linac.
providing low energy steady neutrons since 1964 for The project “ Neutron Factory” is proposed. It is
various research fields such as reactor physics, nuclear composed of a hybrid system of particle accelerators and a
physics, nuclear chemistry, biology and medicine. Strong subcritical assembly. The outline of the system is shown
requirements for high energy and pulsed neutrons have been in Fig. 1.
NEUTRON FACTORY PROJECT
First Stage Second Stage
50 keV 400 keV 2 MeV 20 MeV 100 MeV 300 MeV
100 mA 100 mA 10 mA 1 mA 0.3 mA 0.3 mA
+
(H 2 → p)
SUB
IS RFQ RFQ DTL DTL DAW
d d d p p p CRITICAL
d d d p p
+ + 108 MHz 108 MHz 216 MHz 432 MHz 1296 MHz
D, H2
Be Be/U Be/U Be/U Fast Thermal Cold
T
Pulsed Steady Neutron
14 MeV Epithermal Fast & Thermal Fast & Thermal Fast & Thermal
Neutron Neutron Neutron Pulsed Neutron Pulsed Neutron
1x10 14 n/s(peak) 1x10 16 n/s(peak) 1.9x10 17 n/s(peak) 1.2x10 18 n/s(peak)
2x10 13 n/s(mean) 1x10 13 n/s(mean) 1x10 14 n/s(mean) 5.6x10 14 n/s(mean) 3.7x10 15 n/s(mean)
Fusion Reactor Medical Reactor High Energy Neutron Controlled Irradiation
Material Use Physics Neutron Scattering Activation Analysis
IS :Ion Source Physics Cold Neutron Physics
RFQ :RFQ Linear Accelerator RI Production
DTL :Drift Tube Linear Accelerator
DAW :Disk And Washer Linear Accelerator
T :Tritium Target
Be/U :Beryllium/Uranium Target
Figure 1: Block diagram of Neutron Factory
300
The brief report on this system has been given in 3) High energy pulsed neutrons
Ref[2]. Deuterons or hydrogen molecules of 100 mA beam
intensity extracted from a high current ion source are The 20 MeV deuterons obtained by the DTL linac can
accelerated to 400 keV by the first RFQ . The beam energy produce about 10 MeV pulsed neutrons by the 9Be(d,n)
is raised up to 2 MeV by the second RFQ at the 10% duty stripping reaction. The DTL is operated at 1% duty and
pulse operation. The drift tube linac(DTL) at 1% duty is high energy neutron experiments such as the T.O.F.
employed to get the beam energy of 20 MeV . For the spectroscopy in reactor physics become possible.
higher energy than 20 MeV, the proton acceleration is
economical. Therefore, the 20 MeV H2+ beam which can be 4) Intense pulsed neutrons
accelerated by the deuteron linac is stripped before the
second stage DTL. Finally, we expect to obtain a proton The final energy and beam intensity of the primary
beam of 300 MeV and 0.3 mA by a Disk and Washer particles are planned to be 300 MeV and 0.3 mA,
(DAW) linear accelerator. respectively, which allow the mass production of high
In each stage of the particle energy, every variety of energy neutrons by a spallation reaction. We can expect the
neutrons become available as follows. neutron intensity of 1.2x1018 n/s at peak and 3.7x1015 n/s
in mean, which enables neutron scattering experiments
such as the structure analysis of condensed matters.
1) 14 MeV neutrons
5) Neutrons for material irradiation
Among the neutron producing reactions, the (D,T)
reaction has the largest cross section. It reaches 5 barns at The final goal of the Neutron Factory project is to
105 keV deuteron bombarding energy. By using 400 keV inject spallation neutrons into a subcritical assembly to
deuterons from the first RFQ, intense 14 MeV neutrons can multiply them safely and efficiently. Details of the target
be generated and used for the study on fusion reactor system are studied preliminary for a simple case[3]. Intense
materials. Difficult problems arising from a large amount neutrons can make great evolution in research fields such as
of tritium targets should be solved. For fusion reactor precisely controlled irradiation of materials and the cold
material irradiations, the 9Be(d,n) reaction is also useful to neutron physics which require much more neutrons than
produce neutrons with energy around 14 MeV by higher presently available at KUR.
energy deuterons as proposed in the IFMIF project at An example of design parameters for proposed linacs
JAERI. is summarized in table 1.A conservative design is proposed
by a working group as shown in table 1 in which higher
2) Epithermal neutrons energy section uses RF of 216 MHz and 432 MHz. The
Disk-And-Washer(DAW) type is considered as an
The second RFQ generates about 3 MeV neutrons by alternative design.
the deuteron bombardment on the Be target. They can be The deuteron beam with energies lower than 20MeV
moderated down to epithermal neutrons which are enters the Kyoto University Critical Assembly(KUCA) to
efficiently used for the BNCT. The fundamental study on be used for test experiments on the subcritical neutron
the BNCT presently performed with thermal neutrons at target. At the 300 MeV terminal, a new target system of a
KUR can be upgraded by utilizing high quality epithermal subcritical nuclear fuel assembly is constructed to obtain
neutrons. To produce epithermal neutrons very efficiently, intense neutrons for material irradiation and neutron
the p(7Li,n) reaction by the 2.5 MeV proton is used at scattering experiments.
MIT[4]. Therefore, the 2.5 MeV proton beam by a small
accelerator may be more favorable for medical use.
Table 1 The example of design parameters for linacs.
RFQ1 RFQ2 DTL1 DTL2 DTL3*
+ + + +
Particle H2 ,D H2 ,D H2+,D+ H+ H+
Energy(MeV) 0.4 2 20 100 300
Mean current(mA) 100 10 1 0.3 0.3
Duty(%) CW 10 1 1 1
Frequency(MHz) 108 108 216 216 432
Cell number 90 67 78 138 329
Length(m) 1.182 3.065 10.316 62.73 134.81
RF power(MW) 0.3 0.8 3 12 48
*) Disk-And-Washer(DAW) type is considered as an alternative design.
301
Λ v.s. Pulse Shape (βeff=7*10-3, keff=0.95) k eff v.s. Pulse Shape (βeff=7*10-3 , Λ=1*10-5)
5
10 3
-5 10 -5
∆t =1*10 (s) ∆ t pulse =1*10 (s)
Neutron Density(n/cm3 )
4 pulse
Neutron Density(n/cm3 )
10 -3
βeff =7*10 ,k =0.95 2
3 eff 10
10
2 -5 1 k eff =0.99
10 Λ =1*10 10
-6
10
1
Λ =1*10 k eff =0.97
0
-7 10
10
0
Λ =1*10
k eff =0.95
-1 -1
10 10
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
t (msec) t (msec)
Figure 2: Dependence of the neutron pulse shape on keff and L at the equilibrium state.
3 NEUTRON PULSE SHAPE I N
HYBRID REACTOR 4 SUMMARY
Neutronics design calculations were carried out to obtain In order to offer opportunities to utilize high energy
information on a hybrid system[3]. We report here some pulsed neutrons as well as low energy steady neutrons, the
results of preliminary studies on the neutron pulse shape in KURRI has started toward the realization of a multipurpose
the "hybrid" reactor calculated by the one-point reactor neutron source assisted by particle accelerators. The
kinetics with an external source. It is well known that the nuclear hybrid system itself is very interesting and
neutron pulse shape strongly depends on values of keff, the worthwhile because it involves many technical subjects in
effective delayed neutron fraction βeff and the neutron both accelerator technology and nuclear engineering. We
generation time Λ. hope that this proposal will be discussed and polished up by
Figure 2 shows the dependence of the neutron pulse those who are interested in neutrons, accelerators and
shape on keff and Λ at an equilibrium state, when 100 nuclear systems.
neutron pulses with a density of 1010 cm-3 s-1 and a width of
10-5 s are introduced into the system per second. From this REFERENCES
figure, it was found that the signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio of
the neutron pulse, which is defined as a ratio between the [1] "Neutron Sources for Basic Physics and
peak and the background levels, becomes larger with Applications". An OECD/NEA Report, edited by S.
reduced values of Λ and keff, whereas the peak level is Cierjacks, Pergamon Press, 1983.
maintained approximately at the same level. The decay of [2] Y. Kawase, M. Inoue et al., Proceedings of the 11th
a neutron pulse becomes faster with reduced values of Λ and Symposium on Accelerator Science and Technology,
keff. The effect of βeff on the decay of a neutron pulse was Harima, Hyogo, Japan,1997, p.133.
also investigated and was found to be remarkable when keff [3] S. Shiroya and H. Unesaki, Proceedings of the 9th
approaches to unity. For the neutronics design of the International Conference on Emerging Nuclear
"hybrid" system, one should be careful that Λ and βeff EnergySystems ICENES'98, Tel-Aviv, Israel, 1998,
depends on keff on the basis of the reactor physics theory. Vol.1, pp.289-296
More detailed studies are required for the design of [4] J. C. Yanch, et al., Advances in Neutron Capture
Therapy, edited by A. H. Soloway et al., Plenum Press,
planned subcritical assembly. This can be performed in the New York, 1993, p.95.
first stage of the “Neutron Factory “ project by using the
pulsed neutrons generated by the 20MeV linac.
302
DESIGN OF 1 GEV, 30 mA PROTON LINAC
WITH SUPERCONDUCTING CAVITIES
A.P.Durkin, V.M.Belugin, B.I.Bondarev, A.P.Fedotov, Yu.D.Ivanov, B.P.Murin, I.V.Shumakov,
N.I.Uksusov
Moscow Radiotechnical Institute of RAS
MRTI RAS, 113519, Russia, Moscow, Warshavskoe shosse, 132
At the moment there are not problems of Odd frequencies ratio f2/f1 = 3 allows if necessary
fundamental nature in CW proton linac construction with to simultaneous acceleration of protons and negative
energy of 1 GeV and current of 30 mA. That is why the hydrogen ions.
main problems have economic and technical aspects The main parameters of linac are presented in the
[1,2]: high economic efficiency (total electric efficiency Table 1. The parameters will not change for the case of
>50 %), its reliability and radiation purity, linac design acceleration of hydrogen negative ion beam.
have to permit modernization with changing of beam The RF system and automatic control system are
performances demanded, linac design has to apply proposed as classic linac. For decrease of number of RF
perspective methods and materials tested in actual channels the possibility of excitation of several (6-2) SCR
practice. in main part by one RF amplifier is considered. Klystrons
The most expedient way of obtaining of such are used as RF amplifiers (1.3 MW klystrons - in initial
proton beams is acceleration in linear accelerator with and first parts, 400 kW klystrons - in main part).
superconducting (SC) accelerating resonators . In order to provide superconductivity in the SCR,
The scheme of CW proton and negative ion of its surfaces by layer are cooled to 2K by liquid helium.
hydrogen linear accelerator (LAP) with energy of 1 GeV The total thermal power removed by helium is 5 kW.
and current up to 30 mA with superconducting Module of the main part of the linac with two SC
accelerating resonators (SCR) in the main part is shown cavities and PM quadruple lens is shown in the Fig.2.
in Fig.1. Codes of LIDOS.Advisor package [4-7] were
used for beam dynamic calculation Main problem is to
IAP First Part Second (main) Part prevent particle losses in high-energy accelerator part.
Two main dangerous effects leaded to increase transverse
Injector RFQ DTL HBL beam size would be set: influence of phase motion on
transverse one and random errors (within the limits of
tolerances) in tuning and installations of channel
352 MHz 352 MHz 1056 MHz elements. First effect is peculiar features of
7.2 m 55 m 400 m
superconductng channel. In ordinary “warm” channel
100 keV 5 MeV 50 MeV 1 GeV influence of phase motion on transverse one is weak
effect, but in this case this influence is rather high
Fig.1. because of high amplitude of accelerating field. This
1 GeV, 30 mA CW linac scheme. effect is most conspicuous in high-energy accelerator part
with low (50-100 MeV) particle energy
The following main statements are used in its High Beta Linac (HBL) part of LIDOS.Advisor
design. package makes it possible to determined channel main
1. Reliability: low voltage injector; low beam parameters, demanded tolerances for elements
losses; CW mode; decreased number of RF channels. installation, to reveal influence of various factors on beam
2. Economic efficiency: superconducting cavities parameters in the channel and at accelerator output. Initial
in the main part of linac; short length because of high and final particle energy, distribution of accelerating field
accelerating rate. amplitude and equilibrium phase along the accelerator,
3. Radiation purity: beam losses are not more emittance, current are specified as initial information.
than 10-4 [3] because of acceptance reserve of Mean-squared errors of position of focusing lens ends,
accelerating-focusing channels. focusing fields, rotation of lens median axes, amplitude
4. Linac consists of three parts. Initial part - RFQ and phase of accelerating fields are used as additional
structure, accelerating field frequency f1 = 352 MHz. First initial data. Based on these data, channel random
part - three DTL resonators, frequency f1 = 352 MHz. realization are calculated and statistic characteristics of
Main part - accelerating structure consists of 248 nine-cell beam parameters are derived. Simulations on the base of
axially symmetric cavities with elliptical shaped cells LIDOS.Advisor.HBL show that mismatching factor of
excited at the frequency f2 = 1056 MHz. transverse beam sections increases to the boundaries of
303
Table 1
Parameter Initial Part First Part Second Part
Type of accelerator, resonator RFQ DTL 9-cell resonators
Injection energy, MeV 0.1 5 50
Output energy, MeV 5 50 1000
Frequency of accelerating field, MHz 352 352 1056
Number of resonators 1 3 248
Period of focusing, m βλ 2βλ 14βλ
Acceptance, specified,π cm⋅mrad 0.27 2.0 2.0
Effective emittance, specified, π cm⋅mrad 0.1-0.15 0.15-0.3 0.3-0.4
Equilibrium phase, degree -(40÷35) -30 -30
Phase width, degree 360÷36 36÷20 60÷20
Pulse spread at output, % 0.32 0.1 0.04
Resonator length, m 7.2 18.5-17.6 0.4-1.12
Diameter of resonator, cm 20.2 55.0 29-26
Aperture diameter, mm 5 20 30
Accelerator length, m 7.2 55 400
Power for beam, MW 0.15 1.35 28.5
Fig.2.
Module of the main part of the linac with two SC cavities and PM quadruple lens.
1 – accelerating cavity; 2 – permanent magnet (PM) quadruple lens; 3 – nickel bar with cavity frequency fine-tuning
elements; 4 – RF input; 5 – loading for high mode suppression; 6 – helium vessel; 7 – heat screen; 8 – radiation
screen; 9 - superisolation; 10 - cryostat case; 11 – supports with adjusting devices; A, B, C, D – helium flow system
longitudinal oscillation separatrix up to the 1.8 – 2 in the gradient in the lenses – 1%, rotation of lens median axes –
considered case. If beam phase width at the channel 0,50. Statistic characteristics of beam parameters obtained
beginning is 500, than maximal mismatching is 1.5. Beam in 50 random realization are shown in the Fig.5.
phase characteristics at the accelerator output for the Results analysis shows that because of influence
channel without disturbances and superposed beam phase of longitudinal phase oscillations and under the influence
portraits obtained with 50 channel random realization are of random errors transverse beam size with high
shown in the Figs.3,4. confidence coefficient will not exceed 5.5 mm. In this
Phase width of initial beam is 500. Initial data case the size of matched equilibrium section in the
were as follows: error of cavity field amplitude – 1%, channel without errors is 3 mm.
error of cavity phase – 10, transverse displacement of
quadruple lens ends – 50 mkm, error of magnetic field
304
Proceedings of the Proton Linear Accelerator Conference,
Chalk River Nuclear Laboratory, Canada, 1976, p.377.
4. B.I.Bondarev, A.P.Durkin, et al. LIDOS -
Unconventional Helper for Linac Beam Designing,.
Computational Accelerator Physics Conference, AIP
Conference Proceedings 297, Los Alamos, NM 1993,
pp.377-384.
5. B.I.Bondarev, A.P.Durkin, B.P.Murin,
G.T.Nikolaishvili. LIDOS: Multilevel Codes For Ion
Linac Designing. Proceedings of International Workshop
"Beam Dynamics&Optimization", pp.35-44. (July 4-8,
1994, St.-Petersburg, Russia).
Fig.3. 6. B.I.Bondarev, A.P.Durkin, G.H.Gillespie.
Beamline Parameter Optimization In The Framework Of
The Lidos.Advisor. Proceedings of Second International
Workshop Beam Dynamics&Optimization, pp.61-64.
(July 4-8, 1995, St. Petersburg, Russia).
7. "SUPERLINAC.Advisor, Image-based Codes
for Ion Beam Optimization and Simulation", MRTI-ISTC
Project No 147, Scientific Report, Moscow 1996.
Fig.4.
Fig.5.
Fulfilled investigations verify efficiency and
reliability of described scheme as well as its practical
feasibility.
REFERENCES
1. O.V.Shvedov, B.P.Murin, B.P.Kochurov,
Yu.N.Shubin, V.I.Volk, P.V.Bogdanov. Weapon
plutonium in accelerator driven power system. In "Joint
United States/Russian Plutonium Disposition Study",
pp.A1-A60, September 1996.
2. B.P.Murin et al. “Superconducting devices use
in high-current linear accelerators for energy purposes”
Proceedings of the Second International Conference on
“Accelerator-Driven Transmutation Technologies and
Applications”, June 3-7 1996, Kalmar, Sweden, Uppsala
University, pp.1047-1053.
3. A.P.Fedotov, B.P.Murin. Towards a radiation-
free linac of meson or neutron generator type.
305
BREMSSTRAHLUNG PAIR-PRODUCTION OF POSITRONS WITH LOW
NEUTRON BACKGROUND
E. Lessner, M. White
Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, Illinois 60439 USA
Abstract 2 CHOICE OF ELECTRON BEAM
Minimization of component activation is highly desirable ENERGY
at accelerator-based positron sources. Electrons in the 8- Several factors influence the choice of the incident elec-
to 14-MeV energy range impinging on a target produce tron beam energy for a slow-positron source with minimal
photons energetic enough to create electron-positron pairs; neutrons. One factor is the efficiency with which the inci-
however, few of the photons are energetic enough to pro- dent beam creates positrons, the other is the neutron yield.
duce photoneutrons. Slow positron production by low- For high productivity, most of the incident electron beam
energy electrons impinging on a multilayer tungsten tar- should penetrate the target. The number of backscattered
get with and without electromagnetic extraction between electrons increases exponentially with decreasing electron
the layers was studied by simulation. The neutron back- energy, as can be seen in Fig. 1. As shown in the figure,
ground from 14-MeV electrons is expected to be signifi- there is essentially no backscattering for energies above
cantly lower than that encountered with higher-energy elec-
tron beams. Numerical results are presented and some
ideas for a low-activation slow-positron source are dis-
cussed.
1 INTRODUCTION
Slow positrons are widely used in materials science and
solid state physics research. Positron annihilation tech-
niques are used to characterize vacancy-type defects in
metals and alloys. Very low energy positrons are ideal
probes for surface crystallography due to their shallow pen-
etration and weak scattering with the atomic ion core.
The use of the Advanced Photon Source (APS) linac
beam as a source of slow positrons has been investigated
for incident electron beam energies between 200 and 400
MeV [1], [2]. Accelerator studies indicate that the electron
linac is capable of producing about 13kW of incident beam
power [3]. Simulation studies to optimize the target indi-
cate that for those incident-electron energies, a high slow-
positron yield can be obtained. Figure 1: Number of backscattered electrons versus inci-
Activation of components in the area near the target is a dent beam energy with a superimposed exponential fit.
potentially serious problem at positron sources. Compo-
nent activation can be reduced if the input beam energy 8 MeV. At 3 MeV, about 0.5% of the incoming particles
is low enough such that the cross section for photoneu- are backscattered, thus reducing overall efficiency. In our
tron production is still quite low, yet high enough to create simulations, we chose an energy range between 8 and 14
electron-positron pairs. In this paper, we study the pro- MeV for the primary electron beam.
duction of slow positrons using electrons with energies be- The neutron yield per incident electron in a high-Z target
tween 8 and 14 MeV. is low for energies below 14 MeV. The photoneutron cross-
Monte Carlo simulation results of low-energy electrons section for tungsten is about 400 mb for 14-MeV photons
impinging on a multilayer tungsten target are described. and becomes negligible for photons of 6-MeV energy and
Positron production rates with and without electromagnetic lower [4]. For one radiation-length-thick targets, measure-
extraction between target layers are compared. Some ideas ments indicate that there are 2.510 4 neutrons per 14-
for a low-background positron source are discussed. MeV electron [5]. Shown in Fig. 2 is the photon energy
Work supported by U. S. Department of Energy, Office of Basic En- distribution from 20000 14-MeV electrons impinging on
ergy Sciences under Contract No. W-31-109-ENG-38 a 1.2-mm tungsten target. An energy cutoff of 1.0 MeV
306
has been applied to the distribution prior to histogramming. layers, and squares indicate the production when electro-
Photons below 1.0 MeV are incapable of e+ e pair produc- magnetic extraction is applied. In the latter simulations,
tion. The distribution peaks at 1.5 MeV and has a standard the total output lepton distribution from each segment was
deviation of 2.4 MeV. Less than 9 10 2 photons per elec- removed and only the photon distribution was used as in-
tron have energies greater than 6 MeV. put to the simulation of the following segment. This possi-
bly leads to an underestimation of the positron count after
the second and third layers. In practice, energetic electrons
would not be removed by the applied field, though the to-
tal beam divergence would be increased, and they could
contribute to the positron creation through bremsstrahlung.
As shown in the figure, photons produce 68% of the total
positron count in the second segment, and 89% in the third
segment.
Figure 2: Photon energy distribution from 14-MeV elec-
trons on a 1.2-mm tungsten target.
3 SIMULATION RESULTS
Our simulations were performed with the program EGS4
[6], together with a C-language user-interface code,
“shower” [7]. We studied the positron-production efficien- Figure 3: Positron production as a function of target thick-
cies of single-block and multilayer targets at several en- ness for two electron energies.
ergies. Optimized multilayer targets are able to produce
more positrons than single-block targets for a fixed incom- We used our high-energy simulation results as a guide to
ing beam energy. For multilayer targets, we examined the optimize the multilayer target for a 14-MeV incident beam.
production rates with and without electromagnetic extrac- Specifically, we analyzed the positron production as a func-
tion between target layers. tion of target thickness and the output electron and photon
The forward positron production as a function of single- mean energy variations to determine the optimal segment
block tungsten target thickness is shown in Fig. 3 for 8- thicknesses of a multilayer target. At 400 MeV, the best
MeV and 14-MeV electrons. For the higher-energy beam, target configuration is a 10.5-mm-long, five-layer target.
the production peaks around target thicknesses of 2.5 mm. The 10.5-mm length is determined by the optimized single-
The production from the 8-MeV beam roughly follows a block target length.
similar curve. The variations seen in the figure are within The highest production differentials between layers oc-
the statistical fluctuations of the Monte Carlo process. The cur when there is a 25% variation in thickness from the
number of positrons increases by a factor of 4.5 for a 1.75 first to the second layer and none or a small variation in
increase in beam energy. For target thicknesses greater then thickness between the last two layers. The output electron
2.5 mm, many positrons are lost in the material decreasing mean-energy change from layer to layer is also a factor.
the yield. Yield is best when the energy decreases by about 50% in
Figure 4 shows the forward positron production for a the first two layers, and by 30% to 10% in the last lay-
three-layer tungsten target of 1.2-, 0.6-, and 0.6-mm-long ers. These observations, together with the single-block tar-
segments, respectively. The incident electron beam energy get results at low energies, led to a three-layer target with
is 14 MeV. segment thicknesses of 1.2, 0.9 and 0.9 mm, respectively,
In the figure, circles indicate the number of positrons as a candidate for an optimized low-energy target. Fur-
produced when no electromagnetic field is applied between ther simulations showed that the positron production is in-
307
creased by 26% when the last-segment is 0.6-mm long. For be constructed. For an incident 14-MeV electron beam, we
the optimized 1.2-/0.9-/0.6-mm target, the total number of estimate that a flux of 10107 positrons per second can be
positrons whose energies are 6 MeV is 1.3e10 2 per achieved, assuming a conservative moderation efficiency of
incoming 14-MeV electron. 1010 3.
Plans are now underway to measure the positron and
slow positron yields at another local facility with beam
characteristics similar to what we have considered in this
paper. Use of low-energy electrons to drive a slow
positron source has the advantage that it could be a semi-
independent setup. Various configurations for such a
source have been investigated. Some options allow oper-
ation of the slow positron source in parallel with other APS
operations, while operation of other configurations is more
constrained.
An additional advantage of the low-energy driver is
that extraction and guide voltages for the unmoderated
positrons can be lower, since they are produced at lower
energies. The disadvantages are lower positron production
rates per incident electron. The beam power and thus the
positron production rate can be improved by increasing the
electron current. At high power and low energy, target ab-
lation will likely be a problem. Detailed thermal analysis
must be carried out, and careful monitoring of the target
and support structures must be envisioned.
Figure 4: Comparison of the number of positrons produced
by 14-MeV electrons on a three-layer target, with and with-
out electromagnetic extraction between layers.
6 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors appreciate J. Galayda’s continuing support and
enthusiasm. We would also like to thank P. Schoessow
4 OPTIONS FOR A LOW-ENERGY for useful discussions, D. Haid for graphics assistance, and
POSITRON SOURCE AT APS C. Eyberger for editorial input.
The linac’s DC thermionic electron gun has been sup-
7 REFERENCES
plemented by a thermionic rf gun [8], and additional
thermionic and low-emittance photocathode rf guns will [1] M. M. White, E. S. Lessner, “The Advanced Photon Source
soon be installed. These guns will be able to handle the task (APS) Linear Accelerator as a Source of Slow Positrons,” Ap-
of storage ring injection, thus allowing the DC thermionic plied Surface Science 116, 87-90 (1997).
gun to be used for other purposes. [2] M. White and E. Lessner, “Slow Positron Target Concepts
The DC gun is currently being re-packaged for greater for the Advanced Photon Source (APS) Linear Accelerator,”
space efficiency. The gun, together with its buncher and ac- Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Positron
celerating structure, could be located in the linac tunnel un- Annihilation, Material Sciences Forum Volumes 255-257,
der the rf photocathode gun girder. Assuming good beam 778-780 (1997).
optics, at least 13 kW of beam power could still be ob- [3] M. White and E. S. Lessner, “High-power Beam Studies at
tained at 150 MeV. If used to produce a low-energy, high- the APS Linac,” APS-LS Note, to be published.
power beam, the gun and its associated rf structures could [4] S. S. Dietrich and B. L. Berman, “Atlas of Photoneu-
operate semi-independently of the APS. The bunchers and tron Cross Sections Obtained with Monoenergetic Photons,”
accelerating structure could receive rf power from the out- UCRL-94820 Preprint.
put load of one of the linac accelerating structures. We [5] W. C. Barber and W. D. George, “Neutron Yields from Tar-
estimate that the linac could produce a few kW of beam gets Bombarded by Electrons,” Phys. Rev. 116 (6) (1959).
power in low-energy mode. Available beam power in such [6] R. Nelson, H. Hirayama, D. W. Rogers, “The EGS4 Code
a low-energy machine could be significantly increased by System,” SLAC-265 (1985).
changing from pulsed to CW operation, and using super-
[7] L. Emery, private communication.
conducting rf structures.
[8] J. Lewellen, A. Lumpkin, S. V. Milton, A. Nassiri, S. J. Pasky,
and M. White “Operation of the APS RF Gun,” these pro-
5 CONCLUSIONS ceedings.
A slow-positron source with reasonable slow-positron
yield and with a relatively low neutron background could
308
THE KEK-PF SLOW-POSITRON FACILITY AT A NEW SITE
T. Shidara, T. Kurihara, A. Shirakawa, A. Enomoto, H. Kobayashi, K. Nakahara
KEK, 1-1 Oho, Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki-ken, 305-0801, Japan
Abstract long beam-transport line with an axial magnetic field of
100 G to an experimental area. Twelve sets of steering
The KEK-PF slow-positron facility was relocated to coils were installed along the slow-positron beam-
the 1.5-GeV point of the upgraded electron/positron transport line in order to adjust the slow-positron beam
injector linac relevant to the KEKB project. A dedicated trajectory. A high-voltage station capable of applying 60
linac for slow-positron use is also installed utilizing the kV was installed in order to vary the energy of the
remnants of the injector linac reformation. We expect a positron beam. A device controller, combining a personal
slow-positron intensity of more than 100 million computer and a programmable sequence controller
positrons/sec with a maximum primary beam power of 1 through optical fiber, has been adopted to control the
kW for their application in various fields of solid-state monitors and power supplies at a high-voltage potential.
physics. Penning-trap electrodes are also installed at this station in
order to make a dc beam from a pulsed beam.
1 INTRODUCTION At an experimental area, a slow-positron beam switch
The KEK slow-positron facility, aiming at the use of system, which comprises a pair of beam deflecting coils
slow-positron beams (ranging from eV to keV) in various and two pairs of Helmholtz coils with magnetic-field
fields of solid-state physics, was constructed. A slow- directions crossing each other, was installed. This system
positron flux of 1x108 positrons/sec was successfully enables us to direct slow-positron beams to several
achieved [1, 2] utilizing our 2.5-GeV electron linac [3, 4] experimental stations one by one without breaking the
with a 2.0-GeV, 2-kW primary electron beam power. vacuum.
Although we had opened this facility to slow-positron As for experimental equipment, a transmission-type
users [5, 6], we had to relocate our facility relevant to the positron microscope, a positronium time-of-flight (TOF)
upgrade plan of the KEK 2.5-GeV linac. There are two apparatus, and a 2D-ACAR (two-dimensional angular
major goals of the upgrade [7, 8]: 1) to increase the correlation of annihilation radiation) equipment are now
energy of electrons and positrons to 8 and 3.5 GeV, being prepared.
respectively, and 2) to increase the bunch intensities of
positrons by roughly one order. In accordance with this 3 PRESENT STATUS
upgrade plan, we must relocate our KEK-PF slow- All components of the KEK-PF slow-positron
positron facility to the 1.5-GeV point of the upgraded facility were relocated. The accelerating structures and
linac (the KEKB J-linac). necessary magnets of the test linac have already been
installed in the linac tunnel.
2 LAYOUT OF THE RELOCATED The commissioning of the slow positron beam was
KEK-PF SLOW-POSITRON FACILITY started from this April. We have already achieved a slow-
There are two primary-electron-beam sources for our positron intensity of more than 107 positrons/sec
slow positron facility; the 1.5-GeV beam of the KEKB utilizing the 1.5-GeV J-linac beam as its primary beam
linac and the test linac. The nominal beam power of the source. Utilizing this positron beam, the 2D-ACAR
1.5-GeV beam is 0.75 kW (an energy of 1.5 GeV, charge equipment was checked and adjusted.
of 10 nC/pulse, a pulse length of 10 ps and a pulse
repetition rate of 50 pulse/s). A dedicated linac for slow 4 FUTURE PLAN
positron use only (the test linac) was installed utilizing If we reinforce its primary beam source by adding
the remnants of the J-linac upgrade plan. An average other two accelerating units to the present test linac, we
beam power of 1 kW can be expected from the test linac. will be able to achieve a beam power of 6 kW from the
A slow-positron intensity of more than 108 positrons/sec upgraded test linac. This enables us to produce more than
is easily expected in both cases. 109 positrons/sec in our slow-positron facility.
Figure 1 shows the relocated KEK-PF slow-positron
facility, which locates at the 1.5-GeV point of the KEKB 5 SUMMARY
J-linac. It comprises beam lines for the primary electron
The KEK slow-positron facility was relocated to the
beams, a target-moderator assembly, a slow-positron
1.5-GeV point of the KEKB J-linac relevant to the KEKB
beam-transport line and relevant assemblies.
project. A dedicated linac for slow-positron use is also
The primary electron beam is injected into the target.
installed utilizing the remnants of the KEKB J-linac
The extracted slow-positron beam is directed by a 30-m
309
upgrade plan. We have already achieved a slow-positron [2] T. Shidara, A. Enomoto, T. Kamitani, H. Kobayashi,
intensity of more than 107 positrons/sec utilizing the 1.5- T. Kurihara, A. Shirakawa, H. Hirayama, I. Kanazawa, A.
GeV J-linac beam as its primary beam source and we Asami and K. Nakahara, "The KEK Slow-Positron
Source", Materials Science Forum, 175-178, 205 (1995).
expect more than 108 positrons/sec with a maximum
primary beam power of 1 kW. [3] J. Tanaka, "Construction of the Photon Factory 2.5
GeV Injector Electron Linac", Nucl. Instr. Meth., 177,
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 101 (1980).
[4] I. Sato, "Accelerator Structure and Beam Transport
The authors are greatly indebted to the Director System for the KEK Photon Factory Injector", Nucl.
General, Prof. H. Sugawara as well as to the staff of the Instr. Meth., 177, 91 (1980).
KEK administration department for their encouragement [5] Y. Morinaka, Y. Nagashima, Y. Nagai, T. Hyodo, T.
and continuous support of this slow-positron project. Kurihara, T. Shidara and K. Nakahara, "Time-of-Flight
They should also express their gratitude to prof. Y. Spectroscopy of Positronium Emission from SiO2
Kimura, the director of the Institute of Materials Structure Surface", Materials Science Forum, 255-257, 689 (1997).
Science and to Prof. M. Kihara, the director of the [6] eds. T. Shidara and K. Nakahara, "Construction Report
Accelerator Laboratory, KEK, for their support. The staff of the PF Slow-Positron Source (II)", KEK Report, 97-
of the KEK electron/positron linac is also gratefully 12, (1997).
acknowledged for machine operation and support. [7] "KEKB B-Factory Design Report", KEK Report, 95-
7, (1995).
REFERENCES [8] eds. I. Sato, S. Anami, A. Enomoto, S. Fukuda, H.
[1] A. Asami, A. Enomoto, H. Kobayashi, T. Kurihara, Kobayashi and K. Nakahara, "Design Report on PF
K. Nakahara and T. Shidara, "A Slow-Positron Source Injector Upgrade for KEKB", KEK Report, 95-18, (1996).
Project using the Photon Factory Electron Linac",
Materials Science Forum, 105-110, 1833 (1992).
,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,
Positron Production
, ,
Target Chamber
Test
Linac
,,,
,,,,,,,
Ground High Voltage
Potential Potential e–
e–
,,,,,,,
e+
,,,,,,,
Positron
J–
Microscope Penning
Li
Trap
na
c
Apparatus
,,,,,,,
2D-ACAR
Experimental Area
0
,,,,,,,
N
2m
Positronium TOF
Figure 1. Bird's-eye view of the KEK-PF slow-positron facility.
It comprises beam lines for the primary electron beams, a target-moderator assembly, a slow-positron beam-
transport line and relevant assemblies.
310
FARADAY CUP MEASUREMENTS OF THE PLASMA PLUME
PRODUCED AT AN X-RAY CONVERTER*
T. Houck, M. Garcia, and S. Sampayan
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California 94550 USA
Abstract An on-going experimental program at LLNL is
The next generation of radiographic machines based on studying the interaction of an electron beam with the x-ray
induction accelerators is expected to generate multiple, converter [2]. The goal is to quantify the effects of the
small diameter x-ray spots of high intensity. Experiments plasma plume generated at the interaction on the initial
to study the interaction of the electron beam with the x- and subsequent beam pulses, and to develop an appropriate
ray converter are being performed at the Lawrence x-ray converter configuration. Below we report on
Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) using the 6-MeV, measurements from faraday cups incorporated into the
2-kA Experimental Test Accelerator (ETA) electron beam. experimental setup to characterize the plasma plume and
The physics issues of greatest concern can be separated determine the existence of backstreaming light ions.
into two categories. The multiple pulse issue involves the
interaction of subsequent beam pulses with the expanding 2 EXPERIMENTAL LAYOUT
plasma plume generated by earlier pulses striking the x- The faraday cups were comprised of two, electrically
ray converter. The plume expands at several millimeters isolated, concentric cylinders as illustrated in Fig. 1. The
per microsecond and defines the minimum transverse inner cylinder could be biased up to 1.2 kV with respect to
spacing of the pulses. The single pulse issue is more the grounded outer cylinder. Two geometries were used.
subtle and involves the extraction of light ions by the The forward cup (refer to Fig. 2) had an OD of 5 cm and
head of the beam pulse. These light ions might propagate an aperture of 1.9 cm while the back cup had an OD of
at velocities of several millimeters per nanosecond 1.3 cm and an aperture of 0.4 cm. The low ratio of
through the body of the incoming pulse resulting in a aperture to cup length was to minimize the escape of
moving focus prior to the converter. In this paper we secondary electrons generated by the impact of the positive
describe Faraday cup measurements performed to quantify ions with the inner cylinder. The forward cup was located
the plasma plume expansion and velocities of light ions. about 25 cm from the beam/target intersection at an angle
of 30° from the beam axis. The back cup was located
1 INTRODUCTION about 5 cm from the intersection point and 75° from the
Radiographic machines based on induction accelerators beam axis. As shown in Fig. 2, the cups were situated at
produce an intense x-ray spot by focusing a short pulse of the entrance and exit, respectively, of a solenoid operating
high current electrons onto a high Z material. Nominal with an on-axis peak field of approximately 3 kG.
parameters for the electron beam could be 50-100 ns pulse The inner cup discharged to ground through the 50 Ω
width, several kiloamperes, and 10-20 MeV. Producing a input of an oscilloscope, permitting the rate of charge
small and stable (constant diameter and position) x-ray interception (current) to be measured. The sensitivity of
spot is essential for radiographic imagining. The electron the cups to ion density, assuming single ionization, is:
beam quality has been considered the limitation on the I min , where
n min = (1)
quality of the x-ray spot. For example, the emittance of Aev
the beam determines the smallest focus spot, and energy n min is the minimum density, Imin is the minimum
variation combined with transport focusing misalignments detectable current, A is the aperture area, and v is the ion
produces beam motion. Continuing advancements in velocity. For the forward and back cups, and for a nominal
induction accelerator technology has improved beam v of 5 mm/µs, n min is 2x108 cm-3 (Imin was 40 µA) and
quality to a level where the interaction of the beam with 5x1010 cm-3 (Imin was 480 µA), respectively.
the converter may be the limitation for the next generation
of radiographic machines. Two areas of concern are the SMA Feedthrough insulating support
emission of light ions [1] that can “backstream” through
the beam due to space charge potential, and interference
between the beam and the plasma generated by previous D d
pulses during multiple pulse operation.
*
The work was performed under the auspices of the U.S. 7 cm
Department of Energy by LLNL under contract W-7405-ENG-
48. Figure 1: Schematic of the Faraday cup.
311
small positive signal between 250-300 ns was caused by
cable reflections. The forward cup produced a similar
Focusing
Solenoid signal, but a factor of 10 to 20 smaller in amplitude.
Estimates for the energy and density of extracted ions
from the target are > 250 keV and 1012 cm-3 near the x-ray
Back Faraday Cup
converter [3,4]. For protons, this equates to a velocity of
Beam Line Pipe 7 mm/ns and currents of 20-100 mA at the faraday cups.
However, the signals would arrive within 50 ns of
Beam (2 kA, 5.5 MeV) 5 cm electron beam passage. Numerous comparisons were made
of signals at the cups with and without the x-ray converter
cm
Graphite Safety Collimator 25 Target installed to discern such a signal with no success.
3 .2 Plume Velocity
Forward Faraday Cup Typical signals from the back and forward cups are
displayed in Fig. 4. The back cup tended to have a single
peak although the signal to noise ratio could have masked
some features. The forward cup signal normally exhibited
two peaks with the amplitude of the first peak varying
from about 10% to over 130% of that of the second peak.
Figure 2. Schematic showing relative positions of the
faraday cups with respect to the beam line and target. 1.5
The x-ray converter was comprised of a rotating wheel 1.2 (a) CUP8211.101
that held several “targets” to permit multiple shots before Current (mA)
the x-ray converter had to be replaced. The majority of data 0.9
was taken for tantalum targets of three thicknesses; 1 mm, 0.6
0.25 mm, and 0.1 mm. In addition, 1 mm thick stainless
steel and 0.25 mm tungsten targets were used. 0.3
0
3 MEASUREMENTS
The faraday cup measurement consisted of the current -0.3
0 20 40 60 80 100
(voltage) measured at the input (50 Ω termination) of an Time (µs)
oscilloscope. See Fig. 3 and 4. Information that could be
estimated from the measurements, with qualifications, 50
included velocity, density, and beam radius. A third faraday (b) CUP8211.207
40
cup was located approximately 50 cm upstream of the
Current (mA)
converter and recessed to avoid exposure to the plasma 30
plume. This cup was directed at the beam line and served
as a background reference for the other cups. 20
0.2
10
0
0
-0.2 0 50 100 150 200 250
Current (A)
Time (µs)
-0.4
Figure 4. Typical output signals from the (a) back and (b)
-0.6 forward faraday cups. Beam interaction with the converter
8194.107 (1 mm thick Ta) occurred at time 0.
-0.8
An estimate of the velocity can be made by assuming
-1 that the plasma was ejected promptly at beam time and
0 50 100 150
200 250 300 350 400
Time (ns) quickly reached terminal velocity. With these assumptions
Figure 3. Typical output from the forward faraday cup. the velocity would be simply the distance to the respective
cup divided by arrival time at the cup after beam passage.
3 .1 Prompt Signals (< 1 µs) The velocity can be related to spot size assuming a self-
A large signal was generated by the faraday cups during similar, isentropic expansion of a spherical gas cloud:
beam passage. A typical signal from the back cup is 2E dE
v = 1.64 = 2.32 dz , where (2)
shown in Fig. 3 and displays the same pulse shape as the m πr ρ
2
beam current monitors installed on the beam line. The
312
E is the energy deposited into a mass m by the beam,
10
dE/dz is the rate of energy deposition along the axis, r is
the radius of the beam spot, and ρ is the mass density. 9 0.25 mm
Velocity (mm/µs)
While approximate, eq. (2) indicates that the velocity 8 1.0 mm
should vary inversely with spot size and be insensitive to 7
target thickness. In Fig. 5, the velocity of the leading edge 6
of the plasma plume at the forward cup (25 cm/ time of 5
arrival) is plotted as a function of x-ray spot size for two 4
thicknesses of Ta targets. The x-ray spot sizes shown for 3
the 1 mm targets were measured using the roll bar
2
technique [5] while for the 0.25 mm targets a higher 0.4 0.3 0.450.35 0.5
-1
resolution pin hole camera [6] was used. Eq (2) was in 1/spot size (mm )
general agreement with measured velocities and spot sizes. Figure 5. Velocity of the leading edge of the plume for Ta
The plume velocity measured at the forward cup targets of two thicknesses as a function of spot size.
consistently was faster than measured at the back cup. For
3.5
the distances that the cups are located from the target, the
Velocity Ratio (Front/Back)
plasma plume could be expected to be expanding 3
approximately spherically. Thus, the velocity should not
be strongly dependent on the angular locations of the 2.5
cups with respect to the beam. A second explanation
suggested by Fig. 6, a plot of the velocity ratio between 2
the cups as a function of target thickness, is that the beam Edge
diameter expands during transit producing a larger spot 1.5
Peak
size on the back surface. Ratios are shown for the leading
edge and for the peak signal. 1
0.1 0.01 1 10
3 .3 Plasma Density Converter Thickness (mm)
Equation (1) can be used to crudely estimate the plasma Figure 6. Ratio of the plume velocity at the forward and
density. Current in the Faraday cups is the combined effect back faraday cups as a function of target thickness.
of the collection of ions and electrons, and of the ejection
of electrons in reaction to ion impact. Heavy ions like Ta 5 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
with kinetic energy of several eV are quite likely to eject We thank Phil Pincosy, Y-J Chen, Darwin Ho, and
electrons on striking metal surfaces. Escape of secondary George Caporaso for their helpful explanations of the
electrons increases the current signal and collection of physics of the interaction. Cliff Holmes constructed the
plasma electrons lowers the current signal. Attempts to faraday cups. John Weir and the ETA crew provided the
bias the inner cylinder did not produce significant changes accelerator and experimental support.
to the cup signal. Probably of more importance is the
orientation of the cup with the magnetic field lines of the 6 REFERENCES
focusing solenoid. The forward cup was positioned such
that the magnetic field would tend to preclude the flow of [1] G. Caporaso, “Analytic Model of Ion Emission From
electrons into or out of the cup. However, the orientation the Focus of an Intense Relativistic Electron Beam on
of the back cup would enhance flow. The heavy ions a Target,” this conference TH4027.
would not be significantly affected. The relative long [2] S. Sampayan, “Experimental Investigation of Beam
length of the back cup to its aperture should minimize the Optics Issues at the Bremsstrahlung Converters for
escape of secondaries, with the net result of a low estimate Radiographic Applications,” this conference MO4103.
of the density at the back cup. [3] J. McCarrick, “Trapping Backstreaming Ions from an
X-ray converter using an Inductive Cell,” this
Table 1: Estimated density (1010 cm-3) at faraday cup.
conference TH4028.
Ta thickness 1 mm 0.25 mm 0.1 mm [4] Y-J Chen, “Controling Backstreaming Ions from X-ray
Forward Cup 30 5 1 Converter Targets with Time Varying Final Focusing
Back Cup 50 100 30 Solenoidal Lens and Beam Energy Variation,” this
conference TU3006
4 SUMMARY [5] R. Richardson, “Roll Bar X-ray Spot Size Measure-
No evidence was found for fast, backstreaming, light ment Technique,” this conference TH4063
ions. However, the plasma plume was found to expand at [6] C. Crist, “Time Resolved, 2-D Hard X-ray Imaging of
3-4 mm/µs (peak density) with a leading edge velocity of Relativistic Electron-Beam Target Interactions on
7-8 mm/µs in agreement with theoretical models. ETA-II,” this conference MO4062
313
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF BEAM OPTICS ISSUES AT THE
BREMSSTRAHLUNG CONVERTERS FOR RADIOGRAPHIC
APPLICATIONS*
S.Sampayan, G. Caporaso, Y-J Chen, C. Crist†, M. Garcia, T. Houck,
M. Krogh††, R. Richardson, J. Weir, and G. Westenskow
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California 94550 USA
Abstract electron beam pulse is approximately 20 MeV energy,
As part of the Dual Axis Radiographic Hydrodynamic 6 kA current, and 200 ns long. These pulses are further
Test Facility II (DARHT II) and Advanced Hydrotest chopped into a series of 50 ns sub-pulses and are
Facility (AHF) programs, we have began investigation of redirected through a series of magnets to converter targets
the possible adverse effects of (1) backstreaming ion at each axis. The 20 MeV electron beam impacting the
emission from the Bremsstrahlung converter target and (2) converter target generates an intense x-ray cone which
the interaction of the resultant plasma with the electron produces a radiographic image on a fast detector array.
beam during subsequent pulses. These effects would The converter target consists of an 0.5-1 mm thick
primarily manifest themselves in the static focusing tantalum or tungsten foil. The electron beam is focused to
system as a rapidly varying x-ray spot. To study these <1 mm and allowed to impinge on this target to create the
effects, we are conducting beam-target interaction x-ray pulse. Two effects are of concern. As the electron
experiments on the ETA-II accelerator (a 6.0 MeV, beam interacts with the target surface, a plasma quickly
2.5 kA, 70 ns FWHM pulsed, electron accelerator). From develops. As the beam electrons creates a strong space
these experiments and the multiple diagnostics we have charge field in front of the target, ions can be extracted
implemented, we are able to determine spot dynamics and and accelerated in a direction opposite to the electron
characterize the resultant plasma for various beam prorogation. These ions partially neutralize the
configurations. Our data to date shows the first effect to beam space charge and defocusing of the beam results.
be minimal. We report on the details of our experiments The second effect results from the direct interaction of
and our preliminary experiments to study the second electron beam with the target plasma on subsequent
effect. electron pulses. Such an interaction, depending on the
interaction length and plasma density, may have an
adverse effect on the beam propagation and the resultant
1 INTRODUCTION
spot on the converter target.
We are presently working on Linear Induction Our on-going experimental program at LLNL is to
Accelerator (LIA) based radiography projects under the study the interaction of the electron beam with the x-ray
US Department of Energy (DOE). These projects, known converter target. In these experiments, we focus on the
as the Dual Axis Radiographic Hydrodynamic Test dynamics of the spot behavior using optical transition
Facility II (DARHT II) and the Advanced Hydrotest radiation (OTR), measuring x-ray spot blur across an edge
Facility (AHF), are an element of the DOE’s strategy of (so called “roll-bar” technique), and a gated, multiframe,
science based stockpile stewardship (SBSS). This imaging pinhole camera. Further, we are characterizing
program focuses on assuring the safety and reliability of the properties of the plume by using Faraday cups,
the nuclear weapon stockpile without underground testing. interferometers, and a gated spectrometer. We report on
The DARHT II is presently being built at Los Alamos our progress thus far.
National Laboratory and it is planned that AHF will be
built at the Nevada Test Site. Both are national facilities
2 EXPERIMENTAL
optimized to address weapons issues with minimal
environmental impact. The DARHT II machine is a multi- The overall layout of the experiment is shown in
pulse, single-axis flash radiography machine. The AHF Fig. 1. Imaging instruments consist of gated, image
machine is a multi-pulse, multi-axis flash radiography intensified cameras for observation of Optical Transition
machine designed for full 3D imaging. These machines Radiation (OTR) from the target surface. Ion diagnostics
are being designed to be capable of taking a sequence of consist of multiple Faraday cups to observe plasma
closely spaced radiographic images so as to produce a velocities and to obtain estimates of the plasma density. In
time sequenced image of the test object. addition, to resolve the spatial extent of the plasma as a
On AHF, the process of producing these radiographic function of time, an interferometer cavity imaged onto a
images consists of generating a 10-15 shot burst of fast gated or streak camera was implemented. An 0.5 m
electron beam pulses at a 1 MHz repetition rate. Each gated spectrometer allows observation of target optical
314
emissions for species identification and inference of 3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
plasma temperature.
Results from the Faraday cup measurements indicate a
As the principal objective of our experiment is to
plasma velocity dependence on spot size, beam
observe the dynamic behavior of the x-ray spot, we have
parameters, and target thickness [1]. No evidence was
implemented one method of direct observation of the
found for fast, backstreaming, light ions. The plasma
beam spot and two methods to observe the x-ray spot. The
plume was found to expand at 3-4 mm/µs (peak density)
first method of observation of the x-ray spot is with a so
with a leading edge velocity of 7-8 mm/µs in agreement
called “roll-bar” technique. This technique infers spot size
with theoretical models.
from the blur across a hard edge. The second method is by
Target emissions as measured with the spectrometer
the use of a time resolved x-ray pinhole camera. This
showed evolution of a prompt line spectra evolving to a
latter device consists of tungsten pin-holes imaged onto an
black-body like spectra with a peak at about 600 nm when
x-ray photocathode and amplified with a gated micro-
integrated over 8 µs after beam time.
channel plate (Fig. 2). The camera we are using creates 6
Observations of OTR did not show strong promise as a
sequentially gated images so as to produce a 6 frame
radius diagnostic when used in conjunction with converter
movie of the hard x-rays produced from the target
materials of interest (Ta and W). Calculations show that
interaction during the 70 ns (FWHM) beam pulse.
energy deposited into the target at these fluences elevates
Calculations show optimum sensitivity of the camera to be
the material temperature in excess of 1 eV within 4 ns. As
from 1-2 MeV with a 20% decrease at 5 MeV.
a result, prompt thermal radiation with a decay exceeding
1 ms results and observation of a time varying spot
becomes difficult. The radiation is so intense and
spectrum sufficiently broad that even with the inclusion of
high quality short wavelength pass filters in the optical
chain, extraction of the OTR signal was not possible.
Roll bar measurements were also performed. As scatter
and depth of field issues can reduce the system resolution,
a significant effort was necessary to optimize the trade-off
between scintillator thickness (used in conjunction with a
gated or streak camera for imaging) and pixel noise.
Never-the-less, system resolution was limited from 0.75-
1.5 mm. Correlation was also attempted with the OTR
images under identical accelerator tuning conditions.
Generally, we observed reasonable correlation (order
50%) between these measurement techniques. Additional
reporting of this data is contained in a separate paper [2].
Figure 1. Target experiment layout Figure 3 shows a representative sample of image data
from the x-ray pinhole camera [3]. In this particular data,
the orientation of the target was changed from 15o off
normal (top) to normal incidence (bottom).
Figure 2. X-ray pinhole camera.
To simulate the effect of a high repetition rate Figure 3. Time resolved x-ray spot comparison between
multipulse, we have implemented an 0.8 J Nd:YAG laser 15o off normal (top) and normal incidence (bottom).
focused on the target. The laser beam can be positioned o
The top images were taken with the target at 15 off
and timed so as to produce a plasma of sufficient density
normal show expansion and filamentation of the beam.
so as to simulate target debris as would encountered in a
Gate time of each image is approximately 6 ns and
mutipulse electron beam system.
spacing between images is 7-10 ns.
This effect can be explained by the asymmetric foil
focusing forces which occur at the target as result of the
angled target. The lower images, taken with the beam at
315
normal incidence with all other remaining conditions target material pulse-to-pulse and also add a transverse
identical, show an almost constant spot diameter. An component to the plasma so as to inhibit a direct beam-
intensity profile through the center of other similar images plasma interaction.
taken at a 1 mm spot diameter (FWHM) and 1.4 kA are The dynamic target delivery scheme required study of
shown in Figure 4. Again, these data show an almost several relatively mature technologies: high velocity fly
constant spot radius with a variation of approximately wheels, shape charge jets, and both the burning propellant
25%. Shown with these data, is the expected expansion of and compressed gas driven versions of high performance
+
the spot resulting from backstreaming H ions. From this guns, i.e., light gas guns..
comparison, we have concluded that backstreaming ion The fly wheel offers a significant advantage over all of
defocusing is not a strong effect with these beam the other methods because it does not need to be
parameters. synchronized with other hardware in the system or the test
object. Velocities are limited to 5 mm/µs, however. Shape
charged jets offer the advantage of a very short cycle time
10
for the total operation of injection of the target material.
They also can reach the required velocities but work is
8 required to create the necessary target crossection. Gas
Predicted expansion guns have the capability for deliver of materials with the
from minimum spot velocity required to meet the replenishment need of the
FWHM (mm)
6 for H + ions radiography systems. Velocities of 8 mm/µs, consistent
with the target requirements, are not uncommon from
these guns and some research guns are proposing speeds
4
of nearly a factor of 2 faster Calculations have been
performed with a basic two-stage system and indicate that
2 a total system jitter for the gun will be 1.5 µs for a gun
x-cut
operated in the 5 mm/µs range.
y-cut
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 4 SUMMARY
8204wc11.jnb time (ns) We have described our ongoing experiments to
determine the effects for a multipulse Bremsstrahlung
Figure 4. Time resolved images of x-ray spot (6 ns gate converter target used for radiography. An ion
time, 10 ns intervals). backstreaming and plasma interaction effect have been
defined as the two of the most predominant mechanisms
which could degrade the focal spot on the target. The first
effect was studied, no obvious effects were found. Study
of the second effect was initiated and appeared to be
dominated by an ion effect. Alternative target systems are
Figure 5. Spot expansion resulting from a laser induced being studied to minimize this second effect.
plasma.
5 REFERENCES
Initial data from the interaction of the electron beam
with a laser induced plasma is shown in Figure 5. The [1] T. Houck, et.al., “Faraday Cup Measurements of the
beam maintains a 1 mm (FWHM) core and the 2σ Plasma Plume Produced at an X-ray Converter”, these
threshold expands from 1.5 mm to 12 mm (last frame). proceedings.
With this particular data set, the laser was fired at [2] R. A. Richardson, et.al., “Roll Bar X-ray Pot
approximately 100 ns before beam time and co-located Measurement Technique”, these proceedings.
with the electron beam position on target. Faraday cups [3] C. E. Crist, et.al., “Time Resolved, 2-D X-ray Imaging
indicate an expansion velocity of approximately 5 cm/µs of Relativistic Electron-Beam Interactions on ETA-
and density at the Faraday cup (spaced 24 cm from the II”, these proceedings.
10 -3
target) of 2 x 10 cm . Combing these data indicates an
interaction length of 0.5 cm and an inferred density within
18 -3
that region of 5 x 10 cm . Initial analysis of the data
shows this behavior is dominated by a backstreaming ion * The work was performed under the auspices of the
affect. U.S. Department of Energy by LLNL under contract
To minimize the interaction of the plasma with the W-7405-ENG-48.
beam, we are considering dynamic targets in our baseline † Sandia National Laboratory
development program. Such a technique will provide fresh †† Allied Signal
316
RF POWER DISTRIBUTION AND PHASING
AT SSRL INJECTOR LINAC
Sanghyun Park
Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, P.O. Box 4349, Stanford, California 94309, USA
the desired linac beam energy, the klystron beam voltage
Abstract
is changed and the process is repeated.
At the Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Laboratory
injector linac, each of three linac sections was powered Another factor that affects the beam energy is the
by an XK-5 klystron for 5 years starting from 1990. The temperature at the gun and linac. For them to stay tuned
RF power from the second klystron was then branched at the operating frequency of 2.856 GHz, there are two
out to drive the thermionic RF gun. Due to dwindling systems that supply temperature controlled water
performance of XK-5’s, two of them were replaced by (TCW); one for the gun and the other for linac that
one SLAC type 5045, which powered the RF gun and operates in different temperature range from the gun.
O
the first two linac sections. In the summer of 1997, the The temperature regulation is better than 0.1 F in both
linac system was further modified to have one 5045 systems. Considering the thermal expansion coefficient
-5 O
power all three sections and gun. During this process a of copper at 1.7x10 / C, the resonance frequency of
5dB waveguide directional coupler was developed, and both structures remains unchanged within 3 kHz.
RF phasing was done by cold tests and by beam-based
tuning of the waveguide network at full power. The
remaining two XK-5’s are currently being utilized at the 2 RF POWER DISTRIBUTION
Gun Test Facility located in the injector linac vault to
When 4 linac sections are powered by one klystron,
drive a photocathode gun followed by a linac.
which is the case with the SLAC main linac, the RF
power from the klystron is divided evenly twice by three
of 3-dB hybrids so that each section is driven by equal
1 INTRODUCTION level of RF power. When the number of linac sections to
The SSRL Booster synchrotron[1] accelerates a bunch be driven is three, the power needs to be divided by 1:2
9
of 10 electrons from 100 MeV to 2.3 GeV at the rate of ratio, then the main line is evenly divided by a 3-dB
10 bunches per second, which is limited by the White hybrid. This is how the SSRL injector linac is powered
circuit, before it is injected to the SPEAR storage ring. by a single klystron.
When the stored beam current reaches 100 mA, the
beam energy is ramped to 3 GeV for user run. The power branching ratio of a 3-dB hybrid is 1:1, and
deviation from the design value is usually very small.
In order to maximize the injection rate in terms of Any other coupling between 3 and, say, 15 dB requires
mA/min, it is very important to maintain a shot-to-shot multi-hole narrow wall coupler. While it is possible to
reproducibility and a long term stability of the linac achieve precision coupling in calculations, errors from
beam energy, which is proportional to the square root of the process of machining make it very hard to predict
the RF power. To this end, all the DC voltages applied what the actual coupling would be.
to the klystron (focusing magnet and core bias) and
modulator (PFN and thyratron reservoir) are regulated Therefore, the sequence of building a high power
through switching or linear power supplies. Constant waveguide directional coupler is to choose a design of
voltage transformers stabilize the AC power to the smaller coupling. For example, if a 5-dB coupler is to be
klystron cathode and thyratron heater. made, choose a 7-dB coupler, duplicate the coupling
strip of some 10 pairs of holes. Then clamp the two
The beam voltage and the input RF power is selected waveguide pieces together, with the strip inserted in
in such a way that δPO/δPI = 0 when the beam voltage between. Take data on coupling and phase delay at the
stays constant (output power saturation). In general, main line and coupled port. In order to increase the
higher klystron beam voltage requires less RF input coupling, the width and/or the length of all the holes are
power for the RF output power to saturate. Therefore, to be made larger. One repeats the process of mechanical
one sets the beam voltage first and adjusts input RF modification of the coupling holes and cold tests until
power level by a PIN diode-based attenuator until the the coupling is within the tolerance. The final stage is to
klystron output is saturated. If the power is not right for braze all the components together. As it turns out, the
317
brazing process does not alter the RF characteristics of a In the Fig.2, C4 has 8.5 dB coupling. The coupled out
directional coupler very much. power is reduced by the power divider and drives the RF
gun (G) at about 2 MW. The thermionic electrons
The heart of a multi-hole directional coupler is the bunches at about 2 MeV are compressed from about 100
coupling strip. A sketch of it is shown below. The most ps to about 1 ps or shorter by the alpha magnet (A). At
important dimensions are A (6.016 in.= λg), B (=λg/4), this point, there are about 3000 bunches. In order to
and C ( = 0.600 in.). minimize the beam loading to the linac, all but 4~5
bunches are diverted to the beam dump by the chopper
A (not shown). C6 in Fig.2 is a 3-dB hybrid.
C The C5 measured coupling was 5.21 dB at 2.856 GHz.
For the best efficiency, this should have been 4.77 dB, or
B exactly 1:2 branching ratio. Assuming that L1~L3 are all
perfectly phased, and ignoring any parasitic losses, the
Figure 1: A coupling strip for a multi-hole narrow wall energy gain by the linac is given by
waveguide directional coupler. Only three pairs are
shown for clarity. The endview is shown at the right. ∆E = 10.7 ( rP + 2 P(1 − r ) )
where ∆E is in MeV, r is the branching ratio at C5, and
This copper strip has overall dimension of 1.686 in. P is the
-0.521
RF power in MW at the C5 input. At 5.21 dB, r
width, 21.632 in. long, and 0.375 in. thick. The mesa on is 10 = 0.301 and ∆E = 117.1 MeV at 40 MW. At the
either side is 0.086 in. above the middle part, and is to same power, if r is 1/3 (4.77 dB), energy gain is 117.2
be mated with the waveguide. The holes are 0.3 in. wide MeV. As one can notice from this example the energy
rectangles, ending with a semi-circle at the ends. Each dependence on the C5 coupling coefficient is very weak.
has overall length of about 1.5 inches. Typically, there If r<1/3, more power is available at the first two
are 10 pairs. If this number is reduced, directivity is also sections. If it is more, then the third section adds more to
lowered. With the dimensions A, B, and C remaining the the total gain while the first two add less. Therefore the
same, the hole size determines the coupling coefficient. coupling requirement is then 4.8±0.5 dB.
C2 C3 3 RF PHASING BEWTEEN LINACS
G
A As has been shown in the previous section, the linac
C5 C6 R1 energy is insensitive to how the power is divided up to
drive each linac section. When it comes to the phasing,
C4 one has to be extra careful to maximize the energy at a
given RF power. Here the gun is out of the picture for
C1 P
two reasons: one is that at about 2 MeV, the initial
L1 energy out of the gun is only a small perturbation to the
K total energy of the beam, which is steered into the
R2
booster synchrotron. The other is that the gun RF power
is adjusted in amplitude and phase by the power divider
W/G Load and the waveguide phase shifter, as shown in Fig. 2.
W/G Dir.
Coupler L2 The three linac sections are aligned to a straight line
passing through the electrical centers of each. They are
Dir. Coupler R3 separated from each other by 34λ0 longitudinally, which
W/G to coax is 140.510 inches. Then the requirement for maximum
W/G Power Divider acceleration is that the RF phase must be the same at all
0.1 to 30 dB three RF input ports. Therefore the phase lengths from
L3 the C5 input (P in Fig.2) to the L1~L3 input have to be
W/G Phase Shifter adjusted to make them the same.
0 to 400 degrees
In a straight section, male (female) Skarpaas flange
Figure 2 : The system layout of the S-band RF power
adds 0.641 (0.559) in. to the tip-to-tip copper waveguide
distribution at the SSRL injector linac including the RF
length, including one half the thickness of copper gasket.
gun (G). The klystron (K) is a SLAC type 5045. The
In waveguide directional couplers, 3-dB hybrids, H-
directional couplers C1 and C3 are for the power level
mitres, H- bends, and E-bends, the path length is very
monitoring, and C2 at 37 dB coupling is to drive another
different from geometric length. Therefore the phase
klystron, such as XK-5, for the Gun Test Facility. [2]
318
length of each individual component must be measured dialed indicator gauges, and a TV camera to read the
with a vector network analyzer in the air, to arrive at the gauges. For better reliability and safety, a phase bridge
side arm length of a U tube at the final leg of the was made to monitor incremental phase as shown below.
waveguide network. Of course the vacuum inside gives
rise to mechanical deformation of the waveguide that DA to klystron
leads to a change in path length, but it is small enough to
ignore in the first order. from load coupler
MO
Once all the parts are fabricated and assembled, the
entire network of waveguide from C5 to male flanges for to oscilloscope
RF input to each linac sections was moved by one inch
away from linac. Then modulator flanges[3] were Figure 4: Linac incremental phase monitor. The master
inserted, and entire network starting from the point P to oscillator (MO) has +14 dBm cw output. The drive
linac sections L1~L3 was pumped down to about 1 torr. amplifier (DA) has 7µs pulse length at 10 Hz.
This flange is about 0.5 inch thick. One side is Skarpaas
male and the other female for vacuum seal. It has The manual phase shifter was set to produce a null
O
germanium diode at the center of broad side. When it is reading. Then setting was changed by 2.856 , to be
reverse biased at –20V at 1 kHz it causes total reflection. nulled by squeezing the waveguide remotely. At every
step of phase correction, the linac beam energy was
measured by a bending magnet. The ∆E plot against δφ
P Rn was close to a sine curve. At the end, the energy gain
(n=1,2,3) bias from the phase correction was peaked at 2.5 MeV.
2.856 GHz
+13 dBm
1000 pps 4 CONCLUSION
The linac system has been modified to have one
klystron drive the RF gun and all three linac sections for
to oscilloscope improved stability and reliability. A 5-dB coupler was
produced for the purpose. Now it became possible to
Figure 3 : Circuit diagram for phase measurement of the
design and fabricate precision high power directional
reflected wave, for P to Rn path lengths.
coupler of any coupling coefficient through interpolation
of existing designs and analyzer measurements prior to
By adjusting the phase shifter, the mixer output can be
assembly. RF phasing between klystron and linac
made zero. If the phase shifter setting is φ1 for n=1, the
sections was accomplished locally at low power (20
difference in phase readings shows the phasing error of
mW), and remotely at full power (40 MW), to achieve
each branch. The error correction is done by squeezing
highest possible linac beam energy for a given klystron
the waveguide wall. The guided wavelength of RF is
output power.
λg = λ 0 / 1 − ( λ 0 / 2 a ) 2
where a =2.840 in. is the inside dimension of broad wall.
5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
By squeezing the narrow wall to make a smaller, the This work was supported by US DoE through SLAC
guided wavelength λg is made longer. If broad wall is AIP project. Technical supports from SSRL Vacuum,
squeezed, it forces the narrow wall to bulge out resulting MSG, and EDM groups are gratefully acknowledged.
in a shorter λg. This procedure is performed using a C- Contribution from J. Weaver has been indispensable.
clamp while monitoring the null on oscilloscope. The The author regrets to announce that he passed away on
ο
accuracy of this method is better than ± 4 of RF phase. 2 July 1998 after more than two years of illness.
At the conclusion of the process above, it was found 6 REFERENCES
that one modulator flange was inadvertently reversed in
direction. After the commissioning, additional efforts
[1] H. Wiedemann, et al., Proc. 1991 Part. Accel. Conf.
were made to correct the error caused by the mistake.
(San Francisco), p. 2688
Hardware was assembled around the waveguide inside
[2] S. Park and J. Weaver, Proc. 1996 Linac Conf.
the linac vault, to have it squeezed by hydraulic jacks
(Geneva), p. 528
operated from the outside, while the system is up to full
[3] J. Weaver and R. Alvarez, IEEE Trans. MTT-14
power. The assembly consists of two pairs of steel bars
(1966), p. 624
(one inch square, 12 inches long, and tapered 3 inches
both ends), aluminum holder, two hydraulic jacks, two
319
INDUCTION CORE PERFORMANCE*
A. W. Molvik, W. R. Meier
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California 94550 USA
A. Faltens, L. Reginato
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720 USA
C. Smith
Nonvolatile Electronics, Inc., 115 Lafayette Ave. Chatham, New Jersey 07928 USA
Abstract described in greater detail [1]. Two insulation techniques
were used, mica paper in ribbon form of 18 µm thick,
Large masses of magnetic core material are required for and inorganic coatings of <1 µm thick.
many of the induction accelerator-based projects currently In this paper, we extend the previous work with
under study; the quantities required exceed 107 kg for a measurements on cores manufactured from alloys produced
linear heavy-ion fusion driver, so core performance and by four manufacturers: the amorphous alloys 2605SC and
cost are critical issues. We have evaluated cores of 2605SA1 from AlliedSignal (USA), 9KCP, 30KCP,
amorphous alloys from AlliedSignal and MRTI (Moscow 2HCP, and 7421 from Amet (Russia); and the
Radio Technical Institute) and nanocrystalline alloys from nanocrystalline alloys FT-1H from Hitachi (Japan), and
Hitachi and Vacuumschmelze. The cores were of moderate VitroVac 800 from Vacuumschmelze (Germany). The
size, between 1 and 11 kg. We characterized the materials 2605SC was insulated with mica paper, wound and
in terms of the flux swing ∆B from -Bremanent to annealed by LLNL (USA) [1]. The other materials were
+Bsaturation, and the energy loss versus dB/dt. We found coated, wound, and then annealed: FT-1H by Hitachi
sources for each material that could coat, wind, and then (Japan), the four Amet alloys by MRTI - Moscow
anneal the cores. This required the development of thin Radiotechnical Institute (Russia), 2605SA1 and VitroVac
coatings that withstand 350-550o C anneal temperatures. 800 by National-Arnold Magnetics (USA).
The result is core performance near the ultimate small
sample performance of each material, with higher ∆B and 2 RESULTS
lower losses than the earlier approaches of using as-cast
Our experimental methods for measuring core
material or rewinding after anneal, in both cases usually
parameters have been discussed previously [1]. Briefly, we
cowinding with thin mylar (~4µm thick). We are
discharge a 1 µfd capacitor bank through a thyratron
beginning system code studies of tradeoffs between ∆B
switch into 1 to 32 primary turns wrapped around the
and losses.
minor cross section of the toroidal cores. The core has
been reset to -Bremanent. We measure the current through
1 INTRODUCTION
the primary and the voltage across a 1-turn secondary. The
In a previous paper[1] we showed that tape wound flux swing ∆B and the losses u(J/m3) are referenced to the
magnetic induction cores, processed by annealing after area and volume of alloy, determined by weight, not the
winding, produced superior performance to cores wound of geometrical area and volume of the core, i.e., we correct
as-cast material and not annealed, or to cores wound with for the packing factor. The digital oscilloscope calibration
previously annealed material. Annealing after winding is was checked by the manufacturer to be within
advantageous both to gain the full flux swing, and to specifications (errors<1% of full scale), the voltage probe
wind while the material is still ductile. With annealing attenuation was adjusted to be within 1% over the range
after winding, we achieved performance near the ultimate of time bases used (10-100 ns resolution), and the current
small sample performance[2]. The major technical transformer/terminator were also checked to be within 1%.
challenge in annealing cores after winding is providing an We summarize our findings in Table 1. We list each
interlaminar insulation[3], that reduces eddy current losses alloy by the manufacturers designation, and each core with
at high magnetization rates. The insulation must an abbreviation of its manufacturers labeling. Each row
withstand annealing temperatures the order of 360 o C represents a different core, except for 2605SA1, where data
without applying mechanical stress to the amorphous from one core is analyzed at 4 different flux swings, to
metal ribbon, and must meet other requirements related to allow direct comparison of the losses at the same flux
cost, lifetime and packing fraction which have been swings as other alloys can achieve. We note that the loss
________________ increases more rapidly than the square of the flux swing
* Work supported by the U.S. Department of Energy (see scaling in Eq. 1 below) so that one can tradeoff
under contract No. W-7405-ENG-48 (LLNL) and DE- increased core capital costs for reduced pulser capital and
AC03-76SF00098 (LBNL). operating costs.
320
Table 1: Core flux swing and loss for various alloys, all annealed after winding.
Alloy Core No. ∆B max (T) ∆B u (T) C1 C2 u(J/m3) ID(m)
(1 µs dur.) (1 µs dur.)
2605SC C-12 2.46 2.30 171 583 651 0.125
2605SC C-13 2.30 2.20 130 612 609 0.125
2605SC C-14 2.39 2.30 144 591 633 0.125
2605SA1 NA-97 2.84 2.70 144 1341 1720 0.125
" " " 2.50 136 1158 1294 0.125
" " " 2.30 129 1068 1023 0.125
" " " 2.00 123 993 734 0.125
FT-1H 982-1 2.03 1.95 41.5 355 248 0.06
FT-1H 982-2 1.97 1.90 25.0 367 231 0.06
FT-1H 982-3 2.06 2.00 27.5 354 249 0.06
FT-1H 982-4 1.99 1.90 28.0 354 226 0.06
VitroVac800 NA-1 2.28 2.15 18.4 304 241 0.102
VitroVac800 NA-2 2.21 2.10 39.7 240 203 0.102
VitroVac800 NA-3 2.14 2.10 27.6 284 224 0.102
9KCP 06-01 2.40 1.85 84.6 773 486 0.327
9KCP 06-02 2.25 78.2 934 827 0.327
9KCP 08-01 2.79 1.75 -30.3 807 374 0.336
30KCP 00-01 2.69 2.60 221 848 1147 0.115
30KCP 01-01 2.53 2.45 139 1027 1123 0.110
30KCP 05-01 2.30 2.25 65.5 1032 895 0.326
2HCP 03-01 2.49 2.3 137 530 575 0.110
2HCP 03-02 2.59 2.30 263 440 614 0.110
2HCP 07-01 2.26 2.15 77.3 756 626 0.327
7421 04-01 2.07 1.90 128 843 584 0.110
rate and shape the beam. The sag in the voltage can then
The usable flux swing ∆Bu is slightly smaller than
be assigned to the fall time. For comparison, ∆Bmax and
∆Bmax = Bsaturation -(-Bremanent). It is obtained by
the loss u(J/m3) for a 1 µs pulse duration are also listed.
applying four criteria to a sampling of the 20-70 data
We note that ∆Bmax in Table 1 is generally less than
records of primary current and secondary voltage for each
published small sample values; this may indicate that
core, each record at a different level of pulser charge or
further development is needed in core manufacturing
number of primary turns. The four criteria are:
(1) The primary voltage is dropping; technologies.
(2) The current is beginning to rapidly increase above The losses are fit with the 2-term loss criterion of
its average level; Faltens' [1],
1− 2
∆B t ∆B 1µs t
u +C
J
=C
2
(3) The loss per unit flux change approximately
doubles; and m 3 2.5T 25µm
1
2.5T τ 25µm
2
(4) The core impedance drops to 0.1-0.25 of peak value.
where τ(µs) is the pulse duration, and t(µm) is the
While these criteria are only semi-quantitative, the
thickness of the ribbon with an exponent of 1 or 2 (an
uncertainty in the flux swing is usually within 0.1 T. A exponent of 1 is used in here). We set t = 25 µm to
more precise, engineering, determination of the usable compare cores made with alloys of unknown thickness.
flux swing depends on the design of the pulser and the The ultimate capabilities of the different materials would
requirements on the precision of the core voltage output. be more fairly compared if the tape thicknesses were used
The values listed in Table 1 are a reasonable match to the in Eq. 1. C 1 (which represents dc hysteresis losses) and
assumptions of the systems code[4] with which we are C 2 (which represents the fast-pulsed losses due to eddy
evaluating accelerator architectures and components. This currents and domain wall motion) are determined by a
code assigns portions of the flux swing to the rise and fall least-squares fit to the data.
of the pulse voltage, before and after the beam passes, The data and fit are shown in Figs. 1-3 for 2605SC,
while the central portion of the pulse must accurately 2605SA1, and VitroVac 800 respectively. The fit is seen
match the desired pulse form in order to properly accele- to be best for the VitroVac 800, but lies above the data
321
deviations, we compute 3% with 2605SC and we find
10000 three other alloys that also have <10% standard deviations
Core loss (J/m3) of loss: FT-1H, VitroVac800, and 2HCP. The first two
are nanocrystalline alloys. The MRTI cores (the bottom
10 rows) come in three geometries: The inside diameter of
the cores is listed in the last column of Table 1. Cores
1000 with diameters near 0.1 m have masses between 1.6 and
2.3 kg. Cores with diameters near 0.3 m have masses
between 5.4 and 6.1 kg. All of the MRTI cores use
0.020 m wide ribbon, except for 08-01 that uses material
100 slit to 0.009 m wide and weighs 2.5 kg. We see that cores
105 106 107 108 with a similar geometry are grouped more closely than
Magnetization rate (T/s) those of different geometry.
The capital cost of cores is minimized with 2605SA1,
Fig. 1. 2605SC C-14 data shown by dots, fit by line, which is manufactured in large quantities for use in 60 Hz
∆B = 2.3 T.
transformers. Its cost varies from $20/kg in small
quantities to an estimated <$4/kg in lots larger than
10 5 kg. It also has the largest flux swing, which
1000 minimizes the amount of core material needed. However it
Core loss (J/m3)
has the highest loss per pulse, at the same flux swing its
losses are about 1.5-2 x that of 2605SC, and at maximum
flux swing they are near 3x that of 2605SC. And
compared with nanocrystalline, the losses are 3-7x higher.
The operating costs of an accelerator are minimized
with the nanocrystalline alloys: the losses are down a
factor of 7 compared with 2605SA1 at maximum flux
100 swing. However, more material is needed, by at least the
104 105 106 107 ratio of the flux swings (2.7/(1.9-2.15) = 1.25-1.4), and
by more if a large build-up is needed. The material is also
Magnetization rate (T/s)
more expensive: most of the components are similar to
Fig. 2. 2605SA1 NA-97 data, ∆B = 2.7 T. those in the amorphous alloys 2605SC and 2605SA1, the
major difference is the addition of 3% niobium. The
niobium will increase the ultimate cost of the materials
in large quantities by ~$1/kg of alloy. The additional
1000
capital costs will be partially offset by the reduced cost of
Core loss (J/m3)
pulsers. These and other tradeoffs are being investigated
with a systems code [4].
100 3 REFERENCES
[1] A. W. Molvik et al, "Magnetic Core Studies at LBNL
and LLNL," To be published in Nuclear Inst. and
Methods in Physics Research, A.
10 [2] Carl H. Smith, "Applications of amorphous
104 105 106 107 108 materials at very-high magnetization rates," J. Appl.
Magnetization rate (T/s) Phys. 67 (9), 5556-5561 (1990).
[3] Carl H. Smith et al, "Insulations for Metallic Glasses
Fig. 3. VitroVac 800 NA-2 data, ∆B = 2.1 T. in Pulse Power Systems," IEEE Transactions on
Electron Devices 38 (4), 750-757 (1991).
for low magnetization rates in each example. In some [4] W. R. Meier, et al, "Systems Modeling for Heavy
cases, the fit is very poor, e.g. core 08-01 where C 1 is Ion Drivers – An Induction Linac Example,"
negative. We are looking at alternative models with which Proceedings of 17th IEEE/NPSS Symposium Fusion
Engineering, IEEE 598-602 (1998).
to better characterize the data.
[5] S. Lidia et al, "RK-TBA Studies at the RTA Test
The consistency of amorphous metal cores has been an
Facility," in Advanced Accelerator Concepts, edited
area of concern, see for example, Ref. [5] where the
by S. Chattopadhyay, J. McCullough, and P. Dahl,
standard deviation in loss per volume ranged from 14-29%
AIP Press, New York, 842-851 (1997).
for 3 sizes of 38 cores of 2605SC. While we don't have
sufficient cores of any one alloy to obtain reliable standard
322
HIGH RESOLUTION BPM FOR FUTURE COLLIDERS
C. Magne, M. Juillard, M. Lalot, A. Mosnier, B. Phung, DAPNIA/SEA, CEA-Saclay, France
Y. Lussignol, DAPNIA/SIG, CEA-Saclay, France
R. Bossart, CERN, Geneva, Switzerland
Abstract Um
Zt =
I
A beam position monitor using a coaxial reentrant RF and the dipolar constant L is defined by:
cavity has been designed and tested. Main advantages are U -U U - U4
the small size, the high precision, excellent linearity, and x=L 1 3 y=L 2 .
the broadband operation. The measured resolution is 10 U1 + U 3 U2 + U 4
microns on the low current beam of the TTF linac. The Zt and L are calculated analytically in [2] and the BPM
expected resolution is 700 nm for the high current beam
sensitivity is
of TTF.
Z
S=2 t .
1 INTRODUCTION L
High resolution beam position monitors (BPM) will be 3 FABRICATION OF THE CAVITY
needed for the future linear colliders. Large band-widths
will also be important to operate fast feedback systems. The BPM precision at room and cryogenic temperatures
We have designed and tested on TTF (Tesla Test Facility) (cooling without deformation) relies on the axial
a broadband BPM which can also be operated at liquid symmetry obtained by machining the cavity with a lathe.
helium temperature. The beam pipe radius is 78 mm and the gap of the
The TTF superconducting linac at DESY is now in reentrant cavity is 8 mm. A demountable cavity was
operation with a low charge injector delivering bunches at fabricated (figure 1) and severe tolerances were applied on
216 MHz. In the next step an RF gun will provide high the radii and the perpendicularity of the assembling surface
charge (8 nC) bunches at the frequency of 1 MHz. The (2/100). The concentricity of the cavity walls actually
BPM is suited to both operating modes. In the first case measured on the cavity is better than 20 µm.
the tests have shown a resolution of 8 µm. In the second
case a resolution of 0.7 µm is expected.
2 PRINCIPLE OF THE BROADBAND
BPM WITH A REENTRANT CAVITY
A reentrant cavity (fig.1) has a small size and the broad
band is well adapted to the measurement of high charge
short-bunched beams, such as they will be in future
colliders [1]. The beam coupling impedance is
advantageously weak. The measurement frequency is
chosen well below the monopole (TEM) and dipole
(TE011) modes of the cavity, and below the cut off
frequency fc of the dipole TE11 mode of the cavity Figure 1: BPM cavity
considered as a coaxial transmission line (table 1). The The feedthrough have a standing wave ratio below 1.02
beam excites an "evanescent" TE011 mode [2], in at 650 MHz. They ensure vacuum tightness between the
proportion of its displacement off axis, damped towards linac 10-11 vacuum and the 2 K helium bath. To achieve
the bottom of the reentrant cavity. The energy is broadband operation the cavity is strongly overcoupled by
concentrated in the gap where the antennae are located. fixing the antenna tips to the inner diameter of the cavity.
The higher order modes are damped much more strongly The external Q factor is about 4.
so their contribution is negligible and the linearity of the
measurement is ensured.
If U1, U2, U3, and U4 are the voltages induced on each 4 RF MEASUREMENTS OF THE
antenna, Um the voltage induced by the monopolar mode CAVITY ALONE
on each antenna, I the beam current, x and y the beam
displacements from the axis, then the transfer impedance The transmissions between two opposite antennae have
is defined by: been measured with a network analyser for two positions
of the antennae: pulled out or fully pushed. The first
323
position (resonant mode) is used to spot the precise 6 CALIBRATION ON A TEST BENCH
resonance frequencies and the second one (broadband mode)
to visualize the bandwidth really used in the operation A test bench has been assembled to calibrate the BPM
mode (figure 2 and table 1). without beam, at room temperature. The beam is
simulated by a moveable rod. The cw RF power
equivalent to the beam current is injected through
transition cones as shown on figure 11. The cones have a
reflection coefficient of 0.25.
figure 4: Test bench for the BPM cavity and electronics
The characteristics measured with a network analyser
are compared with the theoretical values in table 1. The
linearity is shown in fig. 5. The noise measured is
Fig. 2: Cavity transmission, broadband(1) and resonant(2) 20 mV for a 4 V/mm signal, so the resolution is 5 µm.
10.0
5 SIGNAL PROCESSING linear regression coefficient = 0.99996
A 180° hybrid junction is connected to each pair of
detected voltage (V)
5.0
opposite antennae, yielding directly the sum and
difference RF voltages proportional to the beam current
and position. These RF signals are then filtered,
amplified, and demodulated with a superheterodyne 0.0
reception. To achieve a good balance between the 4 ports
the hybrid coupler is placed in a box as close as possible
to the cavity. And a "perpendicular balance" is done: A -5.0
reference signal is input through the horizontal antennae
while attenuators and phase shifters are adjusted to cancel
the vertical power output. -10.0
-3.0 -2.0 -1.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0
rod position (mm)
Fig.5: BPM test on bench
The precision after calibration is given in table 2.
Micrometric shifters should be used to evaluate the
relative precision better.
Table 1 (measurement frequency = 0.650 GHz)
calculated measured
fc (GHz) 1.0
f TEM (GHz) 1.24 1.20
f TE011 (GHz) 1.7 1.658
Zt (Ω) 6.2 8
L (mm) 37.5
S (mV/mm/mA) 0.331 0.26
figure 3: BPM electronics
The acquisition board yields analog output for noise Table 2
measurements and digitized 14 bit output for the control absolute precision 0.2mm
system. The software used is EPICS. relative precision <50µm
324
with a time response width fitting inside the 1 µs bunch
7 MEASUREMENTS WITH THE TTF separation. A comparison with the current of the
BEAM injector #1 shows that a factor 12 is gained on the
sensitivity. As the noise level will be unchanged (since
One BPM has been tested inside the capture cavity the same electronics are kept except for a modified
cryostat at 2 K and the other at room temperature. acquisition card) the resolution will be: 8 µ m / 12 =
a) Absolute precision ∆ : The BPM error ∆bpm and the 700 nm.
alignment error ∆align give:
9 CONCLUSION
∆ = ∆ bpm +∆ align = 0.2 mm + 0.1 mm = 0.3 mm.
b) Beam current measurement: The beam current is a) Results of the tests (low bunch charge)
measured between 0.1 mA and 8 mA. By adding a high The axial symmetry of the RF cavity allowed a high
gain preamplifier the dark current emitted by the cavity (as fabrication precision (2/100) and the absolute precision of
low as 100 nA) can also be measured. the BPM was measured on a test bench (0.2 mm).
c) Resolution: The measured noise is 40 mV when the On the Tesla Test Facility the BPM was tested at
RF amplifier is 54dB and the video amplifier has a gain of 2 K and at 300 K; the beam position is measured in the
100. With the 5 V/mm BPM calibration for a beam ranges 0 to 1 mm, and 1 mm to 10 mm; the beam
current of 8 mA this leads to a resolution of 8µm. current and the dark current can be measured. The pass-
e) Linearity: The x and y beam displacements were band is 4 MHz due to the RF filter chosen. The
measured with an 8 mA, 35 µs, 10 Hz beam while acquisition time is 1 µ s. The resolution (at low bunch
horizontal and vertical steerers were varied. The steerers are charge) is 8 µm.
1.513 m upstream. Their linearity is such that b) Plans for injector 2 (high bunch charge: 8 nC)
δx/Isteerer = 2.188mm/A with a precision of By modifying slightly the acquisition card (changing
.002 mm/A over the range -4V, +4V. (The DC power the sample-and-hold amplifier) the BPM is presently being
supplies are stabilised to 10-3). adapted to the high charge 1 MHz bunches of the
injector #2. The resolution will be 700 nm if nothing
5.0 else is changed (same RF amplifier, same RF filter).
c) New technical developments
Changing the RF amplifier to a low noise amplifier
and broadening the pass-band of the RF filter from 4 MHz
beam position (mm)
to 20 MHz will increase the resolution in the case of high
bunch charge beams. A resolution of 100 nm should be
0.0
obtained at 8 nC bunch charge.
d) New applications
It is possible to use the BPM without the present
electronics (4 MHz band-width) and benefit from the real
bandwidth of the BPM cavity and hybrid coupler (about
200 MHz) if a degraded resolution (about 100 µm) is
accepted. This is presently tested to measure the HOM
-5.0
-2.0 -1.0 0.0 1.0 2.0
impedances of the TTF 9-cell superconducting cavities.
steering coil current (A) Resonances due to the HOM are excited by an offset of the
beam position and a modulation of the beam current at
Figure 6: Measurement of the TTF beam position frequencies from 5 MHz to 100 MHz. The growth of the
The linearity in y is observed with a regression coefficient resonances inside the 35 µs bunch train is observed with
of R = 0.9996 (fig. 6). In that example a fluctuation of an oscilloscope and a spectrum analyser.
the beam position is seen with a standard deviation of An other application is to build a new acquisition
150 µm, about 5% of the beam size. board with flash components. In that case the BPM would
have a 25ns measurement time and could be inserted in a
fast position feedback loop.
8 EXPECTED RESOLUTION IN THE
CASE OF INJECTOR 2 10 REFERENCES
[1] R. Bossart, “High precision beam position monitor
The short bunch signal is filtered at the output of the
using a re-entrant coaxial cavity” Proceedings of
hybrid coupler. Bessel filters of order 7 have been chosen
LINAC94, KeK, (1994).
as they have the less distorted time-domain response and
[2] R. Bossart, “Microwave beam position monitor using
shortest rise time. The 4 MHz bandwidth Bessel filter
a re-entrant coaxial cavity,” CERN report PS 91-59
entirely determines the time response of the electronic
(1992).
chain. The 10 ps bunch can be considered as a Dirac
impulse and the input current is: Iin[A]=8x10-9xδ(t).
Calculating the output current from the transfer function
of the filter we find an envelope amplitude of 8x106xIin
325
HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT IN SERPENTINE COOLANT
PASSAGE FOR CCDTL*
P. Leslie, R. Wood, F. Sigler, A. Shapiro, A. Rendon
Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM 87545, USA
where kwater is the thermal conductivity of water, Re is the
Abstract Reynold’s number, Pr is the Prandtl number. Since these
A series of heat transfer experiments were conducted to drift tube passages are not round, the convention is to use
refine the cooling passage design in the drift tubes of a the equivalent hydraulic diameter for a rectangular cross
coupled cavity drift tube linac (CCDTL) [1]. The section which is given by
experimental data were then compared to numerical 4A
models to derive relationships between heat transfer rates, Dh = (2)
P
Reynold’s number, and Prandtl number, over a range of where A is the flow area and P is the wetted perimeter. It
flow rates. Data reduction consisted of axisymmetric is much more difficult to account for the passages being
finite element modeling where the heat transfer short and curved. The complex three dimensional
coefficients were modified to match the experimental geometry of the drift tube coolant passages make it
data. Unfortunately, the derived relationship is valid only difficult to determine an effective heat transfer coefficient
for this specific geometry of the test drift tube. directly from published data. It was necessary to use a
Fortunately, the heat transfer rates were much better finite element, thermal/structural model to extract an
(approximately 2.5 times) than expected. approximate value for the heat transfer coefficient. From
that data, an approximate relationship between the Nusselt
1 INTRODUCTION number, the Reynold’s number, and the Prandtl number
for this geometry was derived.
The objective of this experiment was to use
experimental results combined with numerical simulation
to measure heat transfer rates in drift tube coolant 2 SETUP
passages for the cavities in the Accelerator Production of The test setup consisted of a water chiller,
Tritium (APT) [2], Low Energy Demonstration approximately 5 gallon reservoir, a flow meter with range
Accelerator (LEDA) [3] CCDTL Hot Model. The hot of 0 to 2 gpm, water filter, 17 heater cartridges, rheostat,
model is a full scale, copper brazed structure that will be 100X amplifier, a modified drift tube slug placed on a
exposed to full RF fields, but will not have beam through styrofoam base with styrofoam “popcorn” completely
it. A goal of the experiment is to refine the design of the over it, tubing to connect these components together, two
cooling passages and coolant systems for the LEDA thermocouples to measure drift tube temperatures, another
CCDTL. The results of this experiment were used to give thermocouple to measure coolant inlet temperature, a two
a better estimate of the heat transfer rates within the drift pass thermopile to measure the coolant temperature rise
tube coolant passages and are just a first look at the drift through the drift tube, and a data acquisition system to
tube thermal problem. Since the experiment is not error- record the data. Figure 1 shows a schematic of the setup.
free, the Nusselt equation coefficients determined are For data reduction purposes, the flow rate was determined
probably not an exact representation of all the physics of from the heater power and the temperature rise within the
the problem, but a match with this empirical data using coolant from inlet to outlet. Much depends on this
the specific geometry of the test item. measurement, so a two pass thermopile was used to
In the CCDTL, the drift tube is located within an RF increase the sensitivity of the measurement and lessen the
cavity and provides a region of no electric field which effect of noise in the data.
shields the beam when the electric field would decelerate
the beam (for an in-depth description, see [4]). A great )LOWHU )ORZ0HWHU
*DOORQ
deal of RF power is dissipated on the outer surface of the 5HVHUYRLU
APT drift tubes. A method was developed to form an 7KURWWOH9DOYH
elaborate network of cooling passages within the body of +HDWHUV
each drift tube [5]. The coolant passages within the drift 'ULIW7XEH
tubes are rectangular, short, and curved, a situation which
S
P
'HOWD7HPS
S
P
H
H
7 5KHRVWDW
is not well covered in the literature.
7
W
7
H
O
' '77HPS
Q
,
&KLOOHU
In the literature [6], the heat transfer coefficient in long, 'DWD
$FTXLVLWLRQ
straight, circular passages is given as 6\VWHP
k water
hc = * 0.023 * Re 0.8 * Pr 0.4 (1)
D Tube Figure 1. Schematic of the experiment.
*
Work supported by the US Department of Energy, Defense Programs
326
The drift tube slug used in the heat transfer experiments “ice point” and one type T thermopile, and the data was
was a three passage drift tube that is identical to those recorded into text files for easy transfer to other data
from which CCDTL hot model drift tubes were made. manipulation software. A thermistor was used to monitor
Figure 2 shows the cross sectional drawing showing the 3 the outlet temperature, but it was not recorded.
concentric cylinders and the 3 coolant passages. The
center, longitudinal holes were drilled in 1 inch each side 3 THERMOCOUPLE CALIBRATION
(not shown in Figure 2) with a type T thermocouple
The process began by identifying the offset inherent in
inserted into each. These thermocouples were labeled
the system. This was done by setting the thermostat on
Body Temp 1 and Body Temp 2. Because the water
temperature increases with each successive passage, the the chiller to its lowest point of 42° F. Once the system
area of the drift tube that dissipates the most power and/or reached this temperature, the flow rate was throttled way
most affects the cavity frequency needs to be cooled first. down (~0.30 to 0.35 gpm) to minimize heating due to
So the placement of the drift tube coolant passages is not pressure loss across the drift tube, the thermostat on the
arbitrary and the experimental drift tube passages closely chiller was raised to approximately 110° F, and the data
resembled an actual drift tube. acquisition system began recording the data. The heaters
and rheostat were turned off and unplugged from the wall.
It took the system 2 to 2 ½ hours to reach approximately
75° F and much longer if the desired system temperature
was near 100° F. When the system reached ~75° F, the
data recording was stopped, the flow rate was turned up,
and the temperature on the chiller was set down to its
lowest point.
4 TEST PROCEDURE
Each measurement was assumed to be steady state due
to the high thermal conductivity of copper and the 5
Figure 2. Drift Tube Slug Showing Cross Sections of gallon reservoir added to increase the thermal mass of the
Cooling Passages. system. The chiller system’s compressor cycled too much
to hold the temperature constant so it was used only as a
The heater cartridges were placed in longitudinal slots pump and as a means to cool the entire system to an initial
o
cut into the drift tube slug with thermal conducting grease, <45 F condition. Quasi-steady state data was then taken
copper shim stock wrapped around, and hose clamps to as the drift tube heaters gradually drove the system
keep them in place. Figure 3 shows the assembly in the temperature upward.
styrofoam box with associated hardware prior to filling When the system temperature was 42° F, the heaters
the box with styrofoam “popcorn” and topping it with a and rheostat were turned on, near 1000 watts, and the
foam pad. The inlet thermocouple and the thermopile desired flow rate was set. Once the system reached quasi-
were installed into the hardware at the ends of the copper steady state, the chiller thermostat was set to 100° F and
tubes protruding from the drift tube shown in Figure 3. the data was then recorded as the system temperature
o
gradually climbed to >100 F. The process took 1½ to 2
hours, depending on the flow rate. Figure 4 shows a plot
Coolant Inlet of the data collected at one specific flow rate.
Typical Raw Data Plot
Coolant Outlet 130
0.9 gpm Flow Rate
34.5
120 34.0
Body Temp #1
110 33.5
Body Temp #2
Delta TemperatureVoltage (mV)
Inlet Temp
100 33.0
Temperature (F)
90 32.5
80 32.0
Inlet TC 31.5
70
60 31.0
Figure 3. Drift Tube in Styrofoam box. 50
Delta Temp (mV)
30.5
40 30.0
The reservoir was used to increase the thermal mass of the 0.00 20.00 40.00 60.00 80.00 100.00 120.00
system so each time step was more closely steady state. Time (min)
The rheostat was used to control the power to the heaters. Figure 4. Data Collected During Experiment.
The data acquisition system consisted of a computer The thermocouple data was smooth with very little
running Labview software, two Keithley 2002 noise; however, the thermopile data (Delta temperature)
Multimeters, three type T thermocouples with electronic
327
had a 3% noise range throughout due to the sensitivity of (4.57, 3.66, 2.74, and 1.83 m/s) flow velocity in the
the measurement. This is believed to be stray electrical coolant channels, respectively. The Reynold’s numbers
noise, not variations in the flow rate. Once the inlet corresponding to these flow rates are 15,549; 11,159;
temperature reached approximately 100° F, the data 8,275; and 5,291, respectively. The data can be fairly
collection was stopped, the heaters and rheostat were well described by the following equation.
turned off, and the chiller thermostat was turned down to Nu =.0862 * Re .75 * Pr .42 (5)
its lowest setting. It took approximately 1 hour to return Figure 5 compares the data to this equation graphically.
to the 42° F starting point. The procedure was then The design flow velocity within the passages of the drift
repeated using a different flow rate. tube is a critical factor due to erosion of the copper
passages at higher flow velocities. A rule of thumb is to
5 ANALYSIS keep flow velocities within copper coolant channels below
15 fps (4.57 m/s) to minimize this erosion. Therefore,
The analysis was performed in two sections. The first there was no need to test a flow rate higher than 0.9 gpm.
was to analyze the data collected to determine the delta Note that, for this geometry, the heat transfer rates are
temperature between the outlet and inlet. The ~2.5 times greater than predicted by Eqn (1) (long,
thermocouple calibration was “backed out” and the straight, circular passages). For the design on the
resulting measurements converted to temperatures. As APT/LEDA CCDTL Low Beta Hot Model drift tubes, a
can be seen in Figure 4, there was a significant range of value of 1.5 times better was used to offset any
data for the voltage measurement which translates over to experimental errors that may have influenced the data and
the temperature measurement. To smooth out this data, a to stay on the conservative side of the design. Thorough
weighted time average was taken from the surrounding tests of the Low Beta Hot Model will be done to verify
data points. The weighted average equation is and refine these results.
X N -2 + 3X N -1 + 5X N + 3X N +1 + X N +2
Nusselt Equation Fit Comparison
XN = (3) 300.00
13 Measured Curve
Fitted Curve
280.00
th
where XN-x was a data point x steps before or after the N 260.00
data point. All quantities (temperatures and heater power) 240.00
0.9 gpm Curve
were averaged this way. This smoothed data was then
Nusselt Number
220.00
entered into a spreadsheet [7] that calculated the average
0.7 gpm Curve
heat transfer coefficients and temperatures for each 200.00
passage on the drift tube. 180.00
The second part of the analysis used numerical 160.00
0.5 gpm Curve
simulation, specifically COSMOS/M finite element
140.00
analysis (FEA) software [8]. An axisymmetric model was
generated within COSMOS where the boundary 120.00
0.3 gpm Curve
conditions were taken from the spreadsheet [7] which 100.00
calculated the average heat transfer coefficients, average 60.00 70.00 80.00 90.00 100.00 110.00 120.00 130.00
Temp (Deg. F)
coolant temperatures, and the heat flux from the heaters.
The model was then thermally analyzed to determine the Figure 5. Data fit comparison.
nodal temperatures in the model. The comparison
between the measured data and the numerical data was 7 REFERENCES
made by averaging the two measured body temperatures [1] Billen, J. et al, “A New RF Structure for
and comparing them to the average nodal temperatures Intermediate-Velocity Particles”, Proceedings for
that correspond to those thermocouple’s location. One LINAC94, Tsukuba, 1994.
iteration required modifying the heat transfer coefficient, [2] Lawrence, G., “High Power Proton Linac for APT;
applying the calculated boundary conditions to the FEA Status of Design and Development”, this conference.
model, running the thermal analysis, averaging the [3] Smith, H., “Status Update for the Low-Energy
temperatures at the nodes corresponding to the Demonstration Accelerator (LEDA)”, this conf.
thermocouple’s location, and comparing it to the averaged [4] Wangler, T., “RF Linear Accelerators”, John Wiley
measured body temperature and repeating until the two & Sons, Inc., 1998.
averages were within ±0.03° F (even though the accuracy [5] Wood, R. et al, “Thermal/Structural Design and
of the measurement was much worse). These iterations Fabrication Development of High Power CCDTL and
were performed at 4 to 5 temperatures within the CCL Structures”, Proceedings for LINAC96, Geneva.
measured temperature range for each flow rate. [6] Incropera, F. P.; DeWitt D. P. “Fundamentals of Heat
and Mass Transfer”, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1985
6 RESULTS [7] Wood, R. Los Alamos National Laboratory, Personal
Four flow rates were analyzed in this experiment: 0.9, Communication.
0.7, 0.5, 0.3 gallons per minute (gpm) which corresponded [8] Structural Research and Analysis Corp. (SRAC)
to approximately 15, 12, 9, and 6 feet per second (fps) 12121 Wilshire Blvd., Los Angeles, CA 90025.
328
DOUBLE DYNAMIC FOCUSING FOR LINEAR COLLIDERS
J. Irwin†, SLAC, 2575 Sand Hill Road, Menlo Park, CA, USA
Abstract σ (δ ) = [ ρ + ( λ − 2 ρ ) δ + δ ] σ 1
*2 2 2 2 4 2
Dynamic focusing refers to the use of secondary beams where λ = l1 / β1 is the demagnification to the beam lens.
to form final-focus lenses for the primary high energy If λ < 2 ρ , a condition easily satisfied, the second order
beams of linear colliders. In double dynamic focusing an term in δ ≡ δ / (1 + δ ) is actually negative. Under these
initial lens-lens beam collision focuses the lens beams for circumstances the bandpass of the system is given by
their collision with the primary beam. This paper
δ < ρ , which for a typical demagnification of 1/400
2
describes the techniques for the formation of a uniform
lens shape from an initial Gaussian shape, the necesary gives δ < 1 / 20 , implying a huge momentum bandpass.
main- and lens-beam parameters and their scaling, and
1.3 Double dynamic focusing
requirements for a 1 TeV c.m. application. Advantages of
this scheme include the complete elimination of the Q Q
conventional final focus and collimation systems, M M
elimination of beamline elements within the detector, and
the promise of looser main-beam linac alignment, energy
spread and ground motion tolerances. 9–98 IP
8312A14
1 INTRODUCTION Figure 2. An overview showing the trajectories of the lens
beams and main beams. There are three collisions: lens-lens,
1.1 Motivation 2 lens-main and the final main-main. This figure also shows
the “crabbing” of the beams and the fact that all beams lie o n
Our original motivation was a search for a viable final a common line as they traverse the IP.
focus system for linear colliders above 1.5 TeV cm. Now
our motivation is the complete elimination of the final Figure 2 shows an overview of the incoming lens and
focus and collimation systems and reduction of main beams. Because room-temperature colliders must
backgrounds and cost in all future colliders, including the have multi-bunch beams, a non-zero crossing angle is
next linear collider (NLC) [1]. required. Crab cavities are used to twist the bunch so that
1.2 A simple large momentum-bandpass they pass through each other as if head-on, and by control
focusing system of their relative phases, they place the bunches along a
common transversely-moving line.
∗
1
The two lens beams must necessarily collide before
their interaction with the main beam. This collision can
be put to advantage for either aligning the lens bunches or
to completely focus the lens beam. It is the latter case
σ' ∗
which we refer to as double dynamic focusing.
Conventional Round Beam Lens
fM 9–98
Quads Beam 8312A1
f1 2 LINEAR COLLIDER IP
PARAMETERS
Figure 1. A schematic of a simple final focus system. A very
strong lens is placed 1 cm from the IP. The total length i s With dynamic focusing, arguments for the flat beam
about 4 m. geometry are all but eliminated. Round beams are favored
because they require lower main-beam bunch charge
We will use a secondary beam to create a small strong (facilitating a lower lens-beam energy) and have a larger IP
lens about 1 cm from the IP [2, 3]. Figure 1 shows the vertical size and β-function. Presumably, for main- linac
full system, with final conventional quads outside the efficiency, main-beam current is held constant. A lower
detector at a distance l1 ≥ 4m. If the focal length, f1 , of short-range wakefield is advantageous, but long-range
the convential quads is chosen equal to l 1 , and the focal wakes could be worse. Damping ring rf design is changed
length of the beam lens, fM , is chosen so that a ray dramatically. At 1 TeV cm with nγ = 1, round IP
parameters are N = 0.7 10 , σ = 12 nm and σ z = 60 µm .
9
originating at the convential quad is focused to the IP,
then the final spot size demagnification is ρ = l* / l1, and
_______________
†
Work supported by the Department of Energy, contract DE-AC03-
76SF00515.
329
3 DYNAMIC FOCUSING 3.3 Pinch effect
PARAMETERS
Figure 5 shows the lens beam colliding with the main
beam. Each beam focuses the other and the ratio of the
3.1 Lens beam charge per bunch
focal lengths is the beam-power ratio:
For a charge NQ in a uniform disk of radius RQ the fM / fQ = (γ N ) M / (γ N ) Q . The focusing of the lens beam
1 2 N Q re will cause a change in its focal length for the latter part of
focal length is given by = . This condition the main beam. This is improved by arranging that the
l * γ M RQ2
lens beams diverge when they meet the main beams. See
RQ
2
(γ ε ) Fig. 6. Ignoring effects of disruption, the luminosity loss
yields NQ = NQ where NQ = M
ξ, and
2σ M due to the change in focal length is about
2
0 0
re
l* σ z
2
l* ∆L 1
ξ= is the inverse demagnification from the beam lens ≈ *
.
β* L 120 fQ β
to the IP. Since the fraction of the main beam not
incident on the uniform disk is given by ~ 0.75 µm
RQ ~
∆N / N = exp[ − R / 2 σ ] , the exponent will lie between
2 2
Lens
Q M σQ ~
~ 0.5 µm
3 and 4. Main
σM ~
~ 0.3 µm
20 µ r
3.2 Uniform lens distributions IP
10
Module #1 10–98 ∗
8312A21 fQ fM ~
~
8
Figure 5. The lens beam, moving to the left, is pinched b y
6 βy
the main beam moving to the right.
meters
βx
4
RQ
2
~ 0.76 µm
RQ~
∆φx = ∆φy ∆φx = ∆φy σQ
= π/2 = π/2
0 σQ
0 5 10 15
9–98
8312A18
Distance (m)
∗
σQ
σM
Figure 3. A module for inserting an octupole in a beamline.
0.3 mr 20 µr
2 fQ 2 fQ
0.6
2 mm
∗~
~ fM
Normalized Focal Length Function
Particles outside 7–98 ~
0.5 1.0 8312A11 ~1.3 cm
uniform disk region
0.4 0.8
Figure 6. A lens beam which is diverging when it meets the
dN/dr
0.3 fo 0.6 main beam will reduce the pinch effect.
f
0.2 0.4
0.1
Particle
0.2
3.4 Parameter summary
distribution
0 0
Figure 7 summarizes the relationships of the parameters
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
10–98
8312A17 Number of σ in this problem. c p = 120 ( ∆L / L ) p comes from the
Figure 4. An example of a particle distribution and its focal pinch-loss equation and nl * , the number of l* chosen for
length function achieved with a 3-octupole system. 85% of the focal length of the lens-lens collision, equals 1 for
the distribution is accurately focused. double dynamic focusing and 2 for self alignment. A
possible parameter choice for 1 TeV cm [ ξ =30,
A Gaussian distribution can be made almost uniform by γ M / γ Q = 100 , D=0.9, and H=3] lies very close to the
using 3 octupoles in 3 similar modules (see Fig. 3), each
rotated by 60 degrees from the previous module. An zero 2nd order chromaticity condition.
example of a distribution achieved in this way is shown in These parameter relationships scale well to higher
Fig. 4. The lens-lens collision can further reduce the energies, and dynamic focusing appears viable up to 10
population in the tails for the main-lens collision. TeV cm. At 1 TeV cm it may be possible to put the lens
330
beam in a storage ring. At higher energies a modified e+
e–
e– Main e+ Main
scheme including a linac will be necessary. See Fig. 8. e– e+
HγM e+
∗ β∗M 2 n ∗ γQ ξ
orward
e+
ξ γM Fre
Feed Forward
~250 m
Feed F
γM
Fre
H
e– e–
2 n∗ γM e–
γQ e–
cp γ
D=cpξ γQ e+
2 n ∗ γM M e+
γQ ξ / cp
∗ fQ σ zM e+&e–
9–98 e+&e–
8312A20
Figure 7. A log-scale diagram showing the relationship of
the parameters in a “double” dynamic focusing system. See
De–accelerator
~3 GeV Linac
text.
Wiggler
~50 m
4 OPTICAL BENCH CONDITIONS
e+&e–
4.1 Jitter
In addition to a uniform lens profile, it is crucial to
+
have small beam jitter because the lens position 2 GeV e
9–98 Damping e–
determines the focal point for the main beam. With the 8312A19 Rings
demagnifications assumed, the inter-bunch lens-beam jitter
would have to be 1% for the self-aligning case and 0.1%
Figure 8. A possible geometry for the lens-beam system.
for double dynamic focusing. 1% is the ZDR
The lens beam is stored in a 2 GeV damping ring between
specification for the NLC damping ring, and appears collisions, accelerated to the required collision energy, then
achievable. 0.1% probably requires a feed-forward loop decelerated and re-injected into the damping ring. A feed-
after extraction from the lens-beam damping ring. Such a forward scheme removes bunch to bunch jitter.
scheme is indicated in fig. 8. The main obstacle is the
short inter-bunch spacing, presumably at S-band or less. 6 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
An accurate fast BPM is under study. Lens train
I would like to thank the Institute of Theoretical
alignment can be achieved by using precursor bunches in
Physics, Santa Barbara, for hosting a session on
the lens train.
accelerator physics, where this work began. I thank Y.
Cai, P. Chen, A. Dragt, K. Oide, V. Telnov, K.
4.2 The crab cavity Thompson, T. Raubenheimer, and F. Zimmermann for
encouragement and helpful conversations.
Crab cavity phase tolerance are an order of magnitude
tighter with round beam parameters: the relative phases REFERENCES
should drift no further than 0.01 degrees X-band. Systems
for evaluating the feasibility of this tolerance are being [1] Zeroth-order design report for the Next Linear
developed. Collider, SLAC-Report 474 (1996)
[2] The idea of using particle bunches to focus is
5 SUMMARY attributed to D. Leith and first described by R.
Palmer: ‘Super disruption and its use in linear
The prospect of total elimination of the final focus and colliders’, SLAC-PUB-3688 (1985)
collimation systems offered by dynamic focusing is very [3] J. Irwin, Final focus and beam alignment in TeV
attractive. Additionally backgrounds in the IP region can electron-postron colliders using particle bunches as
be dramatically reduced, removing the tension between lenses, AIP Conf. Proc. 156, 531 (1986)
luminosity and backgrounds present in the SLC operation. [4] N. Tsoupas, R. Lankshear, C.L.Snead, Jr., and H.A.
Lens-beam energy should be minimnized to reduce cost. Enge, Uniform beam distribution using octupoles,
The minimum will depend on the lens quality that can be Proceedings IEEE Particle Accelerator Conference
achieved, but appears to be less than 1% of the main beam (PAC95), San Francisco, CA, p1695 (1995)
energy.
331
2 MeV LIA INJECTOR DESIGN
L. Zhang, N. Cheng, G. Dai, H. Wang, L. Chengjun, J. Deng, B. Ding
Institute of Fluid Physics, CAEP P.O.Box 523-56, Chengdu, China, 610003
Abstract voltage induces. The way to induce this kind of influence
This paper describes a design for 2 Mev LIA Injector. of to choose the proper resistance of accelerating cavity
The injector is composed by eight accelerating cells in and proper diode shape. While design pulse power
which for four accelerating cells form an anode and system, we use a Max generator and Blumlein line to
others make a cathode. A foilless diode or a diode with a produce a 250 kv 110 ns pulse. The Max generator charge
tungsten mesh anode is used in the injector, and the four Blumlein lines and each line provide pulse power to
voltage for the diode is 2 Mev. The electron beam current two accelerating cells. We use spark gap switch to control
is more than 3kA in the end of injector. The pulse power the synchronism.
system, beam transport system. Auto-control system and
2.3 The system design for beam transport
auxiliary system also are discussed.
Eight solenoids are used to build up a beam transport
1 INTRODUCTION magnet, two solenoids for introducing electron beam out
the diode, one solenoids for producing a compensate
The purpose for the injector is to produce a high- magnet field at cathode, four solenoids in the accelerating
brightness, low energy spread electron beams [1,2]. The cavity for transporting electron beams and others for
injector is consisted of 8 accelerating cells, foilless diode, adjusting output beams.
solenoid magnet and pulse power system. The length of
the injector is 6 m. In order to satisfy the requirement of 2.4 Auto-control system and auxiliary system
resistant match, the cathode bar and anode bar are formed We use personal computer and Bitbus net to build up
as cylinder stairup-like. Internal diameter of anode our auto-control system. A personal computer is used as
accelerating cell is bigger than that of cathode for central control computer and several industrial control
accommodating focusing solenoid. The cathode is cold computers are used as station. A data analyze system for
cathode field-emission and the cathode material is velvet. analyzing experiment result is also accomplished. The
-4
We use solenoid producing a focusing magnet to transport auxiliary system includes vacuum (4×10 Pa), pure water
electron beams. (5 MΩcm), gas (N2, SF6) and oil.
2 DESIGN OF THE INJECTOR 3 CONCLUSION
It is necessary to improve beams brightness, lower The injector should arrival following criterion:
beam energy spread and control transversal movement of
energy ≥ 2Mev
beams. We make following design.
beam ≥ 3KA
2.1 The design of diode pulsewidth ≥ 60ns
To design a diode, first of all, we must optimize the energyspread ≤ 1.5%
shape of diode by using foilless anode or tungsten mesh emission ≤ 0.28 cm y rad
brightness ≥ 1.5 × 10 A/(m y rad)
8 2
anode so that the field in the cathode is uniform. This is
beneficial to increase the brightness of electron beams. The 2 Mev LIA injector was resemble in 1997 and the
The optimizing choice is carried out by using numeral first experimental result show that our design is
simulation and experiment. The experimental result reasonable.
shows that a plane diode can produce a high-quality
electron beam which brightness is higher than REFERENCES
8 2
1.5×10 A/(m·rad)
[1] Mascurea J. De, et al, A Progress of the AIRIX
2.2 The system design for pulse power Induction Accelerator 1993.
To realize the wide flat top in the diode, the pulse [2] B.N Ding, Performance of 10 Mev LIA. Proceeding of
power source need good synchronism [3]. Then the 10 Mev LIA 1994.
influence of resistant variance should be controlled. in the [3] Jaitly N.C et al, Design and Testing of a Multi-output
process of electron emission, the plasma moves toward 300 kv Prototype Induction Cell Pulse Power Supply for
anode and the emission current gradually increased, the DARHT.
resistance of diode decrease. In this way, the diode
332
ADVANCED CONCEPTS FOR HIGH-GRADIENT ACCELERATION*
D. H. Whittum
SLAC, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94309 USA
Abstract
to fabricate. Even if one could fabricate 105 of them, and
The promise of high-gradient accelerator research is a align them, their wakefields would destroy the beams.
future for physics beyond the 5-TeV energy scale. Even if the beams survived the linac, then to focus them
Looking beyond what can be engineered today, we one would need a 20 km optical system. With such a big
examine basic research directions for colliders of the machine, why bother with high gradient? In collision the
future, from mm-waves to lasers, and from solid-state to beams would pinch each other producing mostly
plasmas, with attention to material damage, beam- backgrounds, so why bother at all?
dynamics, a workable collision scheme, and energetics. These problems can be taken either as discouragement,
or motivation. Actually it appears that most of them are
simply symptoms of a naive collider concept. A different
1 INTRODUCTION concept for a collider has been described by Zimmermann
The technology of colliders could be scaled to energies [2], as seen in Fig. 1, with parameters as in Table 1. To
well beyond the frontier of high energy physics today, but avoid beam disruption, neutralized beams or γγ collisions
for limits to physical size. To reach beyond the next- are employed. To form a compact final focus, chromatic
generation machines requires not scaling nor engineering, correction is abandoned. Instead, it is assumed that each
but basic research in beam physics. The need for main linac is followed by two much shorter accelerators
"advanced accelerator research” is not new; the subject operated at harmonics of the fundamental. To improve
extends back decades, to the beginnings of high-energy luminosity for a given site-power, one combines single
physics, the invention of the klystron by the Varian bunches from the linac. This requires a half-chicane, and
brothers, the resonant-cavity accelerator by Hansen, and synchrotron radiation there requires that bends be gentle,
strong-focusing by Christofilos. However it is only in the extending over 1.3 km. Control of single-bunch beam
last decade that it has become recognized as the critical dynamics in the linac is consistent with permanent
path for experimental particle physics in our lifetime. magnet quadrupoles.
Here we consider one view of the latest chapters in the
story of high-gradient accelerators for colliders. harmonic linac laser collimation
In Sec. 2, we review the relevance of high-gradient to a
h-chicane
collider. We then review the state of research in high-
gradient acceleration mechanisms. Solid-state accelerators matrix linac eγ IR
are covered in Sec. 3, and plasma-accelerators in Sec. 4.
Conclusions are offered in Sec. 5.
injector
2 COMPACT COLLIDER scattered tail particles
γγ IR
Efforts to conceive of a compact collider meet with absorber
numerous difficulties. For example, if one were to
extrapolate the "conventional" picture of a collider [1] to Figure 1: A new concept for a compact collider, as
5-TeV center-of-mass energy, a luminosity of 1035 cm-2s-1, described by Zimmermann [2].
and an accelerating gradient of 1 GeV/m, one would hear
objections at every turn. At conventional frequencies, one Even if one accepts that such concepts could be reduced
would need a multi-GW power source that doesn't exist. to practice, one significant problem remains: how to
Even if one had such a source, it would ablate the make a high-gradient linac? This linac should be frugal
accelerator structure surface in a single pulse, due to with stored energy per unit length, and should be
Ohmic heating. At high frequencies, the peak power consistent with multi-beam collisions, either through
beam-combining as seen in Fig. 1, multiplexed
requirement would be lower, but Ohmic heating would
collisions, or a continuous focus in the interaction region.
still be untenable, due to copper fatigue from thermal For example, if one could collide each of 50 bunches, the
cycling. In addition, high-frequency structures are difficult luminosity corresponding to Table 1 would approach 1035
________________ cm-2s-1. In the meantime, work of [2] suggests that the
* Work supported by DE-AC03-76F00515. collider problems-of-principle soon may be reduced to just
335
one: the accelerator. Let us consider then recent work on circuits may permit more than an order of magnitude
advanced accelerator concepts. improvement in stress-limited gradient.
Table 1: Example Parameters for a Compact Collider.
parameter W-Band example
center of mass energy 5 TeV
gradient 1 GeV/m
collision spot-size 1.8 nm primary switch
normalized emittance 10-7 m-rad
charge per linac bunch 60 pC
frequency 91.392 GHz
repetition frequency 120 Hz parallel
main linac length 2.5 km beamlines
harmonic linac length 0.1 km
Figure 2: A new concept for an accelerator, employing
an active circuit and parallel beamlines.
3 SOLID-STATE STRUCTURES
At high-gradient, solid-state structures are prone to Structure fabrication and bench-measurement are critical
breakdown [3] and cyclic stress arising from pulsed Ohmic to structure development. At W-Band (75-110 GHz) such
heating [4]. Associated with breakdown are the work is being pursued by Kang, et al., [15] via deep X-ray
phenomena of field-emission and trapping. A discussion lithography, and D.T. Palmer via electrodischarge
of the phenomenology can be found in [5]. To machining [16]. The primary challenge for fabrication at
summarize, breakdown is inhibited on short time-scales. present is bonding. Brazing appears difficult due to the
Trapping occurs for gradient-wavelength product Gλ>1.6 detuning effect of fillets; diffusion bonding is discussed in
MeV. All such considerations favor short-wavelength for [16]. Meanwhile, good tune and quality factor have yet to
high-gradient. For G>1 GeV/m, frequencies of 102 GHz be demonstrated in a multi-cell W-Band structure. In the
and higher are indicated. However, it is difficult to meantime, other fabrication techniques merit attention,
conceive of a resonantly-excited structure that can survive particularly where they may be extensible to the THz
the Ohmic heating associated with such gradients. Thus range [17].
pulsed-heating is the first motivation for research into A short-wavelength structure also requires a power
new structure concepts. source. To-date power levels adequate for 1-GeV/m fields
There are four research directions one might pursue to have been demonstrated up to 140 GHz [18], and there in
lower cyclic stress limits: disposable (plasma) a mode consistent with the two-beam accelerator (TBA)
accelerators, advanced materials, composite structures, and concept. For TBA-driven colliders one is interested to
active circuits. Plasma accelerators are discussed in the assess drive beam stability at beam currents consistent
next section. Advanced materials include dispersion- with the stored energy requirement for the linac, typically
strengthened conducting alloys [6], and dielectrics. 101 J/m. Tube concepts at 102 GHz meanwhile are
Dielectric accelerators include wakefield-driven [7], and making rapid progress at the 10-1 MW level [19,20], and a
resonantly-driven [8] structures. Lin has analyzed a 101 MW design study is complete [21].
composite structure employing a diamond layer to reduce For structure dimensions in the 10-5 m range, lasers are
pulsed heating [9]. Diamond is attractive due to its high adequate to produce GeV/m gradients, limited by structure
thermal conductivity, high dielectric strength, and low damage [22]. However, it is important to keep in mind
loss tangent [10,11]. Active circuits have been studied for that for first-order accelerators [R/Q] is a crucial figure of
some years, for applications external to the accelerator merit for the energetics of the machine. Theoretical
[12]; incorporation into the structure is a relatively new maximum in idealized cylindrical or rectangular
area [13]. One new concept for an active accelerator is geometries is 221 Ω , and this diminishes rapidly as the
seen in Fig. 2, employing a high-Q resonant cavity volume of the accelerating cell or the beam-port is
coupled by switches to loaded transmission lines, forming enlarged. Higher-mode losses must be accounted for,
a matrix of accelerating cells. [14]. For the active particularly for small beam-ports [23].
element, silicon is inadequate at high-fields, and thus For all short-wavelength solid-state structures, machine
plasma and diamond are of interest. Use of diamond as the issues are in an early state. A glimpse of what is to come
photoconductor requires 220-nm photons; carrier lifetime can be seen in the work on SLC collimator damage [24].
is adequate depending on the purity. For structure protection, laser and resonant spoliation and
While the ultimate gradient attainable in a solid-state collimation are being pursued [2]. Associated beamline
accelerator is unknown today, it appears that application instrumentation will require: manipulation of THz
of strengthened copper alloys, diamond layers, and active frequencies and beyond for bunch-length and beam-timing
336
information; beam position monitor resolution below the function of B. Moreover, Schroeder has discovered that for
10-7 m level for orbit analysis; single-pulse emittance this monopole excitation, and for each higher azimuthal
measurement [25] for tune-up; use of the structure as a harmonic, the channel supports only one synchronous
self-registered beam-position monitor [26] for control of mode. This is possible since the channel is axially
emittance. uniform, eliminating diffractive losses, and the plasma
Given the benefits of harmonic-acceleration for energy- susceptibility is negative, suppressing Cherenkov losses.
spread compensation [2], a linac proposed to operate at
frequency f, should be accompanied by concepts for plasma
frequencies extending up to 102 f. Thus one is inevitably
interested in structure development across the spectrum.
Note that harmonic structures need not meet the same channel
stringent requirements as the main linac structures, so that
[R/Q], efficiency and gradient can be lower.
Structure research for the injector is equally critical. e-
While the parameters of Table 1 are consistent with
expected scalings for rf photocathode guns, the scaled field
approaches 1 GV/m. Thus the problems of high-gradient Figure 3: A hollow channel in a plasma can function as
appear in the injector as well. Possible alternatives an accelerating structure.
include a pulsed photocathode-gun [27]. An injector
providing a low-emittance, high-polarization electron The "single-mode" character of the channel implies
beam remains a critical problem. lower parasitic losses than in a scaled conducting
structure, and permits shorter bunches and higher single-
bunch charge than in a scaled collider design. Analysis of
4 PLASMA STRUCTURES the dipole mode shows that for multi-bunch operation,
The first plasma wakefield experiments employed a channels can be stagger-tuned to inhibit beam break-up.
uniform plasma, demonstrating the principles of operation However, multi-bunch operation requires good Q for the
with injected beam; plasma wakefields were observed to accelerating mode and this requires a sharp-edged channel
exhibit a high Q, of order 102, in the linear regime (small [33]. The high Q of the uniform plasma has not yet been
Gλ) [28]. In the intervening years, the plasma beat-wave demonstrated experimentally in the channel geometry, and
accelerator has produced 2 GeV/m, and the laser wakefield vigorous efforts are underway to produce and diagnose
accelerator, 100 GeV/m [29]. In a uniform plasma, tailored plasma channels [30].
however, the laser-driven concepts are limited by the The promise of this work is an accelerator concept
diffraction of the drive pulse; thus observed beam spectra superior in principle to the conventional circuit, immune
extend up to only 102 MeV. to damage, and operating with an existing power source.
To extend the interaction length numerous groups are The first challenge for such a disposable accelerator is
presently pursuing experimental studies of laser-driven accurate structure fabrication and diagnosis "on-the-fly", at
wakefield acceleration in a hollow plasma channel as seen the machine repetition frequency. To operate a series of
in Fig. 3. Such a channel can serve as an optical fiber, such structures in concert, phasing and alignment must be
permitting acceleration over many Rayleigh lengths [30]. provided for. Finally, incorporation into a multi-beam
With these efforts, and continued work on beam-driven collision scheme should be addressed.
wakefields [31], it is quite likely that a 1 GeV beam
spectrum will be produced from a plasma accelerator,
within the next year. 5 CONCLUSIONS
As the plasma accelerator concepts develop into a new While the naive extrapolation of the conventional
generation of experiments, oriented on 1-GeV spectra and collider concept is fraught with problems, more
staging, it is timely to compare them quantiatively to the sophisticated collision schemes are conceivable. In the
conventional multi-cell accelerator. Schroeder, et al., have last two years, we have seen new results emerge across
recently analyzed the plasma channel in such a fashion the spectrum that appear capable of solving the problems
[32], providing the first rigorous characterization as an of the compact collider, and its high-gradient linac. Work
accelerator. Let us summarize this work briefly. summarized here was not arrived at by scaling known
In a uniform channel, there are two free parameters, the technology, nor by contemplating only what can be
plasma frequency ω p and the channel radius, b, measured engineered. Advanced accelerator research today is simply
in units of the plasma skin-depth B=ωpb/c. The basic physics research, carrying us into the state- of-the-
accelerating mode of a plasma channel may be art in laser science, micro-fabrication, instrumentation and
characterized by an [R/Q] (per plasma period) a function mm-wave and infrared technology --- and to the frontiers
only of B, and a resonant frequency scaling with ω p and a of plasma, beam, and high-energy physics. The results of
337
recent years suggest that the next-generation colliders will [14] D.H. Whittum and S.G. Tantawi, "Switched matrix
not be the last. accelerator" (submitted to Rev. Sci. Instrum.),
SLAC-PUB-7848.
[15] Y.W. Kang, et al., Rev. Sci. Instrum. 66 (1995) pp.
6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 1-5 and "DXRL Fabrication and Measurement of
Collaboration with Carl Schroeder, Sami Tantawi, Millimeter-Wave Accelerating Structures" (these
Jonathan Wurtele, and Frank Zimmermann was essential. proceedings).
Conversations with Wim Leemans were most helpful. I [16] D.T. Palmer, "W-Band structure research at SLAC",
thank Angie Seymour for her support. Advanced Accelerator Concepts, W. Lawson, ed., (to
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338
HIGH INTENSITY INJECTOR LINACS FOR SPALLATION SOURCES
K. Bongardt, M. Pabst, FZJ, Jülich, Germany
A. Letchford, RAL, Didcot, U.K.
Abstract average beam current at 50 Hz rep. rate. This would lead
to a 3 GeV, 2.4 MW spallation source facility.
A review is given of the layout and the design problems
Quite recently the Japanese government decided to pro-
for recently proposed spallation neutron sources with up to
vide an additional fund to supplement the KEK 1998 bud-
5 MW average beam power. The accelerator part consists
of an H , - injector linac followed by compressor rings.
get. With this additional fund the JHF project team is
preparing to construct a high intensity linac up to 60 MeV.
Different to the design of high intensity proton linacs are
the low energy front end and the restrictions at high energy
for loss free ring injection. The linac energy spread has to 1.2 Neutron Science Project (NSP) at JAERI,
be reduced by a bunch rotator requiring an unfilamented Japan
beam in longitudinal phase space. Uncollected ring injec- The Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute (JAERI) is
tion losses should be kept below 10,4. Due to intensity proposing the Neutron Science Project NSP. The objective
limitations of the H , ion source a funneling line is needed of the NSP is to explore technologies for nuclear waste
at the front end. For loss free ring injection the linac pulse transmutation and basic research science in combination
has to be chopped after the first RFQ. Special emphasis is with a high intensity proton storage ring [5]. The 1.5 GeV
given to either transverse or longitudinal halo production linear accelerator is required to operate with H + and H ,
due to mismatch of a high intensity bunched beam. Con- particles in a pulsed or CW mode. 5 MW average H ,
cerning particle loss in the linac itself the loss rate has to power is envisaged for a spallation neutron source facility,
be smaller than 10,7/m for unconstrained hands on main- whereas 8 MW CW H + beam can be provided for nuclear
tenance. Design criteria are discussed for 10% pulsed RF waste transmutation experiments.
systems. Comments are given about the use of pulsed su- Above 100 MeV a 5 cell superconducting (SC) cav-
perconducting cavities above 200 MeV beam energy. ity at 600 MHz is foreseen with 16 MV/m peak surface
field. Single SC cavities at =0.5 have reached peak sur-
1 PROPOSALS FOR HIGH POWER face fields of 44 MV/m at 2.1 K already [6].
SPALLATION SOURCES
1.3 Spallation Neutron Source (SNS) Project
Recent proposals for spallation neutron source facilities re-
Oak Ridge National Laboratory is coordinating for the De-
quire up to 5 MW average beam power. The accelerator
part consists of a high intensity pulsed H , linac followed
partment of Energy in the US the SNS project [7]. As a
first step a 1 MW beam power facility with one target is en-
either by a compressor ring or a rapid cycling synchrotron.
visaged with a final energy of 1 GeV. The whole facility is
The high intensity compressor rings are summarized in ref.
upgradeable up to 4 MW beam power and a second target
[1,2]. Detailed proposals exist for the following projects :
station.
Design parameters of the first step are for the H , injec-
1.1 Japanese Hadron Facility (JHF) tor linac pulse current of 30 mA for 1 msec long pulses.
The 4 MW upgrade will be achieved by doubling the ion
The JHF aims at an interdisciplinary facility based on a
source current and installing a funnel line at 20 MeV. The
high intensity proton accelerator [3]. It is planned to re- high energy part of the linac is a conventional room tem-
place the existing KEK 12 GeV booster synchrotron by a perature 805 MHz coupled cavity linac (CCL).
high intensity 3 GeV booster. A 3 GeV, 200 A proton
The project will be built by a consortium of 5 DOE labo-
beam , upgradeable to 800 A, can be sent either to a spal- ratories. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL)
lation source target or a muon production target or nuclear is responsible for the SNS linac front end [9], Los Alamos
physics area. By adding a 50 GeV proton synchrotron an
National Laboratory (LANL) is designing the linac [8].
average current of 10 A can be given to a Kaon area or a
The transport line between linac and compressor rings and
neutrino experimental hall.
The H , - injector linac has to accelerate a 30 mA peak
the compressor ring layout itself is the responsibility of
Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL).
current beam up to 200 MeV in a first step. The repetition
rate is 25 Hz and the pulse length 400 sec, leading to 200
A average current [4]. This results in a 3 GeV, 0.6 MW 1.4 European Spallation Source (ESS)
spallation neutron source. The final goal is to accelerate The 5 MW beam power short pulse ESS facility [10] con-
60 mA peak current up to 400 MeV, leading to 800 A sists of a 6% duty cycle H , linac with 1.334 GeV final en-
339
ergy. The pulse compression to less than 1 sec is achieved overcome [14], allowing up to 10% duty cycle. New RFQ-
by two compressor rings in a shared tunnel. Various R+D codes are available, taking into account rod or vane shaped
work is going on, especially for building an ESS test stand electrodes, 8 term potential function, dipole components
with ion source, chopper and RFQ at Rutherford Appleton and complete 3d space charge subroutines [15].
Laboratory (RAL) U.K. and continuing beam loss studies A bunched beam transfer line at about 2 MeV is a good
[11]. solution for a clean chopped beam with sharp edges and
small longitudinal emittance increase. Chopping efficien-
2 BASE LINE LAYOUT OF HIGH cies of about 60% are required for loss free ring injection.
INTENSITY INJECTOR LINACS Fast traveling wave choppers with 3 nsec rise time are un-
der development [16]. Layouts of a chopping line with reg-
The dominating design feature of a high intensity injector ular betatron oscillations as equal as possible in both planes
linac is to bring particle losses down to about 1 W/m and to results in quite small rms emittance growth [2].
guarantee less than 10,4 uncollected ring injection losses. The use of a funneling scheme implies a second bunched
All accelerator sections have to be designed to be far away beam transfer line, but relaxes the constraints on the chop-
from the space charge limit. ping line and on the ion source considerably. The peak cur-
As an example, the layout for the 5 MW H , injector rent per ion source is halved and the first RFQ can operate
linac of ESS is shown in Fig. 1. Both RFQs operate at at lower frequency. In a funneling section with conven-
175 MHz followed by a conventional 350 MHz drift tube tional elements the two beams are merged together by an
linac (DTL) up to 70 MeV. The high CCL operates at arrangement of septum magnets and an array of RF deflec-
700 MHz. Different from a proton linac is a bunched beam tion elements. Care has to be taken to match the dispersion
chopping line at 2 MeV between two 175 MHz RFQ struc- and its angle to zero even under space charge conditions
tures and a bunch rotation cavity at the linac end. For [2]. By implementing a Two-Beam Funnel RFQ [17] lower
achieving loss free ring injection, the linac pulse has to be energies for the funneling section seem to be possible.
chopped at the ring revolution frequency and the energy
spread has to be reduced by the bunch rotator.
2.2 Halo Production due to Mismatch in
IS RFQ1 CH RFQ2 Bunched Beams
The major problem of the design in high current proton
FU DTL CCL BR linacs is the loss of particles at higher energies. Particle
loss leads to activation of accelerator components and re-
IS RFQ1 CH RFQ2
duces the flexibility of hands on maintenance. As a rule
of thumb, hands on maintenance is possible if the loss is
less than 1 W/m. In a linac losses occur radially due to
Figure 1: ESS linac layout: IS: I ion source, CH: chopper, the formation of a beam halo. The beam halo consists of
FU: funneling, BR: bunch rotator a ’small’ number of particles which oscillate around the
beam core. In addition filamentation of the particle distri-
bution in the longitudinal phase space can cause activation
2.1 Low Energy Front End problems when injected into compressor rings. The design
Ion source requirements of more than 100 mA, 10% duty goal is less than 10,4 uncollected lost particles at ring in-
cycle H , currents cannot be met with existing ion sources. jection.
R and D prototype programs are going on for all the above In recent years substantial progress has been achieved by
mentioned spallation source projects. For ceasiated RF- identifying the parametric resonance condition as a major
driven H , volume sources a current of 70 mA at 7% duty source of halo production of DC and bunched beams. For
cycle will be reached soon [9,12]. realistic particle distributions with nonlinear space charge
The beam transport between the H , ion source and the forces particles even inside the core have a tune spread.
first RFQ can be space charge compensated or uncompen- Parametric resonances can occur between single particle
sated [9]. Integrated ion source RFQ test stands are set up tunes and the frequency of the oscillating mismatched
for both possibilities. beam core [18].
Cooling problems for a 10% duty cycle RFQ are not so Due to the two transverse and one longitudinal bunch di-
severe as for a CW H + RFQ, but more demanding than mensions 3 eigenmodes exist for a bunched beam. The fre-
in RFQ structures built up to now. Field stability at 10% quencies of these modes can be approximately expressed
duty cycle can be achieved by ’-mode stabilization loops’ by the full and zero current transverse and longitudinal
(PISL) for 4 vane structures [13]. Less than 1% unwanted tunes only. There exists a pure transverse quadrupolar
field contamination has been experimentally verified. The mode and high and low modes which couple the transverse
4-rod RFQ offers some advantage over the 4-vane design in and longitudinal directions. The high mode represents a
terms of RF properties and ease of manufacture. The lim- ’breathing’ of the ellipsoidal bunch. For the low mode the
ited cooling capacity of a conventional 4-rod RFQ can be bunch breathes in transverse direction but the oscillation in
340
the longitudinal direction is of opposite phase. For excit- 10
Total x-emittance/x-rms emittance
ing the high or low mode only, the longitudinal mismatch
is normally different in amplitude than the transverse ones
[18,19]. 9
For a mismatched bunched beam a 1/2 parametric reso-
nance between a single particle tune and the frequency of 8
an eigenmode is always excited radially by the quadrupolar
mode. The high or low mode can excite a parametric reso-
nance in the transverse and/or the longitudinal direction. 7
Fig. 2 and Fig. 3 show Monte Carlo simulations with
20000 particles which interact in full 3d for a 70 MeV
bunched beam transfer line. A 6d waterbag distribution is 6
used as input. The transverse and longitudinal tune depres- 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
sions are 0.7 and 0.8 respectively. The transverse temper- Period
ature is 1/3 of the longitudinal temperature. Shown is the
99.9% total to rms emittance ratio in the x-direction. In Figure 3: 99.9% total to rms emittance ratio for a matched
Fig. 2 the matched case is compared to a 20% quadrupo- (squares) and a high mode excited case (triangles). Please
lar mode excitation. A substantial increase of the 99.9% note the enlarged scale
emittance is visible due to the 1/2 parametric resonance ex-
citation. In Fig. 3 the same emittance ratio as in Fig. 2 is
shown but comparing the matched case with a 20% radially
and 30% longitudinally excited high mode. Here, no sin- low 0.4 [20] or large temperature anisotropy [21] can lead
gle particle tune is as large as half the high mode frequency to chaotic single particle motion [22] and enormous halo
and, as predicted, no resonance effect can be seen [18,19]. production due to mismatch which is absolutely unwanted
for high intensity injector linacs.
20
Total x-emittance/x-rms emittance
15 2.3 High Transfer Line
The transfer line from the H , linac to the compressor rings
10 differs in some respects from the H + transferline between
a high intensity H + linac and a high power target station ei-
ther for tritium production or waste transmutation. In both
5 lines the linac beam is not kept bunched. Space charge
forces are small but still effective, especially in the lon-
gitudinal plane [23] resulting in an increase of the energy
0 spread.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Period
For loss free ring injection into a circular machine the
energy spread of the linac bunches has to be reduced by
placing a bunch rotator at some distance behind the linac.
After bunch rotation there should be less than 10,4 parti-
Figure 2: 99.9% total to rms emittance ratio for a matched
(bottom) and a quadrupolar mode excited case (top)
cles outside an energy spread of 2 MeV as a typical fig-
ure. For the ESS bunch rotation system there are less than
10,4 particles outside 0.8 MeV for the matched case, but
During the startup period of high intensity linacs more
more than 10,4 outside 1 MeV for the mismatched case.
than 20% initial mismatch is expected especially in the
longitudinal plane. For a spallation source linac with its
additional restriction on loss free ring injection a design Longitudinal space charge effects are still visible after the
is required where the transverse and longitudinal halo pro- bunch rotation system.
duction is insensitive to all kinds of mismatch. Linac de- Uncorrelated RF amplitude and phase errors of 1%
signs with both transverse and longitudinal tune depres- and 1o respectively can cause an oscillation of the beam
sions above 0.8 and transverse to longitudinal temperature center by as much as 1 MeV [24]. As the energy spread
ratios between 1/3 and 2 fulfill these conditions if no high collimation has to be guaranteed for all bunch currents in-
mode envelope instability is excited [18]. The 214 mA cluding much larger RF tolerances during the start up pro-
ESS CCL has design parameters which meet these condi- cedure achromatic bending systems have to be installed in
tions for most of it’s length and transverse and longitudinal the high transfer line. The influence of a conducting pipe
halo formation is acceptable for a 20% initial mismatch. has to be considered as the bunch length is equal or larger
Space charge dominated designs with tune depressions be- than the pipe radius. [23]
341
3 PULSED RF SYSTEM tinely used in many accelerators. Experience gained during
building these machines strongly suggests that RF super-
The high section from about 100 MeV onwards is the
conductivity is approaching mature technology, even if it is
most expensive part of the whole linac for both the cap-
still far from its limit. In order to accelerate a high intensity
ital cost and the operating cost. Typically operating fre-
proton beam from 100 MeV to about 1.3 GeV, various tech-
quencies are between 600 and 800 MHz. Cost optimiza-
nical and physical difficulties have to be overcome, which
tion of the accelerating gradient leads to about 2.8 MV/m
do not exist in the acceleration of low intensity relativistic
for 10% duty cycle pulsed operation. Including focus-
electron beams.
ing quadrupoles and diagnostic elements this value corre-
For the 100mA CW APT proton linac a 5 cell 700 MHz
sponds to an average real estate energy gain of 2 MeV/m
superconducting cavity at 2 K is proposed from 217 MeV
for a room temperature linac design.
on [27]. Focusing is provided by conventional quadrupole
The layout of the RF system is a trade off between capital
doublets located in the warm region between cryomodules.
cost and overall RF efficiency. Conventional 2.5 MW peak
Only 2 different cavity length are foreseen with an on axis
power klystrons at 805 MHz, 8% duty cycle, with a mod-
accelerating gradient of about 5 MV/m. The real estate en-
ulating anode and a floating deck modulator are proposed
ergy gain in the SC linac is 1.5 MeV/m. Each 5 cell SC
for the SNS [25]. Such a RF system is expected to be very
cavity is equipped with 2 power input couplers, limited to
robust, can almost be built today and does not need circu-
210 kW each. The 5 cell cavities are arranged in cryomod-
ules fed by 1 MW DC klystrons. About 3% amplitude
lators for protecting the klystron. The klystron efficiency is
and 5% phase errors in each cavity are tolerable caused
60% at 100 kV beam voltage.
Prototyping is necessary for a 2.5 MW peak power, 7%
by the power splitting procedure.
The layout of a SC high linac for 10% pulsed H , in-
duty cycle cathode modulated klystron with a transformer
coupled bouncer type modulator. More than 65% RF effi-
ciency is expected for 120 kV beam voltage at 1.4 msec jector differs in some respects from the layouts for a CW
proton linac. Normal conducting, 700 MHz, 10% pulsed
pulse duration. No circulator is required. The modula-
tor cost can be substantially decreased by connecting 2 coupled cavity linacs for energies from 100 MeV on have
klystrons to one modulator. The modulator efficiency is an real estate energy gain of 2 MeV/m. For msec long
about 85%, the pulse flatness better than 0.5% [26]. A pulses the achievable accelerating gradient in a SC cavity
test stand with commercially available IGBT switches (EU- is almost the CW value limited by the peak surface field es-
pecially at values below 0.5, corresponding to 150 MeV
PEC FF 800) mounted on individually water cooled boards
proton energy. Peak surface field values of 25 MV/m for a 2
has been set up in order to study temperature rise and life
time problems at 50 Hz repetition rate for ESS. K 5 cell cavity around 600 MHz are expected to be reached
Low voltage 2 MW peak power HOM-IOT (higher or- quite soon. The corresponding accelerating gradients in-
der mode inductive output tube) without a modulator are side the SC cavity are 6 MV/m at 200 MeV and 10 MV/m
from 900 MeV on leading to a real estate energy gain of 3
expected to be an attractive solution in the near future due
MeV/m. 5 different geometries are needed for such a SC
to their smaller size and lower production costs compared
to high power klystrons. Prototyping is needed therefore. linac. 240 kW and 600 kW peak power is needed for a 5
A 1MW CW, 700 MHz HOM-IOT is under development cell cavity at 200 MeV and 900 MeV respectively. Substan-
for the Los Alamos APT project [27] requiring only 40 kV tial R+D is needed for developing input couplers at about
beam voltage for an anticipated RF efficiency > 70% [28]. 600 MHz, capable of handling 1 MW peak reflected power
during the 100 sec long filling time, corresponding to 4
For a 700 MHz HOM-IOT with 2 MW peak power pulsed
at 7% duty cycle, only 65 kV beam voltage is required and MW peak forward power. Circulators are mandatory for
an efficiency of > 70% is expected [29]. klystron protection.
Attention has to be given to the RF control system. For The input coupler power limitation can in principle be
H , injector linacs uncorrelated amplitude and phase errors overcome by having 2 couplers per cavity. As pointed out
have to be limited typically to 1% and 1o respectively before power splitting is a problem for a high intensity H ,
in order to prevent intolerable oscillation of the beam cen- linac due to the 1% and 1o amplitude and phase error
tre at the linac end. The strict amplitude and phase tol- limits in each cavity. Another difficulty for the RF control
erances counteract in some respects the use of high peak system is the field stabilization at the beam arrival time,
power multi beam klystrons (MBK) as power splitting is complicated due to microphonic noise varying from cavity
mandatory here. Circulators are necessary for protecting to cavity and pulse to pulse. The startup cavity frequency
the MBK. Doubling the number of cells per tank is not rec- can oscillate by 30 Hz, intolerable with 1o phase error.
ommended as the field flatness is proportional the square of Unlike electron linacs phase errors in different cavities con-
the cell number. nected to one klystron do not add up to a common energy
fluctuation [30]. Large but predictable RF errors due to
Lorentz force detuning may be compensated by stiffening
4 SUPERCONDUCTING HIGH LINAC the cavities and applying digital feedback and feedforward
Superconducting cells are a very interesting option for the from lookup tables [31].
high linac. Superconducting cavities are now being rou- Below 200 MeV or = 0.6 elliptical shaped SC struc-
342
tures suffer from mechanical instability problems [5]. The [17] A. Firjahn-Andersch et al., ”First Results of the Two-Beam
real estate energy gain is lower compared to a 10% pulsed Funneling Experiment”, these proceedings
room temperature linac due to the uneconomic use of space [18] M. Pabst et al., ”Progress on Intense Proton Beam Dynamics
in a low cryomodule. Also the RF control problems are and Halo Formation”, Proc. EPAC ’98, Stockholm, Sweden
more severe here due to the reduced cavity bandwidth. [19] M. Pabst, K.Bongardt, A. Letchford, ”Halo Formation by
Different groups have R+D plans to study =0.5 cavity Mismatch for High Intensity Bunched Beams”, these pro-
structures [5], new fabrication techniques [32] and pulsed ceedings
RF control problems including power splitting [33].
For a 10% pulsed H , injector linac limiting the peak
[20] Y. Chen et al., ”Halo Formation in Intense Linacs”, these
proceedings
surface gradient to 25 MV/m in the SC cavity for an en-
[21] S. Lund et al., ”Temperature Anisotropy Instabilities in
ergy range from 200 MeV to 1.5 GeV, the SC linac has
Space Charge Dominated Beams”, these proceedings
2/3 of the length of a competitive room temperature one.
The capital costs are expected to be equal or even slightly [22] J. M. Lagniel, Nucl. Instr. Meth. A, vol. 345, 1994, p405
higher for the SC option. A 5 MW average beam power [23] K. Bongardt et al., Proc. EPAC ’96, Sitges, Spain, p1224.
spallation neutron source needs about 75 MVA AC power [24] M. Pabst, K. Bongardt, Proc. PAC ’95, Dallas, p3197.
where about 12 MVA can be saved with such a supercon-
[25] P. Tallerico, ”The RF Power System for the SNS Linac”,
ducting linac these proceedings.
[26] W. Bothe, ”Dual Mode Pulse Generation for the ESS”, ESS
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tion for ISIS”, Proc. EPAC ’98,Stockholm, Sweden
[15] A. Letchford, A. Schempp, ”A Comparison of 4-rod and 4-
vane RFQ Fields”, Proc. EPAC ’98, Stockholm, Sweden
[16] S. Kurrennoy, ”Development of a Fast Travelling Wave
Beam Chopper for the SNS Project”, these proceedings
343
HIGH BRIGHTNESS ELECTRON SOURCES
J.B. Rosenzweig
UCLA Dept. of Physics and Astronomy, Los Angeles, CA 90095
Abstract
2 RF PHOTOINJECTORS
The production of unprecedentedly high brightness
electron beams is a critical aspect of many applications, The state-of-the-art in high brightness electron sources
from free-electron lasers to advanced accelerators. The is achieved with the rf photoinjector. This type of device,
preferred method for obtaining these beams is the radio- an example of which is shown in Figure 1 (the Neptune
frequency photoinjector. The physics and technology photoinjector at UCLA [6]), uses a photocathode source
aspects of this device are reviewed here, along prospects embedded in a high gradient rf gun. The laser pulse
for future progress in high-brightness beam development. which excites photoemission in the gun is very short, at
the level of picoseconds or below. For promptly emitting
1 APPLICATIONS photocathodes this implies that one can create the psec
electron pulses of the sort given in Table 1 in this device.
Several applications of high brightness electron beams The gun is followed by a transverse focusing element
are driving the worldwide development of electron (usually a solenoid), which aids in beam size and
sources. These include free-electron sources of coherent emittance control. It additionally must be post-
radiation, such as self-amplified spontaneous emission accelerated to bring the beam to a usable energy, and to
free-electron lasers [1] (SASE FEL) and Compton mitigate space-charge effects. This acceleration is
scattering sources [2]. In the FEL, the beam is the lasing accomplished in a booster linac, which may be physically
medium, and must thus be very dense to provide high separated, or integrated into the same rf structure as the
gain. A measure of this is the brightness, which is the gun.
ratio of the current (linear density) to the square As the effects of space-charge and wake-fields during
normalized rms emittance the acceleration process often conspire to lengthen the
2I pulse. Because of this, it is often necessary to include in
B≡ . (1) the rf photoinjector system a magnetic chicane [7] for
ε n2
pulse compression. The chicane can give additional
The brightness is a measure of the practical focusibility capabilities and design flexibility in advanced electron
of a beam. Other applications include very high peak sources.
current, short pulse, and moderately low emittance beams The analysis, design, and operation of rf photoinjector
which are needed to drive wake-field accelerators [3], and sources entail a working understanding of many diverse
linear collider sources of polarized electrons [4]. For the areas of beam physics, and accelerator and laser
FEL and wake-field accelerator, a high-brightness, pico- technology. We begin by discussing the physics of these
second electron beam is a critical technology. The need beams, which is dominated by space-charge and violent
for these sources in linear colliders is not as clear, as acceleration effects.
positron sources are additionally needed, and the
necessary emittances may not be achieved without 3 PHOTOINJECTOR BEAM PHYSICS
damping rings.
The demanded parameters for typical future 3.1 Longitudinal dynamics
applications are given in Table 1. The pulse lengths
needed are given in the absence of pulse compression, The longitudinal dynamics in an rf photoinjector are
which may be necessary for all applications. The characterized by violent acceleration. This is due to two
parameters for the TESLA linear collider may be effects: the need to mitigate detrimental space-charge
approachable by electron sources using slightly exotic, effects, and the requirement that the beam be captured in
asymmetric rf structures [5]; for other designs, damping the rf wave within the initial cell of the standing wave rf
rings will be required. cavity. This can be quantified by defining a unitless
parameter which must exceed approximately unity [8]
Table 1: Electron source parameters for applications. eE0 γ′
Emittance and pulse duration are rms quantities. α≡ 2 = k >1 (2)
I εn σt 2k RF me c RF
Application
(A) (mm-mrad) (psec) This parameter allows a classifcation of injector types:
SASE FEL 200 <2 <3 high gradient injectors have α ≅ 1.5 − 2.5, whereas the
Wake driver >1000 <100 <2 lowest gradient injectors operate with α ≅ 1. The typical
TESLA-LC 800 1 (y), 20 (x) <3 range of peak on-axis accelerating field encountered for a
(polarized) common rf wavelength, λRF ≡ 2π/kRF = 10.5 cm, is
eE0 = 60 − 150 MeV/m. These high gradients allow good
344
control of the beam dynamics, but only within limits, as cσ t ≥ γ ′−1 . (4)
the space-charge field at the cathode due to the surface
charge density there can easily be near the applied rf When inequalities 3 and 4 are satisfied, the beam pulse
field. Thus we have the requirement length may be preserved, and even compressed by rf
focusing effects during capture in the initial cell.
E0 >> 4πeΣb = 2eN b / σ r2 . (3) Longitudinal bunch compression in photoinjectors is
now a commonly employed, yet not completely
This inequality guarantees only that the beam fields are
understood, tool. Magnetic chicanes have been employed
perturbative. If in addition we wish to ensure that the
in a number of photoinjector facilities; space-charge
beam not lengthen appreciably during acceleration, then
limits on compressibility, and the effects of non-inertial
we require a short acceleration length γ ′ = (kRFα) ,
-1 -1
space-charge and radiation fields on emittance growth [9]
are the subjects of present and future experiments.
3.2 Transverse dynamics
1.6 cell gun Violent acceleration carries with it large transverse
forces, which for an accelerator cavity terminate on a
conducting (cathode) plane, gives a net first order kick to
Compensation an off-axis accelerating particle. Further, this kick is rf
solenoid phase dependent, and thus for a finite pulse length beam,
an effective “rf” emittance is [8]
Laser mirror
box ε RF ∝ γ ′k RF
2
σ r2σ z2 ∝ αk RF
3
σ r2σ z2 . (5)
The first order rf kick can be thought of as originating
at the end of the structure. All other irises in the rf
PWT linac structure have a balance in first order inward/outward
kicks, but have a second order alternating gradient
focusing (of strength ∝ γ ′ ) [10]. The combined effect of
2
the rf focusing can be included in envelope and matrix
treatments of the beam dynamics. The analytical model
has been recently verified experimentally [11].
Photoinjector beams are generally space-charge
dominated. The rms envelope equation, including
acceleration and space charge, can be written as
γ ′ η γ ′
2
I ε2
Triplet σ ′′ + σ ′ + k β2 + σ = + 2 n 3 . (6)
γ 8γ 2 I 0γ σ γ σ
3
The emittance term is negligible for these beams (cold
plasma, or quasi-laminar flow limit), with ratio of
defocusing terms
Compressor Iσ 2
ρ= >> 1 . (7)
2 I 0γε n2
For high-brightness beams this situation persists until the
Spectrometer beam is very energetic (>100 MeV), or at tight focus.
As the enclosed current in bunched beams depends on
line
longitudinal position, or “slice”, within the bunch, the
differential defocusing of the slices can produce a sheared
total projected phase space. This leads to emittance
Triplet growth, or, in systems with proper external focusing,
emittance oscillations.
A useful heuristic model for understanding the process
of emittance oscillations is shown in Figure 2. In this
case, we suppose that a beam is injected with size smaller
than the equilibrium sizes of the slices. As the equilibria
in amplitude are dependent on the current at a given slice,
the subsequent oscillations are larger for smaller currents,
Figure 1. The Neptune photoinjector at UCLA. but the (plasma) frequency of oscillation is the same
345
(ωp = kβ c). Thus the beam edges, which define angles in In charge scaling, we do not change external forces
phase space, line up, regardless of slice, twice per (or wave-numbers), and must therefore preserve plasma
oscillation, at the beam minimum and maximum. At wave-number. This in turn implies that we preserve
bunch density and aspect ratio, or σi ∝ Q . Deviations
1/3
these points, the projected emittance is also a minimum.
The process of emittance compensation is essentially the from strict Q-scaling arise from space charge at cathode,
arresting of these oscillations after an integer number of and rf effects, as the beam size changes relative to rf
beam plasma periods. The plasma oscillations are wavelength. Following this scaling, it can be shown that
adiabatically terminated, of course, by acceleration, the emittance arises from two components: space-charge,
which diminishes the strength of the space-charge. which contributes ε xsc ∝ σ x2 ∝ Q 2 / 3 , and rf/chromatic
x’ focusing effects, which contribute ε xrf ≈ σ z 2σ x2 ∝ Q 4 / 3 .
Perturbed trajectories oscillate
PARMELA simulations of a family of Q-scaled cases in
Projected emittance with plasma frequency
an S-band emittance compensated injector gives the
is minimized at beam
ωp results shown in Fig. 3.
maxima and minima
x The fit for the data shown is
εx ≅ 4
5
Q 4 / 3 + 12 Q 8 / 3 (9)
100.00
Figure 2. Emittance oscillations caused by slices about
rotating in phase space about different equilibria.
ε ~ Q4/3
εn (mm- mrad)
10.00
The recently developed analytical theory of emittance ε =[(aQ2/3 )2+(bQ4/3)2 ]0.5 n
n
compensation is based on Eq. 6, and examines a new type
of equilibrium laminar flow (analogous to Brillioun flow)
the invariant envelope [12] 1.00
2 I
σ inv = (8) ε ~ Q2/3
γ ′ 3 I0 γ n
0.10
The invariant envelope has the property that the phase 0.1 1.0 10.0 100.0
space angle σ ′inv /σinv = γ ′ / 2γ is independent of current. Q (nC)
This guarantees that once all slices are aligned in phase Figure 3. Emittance for family of Q-scaled cases in an S-
space, they remain so. Slices not aligned to the invariant band emittance compensated injector.
envelope oscillate in a Liouvillian space about the inv-
ariant envelope, giving rise to emittance oscillations. It For wavelength scaling, we must preserve
should also be noted that the beam becomes smaller as it longitudinal dynamics, which requires α = constant, or
accelerates, driving the residual emittance down as γ . E0 ∝ λ-1. To additionally preserve the energy spread and
-1/2
The model for the compensation of time-dependent beam aspect ratio, we have that all beam dimensions scale
space-charge forces is well understood analytically, as σi ∝ λ. Further, making the betatron frequency scale
through simulation, and experiment. New theoretical properly requires that the solenoid field B0 ∝ λ , and the
-1
work concerning the role of nonlinear forces in optimized scaling of the beam-plasma frequency requires Q ∝ λ.
beam transport, is now underway. There are no inherent deviations from λ-scaling laws,
and use of these laws can be shown to yield an emittance
3.3 Scaling of Designs
scaling of εx ∝ λ. Note also, that brightness scales as
B ∝ λ ; the advantage of short λ operation is apparent.
-2
One recent advance in the understanding of
photoinjector beam physics is the development of charge Nevertheless, several aspects of scaling to short
(Q) and wavelength (λ) scaling laws [14]. Charge scaling λ merit discussion. Technologically, the laser laser pulse
allows change of design charge while keeping dynamics length and jitter are as well as emittance measurements
of compensation identical, thus permitting a high Q, low are more difficult at short λ. The scaling of external
brightness design (e.g. TTF) to a low Q, high brightness forces requires large rf fields, which may be “natural” -
design (e.g. TTF-FEL). Wavelength scaling allows the high-gradient implies short λ because of breakdown
taking of a design from one rf wavelength, and move it to limits, power considerations, etc. The scaling of the
a different value of λ. This permits expertise to be shared focusing fields is less natural, however, as the current
among different laboraratories, and the performance of density in the solenoid scales as Jsol ∝ λ . In addition,
-2
seemingly disparate devices to be compared. It also is a many applications require a certain charge per bunch.
tool which can, as we will see below, point to promising With large charge, short wavelength implies rf dominated
new directions in source development. operation. The optimum emittance and brightness occur
346
at a certain wavelength in the transition between the 4.3 Photocathodes
space-charge and rf-dominated regimes — for Q=1 nC,
The search for a robust, high quantum efficiency (QE)
the optimum deduced from Eq. 9 is approximately 9
cathode is now localized on two types of materials.
GHz.
Metals such as magnesium have been found to be prompt,
-3
4 TECHNOLOGY with fsec response, but with QE no better than 10 (with
uv illumination) and significant dark current. In addition,
Many of the performance limitations in photoinjectors metal cathodes are surprisingly sensitive to vacuum
are technological, not fundamentally physical. We now conditions, and typically must be “laser cleaned” to
review the status of rf photoinjector technologies. produce anything approaching uniform emission.
A more promising candidate for high-brightness
4.1 RF cavities
cathode development is Cs2Te. This material is relatively
Rf cavities for photocathode gun use have gone immune to vacuum problems, can be revived after
through considerable development in the last decade. contamination, has QE as large as 15%, and a low
The most successful designs have been the low-α, inherent emittance. On the other hand, it still requires uv
integrated photoinjectors typified by the LANL devices, illumination to photo-emit, and is undoubtedly slower in
and the high-α short (1.5-6 cell) guns pioneered at BNL. emission delay than a metal photocathode.
The high-α S-band gun has been improved recently Linear collider electron sources demand polarization.
by making the photocathode cell of length 0.625 times a The development of a polarized photocathode in an rf
π-mode standing wave cell. This improves the ratio of gun, which entails addressing vacuum, field, and charge
peak on-axis to wall fields, and provides stronger rf limitation problems, is only now beginning. Testing of
focusing near the cathode, enhancing the emittance GaAs cathodes in a high gradient rf gun has been
comp-ensation process. The coupling to the waveguide is reported at the CLIC Test Facility [16].
perf-ormed only in the full cell, using symmetrized slots
or a coaxial coupler, with on-axis coupling to the 0.5-cell.
5 PRESENT PERFORMANCE
The integrated photoinjector, in which a large number The state-of-the-art in beam parameters obtained from
of cells are coupled together, cannot be easily coupled on rf photoinjectors has advanced rapidly in the last few
axis in the π-mode while maintaining good mode years.
separation. The solution employed at LANL entails • The charge measured from these devices has been as
coupling through on-axis vestigial cells in a π/2-mode high as 100 nC [16,17]. Pulse trains with as much as mC
configuration. A new S-band design being pursued by a have been reported.
UCLA/DULY Research collaboration uses a plane wave • The pulse length, which is typically space-charge
transformer (PWT) structure. This structure has excellent limited, has been measured at the level of a picosecond,
coupling through a coaxial region outside of the for relatively low charge. For higher charge, the highest
accelerat-ing mode-supporting disks. The emittance current reported is a few kA [16]. Picosecond pulses can
compensation optics in this device were the first to be be measured by streak cameras (which also provide
derived from analytical theory [12]. It is interesting to imaging information) or rf sweeping techniques. At this
note, however, that the optics in the PWT could have pulse length, and below, it is now popular to use coherent
been deduced by scaling of the L-band optics of the transition radiation interferometry, which can resolve
AFEL injector at LANL — they are nearly identical when times as small as 0.2 psec.
scaled. Scaling of the PWT design to X-band is in fact • The normalized rms emittance has been measured in a
discussed below. variety of laboratories [18] to be at the level of 2 mm-
4.2 Lasers mrad/nC. This is expected to be reduced by a factor of
two with the advent of shaped laser pulses. The
Several years ago, the necessary drive laser pulses measurement of the emittance in space-charge dominated
(picoseconds, total energy from tens of µJ to tens of mJ) beams has presented a challenge in its own right, with the
were very difficult to achieve [14]. The amplification standard quadrupole scan method being prone to space-
process often used flash-lamp pumping and chirped-pulse charge induced problems in interpretation. Nevertheless,
amplification, both of which tend to introduce unwanted at BNL these problems have been overcome, and a time-
fluctuations in pulse energy. This problem has been resolved emittance measurement, which verified the
mitigated by use of diode-pumping technology. slice-model of emittance compensation reported [19].
Advanced development in photocathode drive lasers now Alternatively, a slit-based measurement system can be
concentrates on production of long pulse trains [15], and employed which mitigates space charge and allows single
on obtaining an illumination which is relatively uniform shot reconstruction of the beam’s phase space.
in time and transverse position, to make the space-charge
forces as linear as possible. This goal may now be in
reach through use high-bandwidth, short pulse lasers (e.g.
Ti:Sapphire) combined with Fourier-plane filtering, as
well as soft aperturing and relay imaging of the pulse.
347
after the initial cell. The needed solenoid field lower is
also lower, again allowing easier scaling to short λ. As
the beam exits the structure small (near the invariant
envelope) the rf kick at the structure exit is not large, and
the rf-derived emittance can be greatly mitigated.
It can thus be seen that the high gradient gun generally
produces shorter pulse lengths, but the integrated injector
gives better emittance performance at a given λ. But if
one chooses a short λ, then the achievable pulse length
becomes smaller. Because of this, we have proposed, and
are now seriously developing a scaled X-band version of
the PWT injector at UCLA, in collaboration with DULY
Research and LLNL. Simulations of an 11.4 GHz injector
indicate [5] that this device can produce 120 µm rms
bunch lengths at 1 nC, with εn = 0.8 mm-mrad, for a
brightness, εn = 3 × 10 cm , which is a factor of 30 times
15 -2
greater than the present state of the art. In this
development we are concentrating on the issues of
structure cooling and solenoid design, which both
become quite challenging in X-band. A cold-test model
of an 11.4 GHz structure’s interior is shown in Fig. 4.
Development of the injector will probably take place at
8.6 GHz, however, due to availability of rf power, and
solenoid design issues. It should also be noted that this is
near the optimum value of λ predicted to minimize the
emittance at 1 nC.
7 REFERENCES
[1] M.Hogan, et.al, Phys. Rev. Lett. 80, 289 (1998)
[2] R. W. Schoenlein, et al., Science 274, 236 (1996).
[3] W. Gai, et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 61, 2765 (1988).
[4] H. Tang, et al, 1997 Part. Accel. Conf. 2849 (1998).
[5] J. Rosenzweig, et al., Proc. 1997 Part. Accel. Conf.
1965 (1998).
[6] J. Rosenzweig, et al., NIM A 410, 437 (1998).
[7] J.B. Rosenzweig, N. Barov and E. Colby, IEEE
Figure 4. Interior of 11.4 GHz PWT cold test structure. Trans. Plasma Sci. 24, 409 (1996).
[8] K.J. Kim, NIM A 275, 201 (1989).
6 FUTURE DIRECTIONS [9] B.E. Carlsten and T.O. Raubenheimer, Phys. Rev. E
The choice between integrated and split photoinjectors 51, 1453 (1995).
is not simple, as there are advantages and unattractive [10] J. Rosenzweig and L. Serafini, Phys. Rev. E 49,
features to both. The split photoinjector is flexible; one 1499 (1994).
can choose booster linac gradient/phase, and gun-linac [11] S. Reiche, et al., Phys, Rev. E 56, 3572 (1997).
drift length for compensation can be optimized. One can [12] Luca Serafini and James Rosenzweig, Phys. Rev. E
naturally include a compressor. One actually must choose 55, 7565 (1997).
a high gradient in the gun, or the drift section will [13] J. Rosenzweig, and E. Colby, Proc. 1995 Advanced
produce pulse lengthening and larger residual transverse Accelerator Concepts Workshop 337 (AIP, 1996).
emittance — the TTF gun is run at relatively α. As the [14] See Proc. Lasers for RF guns, Brookhaven National
defocusing kick at the gun exit is proportional to the Laboratory Report, 1994.
beam size, the compensation solenoid must be stronger, [15] TESLA Test Facility Design Report, D.A. Edwards,
and is difficult to build at short λ. Also because of the Ed. TESLA Rep. 95-01 (Hamburg, 1995).
exit kick, the beam size oscillation is larger, and this [16] E. Chevallay, et al., these proceeedings.
produces larger residual emittances.
[17] M.E. Conde, et al, Phys. Rev. ST-Accel. Beams 1,
For an integrated injector, the gradient in the structure
041302 (1998)
is lower, and the scaling to short λ is easier. At lower
[18] D.T. Palmer, et al., Proc. 1997 Part. Accel. Conf.
gradient however, the space-charge pulse lengthening
near the cathode is larger than that in a high-gradient gun, 2687 (1998).
but because of continuously applied longitudinal focusing [19] X. Qiu, et al, Phys. Rev. Lett. 78, 3723 (1996).
in the structure, the bunch does not appreciably lengthen
348
A HIGH INTENSITY PROTON LINAC DEVELOPMENT
FOR THE JAERI NEUTRON SCIENCE PROJECT
M. Mizumoto, J. Kusano, K. Hasegawa, N. Ouchi, H. Oguri, M. Kinsho, E. Chishiro, T. Tomisawa,
Y. Touchi, M. Ikegami,Y. Honda, K. Mukugi, H. Ino, F. Noda, N. Akaoka, H. Kaneko
JAERI, Tokai-mura, Naka-gun, Ibaraki-ken 319-1195, Japan
Abstract nuclear power generation The major facilities to be
constructed under the project are, 1) a superconducting
JAERI has been proposing the Neutron Science proton linac with a proton energy of 1.5GeV and a
Project (NSP) which will be composed of a high intensity maximum beam power of 8MW, 2) a spallation neutron
proton accelerator and various research facilities. The target station with input beam power of 5MW for neutron
accelerator with an energy of 1.5GeV and a beam power scattering, and 3) a research facility complex for
of 8MW is required to operate both with pulse mode for accelerator-driven transmutation experiment, neutron
basic research fields and CW mode for nuclear waste physics, material irradiation, isotopes production, RI
transmutation studies. A superconducting (SC) linac is a beam experiment for study of exotic nuclei. A conceptual
main option for the high energy portion from 100MeV to layout for the NSP LINAC is given in Fig.1.
1.5GeV. A beam test with an ion source and an RFQ has JAERI had originally planned to build a pulsed linac
been performed with a current of 80mA and a duty factor with an energy of 1.5GeV and a peak current of 100mA
of 10 % at the energy of 2MeV. A hot test model of DTL with 10% duty factor. The design study has been made to
has been fabricated and tested with a duty factor of 20%. confirm technical feasibility to accelerate high peak
A test stand for SC linac cavity with equipment of current with high duty operation from the beam dynamics
cryogenics, vacuum, RF and cavity processing and point of view. In this accelerator development, the R&D
cleaning system has been prepared to test the fabrication work has been performed on high brightness ion source,
process and physics issues. The vertical test of a β=0.5 radio frequency quadrupole linac (RFQ), drift tube linac
(145MeV) single cell SC cavity has been made resulting (DTL) and RF source, as well as the conceptual design of
in a maximum electric field strength of 44MV/m at 2K. the whole accelerator components.
JAERI has altered the original plan by proposing an
1 INTRODUCTION option of superconducting (SC) linac to meet
requirements for a variety of basic research fields
JAERI has been proposing the Neutron Science mentioned above and an ultimate goal for waste
Project which aims at exploring the fields of basic science transmutation[2]. This SC linac will be operated in pulse
and nuclear technology using a high intensity proton as a first stage for the spallation neutron source and
accelerator[1]. The design studies are being carried out upgraded in CW for engineering test as a second stage.
for a high intensity pulsed and cw spallation neutron These two operational modes, pulse and CW operation,
sources for basic research fields of material science and will be realized with time sharing manner, not
biology and for accelerator-driven transmutation simultaneously, and is the most challenging technical
technology of long-lived radioactive nuclides from issues for the accelerator development.
Target Area
RF RF RF RF RF RF CW Beam
IS Pulse Beam
IS RFQ
DTL/SDTL
Chopper Beam Storage
High Beta Cavitiy Linac Ring
1.5GeV
( Superconducting Cavity )
70 keV 2 MeV 10MeV 100 MeV
0m 10 m 15 m 100 m 900m
I S : High Brightness H Ion Source DTL : Alvarez Type Drift Tube Linac
RFQ : Radio Frequency Quadrupole Linac RF : Radio Frequency Power Source
Fig. 1 A conceptual layout of the JAERI NSP-LINAC
349
The SC linacs have several favorable characteristics ¶Àâéé ÁÑÉ Åìñ )âðñ Êìáâé
Ïà Íìôâï · ®¯µ èÔ
as follows; the large bore radius results in low beam loss, Áòñö ÃÞàñìï · ¯ ¢
the length of the linac can be reduced, and high duty and
!) Íìðñ Àìòíéâïð
CW operation can be made for engineering purposes. The ÑÊÍ
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possibility to inexpensive operation cost may be also ÑÊÍ
expected in comparison with normal conducting (NC)
option. ÃÀ¥¿Á¦
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Âëâïäö ¾ëÞé ö÷âï
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intensity accelerator development; 1) the beam dynamic ® ÈâÓ
¾óâïÞä ¿âÞê Àòïïâëñ ãïìê ÏÃÎ · µ ê¾
calculation including the high β linac. 2) the development
of the negative ion source and the fabrication of high
ÑìñÞé Àòïïâëñ· ®± ê¾¥íâÞè¦ Íïìñìë Àòïïâëñ· µ ê¾¥íâÞè¦
power test models for CW-RFQ and CW-DTL. 3) the SC Àòïïâëñ Áâëðæñö· ®´µ 꾬àê¯
Íïìñìë ÏÞñæì· á
µ ¢
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cavity development, 4) the high intensity proton storage #
¿âÞê ÂêæññÞëàâ· «®² êê êïÞá ¥ïêð¦
¿âÞê ÂêæññÞëàâ·
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ring and 5) high power RF source development. A ÑìñÞé Àòïïâëñ· ® ê¾¥íâÞè¦
specification of the JAERI NSP LINAC is given in Table Àòïïâëñ Áâëðæñö· ®²«³ 꾬àê¯
1. Fig.2 The R & D Results of Low Energy Accelerator Parts
Table 1 A specification of JAERI NSP LINAC
Particles Negative and positive ion
An R&D-DTL hot test model with 9 cells for mock-up
Energy: 1.5GeV
of the first part of the DTL has been fabricated to study
Beam current:
the RF characteristics and the cooling capabilities. The
1st stage; Pulse average 1mA, peak 16.7mA
20% duty operation was achieved with a RF power of
(duration 2ms, repetition rate 50Hz)
128kW. The further test of CW operation with this hot
2nd stage CW<5.33mA
model is being prepared. The 1/3 scaled DTL cold model
Pulsed average<5.33mA, peak 30mA
installed with post couplers and 60 DT cells, which
Low energy: RFQ &DTL/SDTL Normal-
corresponds to the energy region of 2-10MeV, was also
High energy: Conducting linac: 200MHz
fabricated. The effects with post coupler such as field
Chopping: Superconducting linac: 600MHz
distribution, the detuning sensitivity and mode spacing
60% (intermediate pulse width of
were tested. The parameters of post coupler
400ns)
configurations (total numbers and positioning) has been
obtained for stabilization of the accelerating fields[4]
2 2MeV RFQ BEAM TEST AND DTL
HIGH POWER TEST
3 LOW ENERGY PART BE LOW 100MeV
The R&D work for the low energy portion has been
carried out as a first step in the development with a
FOR THE NSP LINAC
positive hydrogen ion source and a pulsed RFQ. This
R&D-RFQ is a four-vane type and designed to accelerate 3.1 New Design for the Low Energy Part
100mA (peak) of protons to 2MeV with a duty factor of
10%. The low power tuning, the high power conditioning In order to realize the short pulse for basic research
and the beam tests were carried out[3]. The layout of the with the proton storage ring and the final CW operation,
2MeV RFQ and the R&D results are shown in Fig.2. The new R&D’s are carried out including negative ion source
proton beam from the 100keV ion source was focused by and CW-RFQ/CW-DTL in addition to the SC linac
the two solenoids to match the RFQ acceptance. The development. At the high energy part of DTL, the SDTL
maximum RFQ output current, which was currently (separated type of DTL) proposed by Kato[5], KEK, has
achieved, was 80mA at the ion source extraction current been studied. The SDTL, which has higher shunt
of 155mA with 10% duty factor. The transmission in the impedance and simpler mechanical structure than DTL,
low energy beam transport (LEBT) from the ion source to is an attractive option for CW operation in the energy
the RFQ was about 65% with the proton fraction of about region of 50 - 100MeV where the SC linac can not be
80% in the ion source beam. The maximum transmission applicable.
rate through the RFQ was obtained to be 90% at the most
optimum ion source condition. The rms emittance values 3.2 Ion Source
from the ion source and RFQ are minimum to be 0.15
πmm.mrad and about 0.62 – 0.76 πmm.mrad at the beam
current of 170mA, respectively. These emittance values A negative ion beam is required for basic research to
are not satisfactory and the further improvement is inject the beam into the storage ring which produce 1 µs
needed. pulse. The beam extractor of the existing positive ion
350
source used for previous beam experiment was modified tank. The high power model 50cm long was fabricated
to produce negative ion beams from source ion plasma by and tested with a power of 60kW and a duty factor of
providing the transverse magnetic field. The 20%.
characteristics of the negative ion beam have been
examined with the maximum observed beam current of 2.5
Pulse Mode RFQ CW Mode RFQ
φ (deg)
21mA at an arc discharge power of 35kW[6]. -30
A new negative ion source has been fabricated to 2.0 Modulation,m Modulation,m -40
Phase, φ Phase, φ
accumulate experimental data to fulfil the requirement to
a, m and W
Synchronous phase,
-50
the NSP linac. A schematic drawing of the ion source is 1.5
shown in Fig. 3. A plasma chamber is installed outside Energy, Energy, -60
the insulator to change easily the configuration of the 1.0 W (MeV) W (MeV)
-70
cusp magnet fields. The vacuum pumping system is also
Bore radius Bore radius
improved. The preliminary data have been obtained to be 0.5 a(cm) a(cm)
-80
11mA beam extraction without Cesium from the test
-90
experiment. 0.0
0 100 200 300 400 0 100 200 300 400
Cusp Magnet
Filament
Plasma Chamber
Length (cm) Length (cm)
Fig.4 Design parameters for the pulse and
Plasma Electrode
the CW RFQs
Extraction Electrode
Filter Magnet Electron Suppression
Electrode
Thermocouple Grounded Electrode 3.4 CW-DTL/SDTL
Insulator
The parameters for the CW-DTL are also re-
to 1,300 l/s
evaluated to match the CW operation for the SC linac
TMP design concept. The SDTL concept has been also adopted
to improve the performance for CW operation. Relatively
low accelerator gradient of 1.5MeV/m is taken in order to
reduce the RF power consumption and the RF heating.
The expected maximum magnetic field gradient for the
focusing magnet is about 50T/m using the hollow
Differential Pumping Port Difference pumping path 100mm
conductor type Q-magnet. The end point energy for the
Fig.3 A schematic drawing of new negative SDTL is 100MeV which is determined from the beam
ion source dynamics and mechanical consideration of the high β
structure.
The beam dynamics study is conducted to obtain the
3.3 RFQ for Pulse and CW operation optimized parameters for each accelerator structure. An
equipartitioned design approach is taken for the
The low energy part should be capable for the CW DTL/SDTL to maintain the good beam quality and to
mode operation as well as the pulse mode, because the SC prevent emittance growth causing beam losses. Figure 5
linac has been operated with CW. The scheme to prepare shows a concept of the CW-DTL and SDTL[4].
114.08m
two independent RFQs together with ion sources for pulse
and CW operation is considered to meet these two 2MeV 7MeV 30MeV 51MeV 100MeV
different operational conditions[7]. The pulse mode RFQ 45cells 87cells 47cells 85cells (5cells/per tank, 17tanks)
is optimized at a beam current of 30mA. The maximum DTL SDTL
peak electric field of 1.65Ek is chosen. The CW mode 50.17m 63.91m
RFQ is optimized below a current of 10mA with lower Fig. 5 A concept of DTL and SDTL
electric filed of 1.5Ek. Figure 4 shows design parameters
vs length for the pulse mode and the CW mode RFQs.
The beam simulation is performed with the PARMTEQ 4 HIGH ENERGY ACCELERATOR
and PARMTEQM codes. The similar performance for
transmission rate and transverse and longitudinal
PART
emittances were obtained with the calculations. Because
the most important problem for the R&D-RFQ was found 4.1 The layout of the superconducting linac
to be the RF contact between vane and tank, the RFQ will
be made as integrated type by brazing between vane and In the SC linac part, the proton velocities β gradually
change from 0.43 to 0.92 corresponding to the energies
351
for 100MeV and 1.5GeV. Accordingly, the length of the are shown in Fig.7. The equipartitioning factor of about
cavity is also changed. Main concern is the strength of the 0.9, which is defined by γ0(εnx/εnz)(zm/a) where zm and a
cavity under the vacuum load for the low β (β<0.7) region. are radius and longitudinal half length of ellipsoidal
The mechanical structure calculations with the ABAQUS bunch, respectively, shows the design parameters nearly
code have been made to determine the cavity shape equipartitioned. There is only 1% increase of the
parameters as well as electromagnetic ones with the transverse and the longitudinal rms emittances.
SUPERFISH code.
Ion
Source RFQ DTL
βc 0.453 0.499 0.549 0.604 0.665 0.732 0.805 0.886
Energy[MeV] 100 126 160 204 273 362 512 795 1500
βc 0.428 0.471 0.519 0.570 0.632 0.692 0.762 0.841 0.923
No.of Cavities
20 20 20 24 24 32 48 96
(total 284)
41 42 44 54 56 77 120 254
Length[m]
690m
Fig. 6 Basic parameters for superconducting(SC) linac.
In order to determine the layout of the SC 4.2 Fabrication and test of a
accelerating structure, the case of the SC linac, which is superconducting cavity
composed of 8 different β sections has been studied[8].
The cavities in each β section will be made with identical The test stand for a superconducting cavity
5 cells and designed at the specific beam energy but also development with the cryostat 80cm dia. x 350cm long
can be operated at slightly different beam energy with and a clean room has been constructed[9]. Two sets of
lower efficiency. The maximum peak surface field is set single SC test cavities have been fabricated for β =0.5
to be 16MV/m. Two cavities are laid in one doublet which corresponds to the proton energy of 145MeV.
focusing period. The conceptual layout and basi Fabrication process such as cold rolling and press of pure
parameters of the superconducting linac are shown in Fig. Niobium metallic sheet, electron beam welding, surface
6. The structure of the cryomodule, input/HOM couplers treatment (barrel polishing, electro-polishing and high
and tuning devices etc. are being designed based on the pressure water rinsing, etc.) has been performed based on
KEK-TRISTAN (high energy e+, e- colliding machine) the KEK experiences for 500MHz TRISTAN cavity.
experiences. Using these parameters, calculations for the Vertical tests have been conducted to examine the RF and
beam dynamics have been made with the modified mechanical properties. Figure 8 shows the results of
PARMILA code. The equipartitioned design approach is performance test for two prototype cavities. The
also taken for the SC linac. The design and beam measurements were made several times for each cavity.
simulation results of the SC sections such as wave The maximum surface peak field strength of 24MV/m at
numbers, the beam sizes and the equipartitioned factors 4.2K and 44MV/m at 2.1K have been successfully
Eacc (MV/m)
ÂÍ ÃÞàñìï ¿âÞê Ðæ÷â ÔÞóâ Ëòêßâï
«° 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1E11
Zero Current Wave Number
(rad/m)
«¯
kx0: Transverse
«® 2nd Cavity #1 Test 2.1K
kz0: Longitudinal
« 1st Cavity #2 Test 2.1K 10
² ® ®² 1E10
«±
RMS Beam Size
Rs (n Ω )
«° Transverse
Q Value
(cm)
«¯
2nd Cavity
#2 Test 4.2K
«®
Longitudinal 1st Cavity #1 Test 2.1K 100
« 1st Cavity #2 Test 4.2K
1E9
² ® ®²
®«¯ 2nd Cavity #1 Test 4.2K
®«
Equipartitioning Factor
2nd Cavity #2 Test 4.2K
«µ
1st Cavity #1 Test 4.2K
1E8
«³ 0 10 20 30 40
² ® ®²
16MV/m Epeak (MV/m)
Âëâïäö ¥ÊâÓ¦
Fig.8 Results of the performance tests for two
Fig.7 Design and beam simulation results of prototype cavities; Q valuses as a fuction
the superconducting linac section of the surface peak electric field (Epeak)
352
obtained for 2nd cavity. The Q values of 2.8x1010 at 2K as well as SC cavities for the CW operation is performed.
and 7.3x108 at 4.2K were obtained at Epeak=16MV/m[10].
This result was reconfirmed at the recent 2nd experiment 7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
although the Q values this time was lower to be 1x1010 at
2K because some deterioration of the surface condition The authors would like to thank Drs. S. Noguchi, K.
occurs during the intermediate period. Those test results Saito H. Inoue and E. Kako of KEK for discussion and
have satisfied the specification for the conceptual layout help on the SC cavity development. They also thank Drs.
of the superconducting linac. T. Kato and Y. Yamazaki of KEK, and Dr. R.A. Jameson
of LANL about the beam dynamics calculations and
5 RF SOURCES accelerator system optimization.
The RF sources are main components to determine the 8 REFERENCES
availability and reliability, and most costly parts for the
accelerator system. Two frequency choices, 200MHz and [1] M. Mizumoto et al., “Development of Proton Linear
600MHz, have been selected in the conceptual study for Accelerator and Transmutation System”, Proc. of
low energy and high energy part, respectively, where total GLOBAL’93, September 12-17, 1993 Seattle, p357-
peak RF powers of about 300kW for RFQ, 9MW for 362
DTL/SDTL and 25MW for SC linac are required for [2] M. Mizumoto et al., “A High Intensity Proton Linac
pulse operation. Due to the different two mode operations Development for Neutron Science Research Program”
and gradual upgrade path, optimization for RF XVIII International Linac Conference, LINAC96,
configuration is one of the most important technical Geneva, Switzerland 26-30 August 1996, p662-664
issues. An RF system based on the Grid tube (Tetrode) [3] K. Hasegawa et al., “The Development of a High
Klystron and IOT has been carried out[11]. As an Intensity RFQ at JAERI”, J. Nucl. Sci. Technol.,
example, Figure 9 shows RF power requirements for 8 Vol.34, No.7, (1997) p622-627
different β sections for each operating condition in the SC [4] H. Ino et al., “A Conceptual Design of the DTL-SDTL
linac. for the JAERI High Intensity Proton Accelerator”,
JAERI-Tech 98-028, 1998
[5] T. Kato, “Proposal of a Separated-type Proton Drift
β-section Tube Linac for a Medium-Energy Structure”, KEK
160 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Report 92-10 (1992)
[6] H. Oguri et al., “The Development of a Negative Ion
140 2nd Stage Source for a High Intensity Linac”, Proc of EPAC98,
Beam Loading (kW)
120 Pulse mode June 22-26, 1998, Stockholm
100 1st Stage [7] K. Hasegawa et al., ”Beam Dynamics Study of High
Pulse mode Intensity Linac for the Neutron Science Project at
80 JAERI”, Proc. of APAC98, March 23-27, 1998,
60 Tsukuba
[8] Y. Honda et al., “A Conceptual Design Study of
40
Superconducting Proton Linear Accelerator for
2nd Stage Neutron Science Project”, ibid
20
CW mode
[9] J. Kusano et al., “Development of Superconducting
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 Single Cell Cavity for a Proton Linac in the Neutron
Cavity Number Science Project at JAERI”, Proc. of EPAC98, June
22-26, 1998, Stockholm
Fig.9 Beam loading for each cavity
[10] N. Ouchi et al., “R&D Activities for
Superconducting Proton Linac at JAERI”, Proc. of
6 SUMMARY APAC98, March 23-27, 1998, Tsukuba
[11] E. Chishiro et al., “An RF Power System for the NSP
The R&D work for the prototype linac structures has High Intensity Proton Accelerator”, ibid.
been performed. The good performances of the
components such as ion source, 2MeV-RFQ, RF-source
have been achieved. The test stand for the SC cavities was
constructed. The vertical SC cavity test has been
successfully conducted resulting in the satisfactory
maximum surface electric field strength for the SC proton
accelerator. The design work on the RFQ and DTL/SDTL
353
THE TESLA FREE ELECTRON LASER – CONCEPT AND STATUS
J . Rossbach, for the TESLA FEL Collaboration
Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron, DESY, 22603 Hamburg, Germany
Abstract 35 P. Gürtler, HASYLAB, Aug 98
10
The aim of the TESLA Free Electron Laser (FEL) is to
Peak Brilliance [Phot./(sec · mrad · mm · 0.1% bandw.)]
TESLA-FEL,
develop and realize an Angstrom wavelength, high gain SBLC-FEL
33
FEL in parallel with the TESLA superconducting e+/e- 10 SLAC LCLS
linear collider. As a first step, an FEL for the VUV
TTF-FEL
wavelength regime is now under construction at DESY, 31 (M)
making use of the TESLA Test Facility (TTF). 10
The VUV FEL at the TTF comes in two phases, which
2
TESLA-spontan.
are both approved. The paper describes the over-all layout 29
10 TTF-FEL
50 GeV, helical
of each phase and the status of components.
2
27 TESLA-spontan.
10 Plasma Sources
20 GeV, planar
1 FREE ELECTRON LASERS FOR
SHORT WAVELENGTH 10
25
Over the past 30 years, synchrotron radiation has TTF-FEL
spontan
turned into a most powerful research tool that has been ESRF-Undulator
23
applied in many fields of science ranging from physics, 10 (ID 16/30) SPring8
Undulator
chemistry and biology to material sciences, geophysics, BESSY-II
U-49 APS
and medical diagnostics. This rapid progress was driven 21 BESSY-II Undulator
by the development of new, increasingly brilliant sources 10 U-125 PETRA
Undulator
based on electron storage rings. Due to the recent prog- ALS U5.0
ress in accelerator technology the possibility has been 19
opened up to complement storage ring based sources by 10
1 2 3 4 5 6
ultra-brilliant Free-Electron Lasers operating in the soft 10 10 10 10 10 10
X-ray regime.
In a Free Electron Laser (FEL), an electron beam ra- Energy [eV]
diates photons at much higher power and better coherence
than it does due to spontaneous synchrotron radiation. Fig. 1. Spectral peak brilliance of short-wavelength FELs
The key point is that electrons moving in a transverse compared with third generation radiation sources and
magnetic field of alternating polarity (undulator) may plasma lasers. For comparison, the spontaneous spectrum
amplify an existing electromagnetic radiation field (see of an X-ray FEL undulator at 20 GeV is also shown.
e.g. [1]). For properly chosen phase and wavelength (see
eq. 1) the scalar product of the electron’s velocity vector The photon wavelength λph of the first harmonic is related
and the electric field vector does not vanish on average, to the period length of a planar undulator λu by
resulting in an average energy transfer between the elec- λ K2 , (1)
tron beam and the radiation field. As a consequence of λ = u 1 +
2γ 2
ph 2
this interaction, depending on the relative phase, some
where γ = E/mc is the relativistic factor of the electrons
2
electrons get accelerated and others decelerated. This re-
sults in a longitudinal density modulation of the electron and K = eBuλu /2πmc the ‘undulator parameter’, e being
beam at the optical wavelength during the passage the elementary charge, m the electron rest mass, c the
through the undulator. With the onset of this “micro- speed of light, and Bu the peak field in the undulator. It is
bunching”, coherent emission at the resonant wavelength seen that very short photon wavelength can be achieved if
sets in which results in an exponential growth of the only the electron energy (i.e. γ) is chosen sufficiently
power in the radiation field (high gain mode), character- high.
ized by the gain length Lgain : For most FELs presently in operation, the electron
beam quality and the undulator length result in a gain of
I (z) = I 0 ⋅ exp(z / Lgain ) only a few percent per undulator passage, so that an opti-
Similar to synchrotron radiation sources, there is no cal cavity resonator and a synchronized multi-bunch
fundamental limit in the choice of the photon wavelength. electron beam have to be used. For the TESLA FEL
however, we aim at very short wavelength, for which
normal-incidence mirrors of high reflectivity are not
357
available. Thus we have to provide an electron beam during acceleration and a large variety of pulse train pat-
quality (emittance, peak current, energy spread) good terns can be provided to users.
enough and an undulator long enough to reach the power The problem with SASE FELs is that, in going to
saturation level within a single passage. At the saturation shorter and shorter wavelengths, several technical prob-
length Lsat ≈ 4π Lgain , the electrons run out of resonance lems arise such as:
due to their energy loss. • Some 100m long undulators
Since the desired wavelength is very short, there is no
• Small (normalized) emittance around 1 π mrad mm
conventional laser to provide the “initially existing radia-
for a 1 nC bunch charge
tion field”. Instead, one may consider the spontaneous
• Bunch compression down to 25 µm bunch length
undulator radiation from the first part of the undulator as
The ambitious goal of an 1 Å FEL is approached in three
an input signal to the downstream part of it. FELs based
steps. Table 1 summarizes main parameters of both elec-
on this principle of Self-Amplified-Spontaneous-
tron and photon beams for all these steps.
Emission (=SASE) [2,3] are presently considered the
most attractive candidates to deliver extremely brilliant, 1. TTF FEL Phase 1 (approved) [8]: A SASE FEL
coherent light with wavelength in the Angstrom re- experiment at wavelength down to 42 nm using the
gime[4-6]. Compared to state-of-the-art synchrotron ra- 390 MeV TESLA Test Facility (TTF) linac at
diation sources, one expects full transverse coherence, DESY[9], see Fig. 2. Besides proving the principle,
larger average brilliance, and, in particular, up to eight or technical components will be tested: the rf photoin-
more orders of magnitude larger peak brilliance (see Fig. jector, bunch compressors, a 14m long undulator, di-
1) at a pulse lengths of about 200 fs FWHM. An impor- agnostics for both electron and photon beams. First
tant step has been done recently in demonstrating a SASE operation is scheduled for 1999.
FEL gain larger than 10 at 12 µm wavelength [7].
5
La s e r
1 s t 2 nd sta g e TESLA m o d u le s 2 8 eV
c o m p re ss io n
p ho to n
2 SASE FEL RADIATION 1 4 m u nd u la to r
b ea m p ho to n
d ia g no s tics
Theoretical description of SASE distinguishes three steps rf g un 1 4 0 M eV 3 9 0 M eV
e le c tro n
of the process: The start-up-from-noise (or lethargy) re- s pe c tro m e te r
d um p
gime, the steady-state regime and the saturation regime.
The steady-state regime, where a well-defined external Fig. 2: Schematic layout of phase 1 of the SASE FEL
electromagnetic input wave is linearly amplified resulting project based on the TESLA Test Facility at DESY.
in exponential growth, is accessible for analytical and
numerical treatment since many years. The start-up from 2. TTF FEL Phase 2 (approved) [10,11]: By adding 5
noise process, however, is much more difficult to analyze, more TESLA modules [12], the linac will be up-
since it is determined by statistical properties and by mu- graded to (at least) 1 GeV, bringing the wave-length
9
tual interaction of more than 10 radiating particles. Fully down to 6 nm, see Fig. 3. The undulator will be 27m
3-dimensional simulations became available only re- long and the rms bunch length will be reduced to 50
cently. One of these codes uses Cartesian coordinates and µm by a further compressor stage. Open to users by
performs direct solution of the paraxial equations for the the year 2003, this facility will give the opportunity
radiation field and is thus capable of dealing with arbi- to develop experimenting techniques with extraordi-
trary undulator field errors [22]. The other one [23] uses a nary photon beam characteristics like high peak
Greens-function approach for calculation of the radiation power, short pulse length and fluctuating, spiky sub-
field, is much faster and includes far-field mode analysis structure typical for SASE FEL photon pulses [13].
of the radiation. Results of these codes are in perfect 3. TESLA linear collider with Integrated X-ray Laser
agreement with a SASE proof-of-principle experiment (in its technical design phase) [5,6]. For large field
performed recently in Los Alamos at 12 µm wavelength gradients, even a superconducting linac has to operate
[7, 23]. Finally it is noted, that fluctuation properties of in a pulsed mode. Thus there is room for adding fur-
SASE FEL radiation have been analyzed both in the lin- ther rf pulses between those driving the high-energy
ear and in the saturation regime [24]. Experimental results physics beam. By adding a specialized injector pro-
obtained for the linear regime are again in agreement with viding the electron beam properties needed for the
theory and simulation, while experimental results on satu- FEL, one can utilize a linear collider installation for
ration are not yet available. driving an X-ray FEL without mutual interference.
The plan is to eject the electron bunch train for the
3 THE TESLA FEL CONCEPT FEL at the required beam energy (e.g. at 50 GeV) in
TESLA aims at a 500 GeV e+/e- collider with inte- the TESLA tunnel, and then transport it to the
grated X-ray laser Facility [6]. The TESLA linac is in- TESLA interaction region, where a big enough area
could accommodate both the high energy physics ex-
deed exceptionally well suited for a short-wavelength
perimental halls and the X-ray laboratory. A sche-
Free Electron Laser: Excellent beam quality is maintained
matic of a switchyard distributing the bunch train
over different radiation facilities is shown in Fig. 4.
358
Concerning the necessary electron beam parameters, all including control of coherent radiation effects [15], accel-
the critical issues are being addressed during phases 1 and eration without beam degradation [16], and long undula-
2 (see also Table 1): An rf photoinjector with small emit- tors combined with a periodic FODO lattice [17,18]. In
tance and many thousand bunches within each rf pulse the remainder of this paper we briefly address some key
[14], bunch length compression by magnetic chicanes issues of these components.
TESLA m o dule s
La se r
1 st 2 nd s ta g e 3 rd sta g e 200 eV
co m pre s sio n co m pre s sio n p ho ton
b ea m
2 8 m undulator expe rim e nt
rf g un 1 4 0 M eV 3 9 0 M eV elec tro n
spe c trom e te r
d um p
Fig. 3. Schematic layout of phase 2 of the SASE FEL project based on the TESLA Test Facility at DESY. The linac
consists of 8 TESLA modules, each 12.2m long. The over-all length of phase 2 is some 300 meters.
Parameter Units TTF FEL Phase 1 TTF FEL Phase 2 TESLA X-ray FEL*
beam energy GeV 0.300 1.000 25.0
λph (radiation wavelength) nm 71 6.4 (193 eV) 0.1
λu(undulator period) mm 27.3 27.3 50
Effective undulator length m 13.5 27 87
rms beam size µm 70 50 18
εn (normalized emittance) in π mrad mm 2.0 2.0 1.0
the undulator
peak electron current A 500 2490 5000
No. of electrons per bunch 6.24E+9 6.24E+9 6.24E+9
No. of photons per bunch 1.7E+14 4E+13 7E+12
rms energy spread σγ/γ
-3
10 1.7 1.00 0.04 at entrance
rms bunch length σs µm 250. 50. 25
Lg (power gain length) m 0.6 1.00 4.1
Psat (saturated peak power) GW 0.3 2.6 65
Average brilliance up to 2E+21 up to 6E+22 8E+25
2
[photons/s/mm /mr/0.1%]
bunch train length µsec 800 800 1052
Number of bunches per train Up to 7200 up to 7200 Up to 11315
Repetition rate Hz 10 10 5
Table 1: Main parameters of the TESLA Test Facility FEL (TTF FEL), phases 1 and 2 [10] and of the TESLA X-ray
FEL[6]. The insertion devices are planar hybrid undulators. These values should be used as a guideline only since ex-
perimental experience has still to be gained in this wavelength regime.
*) For the TESLA X-ray FEL there will be a beam switchyard serving a number of FELs operating at different wave-
lengths down to 1 Angstrom, and using different beam energies. The parameters given are typical for the 1 Angstrom
case.
4 THE PHOTOINJECTOR achieving minimum emittance in all 3 dimensions, the
design criteria are
The electron source consists of a 1½ cell , 1.3 GHz nor-
mal conducting resonator and a photocathode located at • High accelerating gradient to reduce transverse space
the mid-plane of the first (1/2) cell, where the accelerating charge effects.
field is maximum (approx. 45 MV/m). The klystron must • Coaxial rf input coupling to reduce rf asymmetries in
provide 4.5 MW power at up to 800 µs pulse length for the cavity.
the long bunch train that can be accelerated in the s.c. • Optimum position of the solenoid focussing field to
linac,. Thus, since the gun cavity is normal conducting, achieve, in the subsequent drift space, “space charge
thermal load is a critical issue. The mechanical design compensation” [19].
provides direct water cooling of the irises and avoids any • Short laser pulses.
brazing between water channels and vacuum. For
359
with different momenta, is the only possible way for ul-
5 THE BUNCH COMPRESSOR tra-relativistic particles, this method unavoidably involves
In phase 1, two stages of longitudinal bunch compression radiation effects when electrons pass the dipole magnets.
are foreseen to reach the high peak current (500A) that is It has been shown [17,20] that space charge forces and
needed to achieve high FEL gain. This compression is coherent radiation need to be treated simultaneously in
done at beam energies high enough so that space charge order to describe properly beam dynamics. Radiation ef-
forces are tolerable. The key compression step is at 140 fects are the dominant contribution to emittance growth in
MeV from 1 mm to 0.25 mm rms bunch length and con- our chicane, see Fig. 5.
sists of a 4 dipole magnet chicane. While magnet chicane
compression, using path length differences of particles
Fig. 4. Schematic layout of a multi-user X-ray FEL
facility based on the TESLA linear collider (not to
scale). The total installation is about 900 m long
and 200 m wide and would be located on the same
site as the linear collider interaction region.
stability below 1 ps has been demonstrated for both the
Transversal Normalized Emittance laser and the klystron, which should be sufficient to reach
5
250µm, 1nC, no shielding
50 µm rms bunch length in phase 2.
4.5 250µm, 1nC, 8mm shielding Although compression takes place at high beam ener-
125µm, .5nC, no shielding
4
125µm, .5nC, 8mm shielding gies, space charge turns out to be critical for the whole
3.5 Bending Magnet TTF FEL beam line, from the gun to the undulator, and
εN [mm mrad]
3 needs to be taken into account even in the linear optics
2.5 calculation.
2
1.5 6 BEAM DYNAMICS IN THE
1
ACCELERATOR
0.5
0
Besides space charge and coherent radiation, also wake-
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 fields may degrade beam quality. In spite of the low rf
Beamline Position [m] frequency of TESLA, longitudinal wake fields are still a
Fig. 5: Evolution of the uncorrelated emittance at the lon- concern due to the extremely small bunch length (or to be
gitudinal center of the electron bunch passing bunch more precise, due to the large time derivative of the
compressor 2. Coherent radiation and space charge are bunch current). It has been shown in [16] that the wake
taken into account in this simulation [17]. Two different potential of a short bunch is considerably modified while
parameter set are considered, corresponding both to the bunch is passing a longer and longer accelerator
500 A peak current in the bunch. It is seen that the structure. For the TTF, the asymptotic case of an infi-
125 µm case is more heavily affected. nitely long, periodic structure is reached well before the
end of the linac. The bunch still generates extremely high
Significant suppression of coherent radiation by the me- frequency components >680 GHz for which Niobium is
tallic vacuum chamber is expected at a vacuum chamber known to loose superconductivity. Absorption of these
height below 8 mm. For experimental verification of this frequency components in the Niobium walls does not
theoretical prediction, the chamber height of bunch com- seem to be a problem regarding superconductivity, nev-
pressor 2 will be varied during phase 1 operation. An- ertheless, but it may increase the dynamical cryogenic
other issue of test operation will be the stability of rf load on the 2K Helium level [21]. Experimental studies
phase vs. laser phase, since this determines stability of the on this issue is a subject of TTF FEL, as well as the opti-
bunch length, particularly in view of compressor 3. Phase mum technical realization of higher order mode absorbers
360
and additional wake fields due to surface roughness of the realize the small β function of about 1 m which is opti-
vacuum pipe. mum for maximum FEL gain. The undulator for TTF
FEL phases 1 and 2 is made in permanent magnet, hybrid
7 LONG UNDULATORS technology with modules 4.5 m long each [17], see
Fig. 6. Since it is impossible to guarantee this straightness
The main technological challenge of the FEL undulator is
from undulator field measurement alone, a beam based
that the electron beam trajectory must be straight within a
alignment strategy has been worked out using a large
tolerance of 10 µm over several meters. This is particu-
number of high-resolution beam position monitors [18].
larly difficult to achieve since strong quadrupole focus-
sing is superimposed to the undulator field in order to
Fig. 6: Three modules of the undulator for the TTF FEL.
This arrangement of 14.2 m total length will be used for
phase 1. 10 correction coils and 10 beam position monitors
per module are squeezed into the 12 mm magnet gap.
8 REFERENCES
[1] J.M. Madey 1971 J. Appl. Phys. 42 1906 [15] M. Dohlus, A. Kabel, T. Limberg, Uncorrelated
[2] A.M. Kondratenko, E.L. Saldin 1980 Part. Accelera- emittance growth in the TTF-FEL Bunch Compres-
tors 10, 207 sion Sections due to Coherent Synchrotron Radiation
[3] R. Bonifacio, C. Pellegrini, L.M. Narducci 1984 Opt. and Space Charge Effects, Proc. 1998 EPAC
Commun. 50 373 [16] A.N. Novokhatski, A. Mosnier 1996 DAPNIA/SEA-
[4] H. Winick, et al. 1993 Proc. PAC Washington and 96-08
SLAC-PUB-6185 [17] J. Pflüger et al., Proc 1996 FEL Conf. Rome II-107
[5] R. Brinkmann et al. 1997 Nucl. Instr. and Meth. in and Nucl. Instr. Meth. in Phys. Res. A 393 380
Phys. Res. A 393 86-92 [18] P. Castro: Orbit Correction by Dispersion Minimiza-
[6] R. Brinkmann, G. Materlik, J. Rossbach, A. Wagner tion in an Undulator with Superimposed FODO Lattice, ,
(eds.) 1997 DESY 1997-048 and ECFA 1997-182 Proc. 1998 EPAC, Stockholm
[7] D.C. Nguyen, et al. 1998, Proc. 1998 FEL Conf., to be [19] B. Carlsten 1989 Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 285 313
published in Nucl. Instr. and Meth. A [20] E.L. Saldin, E.A. Schneidmiller, M.V. Yurkov, 1997
[8] W. Brefeld, et al. 1997 Nucl. Instr. and Meth. in Phys. Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 398 373
Res. A 393 119-124 [21] P. Schmüser, private communication
[9] D. Trines, Status of the TESLA Design, this confer- [22] S. Reiche, Proc. 1998 FEL Conf., to be published in
ence Nucl. Instr. and Meth. A
[10] T. Åberg, et al. 1995, A VUV FEL at the TESLA [23] E.L. Saldin, E.A. Schneidmiller, M.V. Yurkov,,
Test Facility at DESY, Conceptual Design Report, Proc. 1998 FEL Conf., to be published in Nucl. Instr.
DESY Print TESLA-FEL 95-03 and Meth. A
[11] J. Rossbach 1996 Nucl. Instr. Meth. in Phys. Res. A [24] E.L. Saldin, E.A. Schneidmiller, M.V. Yurkov,,
375 269 Proc. 1997 FEL Conf., to be published in Nucl. Instr.
[12] H. Weise, High Gradient Superconducting RF and Meth. A
Structures, this conference
[13] Proceedings of workshops on these issues are avail-
able at DESY-Hasylab
[14] S. Schreiber et al., The RF-gun based Injector for the
TESLA Test Facility Linac, Proc. 1998 EPAC
361
THE LINAC COHERENT LIGHT SOURCE AT SLAC*
P. Emma
Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, Stanford, California 94309, USA
coherent radiation many orders of magnitude greater in
Abstract* rd
peak power and brightness than present 3 generation
A design study [1] has been completed at SLAC for a sources, opening new research potentials in chemistry,
linac-based Free Electron Laser (FEL) known as the physics, biology and other applied sciences. The main
Linac Coherent Light Source (LCLS), which aims at the parameters, at the undulator, are outlined in Table 1.
production of high peak power coherent x-rays with a
Table 1: LCLS parameters at 15 and 1.5 Å operation.
wavelength of 1.5 Å. A 1-nC electron beam produces
coherent radiation through self-amplified spontaneous Parameter unit 15 Å 1.5 Å
emission (SASE) in a long undulator with a projected Electron beam energy GeV 4.54 14.35
peak output power of ~10 GW. The design utilizes the last Repetition rate Hz 120 120
kilometer of the SLAC linac, not used by the PEP-II Normalized emittance
†
µm 2.0 1.5
project, to compress and accelerate a single electron Peak beam current kA 3.4 3.4
†
bunch, generated by a photocathode rf gun, to a peak Coherent energy spread % <0.2 <0.1
†
current of ~3.4 kA at 15 GeV. We describe here the Incoherent energy spread % <0.06 <0.02
acceleration, compression and preservation of this high Bunch length
†
µm 20 20
brightness electron beam through the S-band linac and Beam size
†
µm 37 31
related transport lines, and outline some of the required Field gain length m 3.7 11.7
beamline modifications. Specific challenges such as Undulator period mm 30 30
−4
emittance growth generated by coherent synchrotron FEL parameter 10 12.9 4.7
32 ‡
radiation, compensation of the correlated electron energy Peak brightness 10 1.2 12
22 ‡
spread after compression, and overall pulse-to-pulse Average brightness 10 0.42 4.2
machine stability issues drive the parameter choices and Peak saturation power GW 11 9
system designs outlined here. Peak spontaneous power GW 8.1 81
2 2
† RMS, ‡ photons/sec/mm /mrad /0.1%-BW
1 INTRODUCTION Table 1 shows parameters at the low and high energy
The LCLS is based on the principle of Self-Amplified- ends of the operational range, with radiation wavelengths
Spontaneous-Emission (SASE) where high power, of 15 and 1.5 Å, respectively. The 100-m, permanent
transversely coherent, radiation is generated in a single magnet, planar undulator will be located in the existing
pass of a high peak current electron beam through a long FFTB tunnel, directly following the linac. The accelerator
undulator eliminating the need for optical cavities, which is divided into several sections to provide two-stage
are difficult to build in the x-ray spectral region. bunch compression. A schematic layout of the accelerator
The requirements on the electron beam are, however, is shown in Fig. 1 which includes the RF-gun (at the 2-km
quite demanding and, until recently, difficult to achieve. point in the linac), four linac sections (Linac-0…3), two
The LCLS will utilize the experience and technical dog-leg transport lines (DL1,2) two bunch compressors
advances gained at the Stanford Linear Collider (SLC) [2] (BC1,2) and the undulator. System parameters and
and the Final Focus Test Beam (FFTB) [3] and make use electron beam quantities are indicated at various points.
of recent progress in the production of intense electron 7 MeV 150 MeV 280 MeV 6 GeV 15 GeV
beams with radio-frequency photocathode guns [4]. σz ≈ 1 mm σz ≈ 1 mm σz ≈ 0.4 mm σz ≈ 0.02 mm σz ≈ 0.02 mm
σδ ≈ 0.1% σδ ≈ 0.2% σδ ≈ 2.2% σδ ≈ 1.0% σδ < 0.1%
With the advent of the PEP-II asymmetric B-factory, Linac-0
which employs only the first 2/3 of the 3-km SLAC linac, L≈14 m
Linac-1 Linac-2 Linac-3
RF new
the final kilometer will be available to accelerate and gun L≈9 m L≈420 m L≈520 m
ϕRF=40° ϕRF=29° ϕRF=0°
compress an electron beam up to 17 GeV. With these ...to 20-4d 20-5b,c,d 20-7 to 24-8 25-4 to 30-8
undulator
L≈100 m
developments, as well as ongoing studies for the next ...existing linac
DL-1 BC-1 BC-2 DL-2
linear collider (NLC) [5], SLAC is in an ideal position to L≈12 m L≈12 m L≈36 m L≈70 m
R56 ≈0 R56=27 mm R56=36 mm R56 ≈0
construct a linac based x-ray FEL. This was first proposed
th SLAC linac tunnel FFTB tunnel
in 1992 [6]. This new ‘4 generation’ source will produce
Fig. 1: LCLS accelerator and compressor schematic.
* Work supported by the Department of Energy, contract DE- The first linac (Linac-0) is a new section installed
AC03-76SF00515 adjacent to the existing linac which accelerates the 1 mm
362
long bunch to 150 MeV and also compensates the space linac such that non-linearities in the compression and
nd
charge induced transverse emittance growth. The first acceleration process (wakefields, rf curvature, and 2
bend section (DL1) injects the beam into the main linac order momentum compaction) are mutually canceled.
and provides emittance and energy spread diagnostics. With a careful arrangement the compression process is
Linac-1 (L1) accelerates the 1 mm bunch ‘off-crest’ to more linear which reduces the minimum bunch length
280 MeV and generates an energy correlation along the achievable. An optimum choice of parameters cancels the
bunch such that the first chicane bunch compressor (BC1) final correlated energy spread, minimizes transverse
shortens the bunch to 0.38 mm. L2 then accelerates the emittance growth effects and desensitizes the system to
bunch to 6 GeV and also generates an energy correlation phase and charge variations.
so the double chicane system (BC2) compresses the
bunch to its design value of 20 µm. Finally, L3 nominally 2.1 Bunch Compression
accelerates the beam to 15 GeV (a range of 4-17 GeV is The bunch is compressed by accelerating at an off-crest
available) and also cancels the remaining correlated rf phase, thereby introducing a correlated energy spread
energy spread with its geometric wakefield. The high- along the bunch. This is followed by a bending section, a
energy dog leg (DL2) is designed for energy and energy magnetic chicane, with linear path length dependence on
spread analysis, transverse emittance measurements, final particle energy. The peak current generated by the rf
beam transport, and variable matching into the undulator. photocathode gun is ~100 Amps. Generating the 3.4 kA
All of the linac sections, except L0, are existing and necessary for 1.5-Å SASE saturation at γε = 1.5 µm
require only minor modifications. Both L2 and L3 requires a compression factor of ~35. For a single stage
(~950 meters of linac) require primarily quadrupole compressor using an rf phase of ϕ 0 , the relative change in
power supply modifications, while L1 (9 meters) requires final bunch length, ∆σf /σf, produced by a change in initial
the insertion of a few quadrupole magnets. The bunch beam phase, ∆ϕ, (timing jitter at the gun) is given by [7]
compressors and DL1 will be composed of some new and
∆σ σ
some existing magnet designs and replace a total of 15 3- ≈ − i m 1 ∆ϕ cot ϕ 0 ,
f
(1)
meter rf structures (4 klystrons) for an energy loss of ~2% σ f σ
f
of the nominal 50 GeV SLAC linac. DL2 and the post-
undulator electron beam dump will use the existing FFTB with ‘under-compression’ (<π/2 phase space rotation)
tunnel as well as its magnets. expressed by the minus sign and ‘over-compression’ the
The peak current required for 1.5-Å SASE saturation in plus sign. For ϕ 0 = 20° and a compression factor of
the 100-m undulator is dependent on the final emittance σ i / σ f = 35, initial phase jitter of just ∆ϕ = 0.1° S-band
as shown in Fig. 2. Plotted is the ‘slice’ emittance, (0.1 psec) results in final bunch length (undulator peak
defined as the transverse phase space area over of a small current) jitter of ∆σf /σf ≈ 16%.
slice (~0.5 µm) of the 20 µm bunch length. Conversely, Clearly, a single stage compressor is too sensitive.
the whole-bunch emittance, ‘projected’ emittance, may be Furthermore, the final bunch length of a single stage
significantly larger, with little impact on saturation. The compressor is limited by non-linearities, such as rf
LCLS design budgets a 50% slice emittance increase over curvature, which make single-stage compression from
the entire accelerator. Considering most dilution 1 mm to 20 µm very difficult. A two-stage compression
mechanisms affect the projected emittance, rather than the system, however, brings about cancellations which can
slice, this is a relatively conservative budget. reduce this phase jitter sensitivity by an order of
magnitude. This also allows the first compressor to be
located early in the accelerator so that the next linac
section accelerates a shorter bunch. The reduced
transverse wakefield of the shorter bunch provides looser
quadrupole and rf-structure alignment tolerances.
Conversely, a single compression stage needs to be placed
at a high enough energy so that space charge forces are
not significant for a 20 µm bunch. This extends the length
over which the long bunch is accelerated tightening
alignment tolerances. For these reasons, a two-stage
Fig. 2: Peak current required for 1.5 Å SASE saturation in compressor is used.
the 100-m undulator vs. rms normalized ‘slice’ emittance. The compressors are simple 4-dipole chicanes with no
quadrupoles. These offer ease of adjustment and the
dispersion function is closed to all orders in energy.
2 LONGITUDINAL DYNAMICS
The first compressor (BC1) is at 280 MeV and shortens
To achieve the high peak current in the undulator, the the bunch from 1 mm to 385 µm rms at a correlated
bunch must be compressed in a series of magnetic energy spread of 2.2% rms. The second compressor
chicanes. These will be arranged and located along the (BC2) is a double chicane designed to reduce and
363
compensate the transverse emittance growth generated by to the coherent energy spread, some of which is
coherent synchrotron radiation (CSR) [8] (explained correctable through small adjustments in the rf phasing.
below). BC2 is at 6 GeV and compresses the bunch from
385 µm to ~20 µm rms at a correlated energy spread of
1.0% rms. Bunch length diagnostics, using e.g. CSR [9],
are included after each bend section. Table 2 summarizes
the chicanes.
Table 2: Bunch compressor chicane parameters.
Parameter unit BC1 BC2
chic-1 chic-2
Beam energy GeV 0.28 6 6
Total length m 2.8 13.2 13.2
Momentum compac. mm 27 31 4.5
Dipole length m 0.2 1.5 1.5
Bend angle/dipole deg 7.1 3.4 1.3
Drift between bends m 0.75 3.35 3.35 Fig. 4: Longitudinal phase space (low-right), axial (up-
Max. dispersion m 0.12 0.29 0.11 left) and energy (up-right) distributions and L3 bunch
induced voltage (low-left) at undulator input (15 GeV).
Fig. 3 shows a simulation of longitudinal phase space
before and after each compressor. The non-linear The chosen chicane locations, the intermediate bunch
correlation after BC1 (Fig. 3b) is primarily due to the length, and the rf phases form a system with significantly
long bunch on the S-band rf curvature in L1. It is later looser tolerances on pulse-to-pulse gun jitter. Gun timing
compensated by the geometric wakefield of L2 resulting jitter of 0.8 psec rms or initial bunch population jitter of
in the nearly linear correlation of Fig. 3c. Finally, after 3% rms will each produce a 10% rms peak current jitter.
BC2, the large correlated energy spread (Fig. 3d) is Although challenging, they are achievable.
cancelled by acceleration and the strong geometric
wakefield of the L3 linac (see Fig. 4, lower right). 2.2 Coherent Synchrotron Radiation
When a microbunch follows a curved path, as in a
chicane, the bunch radiates at wavelengths which may be
large compared to the bunch length. This coherent
radiation produces an energy-spread-generating wakefield
along the bunch which can induce significant transverse
emittance growth; a potential problem for many future
microbunch accelerators.
In the LCLS, this is controlled by using a double
nd
chicane [11] for the 2 bunch compressor. Chicane-1 of
the double system is designed to partially compress the
bunch, keeping the emittance growth due to incoherent
synchrotron radiation less than 2%. A second chicane is
then added with reduced bend angles and separating
Fig. 3: Longitudinal phase space on fixed scales at (a) optics (four quadrupoles forming a −I transfer matrix) to
BC1-start, (b) BC1-end, (c) BC2-start and (d) BC2-end complete the compression and approximately cancel the
(bunch head at left). net CSR emittance increase. Fig. 5 shows a schematic.
The core of the beam (85%) is shown, prior to the
undulator, in Fig. 4. The final energy spread is 0.035% s
rms with a very acceptable incoherent component (over a
0.5 µm slice) of 0.006%. Large energy tails (~1%) which
encompass 15% of the bunch charge are not shown. The θΒ1 θ Β2
simulations [10] include geometric wakefields, the
st
sinusoidal character of the rf accelerating field, the 1 and –I
nd
2 order momentum compaction of the chicanes, and the Fig. 5: Schematic of the double chicane compressor.
incoherent energy spread generated by synchrotron
radiation in BC2 and DL2. The resistive wall wakefields The cancellation can be understood by imagining an
of L3/DL2 and CSR effects of BC2/DL2 are not included electron which loses energy in the nth dipole (n = 1...4) of
in the figures, and are expected to contribute <0.05% rms chicane-1. In this steady-state model, the CSR-wakefield
364
increases with compression, but its shape along the bunch, capability and <1 psec stability. The injector is required to
is preserved through the chicane. The electron will then produce a single electron bunch of 1-nC and 100 A peak
receive an extra horizontal kick, with respect to an on- current at a repetition rate of 120 Hz with normalized rms
energy electron, in the nth bend. This same electron, with emittances of 1 µm. The gun design includes a solenoidal
its unchanged relative axial position, will lose even more field, located near the copper cathode, which initiates a
energy in the nth bend of chicane-2 (because of the compensation of the space charge induced transverse
shorter bunch there), but due to the –I transfer matrix emittance growth. The L0 booster linac completes the
between paired bends and the weaker bends of chicane-2, compensation and provides acceleration to 150 MeV. L0
the net horizontal kick is zero. This assumes the electron is a new beamline constructed parallel to the existing
does not shift axially with respect to the remainder of the linac and is displaced 1 meter horizontally. It includes
bunch as would occur in the case of over-compression or four 3-meter rf-structures and no quadrupole magnets.
a highly non-linear phase space transformation. The Following L0 is an adjustable optical matching section
double chicane also significantly weakens the CSR effect and an emittance diagnostic section. The first dog leg,
by using strong bends when the bunch is long (chicane-1) DL1, provides energy diagnostics and bends the beam
and weak bends where the bunch is short (chicane-2). onto the main linac axis (L1). The existing 3-meter rf-
Calculations of the CSR-induced emittance dilution structure there is removed to provide space for injection.
have been made using both a simple steady-state model
and also the DESY WAKE code [12] which includes CSR 3.2 Linac-1
field transients and bend-to-bend coupling effects. These L1 initiates the compression process by accelerating off
calculations predict an emittance growth after BC2 of crest, thereby generating the necessary energy-z
0.3% and 3-5%, respectively. Fig. 6 shows the dispersion, correlation so the first chicane, BC1, will compress the
bunch length, and the CSR induced energy spread and bunch. L1 is composed of three existing 3-meter rf-
emittance growth through the BC2 double chicane for the structures. Because of the large rf phase angle and the
steady-state model. CSR effects in DL2 are similarly long bunch, the rms energy spread in L1 rapidly increases
controlled with a ~1% emittance growth expected. from 0.2 to 2.2%. Therefore, both dispersion and
transverse wakefields are potential emittance dilution
mechanisms. Space charge forces here are insignificant.
The quadrupole spacing and strength requirements
were determined by simulating several different lattice
schemes using the computer code LIAR [13]. This
computer program calculates the transverse emittance
dilution induced along a linac by wakefields and
dispersion via random quadrupole, BPM (beam position
monitor), and rf-structure misalignments. It also provides
various steering algorithms and empirical emittance
correction techniques. With 300 µm rms quadrupole,
BPM, and rf-structure transverse misalignments and one
quadrupole added after each 3-meter structure, the
Fig. 6: The dispersion (ηx), bunch length (σz), and the optimum phase advance per cell is found to be near 75°.
CSR rms energy spread (σδ) and emittance growth (∆ε/ε0), The expected emittance dilution over L1 is then ~5%.
generated in BC2 calculated with the steady-state model. 3.3 Linac-2
3 TRANSVERSE DYNAMICS The energy spread is large (1-2%) over the entire 430-
meter length of L2, and the bunch is only partially
The four separate S-band linac sections each have compressed making L2 the most problematic linac section
different beam parameters which motivate different for emittance preservation. The lattice choice for L2 was
lattice parameter choices. The lattices are designed to made, as for L1, using LIAR, including misalignments,
minimize ‘projected’ emittance dilution due to wakefields and varying the phase advance per cell and quadrupole
and dispersion which are generated through component spacing. By increasing the density of quadrupoles, the
misalignments. For example, a large beam energy spread expected emittance dilution can be reduced, but the gains
and short bunch length require weak focusing. do not clearly justify the additional costs. Therefore, the
3.1 RF Gun and Booster Linac existing quadrupoles are used in their present locations
with an optimum phase advance of ~70°/cell. Fig. 7
The high brightness electron beam is initially generated shows the dilution versus phase advance per cell after
in a 1.6-cell S-band rf photocathode gun driven by a ‘one-to-one’ steering for the existing quadrupole spacing.
500 µJ UV laser system with temporal pulse shaping Note, only the ‘projected’ emittance is affected here.
365
dispersion can be minimized by a weak focusing lattice.
LIAR simulations were run for L3 using the existing linac
quadrupoles and varying the phase advance per cell. In
this case an optimum was found at ~30°/cell with an
expected emittance dilution of <10%. A 4-wire-scanner
diagnostic section presently exists at the end of L3.
Finally, DL2 will include high resolution energy, energy
spread and emittance diagnostics prior to the undulator.
Fig. 7: Emittance after L2 vs. phase advance/cell. Quad, 4 SUMMARY
BPM and structure misalignments of 150,150 and 300 µm
rms, respectively, and steering are applied (10 seeds). The LCLS offers a unique opportunity for the creation
of a coherent x-ray beam with unprecedented gains in
Even though the L2 uncorrected emittance growth can peak power and brightness using, for the most part,
easily reach 100%, localized trajectory oscillations existing components, techniques and facilities at SLAC.
(‘bumps’), as used in the SLC and FFTB, can be applied Although the design is based on a consistent and feasible
to restore the emittance. Simulations of trajectory-based set of parameters, some components, such as the RF-gun,
emittance corrections are performed using LIAR. ‘Bumps’ undulator construction and CSR compensation, require
of ~300 meters in length, with 100-300 µm peak further research and development to guarantee
amplitude, are used to empirically minimize the measured performance. The present proposal includes a 3 year R&D
emittance in both planes. Beam position and angle, per phase with pre-fabrication engineering beginning in
plane, are varied near the beginning of L2 to optimize FY2001, construction in 2002 and major systems
emittances at the end. As at the SLC, oscillations are commissioning starting in 2005.
terminated with an orbit controlling feedback system. A
high resolution 4-wire-scanner emittance diagnostic 5 REFERENCES
section is planned for the end of L2. Fig. 8 shows
emittance bump correction simulations. Using 100 [1] LCLS Design Study Report, SLAC-R-521, (1998).
misalignment seeds, an average projected emittance [2] SLC Design Report, SLAC-PUB, (1984).
growth of ~100% is corrected to <10% in both planes. At [3] FFTB Design Report, SLAC-REP-376, 1990.
the FFTB, with the SLAC linac, this technique has been [4] R.L. Sheffield, “Photocathode rf guns”, Physics of
used to preserve an initial vertical emittance of 1.5 µm to Particle Acc., AIP Vol. 184, pp. 1500-1531, (1992).
~50% dilution [7] while accelerating a 1-nC, 0.5-mm long [5] Zeroth-order Design Report for the Next Linear
bunch over a linac three times the length of the LCLS. Collider, SLAC-REP-474, May 1996.
[6] C. Pellegrini, Workshop on Fourth Generation Light
Sources, SSRL Report 92/02, pp. 364-375, 1992.
[7] T. Raubenheimer, Nuclear Instruments and Methods
in Physics Research A, 358 (1995), 40-43.
[8] See for example, Ya. S. Derbenev et al, “Microbunch
Radiative Tail-Head Interaction”, DESY, Sep. 1995.
[9] D.X. Wang, “Electron Beam Instrumentation
Techniques Using Coherent Radiation”, PAC,
Vancouver, B.C., 1997.
[10] Simulations performed with the computer code
LiTrack, written by K.L.F. Bane (SLAC).
[11] P. Emma, R. Brinkmann, “Emittance Dilution
Through Coherent Energy Spread Generation in
Bending Systems”, PAC, Vancouver, B.C., 1997.
Fig. 8: Emittance along L2 before (top-solid) and after
[12] M. Dohlus, T. Limberg, “Emittance Growth due to
(top-dash) bumps applied. Curves are an average over 100
Wake Fields on Curved Bunch Trajectories”, XVIII
seeds. The bottom plot shows a typical oscillation.
International Free Electron Laser Conference
(Rome, 1996); DESY print TESLA-FEL 96-13.
3.4 Linac-3 [13] R. Assmann et al., “LIAR - A New Program for the
Modeling and Simulation of Linear Accelerators with
The short bunch of L3 effectively eliminates transverse
High Gradients and Small Emittances”, 18th Linac
wakefields, and the rms energy spread shrinks from 1% to
Conference, Geneva, Switzerland, August, 1996.
<0.1% due to acceleration and the strong longitudinal
wakefield of the short bunch. In this case the dominant
emittance dilution mechanism is due to dispersion
generated by quadrupole and BPM misalignments. The
366
MODELING AND DESIGN OF KLYSTRON
Y. H. Chin
KEK, 1-1 Oho, Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki-ken, 305, Japan
Abstract klystron development program. The design parameters are
shown in the last column of Table 1. Its goal is to
We have developed a new method for a realistic and more produce a 75MW PPM klystron with an efficiency of 60
accurate simulation of klystron using the MAGIC code. % at 1.5 µs or longer pulse. The first PPM klystron was
MAGIC is the 2.5-D or 3-D, fully electromagnetic and designed and build by BINP in the collaboration with
relativistic particle-in-cell code for self-consistent
KEK. It has a gun with beam area convergence of 400:1
simulation of plasma. It solves the Maxwell equations in
time domain at particle presence for a given geometrical for the microperveance of 0.93. The PPM focusing
structure. It uses no model or approximation for the system with 18 poles (9 periods) produces the constant
beam-cavity interaction, and thus keeps all physical peak magnetic field of 3.8 kG. The field in the output
processes intact. With MAGIC, a comprehensive, full- structure is still periodic, but tapered down to 2.4 kG.
scale simulation of klystron from cathode to collector can There are two solenoid coils located at the beam entrance
be carried out, unlike other codes that are specialized for for a smooth transport of a beam to the PPM section. It
simulation of only parts of klystron. It has been applied achieved 77 MW at 100 ns, but there is a clear sign of RF
to the solenoid-focused KEK XB72K No.8 and No.9 instability at higher frequencies. The DC current monitor
klystrons, the SLAC XL-4 klystron, and the BINP PPM in the collector shows about 30 % loss of particle when
klystron. Simulation results for all of them show good RF is on. The second PPM klystron, XB PPM No.1, is
agreements with measurements. We have also developed a
being designed at KEK.
systematic design method for high efficiency and low
gradient traveling-wave (TW) output structure. All these
inventions were crystallized in the design of a new Table 1: Specifications of X-band solenoid-focused and
solenoid-focused XB72K No.10. Its predicted performance PPM-focused klystrons for JLC.
is 126 MW output power (efficiency 48.5%) with peak
surface field of about 77 MV/m, low enough to sustain a XB72K PPM
1.5 µs long pulse. It is now in manufacturing and testing Operating frequency (GHz) 11.424 11.424
is scheduled to start from November 1998. RF pulse length (µs) ≥ 1.5 ≥ 1.5
Peak output power (MW) 75 75
1 JLC KLYSTRON PROGRAM Repetition rate (pps) 120 120
RF efficiency (%) 47 60
The 1-TeV JLC (Japan e+e- Linear Collider) project[1] Band-width (MHz) 100 120
requires about 3200 (/linac) klystrons operating at 75 MW Beam voltage (kV) 550 480
output power with 1.5 µs pulse length. The main Perveance (x10-6) 1.2 0.8
parameters of solenoid-focused klystron are tabulated in Maximum focusing field (kG) 6.5
the second column of Table 1. The 120 MW-class X-band Gain (dB) 53-56 53-56
klystron program at KEK[2], originally designed for 80
MW peak power at 800 ns pulse length, has already
produced 9 klystrons with solenoidal focusing system. To 2 MAGIC CODE
reduce the maximum surface field in the output cavity, the After a series of disappointing performance of XB72K
traveling-wave (TW) multi-cell structure has been adopted series, several lessons had been learned. First, KEK
since the XB72K No.6. Four TW klystrons have been should have its own team to specialize the klystron design
built and tested. All of them share the same gun (1.2
and overhaul the design process. Second, a new klystron
microperveance and the beam area convergence of 110:1)
and the buncher (one input, two gain and one bunching simulation code was needed for a more realistic design of
cavities). Only the output structures have been redesigned klystron, particularly, that of a TW output structure. The
each time at BINP. XB72K No.8 (5 cell TW) attained a one-dimensional disk model code, DISKLY, had been used
power of 55 MW at 500 ns, but the efficiency is only by BINP for design of the TW structure from XB72K
22%. XB72K No. 9 (4 cell TW) produced 72 MW at 520 No.5 till No.9. This code uses an equivalent circuit model
kV for a short pulse of 200 ns so far. The efficiency is (port approximation) to simulate a TW structure and tends
increased to 31% and no sign of RF instability has been to predict the efficiency much larger (nearly twice larger)
observed. The limitation in the pulse length attributes a than the experimental results. For the design of a new
poor conditioning of the klystron. The latest tube, klystron, XB72K No.10, we have developed a method to
XB72K No.10, was designed at KEK, and is being build use the MAGIC code[3] to simulate and design a klystron.
in Toshiba.
MAGIC is the 2.5-D or 3-D, fully electromagnetic and
Apart from the solenoid-focused XB72K series, KEK
relativistic particle-in-cell code for self-consistent
has also started a PPM (periodic permanent magnet)
367
simulation of plasma. It solves the Maxwell equations
directly at particle presence by the finite difference method 3.1 Electron Gun
in time like ABCI [4] or MAFIA. It requires only the The gun simulation is done by specifying an emission
geometrical structure of the cavity and assumes no model area (cathode) and an applied voltage along a line between
(neither port approximation nor equivalent circuit) for the a wehnelt and an anode. The number of emitted particles
beam-cavity interaction. The static magnetic field can be can be specified per unit cell volume and unit time-step.
applied to a structure. Advantages of MAGIC are its The applied magnetic fields (both Bz and Br) must be
accuracy and versatility. Even an electron gun can be specified over the structure, not just on beam axis. They
can be calculated using codes such as POISSON (for
simulated with results in good agreements with
solenoid field) and PANDIRA[10] (for PPM). These
measurements. Simulation results can be programs requires the exact configuration of coils, yokes,
imported/exported from one section of klystron to or permanent magnets and their properties as input.
another, allowing a consistent simulation of the entire Figure 1 shows the comparison of beam profile
klystron without loss of physics. Only disadvantage is simulated by EGUN and MAGIC for the XB72K-series
that it is time consuming. gun. They look nearly identical. The simulated perveance
for three different guns and the measured values are
3 FUNCTIONAL COMPARISON OF tabulated in Table 3. MAGIC simulations are in excellent
AVAILABLE CODES agreement with the measurements, while the EGUN tends
Table 2 shows the functional comparison of computer to produce a 5-10 % larger value than the measurements.
codes available for klystron simulations. MAGIC is the This behavior was also reported in simulation of SLAC
only code that can simulate all parts of klystron from gun 50 MW PPM klystron by EGUN [11].
to collector. ARSENAL[5] is closest to MAGIC in
functional performance, but cannot handle a TW multi-
cell structure. CONDOR[6] can simulate a TW structure,
but requires a beam input from a gun that needs to be
simulated by other code such as EGUN[7]. In the
migration of beam and fields from one code to another,
two programs must be well matched to avoid any
incomplete transfer of information and resulting
unphysical phenomena.
Table 2: Functional comparison of available codes.
Dimen- Gun Bun- Single Multi
sion cher -cell -cell (a) EGUN (b) MAGIC
output output
cavity cavity Figure 1: Beam profile from the XB72K gun simulated by
MAGIC 2.5, 3 Ο Ο Ο Ο (a) EGUN and (b) MAGIC.
EGUN 2.5 Ο × × ×
CONDOR 2.5 × Ο Ο Ο Table 3: Comparison of the simulated perveances and the
FCI [8] 2.5 × Ο Ο × measured values.
ARSENAL 2.5 Ο Ο Ο ×
JPNDISK 1 × Ο Ο × Micro perveance
DISKLY 1 × Ο Ο × Klystron Frequency MAGIC EGUN Measured
(MHz)
XB 72K 11,424 2.03 1.89 2.05
4 SIMULATION METHOD USING (KEK)
MAGIC PV3030 2,856 1.19 1.10 1.2
(KEK)
We divide a klsytron into three sections:
5045 2,856 1.99 1.78 2.0
• Electron gun (SLAC)
• Buncher section (an input, gain and bunching cavities
+ drift space)
• TW output structure 3.2 Buncher Section
The input cavity needs a different treatment from other
The simulation techniques are described in detail in Ref. cavities, because the RF power is given externally, rather
[9]. Here, we briefly summarize them. than being induced by a beam. Since a beam stays almost
368
as DC while passing the input cavity, the beam induced and results in error. Figure 4 shows the simulation results
voltage is negligible. Therefore, we just need to specify for the output structure of XB72K No.10.
the applied RF voltage along an electric filed line between
the cavity gap. The field distribution of the fundamental Conductor
mode should be computed by MAGIC priory and used as
input. Other cavities need to be tuned to correct σ
fundamental frequencies by adjusting the cavity aperture
on mesh. The beam-induced voltage in cavities are S 11
monitored to measure the necessary RF cycles for
saturation. In most of cases, about 200-300 RF cycles are S 11 a b
enough. To speed up the saturation, a DC beam current
from gun is increased smoothly and slowly from zero to
the full value at the first 10-20 RF cycles.
Figures 2 (a) and (b) show spatial distributions of beam Figure 3: Illustration for 2.5-D modeling of 3-D output
in the input+gain cavity section and in the bunching coupler using a conductor.
cavity section of the XB72K No.10 buncher, respectively.
The strong bunching of beam (RF current/DC current ≈
1.7) is created toward the end of the buncher section.
Figure 4: Simulation of XB72K No. 10 in the output
structure.
(a) (b)
5 SIMULATION RESULTS AND
Figure 2: Spatial distribution of beam (a) in the MEASUREMENTS
input+gain cavity section and (b) in the bunching cavity
Figure 5 shows the simulation results of MAGIC and the
section of the XB72K No.10 buncher.
experimental data for the saturated output power vs. beam
3.3 Traveling-Wave (TW) Output Structure voltage for XB72K No.8 klystron. Excellent agreements
can be seen. The closed triangles in Fig. 5 are DISKLY
Simulation of TW output structure is quite simulations. It reveals the accuracy limitation of the 1-D
straightforward as any other cavity. In order to simulate disk model code.
effects of a non-axis-symmetrical output coupler by the
2.5-D version of MAGIC, we model it by a ring-shaped 70
conductor which has the same complex S11-matrix 60
element (i.e., the reflection coefficient for amplitude and
Output Power (MW)
phase). This is illustrated in Fig. 3. There are three free 50
parameters to fit the frequency dependent S11-matrix 40
element: the conductance, and the inner and the outer radii
of the conductor. For details of the output coupler 30
modeling, refer to Ref.[9]. As shown later, simulation
20 Measurements
results for many klystrons seem to verify the validity of DISKLY simulation
this approximation. 10 MAGIC simulation
Before inventing the above conductor approximation,
0
we have considered a use of an axis-symmetrical radial 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
transmission line to model a 3-D coupler. However, this Beam Voltage (kV)
method cuts the output structure into two disconnected
parts, and thus an artificial DC voltage is induced by the Figure 5: Simulation results of MAGIC and DISKLY and
DC component of beam at the output cell to which the the measurement data for XB72K No.8 klystron.
output couplers are attached. This artificial DC voltage
causes a non-negligible effect to the particle dynamics, Let us move to the simulation of SLAC XL-4
klystron. XL-4 klystron produced50 MW at 400 kV with
369
1.5 µs pulses at 120 pps. It attained 75MW at 450 kV,
but the pulse length could go up only to 1.2 µs before the 80
RF breakdown in the output cavity. The simulation MAGIC
Output Power (MW)
results for the output power are compared with the Measurement
60
measurements in Fig. 6. MAGIC simulations reproduce
the measurement data quite well. The CONDOR
40
prediction at 450 kV, denoted by the closed triangle, was
at 10% too high. Figure 7 shows the output power vs.
the input power for XL-4. It is clear that the simulation 20
reproduces the measured gain curve well.
0
100
300 350 400 450 500 550 600
Beam Voltage (kV)
80
Output Power (MW)
Figure 8: Simulation results for the BINP PPM klystron.
60
600
DC and RF Beam Current (A)
40 500 I0 I1 I2
Beam Current Rescaled: Perv=0.93
Measurement
MAGIC simulation 400
20
OutPut Power =78.1MW
CONDOR simulation
300
0
250 300 350 400 450 500 550 200
Beam Voltage (kV)
Figure 6: Simulation results of MAGIC and CONDOR 100
and the measurement data for the SLAC XL-4 klystron.
0
400 500 600 700 800 900
80 Z (mm)
70 Figure 9: Evolution of the DC and RF beam current in
60 the BINP PPM klystron.
Output Power (W)
50
3 XB72K NO.10 DESIGN
40
XB72K No.10 is the last solenoid-focused klystron in
30 the XB72K series. Main changes from the previous
20 Measurement @ 400 kV XB72K klystrons are the buncher section and the TW
MAGIC @ 350 kV output structure. The operational experience with the
10 MAGIC @ 400 kV
MAGIC @ 450 kV previous klystrons proved that the gun portion of XB72K
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 has sufficient performance (1.2 microperveance at 2µs
Drive Power (W) pulse length) and no interception of particles has been
observed. The old buncher has two gain cavities and only
Figure 7: Simulations and measurement dataof the output one bunching cavity. It has a poor RF power generation
power vs. the input power for the SLAC XL-4 klystron.
capability: the RF current /DC current is only 1.2 at the
Our simulation method can also make an accurate entrance of the output structure. In XB72K No.10, one
prediction of performance for a PPM klystron. Figure 8 more bunching cavity was addedand the drift space was
shows the simulation results and the measured values of lengthened to 16cm. The stagger tuning of gain cavities
output power for the BINP PPM klystron. The evolution was also adopted to increase the band-width to the current
of DC and RF beam current as a function of distance from specification of 100 MHz.
the gun is plotted in Fig. 9. The sudden drop of the DC The most challenging part of XB72K No. 10 design is
current is due to the particle interception at the final cell a high efficiency and low gradient TW output structure.
of the output cavity. The interception is caused by lack of MAGIC is quite useful for getting an accurate estimate of
focusing for particles that drop to the stop-band voltage klystron performance, but the design of an effective TW
after losing energy to the traveling-wave. This simulation structure is another matter. A systematic design method
result explains the experimental observation of significant
was needed to avoid getting lost in the freedom of too
particle loss describedin Section 1.
many parameters.
For this end, we have developeda simple-minded theory
of a constant group/phase velocity TW structure. The idea
370
is to let the power flow with a constant group velocity SLAC XL-4 for the saturated power vs. the maximum
throughout the structure, while evolving due to merge of field gradient in the output structure. Both have similar
the extracted power from a beam. The Q-value at the efficiencies of about 48%, but the maximum gradient of
output port is matched to this group velocity so that the XB72K No.10 is about 20% lower than that of XL-4,
power exits at the same speed as it flows in the structure. though the power is 67% larger. In XB72K No.10, the
fairly constant gradient is achieved in the output structure.
This smooth flow of power prevents congestion at local
This comparison indicates that the XB72K TW output
spots and thus the electromagnetic energy density is more structure can attain 120 MW power at a longer pulse than
equally distributed in the structure XL-4 at 75 MW without cavity breakdown. At 75MW,
It is also better to keep the phase velocity constant XB72K can tolerate an even longer pulse. It is now in
(approximately equal to the average beam velocity) from manufacturing and testing will begin in November 1998.
the first to the last cell, rather than being matched with
the declining beam velocity. When the perfect Table 4: Predicted performance of XB72K No. 10.
synchronization of traveling-wave and the beam is tried,
the beam loses energy too quickly to the wave, and its Peak output power 126 MW
velocity becomes too slow to be matched with the wave Beam voltage 550 kV
after a few cells (XB72K No. 10 has four cells). The beam Efficiency 48.5%
then moves to the acceleration phase of the wave and Maximum field gradient in TW 77 MV/m
Pulse length 1.5 µs or longer
starts to get energy back. The energy extraction efficiency
Band-width 100 MHz
of each cell does not have to be too good. Only the total Gain 53 dB
efficiency of all cells matters. It is more important to
keep the beam in the deceleration phase of the wave all 140
the time. In our method, the traveling-wave travels behind
Saturated Output Power (MW)
120
the beam at first, and catches it up with in the middle of Efficiency
= 48.5%
the structure. It then moves ahead of the beam, but exits 100
from the output port before the beam slips into the 80
XB72K No.10 (Vb=550kV)
acceleration phase of the wave. SLAC XL-4 (Vb=450kV)
We also demand that each cell is operated in 2/3π mode 60
Efficiency
at 11.424 GHz. The cell length is also constant except the 40 = 47.5%
last cell (slightly longer to reduce the field gradient). As
20
the result, the cells become almost identical. We then
tapered up the iris aperture slightly to equalize the field 0
gradient among the cells. In this method, once the group 0 20 40 60 80 100
and the phase velocities are chosen, the geometry of the Maximum Electric Field in the Output Cavity (MV/m)
structure are almost uniquely determined. The structure of
output port can be adjusted to control the reflection of Figure 11: Saturated power versus the maximum field
power to maximize the output power. gradient in the output structure for XB72K No.10 and
The predicted output power vs. the beam voltage is SLAC XL-4.
plotted in Fig. 10:
REFERENCES
140
[1] JLC Design Study, KEK, April 1997.
120 [2] Y. H. Chin, et. al., in Proc. of EPAC98, 1998.
[3] MAGIC User’s Manual, Mission Research
Output Power (MW)
100
Corporation, MRC/WDC-R-409, 1997.
80 [4] Y. H. Chin, “User’s Guide for ABCI Version 8.8”,
LBL-35258 and CERN SL/94-02 (AP (1994)..
60 [5] A. N. Sandalov, et. al., in Prof. of RF96, KEK Proc.
40 MAGIC simulations 97-1, pp.185-194, 1997.
[6] B. Aimonetti, et. al., “CONDOR User’s Guide”,
20 Livermore Computing Systems Document, 1988.
[7] W. B. Herrmannsfeldt, SLAC-PUB-6498 (1994).
0
400 450 500 550 600 [8] T. Shintake, Nucl. Instr. Methods A363, p.83, 1995.
Beam Voltage (kV) [9] S. Michizono, S. Matsmoto, and H. Tsutsui in this
proceedings.
Figure 10: Predictedoutput power vs. beam voltage for [10] J. H. Billen and L. M. Young, “POISSON
the XB72K No.10. SUPERFISH”, LA-UR-96-1834 (1997).
[11] D. Sprehn et.al, in Proc. of RF96, KEK Proc. 97-1.
The predicted performance is summarized in Table 4. pp.81-90, 1997.
Figure 11 shows comparison between XB72K No.10 and
371
THEORY OF AN ELECTROSTATIC INSTABILITY DRIVEN BY
TRANSVERSE-LONGITUDINAL TEMPERATURE ANISOTROPY IN
SPACE CHARGE DOMINATED BEAMS
S.M. Lunda , D.A. Callahana , A. Friedmana , D.P. Grotea , I. Haberb , and T.F. Wangc
a Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA 94550 USA
b Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, DC 20375, USA
c Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM 87545, USA
Abstract ferences can provide free energy for so-called “equiparti-
tioning” instabilities that drive the beam closer to TE7 .
An unstable electrostatic mode has been observed in
particle-in-cell simulations that, for unbunched ion beams ?-k temperature anisotropies tend to naturally develop
in accelerators6;8. For example, consider an ion diode with
50
with sufficient intensity and thermal anisotropy, transfers
thermal energy from the transverse (?) to the longitudi- particle energy Eb ( keV typical) and source tempera-
nal (k) directions1 4 . This instability can be important 01
ture T ( : eV typical). In the absence of ?-k coupling,
one would expect the final axial (z -direction) temperature
= 2
and appears to be insensitive to the details of the initial
distribution as well as the nature of the applied focusing. to be strongly cooled with Tz T 2 = Eb . On the other
hand, one would expect little accelerative change in ? tem-
=
The unstable mode is characterized by an axial wavelength
comparable to the beam radius and growth rates compa- peratures with Tx Ty T , consistent with any ? beam
rable to the frequency of ? particle betatron oscillations. compression, ? instabilities, etc. These effects suggest a
We present a theory of this instability based on the work strongly anisotropic beam emerging from the diode. Fur-
of Wang and Smith5 . This theory employs a continuous ther ?-k anisotropy can develop in the transport following
focusing model in the limit of strong thermal anisotropy the diode. Neglecting ?-k coupling, Tz ' const, where
with a warm, ? KV distribution and a cold, k distribution. is the beam pulse duration, and Tz will evolve consistently
The predicted mode structure is found to compare favor- with any k beam expansion or compression during acceler-
ably with simulations carried out over a range of space- ation. Some change in Tz can also be caused by the ther-
charge strength. malization of k space-charge waves launched by accelera-
tion errors. On the other hand, nonlinear forces associated
1 INTRODUCTION with focusing aberrations and nonuniform space charge
In a continuous focusing (CF) channel, a thermal equilib- (from instabilities, various beam manipulations, etc.),pcan
rium (TE) beam distribution represents a stable, maximum lead to increased ? normalized beam emittance (/ rb Tx ,
entropy state that an arbitrary initial distribution will relax where rb is the beam radius) while only producing small
to under the influence of collisions6 . Although collective changes in Tz .
processes and phase mixing can enhance the rate of relax- In high intensity applications such as Heavy-Ion Fusion
ation, the beam lifetime in the machine is often insufficient (HIF), the need for a small focal spot radius rs leads to
to allow significant relaxation. Moreover, in real accelera- interrelated constraints on the beam ? emittance, space-
tors, the focusing is usually periodic, and in this situation charge strength, and k momentum spread, as well as ma-
there is no known TE distribution. Nevertheless, distri- chine misalignments and abberations in the final focus
butions that more closely resemble a CF TE distribution optic9 . For a final magnetic optic, dispersion results in a
are expected to have less free energy to drive instabilities. limit of allowable k momentum spread that can be esti-
This renders thermodynamic concepts like beam tempera- mated 8
as p=p < rs = d. Here p = =
hpz i and p
2( )
p
ture useful for non TE distributions. h pz p 2 i are the axial momentum and momentum
Although temperature is, strictly speaking, a thermody- spread, d is the distance from the final optic to the focal
namic quantity, one can define local kinetic temperatures spot, and is the beam convergence angle to the spot. This
(energy units) by Ti = 2= ( ) 2 =
h pi hpi i 2 i= m mvth;i 2
= , 2
typically results in spread limits of less than p=p 1% .
where m is the particle mass, pi is the i = x, y , z parti- If the ? and k beam temperatures must remain similar, this
cle momentum, vth;i is the ith local thermal velocity com- will introduce an additional constraint that must be consid-
ponent, and h i denotes an average over the momentum ered. Moreover, if any bends are present, dispersion can
space degrees of freedom in the particle distribution. Here result in further momentum spread limits that ?-k equili-
and henceforth, we have adopted a nonrelativistic model bration can influence8 .
for simplicity in presentation. Differences in these kinetic In most accelerators, particle collision times are gener-
temperatures (or equivalently momentum spreads) provide ally much longer than the beam lifetime in the machine.
a measure of deviations from an isotropic TE, and such dif- Hence collision induced equipartitioning is usually negli-
This research was performed under the auspices of the US DOE by gible. On the other hand, rapid kinetic instabilities can re-
LLNL, NRL, and LANL under contracts W-7405-ENG-48, DE-AI02- sult in significant equipartitioning. Thus it is prudent to
93ER40799, and DE-AI02-94ER54232. understand any such instabilities so they can be properly
372
accounted for in machine design. ^
With Tx fixed, 0 (i.e., the external focusing) was then set
In this paper, we present simulation (Sec. 2) and theory consistently with Eq. (1). For =0 : to : , these 01 04
(Sec. 3) on an intense-beam collective mode that produces parameters are representative of those in the low energy
a rapid transfer of thermal energy from the ? to the k de- end of linear induction accelerators for Heavy Ion Fusion9 .
grees of freedom for sufficient ?-k thermal anisotropy. The The k temperature Tz was set as a fraction of Tx . Axial grid ^
beam is unbunched, and nonlinear space-charge forces as- lengths were chosen sufficiently short for the k variations of
sociated with the unstable electrostatic mode produce this the unstable mode to be well resolved, but sufficiently long
energy exchange rather than ?-k coupling induced by the where 5 or more wavelengths of variation were simulated
shape of the beam ends. For simplicity, all analysis is car- to reduce the influence of the periodic boundary conditions.
ried out for an axisymmetric (@=@ =0
) beam propagating This resulted in grid lengths of 10 to 25 cm. Timesteps for
without acceleration in a continuous focusing channel with the particle advance were chosen such that dt < : =0 . 0 01
a linear radial focusing force. This focusing arrangement
can represent the average effects of a lattice of alternat- 0.5
Temp Ratio, T_z/T_x
ing gradient electric or magnetic quadrupoles, or a periodic 0.4
solenoidal magnetic field for a beam with zero total canon- 0.3
ical angular momentum10.
0.2
2 PIC SIMULATIONS 0.1
Particle-in-cell (PIC) simulations were carried out with the 0
electrostatic WARP code2;8 . An axisymmetric (rz ) pack-
5 10 15 20 25
age of the WARP code suite that neglects self-magnetic 12
field effects was employed with periodic boundary condi- 10
tions axially, and a grounded, perfectly conducting cylin- 8
Log|E_z|
drical beam pipe transversely. Simulations employed 100 6
k to 1 M particles, and typical grid dimensions consisted 4
of 32 radial and 256 axial zones. When Tz was sufficiently 2
cold, Gaussian smoothing was employed in the axial direc-
tion to suppress a k numerical grid instability. The initial
0
2 4 6 8 10 12
? distribution of beam particles had zero canonical angu- 10
lar momentum and was either KV [uniform density and a 8
Log|E_z|
parabolically decreasing temperature profile in the radial 6
= +
p
coordinate r x2 y 2 , see Ref. 6 and Sec. 3] or semi- 4
Gaussian (SG) [uniform density and a uniform temperature
Gaussian in ? momentum space]. The initial k distribution
2
0
had uniform density and Gaussian momentum spread. The 2 4 6 8 10 12
instability is seeded from noise associated with the finite Number Betatron Oscillations
particle statistics. Figure 1: Temperature anisotropy Tz =Tx (top, SG and KV) ^
Typical runs employed: K+ ion at Eb hpz i2 = m = 2 = 10
= ln
and the log of the absolute value of the axial electric field
MeV axial kinetic energy, equilibrium beam radius rb jEz j (middle for KV, and bottom for SG) verses the num-
25: cm, beam current I =5A, and conducting pipe radius ber of undepressed betatron oscillations 0 t= . 2
2 =5
rp rb cm. The spatial average ? beam tempera-
^ = ^ = (2
ture Tx Ty
Rr
)
0 b dr rTx =rb2 was then consis- Results of simulations illustrating properties of a space-
tently set as follows (in an rms equivalent beam sense6 for charge mode that transfers thermal energy from the ? to the
an initial SG distribution). Denote the angular frequency k directions are presented in Figs. 1 and 2. The simulations
of ? particle oscillations in the equilibrium fields in the are for initial =0 : , Tz = 0 45
: Tx, a : cm axial = 0 01 ^ 13 4
absence (i.e., I =0 ) and presence (specified I ) of space beam length, and rp =2
rb . Results are shown for both
charge by 0 and , respectively. Using the equilibrium en- initial KV (solid curves) and SG (dashed curves) ? distri-
velope equation, these so-called “betatron” frequencies can butions. In Fig. 1, the anisotropy ratio Tz =Tx is plotted as a ^
be expressed as10 function of the number of undepressed betatron oscillations
= 4T^x=mrb + !^p =2; 2
of an equilibrium particle, 0 t= , where t is the time. Ev-
02 2 2
idently, in the initial quiescent period the growth in Tz =Tx ^
2 = !^p =2 = 4T^x=mrb ;
2 2 2
(1) starts from the noise, followed by a period of exponential
0
growth, and then saturation with Tz =Tx : : (results ^ 0 4[0 1]
^
where !p is the beam plasma frequency. Then Tx was ^ given for initial KV with SG values in “[]” brackets). This
set to achieve a specified tune depression =0 satisfying instability leads to increased Tz and decreased Tx as energy ^
0 1
=0 , where =0 ! and =0 ! cor-1 0 is exchanged. Phase space plots of the mode have been
respond to the warm- and cold-beam limits, respectively. presented elsewhere3;4 . Also in Fig. 1, the log of the abso-
373
lute value of the axial electric field, jEz j, is plotted (arbi- ln Table 1: Instability threshold and saturation properties.
trary units) for a fixed location moving with the equilibrium
2
beam as a function of 0 t= . Little variation in structure
Initial
Tz =Tx
Threshold =0
KV SG
is observed with the choice of location, suggesting an ab-
0.001 0.69 0.74
solute instability. These plots suggest that a single unstable
0.01 0.76 0.80
mode is dominating the evolution with an oscillation period
0.1 0.48 ?
and e-fold time of approximately 3.2[2.8] and 0.82[1.1]
undepressed betatron oscillations, respectively. The ra-
Initial Saturated Tz =Tx for Initial KV and =0 =
Tz =Tx 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
dial and axial structure of the perturbed electrostatic poten-
tial Æ describing this mode was extracted with a discrete 0.001 0.55 0.18 0.04 — —
Fourier transform diagnostic. The dominant axial wave- 0.01 0.59 0.31 0.07 0.09 —
length of Æ was well expressed with =rb : : = 1 3[1 1] 0.1 0.42 — — — —
and the radial mode structure of this harmonic component Initial Saturated Tz =Tx for Initial SG and =0 =
is shown in Fig. 2 for 0 t= 2 = 9 2[3 9]
: : . Note that Æ is Tz =Tx 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
peaked at the center with one radial node within the beam 0.001 0.10 0.14 0.19 0.08 —
(r < rb = 25 : cm) and has small amplitude outside the 0.01 0.12 0.10 0.16 0.14 0.11
beam (rb < r rp cm). =5
1.25
^
not vice-versa when Tz > Tx . Full 3D simulations have
1 also been carried out with both alternating gradient and CF
Normalized Mode Potential
0.75 channels and the results are similar those presented here.
0.5
0.25 3 THEORY
0
Neglecting particle correlations and collisions, the beams
-0.25
-0.5
simulated in Sec. 2 are described in terms of a single-
-0.75 particle distribution function f that is a function of the co-
ordinate x, momentum p, and time t, and evolves accord-
1 2 3 4 5
Radial Coordinate r (cm)
Figure 2: Normalized electrostatic potential of the unstable ing to the Vlasov equation
mode Æ =Æ r ( = 0)
verses radial coordinate r.
@
@t
+ @p @x
@H @ @H
@x
@p@
f (x; p; t) = 0: (2)
The simulations indicate that the essential features of this
instability are similar for both initial KV and SG ? distri- Here, H = 2 + 2+
p2 = m m02 r2 = q is the Hamiltonian,
butions. However, since the SG is not a real equilibrium, q is the particle charge, and satisfies the Poisson equa-
the lack of detailed radial force balance influences the ini- =4
tion r2
R
q d3 p f subject to the boundary condition
tial evolution of the mode, complicating the interpretation r ( = )=
rp const. To perform a conventional equilib-
of the onset of instability (note the shift in Fig. 1). More- rium/stability analysis, we expand
over, details of the saturation are different for the KV and
SG ? distributions, with wave breaking in the KV distribu- = 0 r ( ) + Æ (r; !; kz )e i !t k z ; ( z )
tion leading to a trapped particle phase-space that may rep- f = f0 (x; p) + Æf (r; p; !; kz )e i !t k z ; ( z )
(3)
resent an intermediate state on a longer timescale evolution.
The KV and SG initializations also have differing numer- where equilibrium quantities (superscript zero) correspond
ical collision properties, further complicating interpreta- to @=@t =0
solutions to Eq. (2) with Æ Æf and =0=
tions. Preliminary data is presented in Table 1 on the space- Æ and Æf are normal mode perturbations with angular fre-
charge threshold (=0 less than indicated values leads to quency ! and wavenumber kz =2
=. We assume a ?
instability) and the saturation level (in Tz =Tx ) of the insta- ^ KV and k Gaussian f 0 defined by6;10
bility. Data is tabulated for both initial KV and SG ? distri- h 2i
^ Æ exp p mv ( z b)
2T^x (2mT mT
butions for several values of initial temperature anisotropy
^ f0 = 2m
n 0
H?
2 z
z) =
(Tz =Tx ). Note that the threshold is a strong function of the 1 2
: (4)
initial anisotropy and depends weakly on the type of ini-
tial distribution. Saturation occurs when Tz is a fraction Here, vb =
hpz i=m is the axial beam velocity, Æ x is the ()
^
of Tx , with the value depending on the initial anisotropy, Dirac delta-function, and H?0
=
p2? = m m02r2 = q 0 2 + 2+
space-charge strength, and distribution type. Growth rates with p? = ^+ ^
px x py y. The form of f 0 is consistent with
of the unstable mode are larger for strong initial anisotropy undepressed and depressed ? particle oscillations with fre-
and space-charge strength. Smaller growth rates can ren- quencies 0 and given by Eq. (1) with !p2 q 2 n=m ^ =4 ^
der simulations difficult due to the noise associated with 0
and beam edge radius rb . ForR r < rb , Eq. (4) also cor-
the finite particle statistics. responds to uniform density, d3 p fR 0 n const, and =^=
Finally, previous studies1;4 suggest that the instability a parabolic ? temperature profile, d3 p p2? = m f 0 ( 2 ) =
only transfers ? thermal energy to the k direction and 2^ ^ (1
nTx r2 =rb2 . )
374
The linear eigenvalue equation for the perturbed poten- elsewhere10;11 . For long wavelength perturbations with
tial Æ can be derived by linearizing the Vlasov equation 1 ^ 0 0
kz rb and Tx ! ( ! ), a single branch (labeled
(2) and inverting the resulting equation for Æf with the L1 ) corresponding to an “ordinary” cold-beam k mode is
method of characteristics and inserting the result in Pois- found. This limiting form mode has Æ / I0 kz r for ( )
son’s equation. After some algebraic manipulation, this re- ()
r rb with I0 x a 0th order modified Bessel Function and
sults in
= (^ 2)( ) ln(
2
!p2 = kz rb 2 )
rp =rb . Other branches (labeled
^ Æ(r r ) [Æ + ]j =24
Ln with n ; ; ; nmax 1 or nmax ) are found to
1@r@ kz Æ = 2
!p2 rb
1
reduce for long wavelengths (kz rb ) and weak space-
4 T^x=m
b p?
charge ( ! 0 ) to reduce to a little known class of ?
1 =0
r @r @r
coupled k modes. These modes have Æ / Æ n within the
2
+ !^p (rb r) mp @p@ + ikz 2
2 2
; (5) 1 2 beam and
? ? p? =2m=Tx
= 8n(n!^p+ 1) (kz rb )
2 Z 2
2 Pn(cos x):
dx
( )
where x is the Heaviside step-function, and 1 and 2
2 2
0
are equilibrium orbit integrals defined by
Z Z 0
In general, a large nmax truncation will result a high-
kz2 Tz
1 = 2 1d
i m
i
d order polynomial dispersion relation with many branches;
some of which describe low-order modes and others, high-
2 order modes. One takes nmax sufficiently large to accu-
Æ [~r ( )] exp k2zmTz i
; 2
(6) rately represent modes of interest, but small enough to re-
Z Z 0 duce the number of branches and facilitate mode identifica-
kz2 Tz
2 = i
2 1d Æ [~r( )] exp 2m i
:
d 2 tion. Instabilities arise in parameter regimes where two or
more branches of “collide” and coalesce. Unfortunately,
Here, Tx 2T^x (1 r =rb ),
! kz vb , and the equilib-
many of these instabilities, particularly higher-order ones,
2 2
are associated with unphysical features of the KV model10.
rium characteristics are defined by r~ ( ) r cos ( ) + 2 2 2
Nevertheless, we believe that a low-order confluent branch
(rp? =m ) cos( ) sin(2 ) + (p?=m ) sin ( ). 2 2
where the T2 and L2 branches coalesce describes the insta-
Equation (5) is a difficult integro-differential equation bilities observed in Sec. 2. This low-order T2 -L2 confluent
that must be solved for
and Æ simultaneously. Wang and branch may also represent a non-pathological KV instabil-
5
Smith derived the dispersion relation corresponding to Eq.
(5) in the limit of infinite thermal anisotropy (Tz =T^x ! 0
ity that persists for more realistic (non-singular) equilib-
rium distribution functions.
by coupling together earlier transverse solutions (Tz = 0 Comparisons between the confluent T2 -L2 mode branch
and kz = 0) by Gluckstern for kz 6= 0. In this procedure
11
and simulations are presented in Figs. 3 and 4. All sim-
Æ is expanded within the beam (0 r rb ) as ulations were seeded from noise and it is assumed that a
1 single unstable mode dominates the evolution. In the the-
Æ r ( ) = Æ (r = rb ) +
X
An Æ n r ; () (7) ory, an nmax =4 truncation was employed. In Fig. 3, the
n=1 radial eigenfunction Æ of the T2 -L2 mode (kz selected for
maximum growth rate) is compared with simulation and
where Æ n r ( ) = (1 2)[
= Pn 1 r2 =rb2 Pn (1 2 ) + (1 0
? (kz ! ) theory for =0 = 0 45
: and rp =rb =2.
2 2
r =rb2
)]
is an nth order ? Gluckstern eigenfunction, Note that the T2 -L2 has similar structure to the ? T2 mode,
()
Pn x is a nth order Legendre Polynomial, and Æ r rb ( = ) but has finite amplitude at the beam edge (r =rb ) and is
is the potential at the beam edge (generally nonzero). The unstable, in contrast to the ? mode. Also in contrast to
expansion coefficients An generally depend on kz and
the ? T2 mode, where Æ 2 is independent of ! , the ra-
and satisfy recursion relations, which together with an in- dial structure of Æ varies with
and kz for the T2 -L2
=
terface (r rb ) jump condition on Æ , yields a dispersion mode. In Fig. 4 the normalized axial wavenumber, oscil-
relation expressible in terms of an infinite determinant. lation frequency, and growth rate of the T2 -L2 mode is
Approximate numerical solutions to this dispersion rela- compared to the simulation results over the range of space-
tion can be found by truncating the series [n < nmax in 03 05
charge strength : =0 : . The theory curves
Eq. (7)] to obtain a finite determinant dispersion relation5 . were generated employing the wavenumber kz rb with max-
Solutions for =0
! =( )
kz rb =0 are parameterized imum Im
=0 growth rate at specified =0 . The spreads
by =0 , kz rb , and rb =rp . The number of distinct mode about the simulation points indicate measurement uncer-
branches found is nmax nmax ( or nmax 2
+ 2) (
for + 1) 04
tainties. For =0 : the theory agrees reasonably well
nmax even or odd. The branches are characterized ac- with the simulations outside of a slightly lower simulated
cording to their limiting properties. For kz rb ! , 0 growth rate that is likely due to the finite axial temperature
(
nmax nmax + 1)
branches corresponding to nth order ? 0 01 ^
employed in the simulations (initial Tz < : Tx). For
Gluckstern modes11 are found (labeled Tn ) with Æ / 04
=0 < : , low-order KV instabilities of the T2 , T3 , and
Æ n for r rb and Æ =0
for r rb . Properties T4 ? Gluckstern modes10 may produce the systematic de-
of this ? limit dispersion relation have been described viations observed from the results predicted by the T2 -L2
375
branch. Extension into this strong space-charge regime will quency ( Re
Im
). The unstable mode has an
likely require systematic mode seeding to avoid exciting ^
anisotropy (initial value of Tz =Tx ) dependent threshold in
such unphysical ? KV instabilities. Approximate expres- space-charge strength (=0 ) and saturates when the k tem-
sions for the mode density, temperature, and flow velocity ^
perature (Tz ) is a fraction of the ? temperature (Tx ). Since
perturbations have been derived from a fluid theory10 (us- k accelerative cooling and ? emittance increases can con-
ing the kinetic theory dispersion relation) for use in future tribute to the anisotropy that drives the instability, the mode
mode seeding studies. needs to be better understood to access impact on machine
design. The energy exchange associated with the instability
leads to decreased ? emittance with increased k momen-
1.25
tum spread. Whether this effect is beneficial or harmful
del_phi(r)/del_phi(r=0)
0.75
0.5 will depend on the details of a particular application. Pos-
0.25
sible consequences of the instability can be estimated by
0
assuming that Tz remains saturated during transport at a
-0.25
-0.5
^
set fraction of Tx if significant ?-k anisotropy would have
-0.75
0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 developed in the absence of the unstable mode. Equiparti-
r/r_b tioned design concepts have also been applied to bunched
Figure 3: Eigenfunction comparisons for simulation beams in rf linacs12 , where the ? and k focusing can be
(solid), 3D T2 -L2 confluent mode theory (dotted), and ? adjusted to maintain equilibration. Proper modeling this
T2 mode theory (dashed). instability also has implications for simulations, since it re-
quires the resolution of short axial wavelengths in simula-
7
tions of long, “unbunched” beams.
Axial Wavenumber, k_z * r_b
6 X
5
X
X
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
X X
4
O
The authors wish to acknowledge useful conversations
3 with J.J. Barnard, R.C. Davidson, and E.P. Lee.
2
1 5 REFERENCES
0
0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
0.5 [1] A. Friedman, D.A. Callahan, D.P. Grote, A.B. Langdon, and
Oscillation Freq., Re[ Omega/nu_0 ]
X I. Haber, “Studies of Equilibration Processes in Heavy-Ion
0.4
X X X
Fusion Beams,” Bull. Am. Phys. Soc. 35(9), 2121 (1990).
0.3 O
X
[2] D.A. Callahan, “Simulations of Longitudinal Beam Dynam-
0.2 ics of Space-Charge Dominated Beams for Heavy Ion Fu-
0.1
sion,” Ph.D. Thesis, University of California, Davis, 1994.
0
[3] I. Haber, D.A. Callahan, A. Friedman, D.P. Grote, and A.B.
0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
0.2
Langdon, J. Fusion Eng. Design 32, 159 (1996).
Growth Rate, Im[ Omega/nu_0 ]
0.175 [4] I. Haber, D.A. Callahan, A. Friedman, D.P. Grote, S.M.
0.15
X
Lund, and T.-F. Wang, “Characteristics of an Electrostatic
0.125 O
0.1
X
X
X
Instability Driven by Transverse-Longitudinal Temperature
0.075
X
Anisotropy,” Nuc. Inst. Meth., in press (1998).
0.05
[5] T.F. Wang and L. Smith, Part. Accel. 12, 247 (1996).
0.025
0
0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
[6] M. Reiser, Theory and Design of Charged Particle Beams
Tune Depression, nu/nu_0
(John Wiley, New York, 1994), and references therein.
[7] I. Hofmann, Phys. Rev. E 57, 4713 (1998).
Figure 4: Normalized mode axial wavenumber (kz rb ), os-
cillation frequency ( =0 ), and growth rate ( =0 ) Re
Im
[8] S.M. Lund, J.J. Barnard, G.D. Craig, A. Friedman, D.P.
Grote, H.S. Hopkins, T.C. Sangster, W.M. Sharp, S. Eylon,
verses tune depression (=0 ) from theory and simulation. T.J. Fessenden, E. Henestroza, S. Yu, and I. Haber, “Numer-
ical Simulation of Intense-Beam Experiments at LLNL and
4 CONCLUSIONS LBNL,” Nuc. Inst. Meth., in press (1998).
Simulation and theory have been presented characterizing [9] E.P. Lee, in Heavy Ion Inertial Fusion, M. Reiser, T. Godlove,
an electrostatic instability that can transfer thermal energy and R. Bangerter, Eds. (American Institute of Physics, New
from the ? to the k directions for an intense, unbunched York, NY, 1986; AIP Conference Proceedings 152), p. 461.
beam with sufficient thermal anisotropy (Tz =Tx < ). ^ 1 [10] S.M. Lund and R.C. Davidson, “Warm-Fluid Description of
General features of this instability are insensitive to the Intense Beam Equilibrium and Electrostatic Stability Proper-
ties,” Phys. Plasmas, in press (1998).
specific form of the applied focusing and initial distribu-
tion, and therefore, a ? KV model was used to explore [11] R.L. Gluckstern, in Proceedings of the 1970 Proton Linear
Accelerator Conference, Batavia, IL, edited by M.R. Tracy
the idealized mode structure. The instability has short ax-
ial wavelength ( rb ) with growth rates and oscilla-
(National Accelerator Laboratory, Batavia, IL, 1971), p. 811.
[12] M. Reiser and N. Brown, Phys. Rev. Lett. 74, 1111 (1995).
tion frequencies comparable to the depressed betatron fre-
376
DECELERATING AND ACCELERATING RFQS
A.M. Lombardi
PS Division, CERN, 1211 Geneva 23, Switzerland
Abstract
2 (ACCELERATING) RFQS
This paper presents an overview of RFQ working
The RFQ is a linear accelerator that focuses, bunches,
principles, highlights the relevant parameters and
and accelerates a continuous beam of charged particles:
summarises the different design approaches for the high,
all three functions are performed by the electrical radio-
medium and low intensity cases. Attention is then
frequency (RF) field. The RFQ consists of a cylindrical
focussed on the beam dynamics design in decelerating
cavity resonating in the TE21 mode with four electrodes
RFQs and, in particular, on how to cope with the intrinsic
placed along the direction of propagation of the beam,
problems of deceleration (e.g. physical emittance increase
which present a longitudinal modulation. The four-fold
and reduction of the longitudinal stable area). Fields of
symmetry provides an alternating focussing channel, and
application for decelerating RFQs and their advantages
the longitudinal modulation produces a field in the
with respect to conventional decelerating techniques will
direction of propagation, which bunches and accelerates
also be highlighted. The beam dynamics of the RFQD,
the beam. A sketch of an RFQ is reported in Fig. 1, with
the post decelerator for the CERN Antiproton Decelerator
characteristic parameters indicated. The ratio between the
(AD) ring, will be presented in detail. This RFQ is
focusing and the acceleration, the bunching and
intended to decelerate the 5.3 MeV antiproton beam
accelerating rates and the synchronicity between the
coming from the AD down to an energy of virtually zero.
longitudinal field and the beam are determined by the
Several decelerating schemes have been studied to fit the
geometry of the electrodes, i.e. the aperture, the
experimenters' need for a high quality beam with the final
modulation and the distance between peaks and troughs
energy varying in the range 0 to 100 keV. Various
on the electrode surface. Once the electrodes are
potential solutions will be presented and discussed, with
machined, the RFQ is a “one-button” machine, as only
particular attention given to the intended approach.
the power going into the cavity can be varied. This
feature, while making the RFQ easy to operate,
necessitates a rigorous design phase and has given rise to
the development of powerful computer codes to simulate
1 INTRODUCTION the beam dynamics [4].
The idea of a Radio Frequency Quadrupole Accelerator
(RFQ) was born in 1970 in Russia [1,2]. Its highlights
are: an alternating-gradient velocity-independent focusing
and a remarkable efficiency in bunching and accelerating
a continuous low energy ion beam while preserving the
transverse beam quality. The efficiency of an RFQ for
injection into a Drift Tube Linac can reach values as high
as 90% - making it extremely attractive when compared
to the 50% attainable with standard quadrupoles-and-
bunchers transfer lines. It has become the key machine
for attaining high-current low-emittance beams.
Nowadays there are more than 100 RFQ accelerators in
βλ
beta * lambda
operation, mainly as H+,H- and heavy ion injectors but longitudinal radius of
curvature (phol)
also in medical facilities, material research and material
production facilities. Recently the physicist community long. radius of
manifested an interest [3] in using an RFQ to post- curvature
decelerate a beam coming from a ring to energies of some
ten keV. This could potentially broaden the range of
application of such a machine, as the theoretical modulation(m) x aperture
deceleration efficiency is one to two orders of magnitude aperture (a)
modulation x aperture
higher than the more widespread degrader foil technique. aperture
beam axis
Figure 1: Sketch of an RFQ structure (top) and electrode
microstructure (bottom).
377
2.1 Basic parameters and initial choices focussing parameter frequencies lower than 200 MHz are
more indicated for ions or very-high-current proton
For sake of completeness a list of the RFQ basic beams while higher frequency (300-400MHz) are more
parameters [5,6,7] used throughout this paper is reported suitable for protons.
in the following. The maximum field on the vane-tip (and the maximum
• The focussing parameter: voltage between the electrodes) influences the
q V I o (ka) + I o (mka) acceleration rate (and consequently the length of the
B = 2
2 2
RFQ) and the probability of breakdown. The Kilpatrick
0
m f a m I o
(ka ) + I o
(mka) field [8] gives a guideline: values up to 2 Kilpatrick are
commonly used for low-duty-cycle machines but require
linked to the phase advance per focussing period:
a careful surface cleaning and RF conditioning.
B 2 πqE0T sin (ϕ )λ 3Z 0 qIλ3 (1 − f ( p ) ) The minimum and maximum modulation, which define
σ= − −
8π 2 mo c 2 βγ 3 8πmo c 2γ 3r 2b the minimum and maximum acceleration rate, are
determined by machining limitation. For standard
machining ρl should be bigger than some 5 mm.
• The accelerating efficiency: The phase advance per focussing period is a measure of
m2 −1 the transverse stability [5] and it should be set at a value
A =
m 2 Io (ka ) + Io (m ka )
between 20 and 40 degrees.
linked to the effective accelerating field:
2 π 2.2 Design recipes
E0T = AV ( )
β ⋅λ 4 Designing an RFQ co-ordinates three aspects: the
mechanic design, the RF design and electrode profile
• The longitudinal radius of curvature design. The field pattern in the beam region is given by
A ⋅ k ⋅ ro2 ⋅ I 1 (mka) − 2 ⋅ m ⋅ a the electrode micro-structure; the beam dynamics depend
ρl = − mainly on the electrode design, which is the only aspect
Ak 2 ro2 I o (mka) this paper deals with.
An RFQ is conceptually divided into four sections [9]:
which determines the maximum dimension of the cutting the Radial Matching Section (R.M.S.), the shaper, the
tool. gentle buncher, and the accelerator. In the R.M.S. (4-6
cells) the focussing parameter is tapered up to its final
In the above: a=bore radius, b=the average beam value in order to adapt the beam to a time-dependent
length, β,γ=relativistic parameters, c=speed of light, f= rf focussing system. In the shaper the longitudinal field is
frequency, I=beam current, I0,1=zero,first order Bessel slowly increased in order to form the beam longitudinal
function, k=wave number, λ=wavelength, m=electrode structure. The shaper determines the final value of the
modulation, m0=rest mass, f(p)= geometrical factor, longitudinal emittance: a smooth shaping (over several
p=ratio of the transverse beam dimensions, q=charge, r= cells, up to 20-40) guarantees a small output longitudinal
average transverse beam dimension, r0=average bore, emittance. In the gentle buncher the synchronous phase is
V=vane voltage, Z0=free-space impedance (376.73 adiabatically changed towards a stable accelerating phase,
Ohm). the beam is bunched and its energy gradually increased.
The end of the gentle buncher, where the modulation is
maximum and the aperture minimum, defines the
There are several factors that influence the choice of transverse acceptance. Finally, in the accelerator the
the basic parameters of an RFQ and each RFQ is a phase, aperture, and modulation are kept constant while
“special” case. the beam is brought to the final energy. An exit matching
The beam-dynamics quality factors are mainly the section can then be added to adapt the beam to the
beam output quality (transverse and longitudinal downstream user needs. The laws of change of the
emittance, intensity), the current limit and the sensitivity defining parameters (aperture, modulation and phase)
to input condition, mechanical alignment and to the RF determine the transition between the different sections in
field quality (flatness, frequency stability,..). Several the RFQ. The smoother the transition the better the output
other “external” factor can influence the RFQ design as beam quality but also the longer the RFQ.
e.g. budget, availability of RF power and frequency of the A fundamental issue when choosing an RFQ design
downstream accelerator. Additionally, the structure length “recipe” arises from space charge effects. These are
is always an issue, not only because of cost but also difficult to address in the design phase as they strongly
couple the longitudinal and the transverse dynamics. As a
because of machining and alignment concerns.
consequence it is not possible to separate bunching and
Frequency is a fundamental design consideration as it acceleration because the space-charge force increase, due
strongly influences the focussing power and the length of to bunching, must be compensated by acceleration. This
the RFQ. Due to the strong frequency dependence of the imposes an extremely smooth transition both between the
378
“shaping” and the “bunching” as well as between the
“bunching” and the “acceleration”. The result is that for 3 DECELERATING RFQS
the same beam energy increase the high-intensity RFQs
turn out to be longer than the corresponding low-intensity The concept of a decelerating RFQ is fundamentally
one and that an emittance increase is unavoidable (due to different than that of a “reversed” accelerator. The main
bunching in the presence of space charge). During the difference lies in the fact that the process of shaping and
design phase a careful trade-off between RFQ length and bunching the incoming beam can not just simply be done
emittance increase has to be chosen. For low-intensity in reverse. This is not only for the inconvenience of
RFQs it is possible to have a fast pre-bunching section, generating an unreasonably long structure but also
and a boosting section (before acceleration) where the because of the fact that the longitudinal critical point
synchronous phase and modulation are varied very (minimum bucket stable area) is located at the last cell of
rapidly. Typical designs for a high and for a low intensity the machine. Therefore a completely different
RFQ are shown in Fig. 2. Both these RFQs are currently longitudinal approach needs to be applied to a decelerator
operating at CERN and their nominal performances have
RFQ.
been attained [10,11].
2 0
3.1 Longitudinal dynamics and the need for a
1.8 -10 matcher
1.6 -20 The stable motion in the longitudinal phase space in
any linear accelerator can be described as an oscillation
1.4 -30
modulation around the synchronous phase and energy along a
1.2 -40 characteristic pattern. Stable patterns lie within a
a (cm),m
phi (deg)
1 -50
separatrix [7]. In the case of an RFQ the maximum
aperture
energy excursion of a particle moving along the
0.8 -60
separatrix can be expressed as:
0.6 -70
0.4
synchronous phase
-80 ∆W = 2 ⋅ Ws ⋅ V ⋅ A ⋅ (ϕ s ⋅ cos( ϕ s ) − sin( ϕ s ))
0.2 -90
and the phase excursion (ϕ) follows
0 -100
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
z (cm)
sin( ϕ ) − ϕ
tg (ϕ s ) =
1 − cos(ϕ )
3 0
-10
where Ws is the synchronous energy, and the rest has the
2.5
synchronousphase -20 same meaning as in Section 2.1
Due to the energy dependence, the stable area shrinks
-30
2 during the deceleration process and the separatrix of the
modulation -40 last decelerating cell defines the acceptance of the
a (cm),m
phi (deg)
1.5 -50
machine. Hence the first design criterion for an RFQ
decelerator is to maximise the expression above at the last
-60
cell by 1) choosing the highest vane voltage that the
1
-70 sparking limit allows and 2) keeping the accelerating
factor (A) as high as machining limits allow. The phase
-80
0.5
aperture
should be kept as close as possible to -180°. This first
-90 criterion determines the vane voltage and the aperture and
0 -100
modulation of the last cell. The design of the RFQ starts
0 50 100 150 200 250 then from the high-energy end: the modulation of the first
z (cm)
cell is set to a high value (between 2 and 3) and the
aperture to a value that gives the desired transverse phase
Figure 2: Evolution of modulation, aperture and advance per focussing period. From here the RFQ is
synchronous phase along the axis for (top) CERN RFQ2 generated cell-by-cell with the following procedure: with
(200 mA protons, 90-750 keV, 200 MHz) and (bottom) a fixed minimum acceptable longitudinal radius of
for CERN LEAD ION RFQ (100 µA lead ions, 2.5-250 curvature (ρl), the maximum allowable modulation is
keV/u, 100 MHz) chosen. The aperture is tentatively set to keep the
focussing constant, although it can be changed to allow
for a higher accelerating efficiency. With this method a
rough design for the RFQ is generated. This is then
379
refined by tuning the parameters of each individual cell to
optimise locally: 1) the transverse phase advance per 3.2 Transverse dynamics
focussing period; 2) the maximum field on the vane-tip, The transverse dynamics in a decelerator RFQ poses
and; 3) the smoothing of abrupt changes in aperture fewer problems than the longitudinal one as the process
and/or modulation. can be reversed. A standard R.M.S. can be employed at
Once the design of the decelerating part is complete, the beginning. The physical emittance increases during
the next step is to determine the longitudinal matched deceleration, and the focussing period is shortened
condition: the separatrix at the last cell is traced proportionally to the beam velocity. The phase advance
backwards to the input of the RFQ. This assumes that the per focussing period (σt) is tentatively kept constant so
points of the boundary rotate counter-clockwise around that the beam envelope is constant along the decelerator.
the synchronous phase and synchronous energy with a Conversely the divergence of the decelerated beam
cell-by-cell angular velocity given by the longitudinal increases. In the critical points where σt can not be kept
phase advance. The backtracked stable area defines the constant due to the more stringent longitudinal constraint,
“decelerating acceptance”: only the particles falling in some extra cells are inserted to provide a smooth
this area are successfully decelerated. It should be transition. This fix has been proved sufficient, in absence
stressed that the decelerating acceptance is only a small of space charge, for avoiding emittance increase due to
fraction of the separatrix at the high-energy end and is not mismatch.
necessarily upright. The RFQ decelerator system Due to the strong beam divergence at low energy an
therefore needs a front-end longitudinal matching section. exit matcher, to make the beam round as it exits the RFQ,
This task can be accomplished by an adiabatic buncher facilitates the transport from the RFQ.
system (for example a special shaping section of an RFQ) The RFQ is an effective focussing channel also for
or by a discrete buncher system (conventional RF cavity). particles outside the longitudinal acceptance, which exit
In general it is more convenient to use a discrete from the machine un-decelerated.
bunching system - the long RFQ cell length that goes with
the high energy and the number of such cells typically 4 THE RFQD
required for smooth shaping would result in an
unreasonably long machine. The ASACUSA collaboration [3] is planning to use the
The efficiency of an RFQ decelerator is determined by antiproton beam coming from the CERN AD ring [12] for
its front-end longitudinal matching system. The gas target and trap experiments. The 5.3 MeV beam
longitudinal output-beam quality depends instead on the coming from the ring should be post-decelerated with as-
decelerating rate at the lower energies: the faster the wide-as-possible energy variability around 50keV. The
deceleration rate the better. This can be explained by the acceptable output energy spread is ±5 keV and the beam
fact that the beam, towards the lower energies, gets closer dimensions, a few mm.
and closer to the separatrix line and moves along an
4.1 Proposed decelerating schemes
unstable path with the characteristic shape of a golf club
(reversed in this case, see Fig. 3). The energy deceleration from 5.3 MeV to 50 keV is
quite large: the longitudinal decelerating acceptance is 10
times smaller than the separatrix at the high energy. The
possible frequencies (availability and expertise at CERN)
are 200 or 100 MHz: 100 MHz makes the designing
easier but would also result in an extremely long machine.
Optimisation following the criteria of Section 3 has led
to the conclusion that, for a frequency of 200 MHz, the
minimum energy attainable with acceptable beam quality
is 50 keV. The decelerator length is about 4 meters; the
equivalent structure at 100 MHz would be double this
length, making it unattractive. A RF cavity performs the
front-end longitudinal matching.
Some extra device must provide the energy variability,
as the RFQ itself does not have this capability. Several
set-ups have been considered [13], amongst which the
most representative are:
Figure 3: Characteristic path followed by particles at the • A 200 MHz RFQ decelerator to 80 keV followed by
boundary of the decelerating acceptance (stable particles a double gap RF cavity. Energy variability: 30-
have been removed from the plot for sake of clarity). 130keV. The design of the double gap buncher is
PARMULT [4] simulation result.
380
3 6
quite challenging due to the poor efficiency for a 200
MHz cavity at low energies. modulation
• Use two frequencies: a high-energy section (till 400 2.5 5
keV) at 200 MHz, a low-energy section at 100 MHz.
Energy variability: 10-140,300-500 keV. This is the 2 4
best-performing solution but requires a longer drift energy
a(cm), m
W(MeV)
length between the pre-buncher and the RFQ. 1.5 3
• The RFQ tank would be divided in two sections
independently powered and phased, the second one 1 2
with flat electrodes. The first part of the RFQ would
decelerate the antiproton down to 100 keV, the
0.5 1
potential drop between the wall of the second cavity
and the electrodes would provide energy variability aperture
in the range 80-120 keV. 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
0
• An RFQ decelerator to 60 keV, whose inner z (m)
structure, mounted on a ceramic insulator, can be Figure 4: Modulation, aperture and synchronous energy
raised to a DC voltage of ± 60 keV. This solution
along the decelerator RFQ
gives energy variability in the range 10-110 keV with
excellent beam quality for all the output energies.
6 REFERENCES
The beam quality and the cost are comparable for all [1] I. M. Kapchinskii and V. A. Teplvakov, Prib.Tekh. Eksp. No. 2,
the solutions; the variation in the energy range, however, 19 (1970).
is quite different. The last solution was eventually chosen [2] I. M. Kapchinskii and V. A. Teplvakov, Prib.Tekh. Eksp. No. 4,
based on its simplicity and the advantage of bringing the 17 (1970).
beam to an energy of virtually zero. It will be described in [3] T. Azuma et al., “Atomic Spectroscopy And Collisions Using
more detail in the next section. Slow Antiprotons,” ASACUSA Collaboration, CERN/SPSC 97-
19, CERN/SPSC P-307 (1997).
4.2 The chosen solution [4] K.R.Crandall, J.H.Billen, R.S.Mills, D.L.Schrage, R.H.Stokes,
Particles coming from the ring at 5.3 MeV and with an G.H.Neuschaefer, T.P.Wangler and L.M.Young,”RFQ design
energy spread of 0.2% and an overall physical emittance codes”,LA-UR-96-1836.
[5] T.P.Wangler, ”Space charge limits in linear accelerator”, LA-
of 10π mm mrad are bunched by a coaxial TEM resonator
8388 (Los Alamos).
loaded with double gap with an effective voltage of 47 [6] R.H.Stokes and T.P.Wangler, ”Radio Frequency Quadrupole and
keV. The drift (6.15 m) to the RFQ contains magnetic their applications”,Annual Rev. of Nuclear and Particle Science ,
elements to match the beam to the RFQ transverse 1989.
acceptance. The voltage and the length of the drift are [7] M.Weiss, “ Radio Frequency Quadrupole”, CERN-PS/87-51,
CAS Aarhus,(1986).
optimised to maximise the number of particles in the RFQ
[8] W.D. Kilpatrick, “Criterion for Vacuum Sparking Designed to
decelerating acceptance. The RFQ, a four-rod structure, is Include both rf and dc,” Rev. Scient. Instr. 28 (10), 824-826
3.44 m long and it decelerates the beam to 63 keV. The (1957).
structure holding the electrodes can be raised to a [9] K.R. Crandall, R.H.Stokes and T.P.Wangler, “ RF Quadrupole
potential (± 60 keV) to further accelerate/decelerate the Beam dynamics Design study”, Proceedings of LINAC79,
beam as it exits the RFQ. A corrector cavity, identical to Montauk, Sept. 10-14, 1979, 205-216 (1979).
the one at the beginning of the line, placed at the RFQ [10] C.E. Hill, A.M. Lombardi, W. Pirkl, E. Tanke, M. Vretenar,
entrance, counteracts the unwanted electrostatic effect at “Performance of the CERN Linac2 with a High Intensity Proton
RFQ” Proc. 1994 Linear Accelerator Conference, Tsukuba, 175-
the input. This cavity can also correct for small variations
177, 1994.
in the input beam energy. [11] G. Bezzon et al. “Construction and commissioning of the RFQ for
The normalised transverse emittance is constant along the CERN Lead-Ion Facility”, Proc. 1994 Linear Accelerator
the RFQ, and 46% of the incoming particles are Conference, Tsukuba, 722-724, 1994.
decelerated within ± 5 keV of the nominal energy. The [12] S. Baird et al., “The Antiproton Decelerator: AD” CERN/PS 97-36
RFQ defining parameters are given in Fig. 4. (HP), 1997
[13] W.Pirkl editor, “Feasibility Study Of A Decelerating Radio
5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Frequency Quadrupole System For The Antiproton Decelerator
I would like to acknowledge the constant guidance and AD”, CERN/PS/HP Note 97-36 (1997).
support of the RFQ-section leader W. Pirkl, and the
invaluable contributions of B. Couturier and F.
Grandclaude.
381
A LOW-CHARGE-STATE CW RFQ
K. W. Shepard, M. Kedzie, and R. A. Kaye
Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, Illinois 60439 USA
Adapting ATLAS to radioactive beams requires devel-
Abstract opment of a low-charge-state injector capable of main-
A two-meter long, 12 MHz RFQ has operated cw at taining the good features of ATLAS. The design of the
an intervane voltage above 100 kV, the voltage required entire injector system has been discussed elsewhere [2,3].
to accelerate singly-charged ions of mass 132. The pro- This paper discusses the design and development of the
totype unit is the first of three that will be required to entrance section [4].
provide for efficient injection of exotic beams into the For heavy ions of charge state 1+ and energies of a
existing ATLAS heavy-ion linac, while maintaining the few hundred keV, an electric quadrupole provides the
high beam quality characteristic of ATLAS beams. The strongest possible transverse focusing, and thus the great-
room-temperature, normal conducting RFQ utilizes in- est possible transverse acceptance. This consideration
dium gasketed joints, originally developed for the super- dictates the choice of an RFQ structure for the entrance
conducting resonators of ATLAS, to maintain good vac- section. The primary technical challenge arises from the
uum, thermal, and rf properties while permitting a highly requirement of maintaining substantially smaller longitu-
modular design. Another unusual feature of the design dinal emittance than is typical for an RFQ.
was the use of aluminum for the main structure, which
was electroplated with 100 microns of silver to minimize 2 DESIGN FEATURES AND
rf losses in critical areas. Preparations are currently un-
PARAMETERS
derway for beam tests to be performed later this year.
The RFQ design parameters are shown in Table 1.
1 INTRODUCTION These parameters provide for our initial development
goal of producing high-quality beams of singly-charged
The superconducting heavy-ion accelerator ATLAS ions as heavy as mass 132. Ions of less mass can then be
can provide ion beams of any mass, including uranium,
accommodated by turning down the RFQ operating volt-
with state-of-the-art beam quality, particularly with re-
age.
spect to longitudinal emittance [1]. A related character-
The split-coaxial geometry was chosen since it has al-
istic of ATLAS is very large transverse acceptance. Be-
ready been shown to be suitable for very low frequencies
cause of these characteristics, ATLAS is highly suitable
[5], and to maximize the aperture of the device, we want
for the task of accelerating radioactive ion beams [2,3].
the RFQ to operate at as low a frequency as practicable.
ATLAS is presently injected by an electron cyclotron
In this way we both maximize the transverse acceptance
resonant (ECR) ion source capable of producing high
and also minimize longitudinal emittance growth.
charge-state ions, for example uranium 26+ [1]. For
The primary reason we chose to inject the RFQ with a
hard-to-produce exotic species, however, we require the
pre-bunched beam was to maintain a smaller longitudinal
use of more efficient ion sources, which produce singly-
emittance than results from bunching within the RFQ
charged ions. For such charge states obtaining sufficient
transverse focussing to maintain good beam quality be-
comes problematic, particularly for the heavier ions.
Table 1: RFQ Design Parameters
Parameter Value
Frequency 12.125 MHz
Structure Split-coaxial
Voltage (vane-vane) 100 kV
Peak Electric Field 12.8 MV/m
Minimum Aperture 8 mm radius
Modulation Factor 1.5
132 1+
Benchmark Beam Sn
Entrance Energy 378 keV
Exit Energy 1508 keV
Number of cells 44
Length 222 cm
Synchronous phase -30 degrees
Figure 1: Section of 12 MHz split-coaxial RFQ
382
where the use of aluminum would possibly increase
sparking and reduce the maximum attainable voltage.
Aluminum is appreciably inferior to copper or silver
as an rf conductor. To reduce rf losses, those areas of the
RFQ supporting high rf currents were electroplated with a
100 micron thick layer of silver.
3.1 Demountable Indium Gasket Joint
The demountable joint used was developed more than
two decades ago: several thousand such seals have been
used in the superconducting cavities and cryogenic
plumbing of the ATLAS accelerator. The design has been
found to provide a highly reliable seal with good vacuum
and thermal properties. The rf losses in metal to metal
joints formed in this way are known to be small from
Figure 2: Two-meter long vertical vane pair. direct measurement in superconducting cavities.
A section of a typical gasketed joint is shown in Fig-
structure [6]. There are several additional benefits from ure 3. The gasket is 1.6 mm diameter, high-purity indium
pre-bunching. By separating out the bunching function, wire. One surface of the joint is planar. The opposing
the entire length of the RFQ can be used for acceleration, surface is grooved to hold the indium wire, the groove
providing more voltage gain. A less obvious benefit re- having a cross-sectional area typically 65% of the wire
sults from the fact that the split-coaxial structure is char- cross-section. A key feature of the seal design is that the
acterized by a voltage offset at entrance and exit of half region to either side of the indium groove is relieved.
the vane-vane voltage. With a pre-bunched beam, we are The relief provides that when the mating surfaces are
able to make use of the voltage offset by attaching a drift clamped together, excess indium is extruded into the re-
lief volume. In this way, the compressed area is well-
tube to the high-voltage vane pair at both the entrance
defined and limited in size. The loading on the seal is
and the exit of the RFQ. The two drift tubes provide ap-
uniform, and the flow of indium when the seal is made up
preciable accelerating field, and increase the voltage gain proceeds rapidly, with a short relaxation time.
through the structure by more than 20%.
3 MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION
Figure 1 shows a section of the cavity. The structure
is fabricated as several elements which are demountably
joined using an indium-gasket seal described in more
detail below. All elements are of 6061 aluminum, except
for the RFQ vane tips which are formed of copper. As-
sembling the cavity from several elements greatly simpli-
fies the machining and forming of the structure. Me-
chanical tolerances are effectively relaxed, since the
structure can be assembled and examined, then disassem-
bled and critical surfaces re-machined to correct me-
chanical misalignments or errors in rf tuning or field dis-
tribution.
A major sub-assembly, the vertical vane pair, is
shown in Figure 2. The two-meter long vanes are canti-
levered from the end flange which mounts at one end of
the cylindrical outer housing. The low density of alumi-
num permits massive, monolithic structural elements pro-
viding good thermal and mechanical stability, while
keeping mechanical resonant modes at high frequency.
This helps minimize the effects of ambient vibration on
the rf eigenfrequency.
Using a demountable joint to attach the vane tips pro-
vides several advantages. It is relatively inexpensive to Figure 3: Details of the indium gasket seal used to make
completely replace the vane tips, and by so doing modify a joint with good RF, thermal, and vacuum characteris-
virtually any RFQ beam parameter. Also, we can then tics.
use copper in the high electric field region of the cavity,
383
4 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND of rf power, sparking was first encountered at a vane-
DISCUSSION vane voltage of approximately 60 kV and the input power
was limited by outgassing. The cavity quickly condi-
Optical measurements following initial assembly indi- tioned up in voltage. After a few hours of conditioning
cate that the errors in transverse position of the vane tips the vacuum outgassing diminished and the RFQ could be
are everywhere less than 0.8 mm and the rms error is 0.5 operated above 100 kV. During initial tests, the RFQ was
mm. Note that the mean aperture is 20 mm, as is the vane operated continuously for some 90 minutes with the vane
thickness. The observed level of error is expected to be voltage between 100 and 108 kV and vacuum in the low
tolerable both for tuning and for the beam interaction. -6
10 torr range. Thermal stability of the RFQ during these
The definitive test, however, will be the planned meas- tests was excellent.
urements with beam. In the design phase, the performance of the RFQ was
When assembled, the rf eigenfrequency was found to projected using the Kilpatrick model. Figure 4 shows the
be 11.6 MHz. The loop-coupled tuner can bring the fre- frequency and gap dependent voltage limit (parallel-
quency up to 11.9 MHz, still slightly below the design plate) as originally put forward by Kilpatrick [7]. It
value of 12.125 MHz. For initial testing, and even testing should be noted that the often quoted value for the Kilpa-
with beam, this discrepancy is of no consequence. For trick limit is the asymptotic limit for large gaps from the
eventual use with the ATLAS linac, a slight change in the model shown in Figure 4. For most RFQ implementa-
vane tips will be required to tune to the design frequency. tions, the frequency is sufficiently high that typical vane
The measured intrinsic Q of the RFQ resonant cavity spacing is in the asymptotic region, where the gap de-
is 8863, a result that indicates the rf losses to be apprecia- pendence of the voltage limit can be ignored. As we have
bly less than were expected from earlier tests of a (nomi- shown both in the earlier in the half-scale model pulsed rf
nally) half-scale model [4]. This result implies that the rf tests [4] and also in the present 12 MHz cw result, the gap
loss properties of the silver plating are excellent, as is dependence is important in establishing the voltage limits
discussed further below. To operate at a vane to vane for very low frequency RFQ’s.
voltage of 100 kV, the RFQ requires 16.6 kW of rf input.
Because of the high Q, the 3 dB bandwidth is slightly
more than 1 kHz. In designing the RFQ, there was some
5 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE PLANS
concern that the effects of ambient acoustic noise might
induce troublesome fluctuations in the rf eigenfrequency. The basic design concepts, i.e., indium rf joints, silver-
Measured microphonic frequency jitter was less than 100 plated aluminum rf surfaces, demountable copper tips,
Hz peak to peak, a small fraction of the intrinsic band- etc. have proven feasible as evidenced by the voltages
width and too small to present any operational problems. achieved in initial tests of the low-charge-state RFQ.
Water cooling to the cavity was configured in nine
separate loops to enable calorimetric measurement of the
detailed distribution of rf power. The distribution, shown
in Table 2, was determined by measuring the flow rate
and temperature rise (typically 2 C) in each loop sepa-
rately. The summed total of calorimetric power agrees
quite well with the measured rf input power of 17.4 kW.
Of particular interest is the fact that one vane exhibits
40% higher rf loss than the other three. This result indi-
cates the critical nature of the plating process in obtaining
good rf performance.
Table 2: Calorimetrically measured RF heating
RFQ Element Calorimetric Power
Top Vane 2.75 kW
Right Vane 2.72 kW
Bottom Vane 2.86 kW
Left Vane 3.90 kW
Entrance End Flange 1.40 kW
Exit End Flange 1.61 kW
Housing 2.19 kW
Drive Loop 0.07 kW
Tuner Loop 0.87 kW
TOTAL 18.37 kW
The cavity vacuum is maintained by two 500 l/sec Figure 4: Sparking electric field limits in the Kilpatrick
turbopumps. With no baking, the vacuum in the cavity model, including electrode gap dependence.
reached 6.4 ·10-7 torr in 72 hours. On initial application
384
The vane voltages achieved are sufficient to permit
high-quality beams as heavy as uranium to be injected
into ATLAS. Although our initial design was for Sn132
beam with a transverse acceptance of 0.25 π·mm-mrad,
numerical simulation indicates that acceleration of ura-
nium with a transverse acceptance of 0.16 π·mm-mrad
while maintaining longitudinal emittance of a few keV-
nsec is possible with the voltages achieved.
A remaining development task is demonstration of the
expected transverse acceptance and longitudinal beam
quality by beam tests. Preparation for such tests are cur-
rently underway.
6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the help of John
Vincent in design of the 25 kW drive amplifier. Many
helpful discussions of RFQ design were held with Rolf
Muller, John Staples, and Alvin Schempp.
We are indebted to Pete Smith of Norbet Plating, Chi-
cago for electroplating the silver films that exhibited such
excellent properties. Also, Ed Bonnema and others at
Meyer Tool and Manufacturing were most helpful in fab-
rication of the prototype.
This work was supported by the U. S. Department of
Energy, Nuclear Physics Division, under contract number
W-31-109-ENG-38.
7 REFERENCES
[1] R. C. Pardo, et al., in the Proc. 1992 Linear Accel-
erator Conference, August 24-28, Ottawa, Ontario,
AECL-10728, p70 (1992).
[2] J. A. Nolen, in the Proc. 1995 IEEE Particle Accel-
erator Conference, May 1-5, Dallas, Texas,
95CH35843, p354 (1996)
[3] K. W. Shepard and J. W. Kim, in the Proc. 1995
IEEE Particle Accelerator Conference, May 1-5,
Dallas, Texas, 95CH35843, p1128 (1996).
[4] K. W. Shepard and W. C. Sellyey, in the Proceedings
of the 1996 Linear Accelerator Conference, 26-30
August, Geneva, Switzerland, p68 (1996).
[5] R. W. Muller, GSI Report GSI-90-25-ISSN 0171-
4546, (1990).
[6] F. J. Lynch, R. N. Lewis, L. M. Bollinger, W. Hen-
ning, and O. D. Despe, Nucl. Instr. and Meth. 159,
p245 (1979).
[7] W. D. Kilpatrick, Rev. Sci. Instr. 28, p824 (1957).
385
DESIGN OF THE 200-MEV PROTON LINAC
FOR THE JAPAN HADRON FACILITY
T. Kato and Y. Yamazaki
KEK, High Energy Accelerator Research Organization
1-1 Oho, Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki-ken, 305-0801, Japan
Abstract Tabel 1: Required main parameters of the linac
1-1 Oho, Initial Final
A 200-MeV proton linear accelerator for the JHF has Tsukuba-shi, stage stage
been designed [1][2]. A peak current of 30 mA with a 500 Ibaraki-ken, 305-
µsec pulse duration will be accelerated at a repetition rate 0801, Japan
of 25 Hz. The designed average current will be 200 µA at Particles H— H—
the beginning, and nearly 1 mA in the future. The linac Output energy 200 400 MeV
consists of a 3-MeV radio-frequency quadrupole linac Peak current 30 60 mA
(RFQ), a 50-MeV drift tube linac (DTL) and a 200-MeV Beam width 500 500 µsec
separated-type drift tube linac (SDTL) [3]. A frequency of Repetition rate 25 50 Hz
324 MHz has been chosen for all of the rf structures. A Average current 200 800 µA
future upgrade plan of up to 400 MeV is also being Length < 150 ~ 220 m
considered, in which annular-coupled structures (ACS) of Momentum spread ±0.1 ±0.1 %
972 MHz are to be used over an energy range of above
150 or 200 MeV. The balanced beam quality in both the
transverse and longitudinal motions is one of the main quadrupole magnets for the following DTL with sufficient
features of the design. It can be achieved both by using an focusing forces; (4) a transition energy of 150 or 200
equipartitioning focusing scheme and by adopting an MeV from the SDTL to the ACS has been selected in the
SDTL structure for the medium-energy range. upgrade plan; (5) the equipartitioning focusing method is
applied; and (6) klystrons are used for all of the
1 REQUIREMENTS accelerating structures.
The required main parameters for the JHF proton linac 2.2 Ion source and RFQ
are listed in Table 1. The construction plan of the linac
consists of two stages. An output energy of 200 MeV and A promising experimental result (a peak injection
a peak current of 30 mA with a pulse length of 500 µsec current of 13.2 mA with a 90% emittance of 0.55 πmm-
at a repetition rate of 25 Hz are required in the first stage mrad was accelerated in the RFQ with a transmission
of construction. The required momentum spread of the efficiency of 83%) was achieved in the preinjector system
output beam is ±0.1%. In order to reduce any beam losses
after injection into the ring and to achieve high-intensity Table 2: Parameters of the JHF 200-MeV proton linac
operation in the ring, a fast beam chopper in the low- (DTL and SDTL).
energy region is required. It is crucial for the fast
chopping system that the fraction of particles during the DTL SDTL
rising and falling times of the chopping pulse is very Frequency 324 324 MHz
small. Injection energy 3.0 50.3 MeV
Output energy 50.3 200.2 MeV
2 DESIGN OF THE LINAC Length (structure only) 26.7 65.6 m
Length (including drift space) 27.1 91.1 m
2.1 Design features Number of tank 3 31
Number of klystron 3 14
The design is summarized in Table 2. The features of
Rf driving power 3.3 16.6 MW
the design are as follows: (1) a frequency of 324 MHz
Total rf power (30 mA) 4.7 21.1 MW
has been chosen for all of the rf structures up to 200
MeV, resulting in no longitudinal transition; (2) an Total length 119.1 m
Total power (30 mA) 25.8 MW
SDTL has been chosen in the energy range from 50 to
Peak current 30 mA
200 MeV, resulting in a higher effective shunt
Beam width 500 µsec
impedance and a separation of the transverse transition at
Repetition rate 25 Hz
50 MeV from the longitudinal one at 200 MeV; (3) a 3-
Average current 200 µA
MeV RFQ has been chosen, resulting in the adoption of
chopping ratio ~0.56
409
Table 3: Parameters of the DTL. Table 4: Parameters of the SDTL.
Tank number 1 2 3
Length of unit tank 1.48 - 2.61 m
Output energy 19.7 36.7 50.3 MeV Number of tank 31
Length 9.9 9.4 7.3 m Number of cell 155
Number of cell 76 43 27 Rf driving power 0.34 - 0.71 MW
Rf driving power 1.06 1.17 1.06 MW Total rf power (30 mA) 0.46 - 0.86 MW
Total rf power (30 mA) 1.56 1.68 1.47 MW Accelerating field 3.75 MV/m
Accelerating field 2.5 2.7 2.9 MV/ Stable phase -26 degree
m Bore diameter 30 mm
Stable phase -30 -26 -26 degree
Bore diameter 13 22 26 mm 60
SDTL
50
ZTT (MΩ/ m )
(a volume production negative-hydrogen ion source and a 40 ACS
432-MHz RFQ) at KEK [4]. Therefore, a peak current of DTL
more than 30 mA from the ion source will be realized if 30
some increases in the transverse emittance are allowed. A 20
four-vane type 324-MHz RFQ has been designed [5]. It
accelerates ions from 50 keV to 3 MeV. The detailed 10
design is under development. 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
2.3 DTL Beta
Figure 1: Effective shunt impedance used for the JHF
A 324-MHz DTL accelerates beams from 3 to 50 MeV.
proton linac.
It consists of three post-stabilized tanks [6]. An
accelerating field of 2.5 MV/m is determined from the beam quality and the accelerating efficiency. Also, it was
viewpoints of satisfying the equipartitioning condition and pointed out that the ACS has more balanced characteristics
being sufficiently low for avoiding any discharge problem. concerning both the shunt impedance and the field
All drift tubes contain quadrupole magnets. Model symmetry [8]. A frequency of 972 MHz, three-times as
magnets of the hollow-conductor type with a magnetic- high as the fundamental frequency, and a transition energy
field gradient of 117 T/m were designed and successfully of above 150 or 200 MeV were selected. The fundamental
fabricated [7]. The parameters of the DTL are listed in RF issues concerning the ACS have already been solved,
Table 3. and a number of high-power RF tests using the 1296-
MHz prototype cavities were successfully performed [9].
2.4 SDTL Therefore, a future extension using a 972-MHz ACS will
be possible with some modification efforts.
A 324-MHz SDTL is adopted for medium-energy The effective shunt impedance for the three kinds of
acceleration from 50 to 200 MeV. Each tank consists of rf structures mentioned above is plotted in Fig. 1.
five unit cells. Since the focusing magnets (doublet) are
placed between two adjacent SDTL tanks, the shunt
impedance can be freely optimized without any 3 BEAM DYNAMICS
geometrical restriction from the quadrupole magnets,
A beam simulation was performed using the code
which are placed in the drift tubes in the conventional
LINSAC [10]: the code includes an accurate field
DTL system. There are many other advantages in the
distribution in an accelerating gap, and takes into account
SDTL system: the number of required focusing magnets
any space-charge effects by the particle-particle method. It
has been reduced, fabrication of drift tubes has become
includes all space harmonics into the calculation. Both the
easier, stabilizing devices are not necessary, and the
emittance growth and halo formation during acceleration
required alignment accuracy of the drift tubes and each
were carefully studied, since they are one of the main
tank has been reduced. The parameters of the SDTL are
issues in designing the high-intensity JHF proton linac.
listed in Table 4.
2.5 ACS 3.1 DTL and SDTL
Both the transverse and longitudinal focusing parameters
An extensive beam-dynamics calculation regarding an
were determined based on equipartitioning theory
upgrade of the output energy up to 400 MeV by using the
combined with coupled envelope equations for the bunched
CCL-type structure was performed [1]. It was concluded
beam [11][12][13]. The equipartitioning condition is
that an accelerator complex of DTL, SDTL and the ACS
approximately satisfied during acceleration in the design.
is a good choice from the viewpoints of both the output
Figure 2 shows both the transverse and longitudinal phase
410
60 Table 5: Parameters of the RF power source.
(1)
Phase advance (degree) 50 Repetition rate 50 Hz
(2) Pulse width 620 µsec
40
Number of klystrons 19
30 (3) Peak output power 2.0 MW
(4)
20
10 4 RF POWER SOURCE
0 A high-power rf system has been designed on the basis
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 of accumulated knowledge and experience during the
Beta construction and operation of the JHP test stand [17]. The
Figure 2: Phase advance in both the transverse ((1) 0 mA main parameters are listed in Table 5.
and (2) 30 mA) and longitudinal ((3) 0 mA and (4) 30
mA) phase spaces along the DTL vs. beta (v/c). ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to express their gratitude to M. Kihara
advances in the DTL. Two sets of normalized rms regarding his encouragement. They wish to express their
emittances at the entrance of the DTL were used in the gratitude to R. A. Jameson, K. Bongardt, S. Ohnuma, M.
simulation through the DTL and the SDTL (Type A: Mizumoto, L. V. Kravchuk, P. N. Ostroumov, V. V.
0.187 πmm-mrad and 0.133 πMeV-deg and Type B: 0.375 Paramanov and V. A. Moiseev regarding valuable
πmm-mrad and 0.266 πMeV-deg). Compared with the comments and discussions.
transverse-focusing design with a constant phase advance
of 60 degrees, the calculated results with the REFERENCES
equipartitioning focusing design show better beam [1] T. Kato, ‘Design of the JHP 200-MeV Proton Linear
qualities totally, especially in both the emittance growth Accelerator,’ KEK report 96-17 (1997).
[2] T. Kato et al., ‘JHF Accelerator Design Study Report,
and halo formation in longitudinal phase space [2]. For Section 4, 200-MeV Linac,’ KEK report 97-16 (1998).
the type-A beam, the ratios of the emittance growth [3] T. Kato, ‘Proposal of a Separated-type Proton Drift Tube
between two focusing methods (the equipartitioning Linac for a Medium-Energy Structure,’ KEK Report 92-10
(1992).
focusing and the constant phase advance one) are 1.22 and [4] A. Ueno et al., ‘Beam Test of the Pre-Injector and the 3-
0.62 in the transverse and longitudinal rms emittances, MeV H RFQ with a New Field Stabilization PISL,’ Proc.
respectively. It has been found that the ratio of halo-like 1996 International Linac Conf., p.293 (1996).
[5] A. Ueno, ‘JHF Accelerator Design Study Report, Section
particles is about on the order of 10-3 ~10-4 in a simulation 4.4, Preinjector,’ KEK report 97-16 (1998).
with 48000 particles. The ratios of halo formation [6] F. Naito et al., ‘Rf Characteristics of a High-Power
between these two focusing methods are nearly equal in Model of the 432 MHz DTL,’ Proc. 1994 International
Linac Conf., p.137 (1992).
the transverse motion and 0.52 in the longitudinal [7] K. Yoshino et al., ‘JHF Accelerator Design Study Report,
motion. Here, halo-like particles in the transverse motion Section 4.5, Accelerating structure,’ KEK report 97-16
are defined by those outside 6.5 times as far as the standard (1998).
[8] Y. Yamazaki, ‘Recent Technological Development of
deviation of the radial distribution of the output beam, Accelerating Structures,’ Proc. 1992 Linear Accel. Conf.,
while halo-like particles in the longitudinal motion are p.580 (1992).
defined by those outside 12.5 times as far as the [9] T. Kageyama et al., ‘Development of Annular Coupled
Structure,’ Proc. 1994 International Linac Conf., p. 248
longitudinal output rms emittance. (1994).
[10] T. Kato, ‘Beam Simulation Code Using Accurate Gap
3.2 MEBT Field Distributions in a Drift Tube Linac,’ Proc. 1994
International Linac Conf., p.523 (1994).
A beam-transport line, 2.7 m long between the RFQ [11] R. A. Jameson, ‘Beam-Intensity Limitations in Linear
and the DTL (MEBT), has three purposes: achieving both Accelerators,’ IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. NS-28, 2408
(1981).
transverse and longitudinal beam-matching, chopping the [12] R. A. Jameson, ‘On Scaling & Optimization of High-
beam for reducing beam losses after injection into the ring intensity Low-beam-loss RF Linacs for Neutron Source
and measuring the beam properties before injection into Drivers’, AIP Conference Proceedings 279 (1993) 969.
[13] M. Reiser, ‘Theory and Design of Charged Particle
the DTL [14][15]. It consists of eight quadrupole magnets, Beams,’ Section 5, John Willy & Sons, 1994.
two bunchers and two rf-chopping cavities (referred to as [14] S. Fu and T. Kato, ‘JHF Accelerator Design Study Report,
RFD) [16]. Detailed simulation results show that high Section 4.3.4, The medium energy beam-transport line,’
KEK report 97-16 (1998).
performance in the chopping operation can be achieved by [15] T. Kato and S. Fu, ‘MEBT Design for the JHF 200-MeV
using the RFD: the number of unstable particles at the Proton Linac,’ submitted to this conference.
DTL exit (50 MeV) during the transient times is less than [16] S. Fu et al., ‘324-MHz RF Deflector Design and Test,’
submitted to this conference.
0.08% of the total injection particles [14][15]. [17] S. Anami et al., ‘JHF Accelerator Design Study Report,
Section 4.6, RF source,’ KEK report 97-16 (1998).
411
A LINAC FOR THE SPALLATION NEUTRON SOURCE*
Andrew J. Jason with the SNS Linac Team
Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM 87545 USA
Abstract
The Spallation Neutron Source Project (SNS), to be 2 BASIS OF DESIGN
constructed at Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
Requirements on the linac included cost
accelerates H - ions to an energy of 1.0 GeV with an
effectiveness, high operational availability, low beam
averag e curren t of 1-mA for injection into an
loss, upgradability , high beam quality, and
accumulator ring that produces the short intense burst
insensitivity to chopping. We believe that the present
of protons needed for the spallation-neutro n source.
design meets these criteria. A block diagram of the
The linac will be the most intense source of H - ions
linac is shown in Figure 1.
and as such requires advanced desig n techniques to
meet project technical goals. In particular, low beam Front End Linac
Bunch
loss is stressed for the chopped beam placing strong 402.5 MHz 402.5 MHz 805 MHz 805 MHz Rotator
requirements on the beam dynamics and linac
RFQ DTL1 DTL2 CCDTL CCL
construction. Additionally, the linac is to be upgraded
to the 2- and 4-MW beam-power levels with no H- Injector Chopper
increase in duty factor. We give an overview of the 2.5 MeV 20 MeV 95 MeV 1000 MeV
linac design parameters and design choices made.
Figure 1. Block diagram of SNS linac
1 OVERVIEW The linac consists of a drift-tube linac (DTL) up to 20
The SNS project is described in depth elsewhere [1,2]. MeV, a coupled-cavity drift-tube linac (CCDTL) to
Los Alamos is responsible for the design and nominally 95 MeV and a coupled-cavity linac (CCL)
construction of a linac suitable to meet project to the full energy. The DTL and the CCL are well
specifications. H- beam enters the linac at an energy known structures, appropriate to thei r energy ranges.
of 2.5 MeV with a peak current of 27.7 mA and a The CCDTL, though a recent invention, has received
normalized rms emittance of 0.23 π-cm-mrad. The cold-model testing and is considered a good
linac input beam is produced by a “front-end” intermediate structure between the DTL and CCL in
assembly that sequentially consists of an ion source, terms of beam-dynamics matching and shunt
RFQ, and transport line that contains a chopper. The impedance. This structure has other advantages and is
chopper provides a gap in the beam as required by the believed to be the optimum choice in the given energy
accumulator ring extraction scheme. Lawrence range.
Berkeley Laboratory is responsible for the front end [2] In order to minimize cost, a tradeoff study was
except for the chopper system that is to be constructed conducted early in the project tha t varied the linac
by Los Alamos. The linac output energy is 1.0 GeV gradient . On the basis of this study an average
with little emittance growth or current loss an d will gradient (E 0T) of 2.7 MV/m was chosen. Later and
maintain the nominal time structure of the input beam. more accurat e costing showed this to be near the
Beam then enters a transport line and is conveyed to optimum value. The length arrive d at was 493 m
an accumulator ring, to be constructed by Brookhaven giving a real-estate energy gradient o f 2.02 MeV/m.
National Laboratory [3]. It is also a Los Alamos task Although higher than many previous proton linacs, the
to construct and power a bunch rotator in the transport peak field is everywhere less than 1.5 Kilpatrick, a
line. The ring, at constant energy, accumulates the safe value. Because of the high gradient, a relatively
nominal 1-ms-long linac macropulses to an intense large amount rf power (slightly less than 100-MW peak
proton pulse of 590-ns duration for impingement on the delivered to the linac) is needed.
spallation target . The averag e beam power on the The linac rf frequency was similarly chosen;
target is 1.0 MW with a pulse rate of 60 Hz. The assessment of this and other desig n choices showed
beam-power is upgradeabl e to up to 4 MW by that frequencies near 800 MHz have best performance
increasing the peak linac current. and lower cost. The exact frequency of 805 MHz was
_______________ chosen because of our familiarity with the LANSCE
* Work supported by the U.S. Department of Energy, linac and subsequent ease o f technology transfer as
Office of Energy Research, Office of Basic Energy well as an assessment of klystron cost and availability.
Sciences. The 402.5-MHz value for the structure frequency below
415
20 MeV was chosen to allow funneling in future effect predicted is a 3% field variation in the 4-MW
upgrades. case throughout the linac at the chopping frequency.
Low beam loss and high availability are closely The major effect is a broadening of the energy and
related. The linac structure must suffer only low levels phase width, small compared to the unperturbed
of activation so that maintenance and upgrade can be parameters. The effect is inversely proportional to the
done quickly. A spacious aperture and adequate accelerating field, thus further justifying the high linac
steering are important in this regard and are part of the gradient.
design. Furthermore, our calculations show that with
good matching, halo formation will contribute 4 STRUCTURES
negligibly to beam loss. However, it is expected that
The 402.5-MHz DTL is 8.7-m long and uses a
the predominant beam loss will occur by stripping of
FOFODODO lattice with period 8 βλ (at 805 MHz).
the negative hydrogen ions through collision with
This was chosen over a FODO lattice to allow
background gas. Calibration of the LANSCE-linac
feasibility of permanent-magnet quads in the drift
activation and loss-transport calculations are
tubes. To achieve good field stabilization, the DTL is
convincing that, at 1 GeV, a loss of 1 nA/m will cause
broken into two tanks at the 10-MeV point. The
activation of greater than 10 mrem/hr an hour after
structure tune is maintained by regulating water
shutdown at a distance of 1 ft. To achieve this low-
temperature.
loss level at the 4 MW upgrade, a vacuum of 5x10 -8
The 68.8-m long CCDTL uses a 12-βλ FODO lattice.
torr is required and, with proper design, is achievable. Each of the 101 segments (structure between quads)
A room-temperature structure was chosen over a contains two cells of length 3βλ/2, each with one drift
superconducting structure largely to minimize tube. The space for quadrupole magnets, containing a
technical and schedule risk. An assessment showed coupling cavity is 6βλ/2, allowing sufficient room for
that if an R&D program were successful in addressing quadrupole magnets and diagnostics but requiring a
the issues of transient control and power coupling, the low acceleration gradient of 1.08 MeV/m. An
capital cost and schedule would be little affected and adequate prototype quadrupole magnet has been made.
that the operating costs would be decreased by nearly The CCL comprises the remaining 85% of the
4 M$ per year. Nonetheless, if such an R&D program structure length and uses a 12-βλ FODO lattice. Up to
were to run into difficulties, the program schedule and 166 MeV the structure has eight cells per segment with
cost would be strongly affected. 2-βλ quad spaces. The large intersegment spacing
provides adequate space for quads and diagnostics. At
3 CHOPPING higher energies, where βλ has increased sufficiently, a
A 35%-duty-factor chopping at 1.189 MHz (just 10 cell segment is used with 1-βλ quad spaces.
slightly off the ring revolution frequency) is applied to The segments are joined by coupling cells to form
the beam before entering the linac by a traveling-wave isolated rf modules. Bridge couplers are not used; the
deflector. This decreases the average macropulse modules are driven by from 1 to 3 klystrons in a
current to 18.8 mA for the 1-MW case. The chopper symmetrical feed-point arrangement that minimizes
rise time should be under 2.5 ns to prevent partially field droop in a module. Partitioning of the modules
chopped pulses from entering the linac and possibly has been chosen to facilitate upgrades. The choice of
creating additional loss downstream. R&D work [4] is an even number of half βλ cells in the segments
in progress to define a deflecting structure and permits all segment couplers to remain on one side of
modulator that can provide the required 18-mrad the structure for simplified mounting, fabrication, and
deflection in a 0.5-m deflecting structure with such a vacuum pumping. Structure tune is maintained by
challenging rise time. FET drivers with the required regulating the cooling water temperature for each
rise time are not commercially available; development module against cavity frequency offset.
work with a semiconductor manufacturer is scheduled.
A device with 5-ns rise time is judged to be 5 BEAM DYNAMICS
immediately feasible and construction of a prototype The linac beam dynamics along with the physics
is underway. This decreased rise time may be design is discussed elsewhere [5]. We here note a few
adequate for the 1-MW scenario. salient features. Variants of the code PARMILA were
The chopper plays a secondary role in providing used to define and find a matched beam for each
time-width modulation of the beam in order to structure. The structures are joined and smooth
maintain constant peak current during the 20-µs ramp matching done across structure transitions with
up planned at the macropulse start.
appropriate phase and field ramping. There are no
Transient analysis has been done to evaluate the
explicit matching sections; matching is done between
effect of chopping on the linac-cavity fields. Negligible
structures by the quads and structure design. As well
excitation of high-order modes was found. The main
as matched beam studies, error studies and end-to-end
416
simulations have been done using 10,000-particle sets approach strongly affects the 1-MW design. An
starting from the RFQ output. We plan to increase the upgrade to 2-MW, with doubling of the ion-source
size of this particle set by using massively parallel current, could be accomplished by redefinition of the
processing. linac rf modules and the addition of rf power (14
The aperture size is maintained at 10 times the klystrons). Upgrade to 4 MW requires beam funneling
beam rms size to promote low beam loss; predicted at 20 MeV because of likely ion-source limitations and
halo growth will not intercept the aperture even with the inability of the RFQ to accelerate the 108-mA
alignment errors and can be readily scraped in the current at 805 MHz. A second linac reconfiguration is
transport line to the ring. A plot of aperture versus then required along with addition of 14 more klystrons.
energy is shown in Figure 2. The linac reconfiguration could be done without
structure replacement by redefining the number of
2.50
CCL1 CCL2 segments (half focusing periods) of the rf modules and
terminating the module ends with special λ/10-cavity
Beam Radius, Aperture (cm)
2.00 Aperture
sections. Thus a module end could be defined by
removing a CCDTL or CCL coupling cavity and
1.50
terminating the two cells previously joined by the
coupling cavity. Correspondingly a module could be
1.00
extended by removing adjacent terminating cells and
CCDTL
DTL
Beam Max joining the terminating segments with a full coupling
0.50
cell. Drive points and waveguide runs would have to
Beam RMS
be built into the design at initial construction.
0.00
0 200 400 600 800 1000 However, substantial effort would be required to effect
Energy (MeV) the reconfiguration as well as in the initial design. A
Figure 2. Aperture and beam size in the linac simpler scheme has recently been discussed that would
use two klystrons for each of 26 rf modules and
6 RF SYSTEM eliminate any structure reconfiguration in a direct
upgrade from 1 to 4 MW. Here a third klystron would
The rf system [6] will deliver approximately 99 MW
be added to the center of each module. and provision
peak power at 7.02% duty factor to the structure for an
would be made for the appropriate (small) change in rf
average power of 6.74 MW. The ac wall-plug power
matching during the initial design.
has been specified at 22 MW. Two 1.25-MW peak-
power klystrons drive the DTL and a third klystron will
8 REFERENCES
be provided for the RFQ. The remainder of the
structure uses 56 anode-modulated 805-MHz 2.5-MW [1] B. R. Appleton, “The National Spallation Neutron
klystrons in the baseline design. Allowing for control Source,” PAC 97 proceedings, Vancouver (to be
margin and system losses, 2-MW are available to the published).
structures. Klystron size was determined from [8] “Conceptual Design Review of the National
optimization of cost, technical feasibility, and relation Spallation Neutron Source,” ORNL, June, 1997.
to linac-structure. The anode modulation was judged Available on the web at http://www.ornl.gov/
to be the most technically feasible method of pulse ~nsns/CDRDocuments/CDR.html.
switching. However, recent developments indicate [2] J. Staples, et al., The SNS Front End Accelerator
that an IGBT switching system is likely feasible and Systems,” PAC 97 proceedings, Vancouver (to be
will be substantially more cost effective; R&D work is published).
planned for this approach. A two klystron modulator, [3] W.T. Weng et al., Accumulator Ring Design for
developed in previous projects, is planned, also for the NSNS Project,” PAC 97 proceedings,
economic reasons. The klystron modulators are Vancouver (to be published).
located above and lateral to the linac tunnel in a [4] S. S. Kurennoy et al., “Development of a Fast
gallery that contains the water systems, vacuum pump Traveling-Wave Beam Chopper for the National
controls, low-level rf controls and beam-diagnostics Spallation Neutron Source,” PAC 97 proceedings,
electronics. The rf system will control the cavity fields Vancouver (to be published).
to within ±1% and ±1° through a stable reference [5] H. Takeda, J. H. Billen, and S. Nath, “Physics
system and using sophisticated feedback techniques, Design of the National Spallation Neutron Source
including fast adaptive feed forward. Linac,” PAC 97 proceedings, Vancouver (to be
published).
7 UPGRADES [6] P. Tallerico et al., “The Rf System for the
National Spallation Neutron Source Linac,” PAC
The requirement that the SNS is to be readily
97 proceedings, Vancouver - to be published.
upgradeable to beam powers up to 4 MW in a staged
417
FIRST RESULTS OF THE TWO–BEAM FUNNELING EXPERIMENT
A. Firjahn–Andersch, H. Liebermann, A. Schempp, J. Thibus,
H. Vormann, E. Winschuh, H. Zimmermann
Institut für Angewandte Physik, Johann Wolfgang Goethe–Universität,
Robert–Mayer–Straße 2–4, D–60054 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
Abstract For studies of the new two–beam RFQ structure and the
r.f. deflector, the first two–beam funneling experiments will
High intensity accelerator concepts for Heavy Ion Inertial
be carried out with He –ions at low energies to facilitate
Fusion (HIIF) injectors require small emittance, high cur-
ion source operation and beam diagnostics. Two small mul-
rent and high energy beams. The improvement of bright-
ticusp ion sources and electrostatic lenses, built by LBNL
ness in such a driver linac is done by several funneling
(Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory) [5, 6], are used.
stages at low energies, in which two identically bunched
The ion sources and injection systems are attached directly
ion beams are combined into a single beam with twice
on the front of the RFQ with an angle of 76 mrad, the angle
the frequency, current and brightness. For the Heavy–Ion
of the beam axes of the two–beam RFQ. Figure 2 shows
Driven Ignition Facility (HIDIF) we have proposed the use
the experimental set–up of the two–beam funneling exper-
of a two–beam accelerator structure which provides two
iment. In Table 1 the main parameters of the experiment
beams within one cavity, and a single r.f. deflector struc-
with He and the design parameters of a first HIDIF fun-
ture which bends the two beams to one common axis. The
neling stage for Bi are shown.
progress of the experiment and first beam–test results will
be presented.
1 INTRODUCTION
By the use of the two–beam RFQ the two beams are ion
injections two-beam RFQ r.f. deflector
sources
brought very close together while they are still radially and
longitudinally focused. Additional discrete elements like
quadrupole–doublets and –triplets, debunchers and bend-
ing magnets, as they have been proposed in first funneling
studies [1, 2, 3], are not necessary. A short r.f. funnel-
ing deflector will be placed around the beam crossing po-
Figure 2: Experimental set–up of the two–beam funneling
sition behind the RFQ. The layout of the proposed HIDIF–
experiment.
injector with two–beam RFQs in front of the first and sec-
ond funneling sections is shown in Figure 1. The HIDIF
linac starts with 16 times 3 ion sources for three different
ion species to allow so–called “telescoping” at the final fo- Table 1: Main parameters of the experiment with He and
cus [4]. With four funneling stages the frequency has been the design parameters of a first HIDIF funneling stage for
increased from 12.5 MHz to 200 MHz accordingly. Bi .
u
eV/
Two–beam RFQ He Bi
/u
60k
keV
(MHz) 54.5 12.5
u
200
eV/
12.5 MH 50M
z H
Voltage (kV) 10.5 180
u
25MHz
u
z
2M
eV/
eV/
200MHz
100M H
z
48M
10M
~3000m
value (k m) 80 250
25m 140m 750m 1400m
DTL, 400 mA
value 1800 5000
IH
IH
2, 2
20
0m
(keV) 4 209
1,
4
RF
Tw
o -B
eam
10
0m
A
A
(MeV) 0.16 12.54
Q2
RF
Q1
Ch
op
pin
,8
50
mA
Q2
RF
Angle between beam axes (mrad) 76 76
Io n ,1 gL
So
u rc
e, 1
62
5(
27
ine
&
Tw
Ion Sources Beam separation at output (mm) 40 40
. 5) o
62
5( mA -Beam Triplet
RFQ 1
Multigap funneling deflector
33 RF
)m Q
A 1
(MHz) 54.5 12.5
Voltage (kV) 6 450
Figure 1: Layout of the 12.5 200 MHz HIDIF linac sys-
Length ( ) 9 2
tem for 400 mA of Bi .
Work supported by the BMBF
424
Figure 3: Comparison between the emittances of the extracted beams of the two ion sources at 0.8 mA. The ellipses corre-
spond to the 90% normalized KV–emittances which are 0.1835 mm mrad for the first source and 0.1846
mm mrad for the second source.
2 ION SOURCES AND INJECTION
SYSTEMS
To optimize the synchronous operation, both ion sources
and injection systems have been tested on an emittance
measurement device. Figure 3 shows the measured emit-
tances of the extracted ion beams of the two ion sources
at 0.8 mA, which scales to a beam current of 40 mA of
Bi . The minimum difference of the two normalized 90%
KV–emittances was 0.5%. The values are dependent on the
included divergent neutral beam.
3 THE TWO–BEAM RFQ
The two–beam RFQ consists of two sets of quadrupole
electrodes, where the beams are bunched and accelerated Figure 4: Photograph of the two–beam RFQ with the first
with a phase shift of 180 between each bunch, driven by section of the electrodes mounted.
one resonant structure. With the use of identical RFQ elec-
trode designs for both beam lines, the electrodes of one
the 2D– and 3D–view of the two emittances at an electrode
beam line are installed with a longitudinal shift of 2.55 cm
(i.e. ) to achieve the 180 phase shift between the beam voltage of 11.5 kV is shown. The difference between the
bunches of each beam line. In Figure 4 a photograph of two emittances is mainly dependent on the parameters of
the injection systems.
the two–beam RFQ, with the first section of the electrodes
mounted, is shown.
The RFQ electrodes are divided into two sections with 4 THE FUNNELING DEFLECTOR
different functions. While the first section, 140 cm long, STRUCTURE
bunches and accelerates the ions to the final energy of
160 keV, the second 60 cm long section consists of a drift The electrode geometry of the multigap deflector consists
and a matching section. So an focus is at the funneling of several deflector plates divided by sections with larger
deflector position, while the axial focus will be behind the aperture with equal length. In this geometry, the particles
deflector for a matching into the next accelerator stage [7]. will see the deflecting field in one direction several times
In Figure 5 the measured energy spectra behind the RFQ but the deflection in the opposite direction is always less.
are shown. The final beam–energy of 166 keV is reached at The length of the sections have to be proportional to the
an electrode voltage of 10 kV. Up to 4 kV electrode voltage particle velocity and to the inverse frequency of the deflec-
the He beam is only transported. tor system. For beam funneling, the frequency of the de-
At the beam crossing position behind the two–beam flector has to be the same as the accelerator frequency, so
RFQ emittance measurements have been done. In Figure 6 that the bunches from different beam axes will see opposite
425
Intensity / a.u.
Uelectrode= 10 kV
Uelectrode= 4,1 kV
4 16 38 70 110 160 220 Wion / keV
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Imagnet / A
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 Bmagnet / T
Figure 5: Energy spectra behind the RFQ. With the de-
sign voltage of 10 kV the final beam–energy of 166 keV is
reached.
Figure 7: View of the multi–gap funneling deflector.
5 CONCLUSION
The beam tests results of the injection systems and the two–
beam RFQ have shown that the chosen set–up can deliver
two nearly identical ion beams for the planned funneling
experiment. Next step will be the installation of the r.f.
funneling deflector behind the two–beam RFQ.
The experiment with He is a scaled version for funnel-
ing of Bi at 60 as it is required in the first funneling
section of HIDIF, but can also be scaled to higher energies
for e.g. the second section at 200 or other funneling
applications like spallation source.
6 REFERENCES
[1] K. Bongardt and D. Sanitz, Funneling of Heavy Ion Beams,
Primary Report, Kernforschungszentrum Karlsruhe, 11 04
02P14C (September 1982).
[2] J.F. Stovall, F.W. Guy, R.H. Stokes and T.P. Wangler, Beam
Funneling Studies at Los Alamos, Nucl. Instr. and Meth.
A278 (1989) p. 143.
[3] K.F. Johnson, O.R. Sander, G.O. Bolmer, J.D. Gilpatrick,
F.W. Guy, J.H. Marquardt, K. Saadatmand, D. Dandoval and
V. Yuan, A Beam Funnel Demonstration: Experiment and
Simulation, Particle Accelerators, Vols. 37–38 (1992) p. 261.
[4] M. Basco, M. Churazov, D. Koshkarev, Fusion Engineering
and Design 32–33 (1996) p. 73.
Figure 6: 2D– and 3D–view of the measured emittances [5] K.N. Leung, Multicusp Ion Sources, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 65(4)
behind the RFQ at the place of beam crossing. The ellipses (1994) p. 1165.
correspond to the 90% normalized KV–emittances which is
[6] R. Keller in: The Physics and Technology of Ion Sources,
about 0.25 mm mrad for each beam.
Edited by I. G. Brown, Wiley–Interscience Publication, New
York.
field directions because of the phase shift of 180 between
[7] A. Schempp, Design of Compact RFQs, Proc. Linear Accel-
each bunch. Figure 7 shows a schematic drawing of the erator Conference 1996, p. 53.
9–gap funneling deflector which will be used.
426
PRESENT PERFORMANCE OF THE CERN PROTON LINAC
C.E. Hill, A.M. Lombardi, E. Tanke, M. Vretenar
PS Division, CERN, 1211 Geneva 23, Switzerland
limiting the beam pulse length to around 30 Ps, it proved
Abstract
possible to accelerate around 170 mA. However, existing
The original 1973 design specification of the CERN high intensity users required a beam pulse length of the
50 MeV Proton Linac was for a 150 mA beam but this order of 120 Ps. The measures taken to attain the present
intensity was rarely used. Preliminary tests for the high performance for a long beam will now be described.
brightness beam required for LHC indicated that 170 mA
could be produced for short pulses (30 Ps). Since then Table 1. Evolution of operational beam intensity at
further optimisation has enabled the 170 mA to be transformer TR60 in Linac2 since 1992.
delivered reliably, within the nominal emittances and
Date Event mA
dispersion, in long pulses (120 Ps) to the user, the PS
up to1992 C-W injector operation 140
Booster (PSB), about 80 m downstream of the linac. The
1993 RFQ2 installed 135
improvements will be described along with the steps
1994 Typical operation 135
envisaged to attain a goal of more than 180 mA.
1995 Realignment RFQ+LEBT 142
1996/I Annual startup 140
1 INTRODUCTION 1996/II New high energy optic 145
Linac2 has now been the primary source of protons for 1997/I Annual startup 145
the CERN accelerator complex for the last 20 years [1]. 1997/II New setting RFQ 160
In spite of its age, the machine performance has been 1977/III Source + LEBT adjustment 170
steadily improved over the past few years in anticipation 1998/I Annual startup (reduced) 158
of the demands that will be made on it in the LHC era. 1998/II Stable operation 173
Table 1 indicates the evolution of the beam intensity
delivered to the PS Booster (PSB) over recent years.
2 INSTALLATION OF RFQ2
Figure 1 shows the layout of the linac and PSB injection
lines. The high beam brightness required by the LHC
In the early years, there was no particular demand for requires some modifications to its injectors, and in
high intensities from the linac as, usually, more than particular an increase in the linac peak current. The
sufficient protons could be supplied to the users, and high consequent reduction in the number of turns needed in
intensity beams were only produced as an academic PSB injection leads to a smaller emittance at the end of
exercise or to supply special test beams. It was generally the process. A major step towards a higher linac current
felt that 150 mA out of tank 3 of the linac was a limit was the replacement in 1993 of the old 750 kV Cockroft-
defined by the RF power available. However, the Walton and Low Energy Beam Transport (LEBT) by a
anticipated requirements of LHC started investigations new 90 kV platform, a 750 keV RFQ (RFQ2) with
into the possibilities of accelerating higher currents. By compact (<1m long) beam transport lines between source
and RFQ, and RFQ and linac [2].
After two months of installation
work and one month of setting-up,
the linac was able to provide
135 mA for the normal operation
and 165 mA for high intensity
studies.
3 RFQ2 ALIGNMENT
Whilst the RFQ was still on the
test stand, it was found that the
beam at its output was mis-steered.
After installation on Linac2, the
high-energy end of the RFQ had to
Figure 1: Schematic layout of Linac2 and its transfer lines. be positioned off axis to get a good
transmission through the linac. On
427
the stand, the beam emittance measured directly behind source of pollution and slow RF conditioning. The
the source showed that the beam was off axis in position present value is reasonable for the standard of surface
and angle. Although the source anode hole had been finish used in the RFQ.
centred to better than 0.1 mm, it was not perpendicular to
the beam axis. This same error was also found on Linac2
and corrected [3].
The line between the source and the RFQ contains two
solenoids. Due to coupling, a beam passing through a
solenoid off axis in, say, the horizontal plane can cause
errors in beam position and angle in both transverse
planes at the output. Originally, the solenoids had been
aligned on their mechanical, not on their magnetic axes.
Moving the solenoids whilst checking the beam centre
(position and angle in both transverse planes) enabled the
beam to be brought onto axis into the RFQ. As a result
the overall performance of the RFQ improved with a
reduction of RF breakdowns, which were often induced
by ions hitting the electrodes, and the RFQ could be Figure 2: Fowler-Nordheim plots for the RFQs.
realigned mechanically to the theoretical axis.
Following the discovery of the reduced E, the RFQ
4 RFQ2 CONDITIONING was reconditioned from 92% up to 100% of the nominal
The RFQ was designed to accelerate a space charge level during normal operation. The level was increased
dominated beam of 200 mA. For this reason the design in small steps, taking care to limit the breakdowns so as
vane voltage had to be relatively high (178 kV) [4] which not to perturb the users. As a result, the current delivered
corresponds to surface electric fields of more than 2 times by the linac went up from 145 to 160 mA.
Kilpatrick on a large fraction of the electrodes and locally
as high as 2.5. Conditioning on the test bench was only 5 RF IMPROVEMENTS
partially successful; only about 95% of the nominal The RF power needed for the design current of 150mA
voltage was attained before heavy sparking started. Once (cavity plus beam loading) is about 2.1 MW for each of
installed at the linac, the RFQ was operated at 92% of the the 5 final amplifiers, well within the capabilities
design voltage to avoid excessive breakdowns that would (2.5MW) of the amplifiers [6]. For LHC, allowing for 5%
have perturbed the whole CERN proton acceleration beam losses, the 180 mA at the PSB correspond to 190
chain. This resulted in a 10% reduction in beam mA in the linac. For this, the final amplifiers will have to
transmission. provide about 2.5 MW. With a 10% margin for phase and
It turned out that a defective drag pump in the RFQ amplitude control, tuning precision and amplifier
vacuum system used to pump the large amount of balancing, at least 2.7 MW per final amplifier will be
hydrogen coming from the source, was backstreaming oil needed
vapours into the cavity. The hydrocarbon deposit on the Some upgrades were gradually applied to the RF
vane surface enhanced field emission (dark current) that chains to increase their output power. The final amplifier
finally resulted in RF breakdown. tubes (TH170R) are rated for 2.5 MW power at a duty
Steady operation at high field level in the following cycle greater than that used at Linac2, but they can
years slowly eliminated the hydrocarbon from the deliver more power provided that enough drive power is
electrodes. Figure 2 shows Fowler-Nordheim, available. Initially an additional amplifier stage was
2.5
(ln(I/V ) vs. 1/V), plots of dark current, derived from added in the Tank 1 chain which experiences the heaviest
the excess power going to the electrons [5], as function of beam loading. Then modern 4.5 kW solid state amplifiers
vane voltage at different moments of the RFQ2 history. were installed in all the chains to replace aging tube units
The derived field enhancement factor E is a figure of which generally had a lower power output. These more
merit for electrode roughness and cleanliness. Between reliable transistor amplifiers have also contributed to a
1993 and 1997 the dark current in the RFQ (operating at decrease in the linac fault rate.
92% of the nominal level) went down from about 70 mA Great attention was also given to the correct adjustment
to virtually zero. A comparison of the beta-factors of the feedback loops which have not only to compensate
deduced from Figure 2 shows that the cavity after for an increased beam loading but also have to stabilize
delivery from the workshop (1990) was already amplifiers which are often working in the non-linear
somewhat polluted (E=220), while at the installation at region close to saturation.
the linac (1993) pollution was extremely high (E=920), It
went down drastically (E=67 in 1997) after removing the
428
6 HIGH ENERGY OPTICS and solenoid focusing strengths. Naturally, as source
parameters and the injector vacuum quality change with
The 80 metre 50 MeV proton beam line from the linac
time, this optimisation process must be repeated at
to the PSB is composed of 20 quadrupoles, 2 bending
regular intervals.
magnets, 8 steering magnets, and a debuncher cavity and
is also equipped with eight position pick-ups and two
emittance measurement lines. The optics of the line has 8 LINAC OPTIMISATION
been studied and optimised for the high current. In parallel to these major changes to the linac, a major
The space charge force varies considerably along this long term effort was initiated to reduce the losses in the
line as the beam comes out of the linac with a very machine and transfer lines. A consequence of the new
marked longitudinal microstructure that is gradually lost. optics, and its inherent stability against perturbations,
The beam is strongly space charge dominated at the was that it became much simpler to control losses in the
beginning of the line and becomes emittance dominated high energy transport line. Equally it is also easier to
after about 50 metres. The focusing of the line has been optimise both transverse and longitudinal parameters in
set-up in such a way so as to provide a “quasi” FODO the linac itself. Computer programmes are being
system with constant phase advance per focusing period: developed to try to optimise the linac on-line using hill
this arrangement turned out to be the most convenient for climbing techniques to find the optimum combinations of
optimising transmission and beam qualities, and these parameters.
minimising the sensitivity to steering. This last parameter
is particularly critical, as the stray field of the PS machine 9 THE FUTURE
penetrates the transfer line and sensitivity to steering has
During one short study period in 1997, a peak current
been considerably reduced with this configuration. Figure
of 176 mA in 120 Ps was passed to the PSB. This
3 shows the measured beam centre displacement before
demonstrated that there is still potential for further im-
and after the change.
provements in intensity. The goal is to try to pass the 180
mA barrier in the near future. However, it is also known
that there are serious bottlenecks at the beginning of the
linac that will require ingenuity to overcome . It is also
appreciated that this higher performance will place new
demands on the linac with attendant consequences on
reliability.
10 REFERENCES
[1] E. Boltezar, H. Haseroth, W. Pirkl, T. Sherwood, U.
Tallgren, P. Tetu, D. Warner, M. Weiss. “The New
CERN 50MeV Linac”, Proc. 1979 Linear
Accelerator Conference, Montauk, BNL 51134, 66,
1979
[2] C.E. Hill, A.M. Lombardi, W. Pirkl, E. Tanke, M.
Vretenar, “Performance of the CERN Linac2 with a
High Intensity Proton RFQ”, Proc. 1994 Linear
Accelerator Conference, Tsukuba, 175, 1994
[3] E. Tanke, “Realignment of the Linac2 LEBT During
Figure 3: Measured beam centre displacement for 0.25 the 1994/1995 Machine Shutdown”, PS/HI-Note 95-
mrad variation in steering after the linac. 10 (MD)
[4] J.L. Vallet, M. Vretenar, M. Weiss, “Field Adjustment
7 SOURCE OPTIMISATION and Beam Analysis of the High-Intensity CERN
Normally, the total beam out of the duoplasmatron RFQ”, Proc. EPAC 90, Nice, Editions Frontieres,
source is around 275 mA with a hydrogen consumption 1234, 1990
of about 7 std.ml/min. This results in a N2 equivalent [5] M. Vretenar, “Field Emission Measurements on RFQ2
-5
pressure of approximately 3.5*10 mbar in the and Recalibration of the Vane Voltage”, PS/RF/Note
-7
preinjector housing falling to the high 10 s in the RFQ. 97-11 (MD).
With this relatively high pressure in the LEBT, [6] J. Cuperus, F. James, W. Pirkl, “The RF System of the
neutralisation is very high. Thus, the effective focusing of CERN New Linac”, Proc. 1979 Linear Accelerator
the solenoids is highly dependent on the gas flow from Conference, Montauk, BNL 51134, 344, 1979
the source. Gains in intensity of around 10% were
obtained by iterative re-optimisation of source parameters
429
ACHIEVING 800 KW CW BEAM POWER AND CONTINUING
ENERGY IMPROVEMENTS IN CEBAF *
C. E. Reece
Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility, Newport News, Virginia 23606 USA
Abstract The SRF cavities in CEBAF as well as the rest of
the acceleration system have been quite stable and
During the past year, CEBAF at Jefferson Lab has reliable. By August 1998, over 4,000,000 cavity-beam
demonstrated its full capacity of sustained 800 kW hours had been accumulated.
beam power. All systems performed as intended. The
energy stability at the design parameters of 4.0 GeV, 3 FULL POWER TEST
200 µA CW beam was measured to be better than
On September 16, 1997, a test was performed on the
3×10-5 rms. During the fall of 1997, physics
CEBAF accelerator to demonstrate its full design
experiments were conducted using 4.4 GeV beam.
capability of 200 µA CW beam at 4.0 GeV. This beam
Having demonstrated the benefits of in situ helium/rf
was delivered to the Hall C dump with minimal
processing of SRF cavities for increasing the energy
difficulties and with stability characteristics consistent
reach of CEBAF, we began a program of processing all
with normal operations. Since no physics target was
installed cryomodules. This processing has proven
available that could handle 200 µA, the test was
effective against the principal gradient limitation of the
performed without a target in place. Rastered beam
SRF cavities in CEBAF: discharges at the cold rf
went directly to the dump. One clear indicator of the
waveguide window, induced by electron field emission
robustness of the integrated accelerator system was the
in the cavities. Such effects limit approximately half of
ability to place 200 µA on the injector Faraday cup,
the cavities. Regular operation at 5.0 GeV is just
retract that cup, and immediately transport lossless,
beginning, and preparations are underway to support
full-power beam to the Hall C dump and maintain this
5.5 GeV in early 1999.
current for at least tens of minutes with all orbit locks
off. The duration of the full test was 10 h.
1 C E B AF DESIGN
As illustrated in Figure 1, the test demonstrated the
CEBAF was designed and constructed as a 4.0 GeV, economy of exploiting SRF technology. A typical
200 µA CW recirculating electron linac. [1] The cavity operating at 6.5 MV/m fully matches the input
acceleration system employs 330 superconducting 3.8 kW rf to the beam.
radiofrequency (SRF) cavities operating at 1497 MHz 4
✚✚
✚
✚
and 2.0 K. Each cavity is individually regulated and Cavity SL11-2 ✚✚
3.5 ✚✚
Forward and Reflected Power (kW)
✚
✚
powered by a 5 kW klystron. Beam may be recirculated ✚
✚✚
through the split linac up to five passes before delivery 3 ✚✚
✚
to the three experimental halls. 2.5 ✚
✚
✚
✚
✚
✚ - Forward
2 OPERATING EXPERIENCE 2 ✚
◆ - Reflected
The accelerator has been supporting physics 1.5
✚ ✚
experiments since October 1995. Routine multi-hall ✚
✚
1◆
operation has proceeded for the past two years. ◆
◆
Tolerable CW beam currents are typically either limited 0.5 ◆
◆
◆
◆
to very low currents (100 pA–100 nA) by event ◆ ◆◆◆ ◆◆ ◆◆
◆ ◆◆◆
◆◆
0
discrimination constraints—for example, in the Hall B 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Large Acceptance Spectrometer—or to ~130 µA by Linac Current (µA)
heating of cryogenic targets in Halls A and C. Figure 1. Matched rf load at full current.
The first physics run above 4 GeV took place during
November 1997. One experiment took 4.4 GeV beam During delivery of 200 µA to Hall C, measurements
while another received four-pass 3.5 GeV beam. were made of the stability of beam position and energy.
The dominant features observed were at 60 Hz. Beam
___________________ motion in high dispersion and zero dispersion regions
*Work supported by the U.S. Department of Energy, was comparable with comparable beta functions, so it's
contract DE-AC05-84ER40150. unlikely to be due to energy variation which, based on
448
a set of BPM measurements, had a fractional peak-to- level multipacting barrier, as previously described.[4]
peak amplitude of 4×10-5. Also, to maximize the yield from helium processing,
There was no problem with input waveguide vacuum it is now preceded by a thermal cycle up to 40 K in
pressures as the input rf power increased and shifted to order to desorb and remove any accumulated He and H.
full travelling-wave conditions. An increase in the 2 K This is followed by several hours of detuned pulsed rf
heat load was observed, increasing quadratically with conditioning of the input cold waveguide region.
total linac current, with an additional 200 W from the The actual processing is accomplished with 10-4 torr
maximum 1 mA circulating current. The source of this He on the beamline while driving the cavity at its
heat has yet to be fully explored. highest sustainable field level for ~1 h. A subsequent
The beam dump cooling systems had no problem thermal cycle to 40 K is used to remove the He.
handling the 800 kW of beam power. The high-power Following this procedure there have been no difficulties
beam dumps were designed to accept well over 1 MW. immediately resuming normal operation. The markers
The test also challenged the beam current monitoring for effective processing are reduced arcing and reduced
system used as part of the safety interlock system. We generation of x-rays by field-emitted electrons.
were able to approach the administrative limits with This upgraded processing scheme was commissioned
absolute beam accounting to better than 1%. on two cryomodules in February 1998. Using staggered
crews, 16 additional cryomodules were processed during
4 ENERGY IMPROVEMENTS seven days allocated in July. The number of
cryomodules processed was limited only by the capacity
4.1 Limitations of the cryogenic system to handle the thermal cycles.
In addition to direct processing gains, other cavity
The CEBAF cavities, though performing
gradient limitations are revisited during the processing
substantially better than initial specifications, are
work, and in many cases additional voltage has been
primarily limited in performance by internal electron
found through reducing margin based on accumulated
field emission. Periodic arcs at the cold ceramic rf
operating experience.
window are strongly correlated with field emission in
the associated cavity.[2] Over a third of the 330 SRF 4.3 Results
cavities are now limited in usable gradient by this
arcing phenomenon. Post-production tests have To date, we have applied helium-rf processing at 2 K
demonstrated that this arcing may be eliminated by to 224 cavities in 29 of the 41 installed CEBAF
moving the ceramic window away from the beamline cryomodules. Figure 2 shows the shift of limits after
and adding a dogleg in the cold waveguide section. All processing.
60
Before Processing
future rework will implement at least this change. 50
# Cavities
The other effects of field emission are x-ray 40
30
production and spoilage of the cavity Q. Because it is
20
more easily measured, we use the radiation as an 10 Arcing
indicator of decreasing Q and presently tolerate 2 R/h 0
FE loading
60 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
outside the cryostat from each cavity. 50
After Processing & radiation
Quench
# Cavities
40
4.2 Helium Processing 30 Other
20
The most economical route for incremental extension 10
of the CEBAF energy reach has been through in situ 0
conditioning of the SRF cavities, seeking to reduce the 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Maximum Accelerating Gradient (MV/m) cer 8/10/98
internal field emission and thus also the periodic arcing. Figure 2. Change of limitations with processing.
Helium/rf processing, first attempted on an installed
CEBAF cryomodule in September of 1996, has proven Helium processing and requalification of cavities
to be an effective method of improving cavity have increased the available installed CEBAF voltage
performance.[3] by 155 MV, corresponding to an added 775 MeV for
Because of CEBAF’s very full run schedule, we have five-pass beam. At this rate we project an additional
continued to upgrade the processing methods in order to 55 MV gain from processing the balance of the
minimize any impact on run time. Beginning in 1998, machine, which would be adequate for extending the
the normal rf control system was used during energy reach of CEBAF above 6 GeV. Figure 3
processing rather than one of three stand-alone systems. presents the present voltage capacities of the 41
A local ~70 MHz VCO was substituted for the fixed- CEBAF cryomodules.
frequency 70 MHz IF line. Including this VCO in a
phase-locked loop then enabled dealing with the low-
449
Maximum cryomodule voltage before helium processing
50 Gain from requalifying cavities and reducing margin 5-pass
maximum
energy
Gain from helium processing
45
40 8 GeV
MV per Cryomodule
35
30 6 GeV
25
20 4 GeV
15
10 Inj North Linac South Linac
MaxSum = 645 MV MaxSum = 640 MV
5
0 low current (< 20µA) cer 8/7/98
Figure 3. Maximum SRF Cavity Voltage per Cryomodule in CEBAF.
The distribution of present cavity performance limits C. Hovater for their creative efforts. All of this work
is discussed in another contribution to this has been solidly supported by the Operations and AES
conference.[5] groups.
5 UPGRADE PLANS 7 REFERENCES
Beyond the virtually complete improvement to [1] H. Grunder, “CEBAF Commissioning and Future
5.5 GeV, upgrades to several arc dipole power supplies Plans,” PAC 95 Proceedings, 1–3 (1995).
are being implemented in order to handle 6 GeV beam. [2] V. Nguyen-Tong et al., “Electronic Activity at
Realization of this energy is planned for 1999. CEBAF Cold RF Window Induced by Cavity
Operation,” EPAC 94 Proceedings, 2200–2202
Plans are presently being developed for a possible
(1994).
upgrade of CEBAF to 12 GeV. The most economical [3] C. E. Reece et al., “Improvement of the
route includes the construction of new 80 MV Operational Performance of SRF Cavities via in
cryomodules to populate the ten slots left empty by the situ Helium Processing and Waveguide Vacuum
early design switch for CEBAF from a four- to five- Processing,” PAC 97 Proceedings, in press.
pass machine. Such new cryomodules will have [4] C. E. Reece, “Operating Experience with Super-
improved filling factor by incorporating seven-cell conducting Cavities at Jefferson Lab,” contribution
rather than five-cell cavities, and take advantage of the to The Eighth Workshop on RF
process improvements in SRF technology of the last Superconductivity, Abano Terme, Italy, 6–10
decade.[6] October 1997. (To appear in Particle Accelerators.)
[5] J. R. Delayen et al., ”Analysis of Performance
6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Limitations for Superconducting Cavities,” these
proceedings.
J. Bisognano, J-C. Denard, L. Doolittle, [6] J. R. Delayen “Development of an Upgrade of the
V. Lebedev, B. Dunham, M. Spata, M. Tiefenback, CEBAF Acceleration System,” these proceedings.
and M. Wiseman all made important contributions to
the success of the full-power demonstration test. A
large number of Jefferson Lab staff have participated in
the helium processing improvement work. Particular
credit goes to G. Myneni, V. Nguyen, E. Strong,
D. Dotson, T. Powers, G. Marble, G. Lahti, and
450
CONTROLLING BACKSTREAMING IONS FROM X-RAY CONVERTER
TARGETS WITH TIME VARYING FINAL FOCUSING SOLENOIDAL LENS
AND BEAM ENERGY VARIATION
Yu-Jiuan Chen, George J. Caporaso, Arthur C. Paul
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California 94550 USA
Abstract the worst effects on the electron beam’s final focusing if
these backstreaming protons do exist. Single-pulse
Backstreaming ions emitted from an x-ray converter hit by experiments at various radiography facilities and
a tightly focused intense electron beam can form an ion laboratories [2-4] (except at CESTA’s PIVAIR linac [5] )
focusing channel and over-focus the electron beam. As the have not yet been able to provide a strong evidence of
ions move upstream in time, the net focusing strength existence of backstreaming protons. However, The
increases. The final beam spot size on the target would simulated double-pulse experiments on ETA-II indicated a
then change in time and typically be larger than intended. different backstreaming ion emission mechanism [4]. The
We have developed a model to estimate the backstreaming space charge field of the electron beam would pull ions out
ions’ neutralization factor in a potential sheath near the of a pre-existing target plasma generated by the preceeding
target surface and away from the sheath. Performance of pulse. The ETA-II results also indicated that the
high resolution x-ray radiography facilities requires high backstreaming ion emission follow a the Child-Langmuir
current electron beams to be focused to a millimeter spot law. In this paper, we study the possibility of maintaining
size on an x-ray converter through out the entire current a constant final spot size for an entire current pulse by
pulse. We have studied the possibility of maintaining a using either a time varying final focusing solenoidal field
constant final spot size for the entire pulse by using either or beam energy variation to compensate the time varying
a time varying final focusing solenoid field or beam ion focusing effects. We have found that the required time
energy variation to compensate the time varying ion varying rates for both the solenoidal field and the energy
focusing effects. variation are too large to be feasible.
1 INTRODUCTION 2 MODEL
Performance of high resolution x-ray radiography To model the backstreaming ion effects consistently
facilities requires several kiloamperes of electron beams to with the beam and target geometry, we should study this
be focused to a millimeter spot size on an x-ray converter problem with particle simulations. Typically, the electron
target through out the entire current pulse. D. Welch beam size at a converter target is about 1 mm, and the
claimed that it would be difficult to maintain the tight beampipe wall radius is about several centimeters. The
focus of electron beams on a converter during the entire backstreaming ion channel can vary from a few
pulse length because of the existence of backstreaming millimeters at the beginning of an electron beam pulse to
ions[1]. He stated that a high density electron beam can a meter at the tail of a pulse. The simulation volume has
heat the target surface up to 400oC and lead to rapid to be large enough to include the pipe wall and the entire
desorption of surface contaminants within a few ion channel in order to model the space charge potential
nanoseconds. These desorbed gases form a plasma layer on and the backstreaming ion focusing effect properly. At the
the converter surface. Meanwhile, the charge redistribution same time, the simulation mesh size has be small enough
on the target after the electron beam hits the surface creates to model the backstreaming ion emission in a millimeter
a large potential drop and an ion diode on the target size A-K gap. These requirements make examining time
surface. The space charge field of the electron beam would varying focusing field and energy with particle simulations
pull ions out of the plasma layer into the beam. These very time consuming. Therefore, we study the feasibility
ions trapped by the electron beam move upstream, form an of controlling the electron beam’s spot size with a time
ion focusing channel and over-focus the electron beam. As varying final focusing solenoidal field or beam energy
the ions move upstream in time, the net focusing strength variation by solving the envelope equation given as
increases. The final beam spot size on the target would k2
then change in time and typically be larger than intended. R′′ + co R
The potential backstreaming ions are protons and oxygen 4γ 2β 2
(1)
E2
{ }
from the water vapor on the target surface, carbon and 2I
tantalum or tungsten from the target itself. The lighter − 1 − fi ( z ) − fT ( z ) − β − 3 = 0
2
ions have a greater potential to destroy electron beam’s γβ 3 Io R R
final focus since they would travel upstream at a higher where R and E are the beam’s edge radius and edge
speed and form a longer ion channel. The ions from the emittance, f i is the backstreaming ions’ charge
target material itself are usually too heavy to have a large neutralization factor, and fT is the foil focusing effect
effect on the beam spot size during the beam pulse time. provided by the x-ray converter. In our model, all
On the other hand, the backstreaming protons would have backstreaming ions are trapped within the electron beam.
472
Both the electron density and the ion density are constant limited. We further assume the extracted ion current
in radial positions within the beam radius. follows the planar Child-Langmuir law,
3/2
1 2q φo
2.1 Beam Potential near a Target Ji = , (9)
9π M d 2
Let the x-ray converter target locates at z = zT. At a where q and M is ion’s charge and mass, respectively.
location far away from the converter surface ( zT - z >> a ), After leaving the A-K gap, i.e., z < zT − d , ions move
the radial scale length of the beam is much less the backstream with a velocity vi = 2q φ o /M . From Eq. (3),
longitudinal scale length, where a is the beam radius at
the z location. Let the wall potential be zero. The space it is obvious that the length of the ion channel would
charge suppressed potential inside the beam at this location depend on beam current, spot size, wall radius and ion
species. We find that the backstreaming ions’ charge
is well known and given by
I neutralization factor outside the A-K gap is given by
φ (r, zT − z >> a) = φ o + r 2 , (2) 2
4 λ
βca 2 fi ≈ ≈ 5% (10)
where 9 d
as z > zT - v it . A 5% charge neutralization factor has
φo = − 1 + 2 ln ,
I b
(3) been observed in the PIC simulations for the
βc a backstreaming protons [6]. Note that the backstreaming
andb is the wall radius. Let’s assume that the beam ions’ charge neutralization factor within an ion channel is
potential is separable in r and z such that independent of beam parameters, wall radius and ion types.
A re-entry (beer-can) target configuration would help to
Φ (r, z ) ≈ φ (r, zT − z >> a)ψ ( z ) . (4) reduce the spot size blow-up rate by reducing the beam
Substituting Eqs. (2) and (4) into Poison equation, we find space-charge potential, hence the length of the ion
channel. However, the ion charge neutralization factor
that the beam potential is given in the form
remain the same. Caporaso has shown that the
− ( zT − z ) / λ backstreaming ions’ charge neutralization factor is 6.4%
φ (r, z ) ≈ φ (r, zT − z >> a)(1 − e ) , (5) in a beer-can model that both the electron beam and the
where ion beam fill a beampipe [7].
a b The ions’ neutralization factor varies along the z
λ= 1 + 2 ln (6)
2 a location within the A-K gap region and approaches
is the scale length of the potential sheath at the target. infinity. The neutralization factor averaged over the gap is
2
Note that the sheath thickness is always about several 4 λ
times of the beam radius regardless of the wall radius since f ≈ ≈ 14.8% . (11)
3 d
i
λ varies from 0.5a to 1.49a as the b/a value varies from 1
to 50. The radial, electrostatic space-charge field is given For the case that the wall radius is 5 cm and the beam
radius is 0.5 mm, the A-K gap distance d is only 2.4 mm.
by
2I For a 6 kA beam, backstreaming protons would travel 1.9
Er (r, z ) = − ( 1 − e − ( zT − z ) / λ ) . (7) cm, that is much longer than the A-K gap distance, within
βcr 1 ns. For simplicity, we assume the ion neutralization
factor constant (5%) for the entire ion channel.
Comparing Eq. (1) with Eq. (7), it is obvious that the
focusing effect provided by the x-ray converter is given by 3 TIME VARYING SOLENOID FIELD
f T (z) = e −( zT − z)/ λ . (8) A potential way to compensate for the increasing
backstreaming ions’ focusing strength is to reduce the
By integrate Eq. (8) over z, we find that the target’s
final focal lens strength in time. For the Advanced
effective focusing length is λ, and the effective foil
Hydrotest Facility’s (AHF) [8] 6 kA, 20 MeV beams with
focusing factor is 1. For the case that the wall radius is 5
1200π mm-mr normalized edge emittance, we use a
cm and the beam radius is 0.5 mm, the effective foil
solenoid focusing field of 6350G to focus beams at a
focusing length is 0.8 mm. For simplicity, we ignore the
waist with a radius of 0.5 mm. Figure 1(a) shows that we
target’s focusing effects.
need at lease to reduce the focusing field at the rate of 30
G/ns to compensate the backstreaming protons’ focusing
2.2 Backstreaming Ions effects. We have found that varying the focusing lens’
strength is not effective once the protons have traveled
According to Eq. (5), the potential drop over the upstream and passed the final lens (t > 35 ns). Figure 1(b)
distance d=3λ from the target is 95% of φ o . An ion diode indicates that at least 14 G/ns is needed to maintain the
is formed across this potential drop. To estimate the spot size for backstreaming carbon. For both cases, the
amount of an ion current could be extracted from this required reduction rate in the final lens’ strength would be
diode, we assume that the ion emission is space charge hard to achieve due to the pulse power limitation.
473
1.5 the required solenoid field variation rate and the energy
(a) variation rate are quite large.
1
R (cm)
1 (a)
0 0.8
d t= s
dBz/ 0 G/n
-3 0.6
R (cm)
0.5
t= =0
d /dt
dBz/ 0.4 dV /ns
0 kV
= 15
0 10 20 30 40 50 0.2 /dt
t (ns) dV
0.5
(b) 10 20 30 40 50
0.4 t (ns)
R (cm)
0.3 0.5
=0
/dt
0.2 dBz 0.4 (b)
dBz/dt = - 14 G/ns
R (cm)
0.1 0.3
0
0.2 dt =
10 20 30 40 50 dV/
t (ns) 0.1 dV/dt = 40 kV/ns
Fig.1 The time varying beam radius on a target with
backstreaming (a) protons and (b) carbons and a 10 20 30 40 50
t (ns)
constant (solid) and time reducing (dashed)
focusing field. Fig. 2 The time varying beam radius on a target with
backstreaming (a) protons and (b) carbons for a
4 TIME VARYING BEAM ENERGY constant (solid) and for a time varying beam
energy (dashed).
We now examine the feasibility of maintaining the
beam spot size on a target by varying the beam energy. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
For simplicity, we assume that the beam energy increases
linearly within a pulse, and there is no envelope variation We would like to thank J. McCarrick for numerous
in the pulse. For the same AHF beam, Fig. 3(a) and (b) discussions. The work was performed under the auspices
show the compensation results for the focusing effects of of the U.S. Department of Energy by LLNL under
backstreaming protons and carbons, respectively. Even contract W-7405-ENG-48.
with 150 kV/ns of energy variation rate, we can only
maintain the beam spot size to a small value for about 35 REFERENCES
ns for the backstreaming proton case (see Fig. 2(a)). For
the backstreaming carbons, by varying beam energy at the [1] Dale Welch, Target Workshop, Albuquerque, NM.
rate of 40 kV/ns, we can successfully maintain the beam Feb. 6, 1997
spot size constant (see Fig. 2(b)). For a 50 ns long, 20 [2] P. Rambo, et. al., “EM-PIC Simulations of e-Beam
MeV beam, this would require a 10% energy variation Interaction with Field Emitted Ions from
through a pulse. It would be difficult to transport a beam Bremsstrahlung Target," this conference.
with such a large energy variation to the final focus region [3] D. Prono, Target Workshop, Livermore, CA, May
without any envelope variation. 21, 1998; T. Hughes, Target Workshop, Livermore,
CA, May 21, 1998.
5 CONCLUSIONS [4] S. Sampayan, et. al., “Experimental Investigation of
Beam Optics Issues at the Bremsstrahlung Converters
We have developed a model to estimate the neutralization for Radiographic Applications," this conference.
factor of backstreaming ions emitted from an x-ray [5] C. Vermare, et. al., “Experimental Results of
converter hit by a tightly focused intense electron beam. Electron Beam Neutralization Induced by a Limited
We have found that the neutralization factor is always 5% Space-Charge Emission," this conference.
regardless of the ion mass and charge, the electron current, [6] J. McCarrick, et. al., “Trapping Backstreaming Ions
beam radius and the wall radius. We have also studied two from an X-ray Converter using an Inductive Cell,"
schemes, reducing the final focus lens’ strength in time this conference.
and increasing beam energy in time, to compensate for [7] G. J. Caporaso, Y.-J. Chen, “Analytic Model of Ion
the increase in focusing produced by these ions. We have Emission from the Focus of an Intense Relativistic
found that neither methods are effective in maintaining a Electron Beam on a Target," this conference.
small beam spot size if the backstreaming ions are [8] G. J. Caporaso, Proceeding of 1997 Particle
protons. In the case of backstreaming carbons, both Accelerator Conference, Vancouver, Canada, May
methods can maintain a small beam spot size. However, 1997.
474
ELECTRON GUN SIMULATION USING MAGIC
S. Michizono, H.Tsutsui, S. Matsumoto, Y. H. Chin and S. Fukuda
High Energy Accelerator Research Organization (KEK), Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0801 Japan
Abstract Since the electrons emitted due to the electric-field
strength on every grid of the cathode, a careful
The electron gun plays an important role concerning configuration of the cathode surface is important to avoid
klystron performance, especially for X-band klystrons edge emission. In order to construct the boundary
with a small drift-tube diameter. This paper describes a condition easily, we made a program similar to the
new method for an electron-gun simulation by using boundary-definition-program POLYGON [5] used for
MAGIC. MAGIC solves the Maxwell equations in the EGUN [6]. Figure 1 shows a schematic of the electron-
presence of charged particles on a time-domain. The gun boundary. The grid dimensions, such as ∆r and ∆z,
results simulated by MAGIC are compared with those by must be defined in the program. Since the grids should be
EGUN and measured values. It reveals that the perveance located on the drift tube wall, the number of grids
is almost the same as the measured values, and that the existing in the r-direction of the drift tube is necessary as
current-density distribution and beam angle are almost an input. There are restrictions in the number of grids (r-
the same as those of EGUN. Although it takes half days and z-directions and total numbers), and the grid sizes
to simulate the gun, the simulation has the potential that a depend on the geometry size.
single code can enable one to simulate the whole It is possible to simulate a “small area” (divided by
structure of a klystron. “GAP” line in Figure 1) after the simulation of a “large
area” (total area of Figure 1). In a small-area simulation,
1 INTRODUCTION the electric-field (Ez) distribution on “GAP” obtained by
It is important to design the electron gun precisely a “large-area” simulation is used for the voltage input.
when we design klystrons. In a future linear collider, such Although a “small-area” simulation is possible only when
as Japan Linear Collider (JLC) and SLAC NLC, high- the “GAP” can be treated as a Neumann boundary, this is
power klystrons at the X-band (11.424 GHz) will be used. convenient to reduce the number of cells or to make a
In these klystrons, the beam (>350A) should be precise simulation.
compressed to around a radius of 3 mm and the area- By using this boundary program, it becomes easy to
convergence ratio of the beam should be more than 100. compare the data obtained by EGUN.
In order to simulate a whole structure of a klystron 2.2 Time step of “rough” and “fine”
precisely by a single code, we started to use a 2.5D simulation
particle-in-cell (PIC) program, called “MAGIC”[1],
which is used in plasma-physics problems. In MAGIC, The data of particles and electromagnetic fields are
neither a port approximation nor an equivalent-circuit repeatedly imported at the next buncher and output
model is used, and only the geometry of the structure is region, and the time step should be a divisor of the
necessary to be input. By using a general program period of the operation frequency. When we simulate the
(“MAGIC”), one can modify and develop a simulation entire structure of a klystron, it is selected as 0.24315 ps
system by oneself, even if a new idea for klystrons (“fine” simulation) in an X-band klystron (XB-72k [7]),
occurs. which corresponds to 1/360 of the period (1 degree). The
In the klystron, the gun and all rf components are default time step with 0.5 mm grids is about 0.8 ps, which
electromagnetically divided from each other, and the reduces the simulation time (“rough” simulation). This is
simulation is executed at three parts (gun, buncher and convenient when we simulate only the electron-gun
output) [2-4]. We report on the results of some klystron-
guns (S- and X-band) simulated by MAGIC. "large area"
"inlet"
2 BOUNDARY PREPARATION GAP
2.1 Spatial geometry of “large” and “small”
area "small area"
In MAGIC, arbitrary rectangular grids are used and the
spatial grid is the primary determinant of accuracy. It is
especially necessary to define fine grids in a spherical
z _outp ort
cathode and the small aperture of the drift tube radius. Figure 1 Schematic of electron gun giometry.
493
region. Both “rough” and “fine” simulations gave the
same results in the gun region.
2.3 Magnetic fields
The magnetic fields used for electron-beam
convergence can be introduced from the output of the
LANL POISSON/PANDIRA codes [8].
2.4 Cathode voltage
In MAGIC, the voltage is applied at “inlet” in Figure 1
is a “large-area” simulation and at “GAP” in Figure 1 in a
“small-area” simulation.
Since MAGIC is a time-domain code, the applied
voltage should gradually be increased so as to avoid any
numerical oscillations: we set 0.8 ns for the rise time. Figure 2 Particle trajectories of XB-72k with “small-
area” and “fine” time step. The applied voltage and
beam current are 550 kV and 490 A respectively.
3 PERFORMANCE OF MAGIC
of 550 kV. Due to a careful grid configuration, edge
3.1 Execution procedure emission is not observed. (2) The transition of the beam
The execution of a MAGIC simulation is done as current and voltage between a wehnelt and an anode are
follows: monitored in order to evaluate the machine time
(1) “Large-area” simulation with a “rough” time step necessary to be stable. A simulation of the XB-72K with
If the “GAP” (in Figure 1) can be treated as a Neumann 0.5 mm grids requires 15 ns (about 60,000 time steps
boundary, then with “fine” simulation) to be stable.
(2) Input the electric-field distribution on “GAP” By using exported particle data, (3) the current density
(3) Make a “small-area” simulation with a “fine” time distribution and (4) beam angle (vR/vz) are also obtained.
step We can compare results (1), (3) and (4) with those of
After the simulation, the particle and field data can be EGUN. Figure 3 shows the current-density profile of XB-
exported to the next buncher and the output region of the 72K by MAGIC together with that obtained by EGUN.
klystron. The results obtained by MAGIC agree well with that by
EGUN. Figure 4 shows the radial distribution of the beam
3.2 Output data angle obtaiend by MAGIC and by EGUN. Since the
Since MAGIC is a general code for plasma problems, position of the beam waist was different between EGUN
we can specify the output of the simulations. (1) A phase and MAGIC, probably caused by a difference in the total
plot (particle trajectory) is obtained by MAGIC. Figure 2 beam current (450 A in EGUN and 490 A in MAGIC),
shows the trajectories of XB-72k with an applied voltage the beam angle by MAGIC is about half that obtained by
EGUN.
50.0 10
45.0 0
Current density [A/mm ]
2
40.0 -10
EGUN
-20
ALFA [mRAD]
35.0 MAGIC -30
30.0 -40
25.0 -50
20.0 -60 EGUN
15.0 -70 MAGIC
10.0 -80
-90
5.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
0.0 R [mm]
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
R [mm]
Figure 4 Electron-beam angle (vr/vz) of the electron gun
Figure 3 Current-density distribution of the (XB-72k) at 175 mm in the Z-direction. About half the
electron gun (XB-72k) at 175 mm in the Z- value of MAGIC is due to the difference in the beam
direction. oscillation position (see Figure 5).
494
(a) (b)
Figure 5 Beam trajectories obtained by MAGIC (a) and EGUN (b) from z=175 mm to 500 mm of XB-72k.
The oscillation is almost the same, but the phase is different, probably due to a difference in the total current.
developed which makes it convenient for comparisons
3.3 Diode simulation with EGUN. (1) The particle trajectories, (2) transitions
of the voltage and beam current, (3) current-density
By importing particle data from electron-gun region, distribution, and (4) beam angle were obtained; the
we can simulate the drift-tube region. Figure 5 shows the results agree well with those obtained by EGUN. The
particle trajectories of the diode together with that by obtained perveances were almost the same as the
EGUN. The trajectories obtained by MAGIC are almost measured values for the S- and X-band klystrons.
the same as those obtained by EGUN. Although it takes more than a half day to simulate with a
3.4 Performance and machine time fine time-step used for a whole-structure calculation, the
machine time can be reduced by using a faster PC. Since
The performance and machine time are summarized in the whole-structure simulation reveals good agreements
Table.1. Simulations by MAGIC are carried out not only with the measured values, this simulation method is
for an X-band klystron, but also for the S-band klystrons useful for the final stage of klystron design.
used in the KEK(PV3030A2)[9] and
SLAC(5045)[10,11]. The perveances are almost the same 5 REFERENCES
as the measured values and 5-10% larger than those
obtained by EGUN. [1] Mission Research Corporation, Virginia, USA.
The machine time depends on the grid size and time [2] Y.H.Chin, “Computational Modeling of Klystrons”,
step; it takes about 15 hours to simulate “15 ns” with a this conference.
“small-area” and “fine” time step by PentiumPro- [3] S.Matsumoto et al., “Simulation study of the
200MHz PC. Now, the pentiumII-300MHz PC is used, bunching section of X-band klystrons”, this
which reduces the simulation time by half. conference.
[4] H.Tsutsui et al., “X-band klystron output cavity
Table 1 Performance of a MAGIC simulation.
simulation”, this conference.
Klystron PV3030A2 5045 XB-72K [5] R. Becker, “Easy boundary definition for EGUN”,
Frequency 2,856 MHz 2,856 MHz 11,424 MHz Nucl. Inst. Meth. B42,162-164 (1989).
Voltage 300 kV 315 kV 550 kV [6] W.B.Herrmannsfeldt, “Developments in electron gun
Experimental simulation”, SLAC-PUB-6498 (1994).
µperveance 2.05 2.0 1.2 [7] J.Odagiri et al., “FCI simulation on 100 MW class
EGUN th
klystron at X-band”, Proceedings of the 17
Grid size 0.5 mm 0.5 mm 0.5 mm
µperveance 1.89 1.78 1.10 International Linac Conference, Tsukuba, Japan,
machine-time* 2 min. 2 min. 6 min. 469-471(1994).
MAGIC [8] J.H.Billen and L.M.Young, “POISSON
Grid size 0.5 mm 0.5 mm 0.5 mm SUPERFISH”, LA-UR-96-1834(1997).
Time step 0.9726 ps 0.9726 ps 0.24315 ps [9] S.Fukuda et al., ”Design and evaluation of a compact
µperveance 2.03 1.99 1.19
machine-time* 5 hours 5 hours 15 hours 50-MW rf source of the PF linac for KEKB project”,
*The time simulated by PentiumPro200MHz PC. Nucl. Instr. Meth. A363,83-89 (1995).
[10] T.G.Lee et al., ”A fifty megawatt klystron for the
stanford linear collider”, SLAC-PUB-3214 (1983).
4 SUMMARY
[11] M.A.Allen et al., “Performance of the SLAC linear
An electron-gun simulation was successfully carried collider klystrons”, SLAC-PUB-4262 (1987).
out by MAGIC. A boundary-formation program was
495
DOPPLER-SHIFT PROTON FRACTION MEASUREMENT ON A CW
PROTON INJECTOR
J. H. Kamperschroer (General Atomics, San Diego, CA),
J. D. Sherman, T. J. Zaugg (LANL, Los Alamos, NM),
A. H. Arvin, A. S. Bolt, and M. C. Richards (WSRC, Aiken, SC)
Abstract broadening due to the instrument, the line shape is a
direct measure of the velocity distribution. In principle, a
A spectrometer/Optical Multi-channel Analyzer has been quantitative measure of the divergence can be made[5].
used to measure the proton fraction of the cw proton Collisions of extracted water ions with the background
injector developed for the Accelerator Production of gas produce excited hydrogen atoms with energy E/18,
Tritium (APT)[1] and the Low Energy Demonstration where E is the extraction potential. Water contamination
Accelerator (LEDA) at Los Alamos. This technique, becomes apparent at a level of <1%
pioneered by the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Experiments carried out at Los Alamos have been a
(LBNL), was subsequently adopted by the international successful proof-of-principle test on a proton injector,
fusion community as the standard for determining the even though photon fluences from the injector are orders
extracted ion fractions of neutral beam injectors. Proton of magnitude below that of large fusion ion sources. The
fractions up to 95 ± 3% have been measured on the photon production rate is proportional to the beam
LEDA injector. These values are in good agreement with current, the background gas density, and the Hα
results obtained by magnetically sweeping the ion beam, production cross sections. While the current densities of
collimated by a slit, across a Faraday cup. Since the fusion and APT ion sources are similar, fusion ion
velocity distribution of each beam species is measured, it sources have much larger extraction areas. Fusion ion
also can be used to determine beam divergence. While source currents are of order 100 A versus 100 mA for the
divergence has not yet been ascertained due to the wide LEDA/APT injector. Another significant difference is
slit widths in use, non-Gaussian distributions have been the background gas density. In neutral beam injectors,
observed during operation above the design-matched the goal is to convert the extracted ions into neutrals by
perveance. An additional feature is that the presence of collisions with background gas. For a proton injector, it
extracted water ions can be observed. During ion source is important to avoid proton loss via charge exchange to
conditioning at 75 kV, an extracted water fraction >30% 0
H . Near the ion source, the background gas density is
was briefly observed. ~10 times lower than in a fusion neutral beam injector.
The net result is that the Hα production rate in a proton
4
1 INTRODUCTION injector is ~10 times less than in a fusion neutral beam
injector.
A diagnostic developed by the magnetic fusion Several factors favor the proton injector. The APT
energy community has been successfully utilized on the ion source is cw compared to pulse-lengths of a few
LEDA injector test facility[2] at Los Alamos. The seconds for fusion ion sources; long integrations are
technique was developed in the late 1970s at LBNL[3] as therefore possible. Another advantage is that the
a means of determining the composition of neutral beams neutralization and dissociation of the extracted ion beam,
+ +
used to heat magnetic fusion plasmas. Extracted H , H2 , that takes place in the neutral beam injector before the
+
and H3 interact with background gas to produce fast, beam reaches the observation point, occurs to a much
excited hydrogen atoms with energies of E, E/2, and E/3, smaller degree in a proton injector. The problem created
where E is the ion source extraction potential. By by changing the state of the beam is that the Hα
observing the beam at an angle relative to the direction of production cross sections are different for the daughters
propagation, the Doppler-shift separates the light from than for their parents. Therefore, the composition of the
the three species. The wavelength of the Doppler-shifted beam at the observation point must be known to deduce
light is λ = λ0 (1 – β cos θ), where λ0 is the unshifted the composition at the extraction plane. Due to the low
wavelength, β = v/c, and θ is the angle between the gas pressure between the ion source and observation
+ +
viewing line of sight and the beam’s direction of point in a proton injector, a beam composed of H , H2 ,
+
propagation. Beam composition is determined from the and H3 can be assumed.
quantity of light associated with each Doppler-shifted Initial data collection occurred at 50 kV, during
line. Cross sections for Balmer-α (Hα) production from experiments supporting a 1.25 MeV cw radio-frequency
+ + +
H , H2 , and H3 incident on hydrogen gas have been quadrupole (RFQ)[6]. The RFQ for LEDA and APT has
measured[4], permitting a quantitative measure of the been designed to accept a 75 keV proton beam. A small
beam composition. In addition to the Doppler shift due to amount of data was obtained after the ion source was
the differing β’s, the light from each species is broadened regapped for operation at 75 keV.
due to cos θ. For small beam divergence, and neglecting
511
2 DESCRIPTION OF THE HARDWARE using a dispersion of 0.016 nm/channel. The ordinate
represents the number of counts detected in each channel.
A complete Doppler-shift spectroscopy system[7] Proton fractions were obtained by fitting the three
was borrowed from the Princeton Plasma Physics Doppler-shifted lines to Gaussians. Error bars of ±3% for
the proton fraction, 17% for H2 , and ±20% for H3 are
+ +
Laboratory (PPPL). It consists of a 135-mm Canon lens
to focus collimated light onto a 600-µm glass fiber; an based on uncertainties of ±10% in calculating the line
Instruments S.A. 640-mm Czerny-Turner spectrometer; a areas, ~±5% in cross sections[4], and assuming that the
Princeton Applied Research Corp. vidicon detector; a gas line density between the ion source and observation
14 -2
detector controller; and a computer control console. point could be as high as 1.5x10 cm .
The beam was observed 34 cm downstream from the
extractor as it exits the cone that follows the accelerator. 4 RESULTS
The 7-cm exit diameter of the cone equals the 7-cm
diameter of the light collection cylinder. At this location
Proton fractions have been measured for scans of the ion
the 4-rms beam diameter is 2.2 cm. Since light is
source microwave power and gas throughput. In both
collected from the entire horizontal extent of the beam,
cases, the spectrometer and detector were operated in the
all of x phase space is observed.
as in figure 1. Figure 2 shows the results of scanning the
Each pixel in the 500x500 square detector is 25 µm.
2.45 GHz microwave power to the source over the range
When integrating light from a 43-cm tall PPPL neutral
of 500 to 1500 W while the beam energy and gas
beam injector, the slits of the spectrometer were set at 3
throughput were fixed at 50 keV and 2.22 standard cubic
µm. In the present case, they were opened to 50 µm, centimeters per minute (sccm). Beam current varied from
providing additional light. Opening the slits beyond the 36 mA to 140 mA. Due to the wide range over which the
50-µm size of the pixels caused broadening of the lines beam current changed, the currents to the two electron
and merging of the two molecular lines. 50 µm is a cyclotron resonance (ECR) solenoids needed to be varied
compromise between signal and resolution. to maintain stable operation.
3 DATA AND ANALYSIS 1.0
species fraction
0.8
Figure 1 is a spectrum obtained at 50 kV with 120 H+
0.6
mA of ions measured at the first DC current toroid. (All H2+
0.4
quoted beam currents were measured with this toroid.) H3+
0.2
The viewing angle, θ, was 60°, the entrance slit of the
0.0
spectrometer was 50 µm, and light was integrated for 16
500 1000 1500
s. Since the beam came towards the line of sight, the
Doppler shift was in the blue direction. Left to right, the microwave power (W)
first three lines are the Doppler-shifted lines from
+ + +
incident H , H2 , and H3 . The rightmost, and tallest, line
is unshifted Hα (656.3 nm). Figure 2. Beam composition as a function of
microwave power.
Proton fractions of 0.95 ± 0.03 were found at 900
10000
+
H and 1000 W. These values agree with measurements
8000 Ηα made using an emittance measuring unit modified with a
counts
6000 deflection magnet preceding the Faraday cup[2].
4000 H2+ H3+
2000 1.0
species fraction
0 0.8
H+
0 100 200 300 400 500 0.6
H2+
0.4
channel H3+
0.2
0.0
Figure 1. Spectrum at 50 kV and 120 mA with 2 3 4 5
50 mm slits.
gas throughput (sccm)
Light falls on a portion of the height of the detector
corresponding to the diameter of the fiber. Each channel
was defined to be one pixel wide by 60 pixels tall Figure 3. Beam composition as a function of
(sufficient to include all pixels illuminated by the fiber). gas throughput.
The wavelength corresponding to a particular channel can
be determined by assigning 656.2 nm to channel 362 and Figure 3 is the result of a scan where the gas
throughput was varied from 2.2 to 5 sccm, at a constant
512
microwave power of 1000 W. As the throughput were estimated from cross sections for the production of
increased from 2.2 to 5 sccm, beam current decreased Hα for hydrogen atoms incident on water[8].
from 92 mA to 71 mA. As above, the currents to the two
ECR solenoids were adjusted to maintain stable source 6000
operation. 5000 Hα
It is important to note that the proton fraction 4000
counts
corresponding to the 2.2-sccm data point in figure 3
(85%) does not agree with the 1000 W data point in
3000 H3 + H2O+
2000 H2
figure 2 (95%). Source microwave power and throughput 1000 H+
were the same in these two cases, but the proton fractions 0
differ by 10%. Inspection of the raw data supports the
0 100 200 300 400 500
measured difference. ECR solenoid settings were slightly
different. This observation, together with the variations channel
in figure 2, indicates that the proton fraction is sensitive
to minor variations in ion source setpoints.
Figure 4 is a spectrum from 50 kV, 132 mA source Figure 5. Spectrum at 75 kV, just after the ion
operation. The source is operating above its design- source was open to air.
matched perveance (110 mA at 50 kV). An important
difference between the way this spectrum was acquired The proton fraction is estimated to be in the range of 30
and all of those discussed so far is that the slit width was to 40% while water is 40 to 25%, respectively. There is a
reduced to 20 µm. large uncertainty in the beam fractions in this case due to
the facts that protons are no longer the dominant line and
that estimates of the water cross sections differ by a factor
5000 of two.
4000 After approximately 10 minutes of cw operation, the
water level in the beam decreased by over an order of
counts
3000
magnitude. However, the proton fraction was still poor
2000
due to the low source power. Residual gas analysis of the
1000
injector vacuum always indicates the presence of water
0 contamination for several days after exposure to air.
0 100 200 300 400 500 Water in the ion source cleans up at a more rapid rate due
channel to its active removal by the plasma and the beam.
Figure 4. Spectrum taken at 132 mA with 20 µm ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
slit width showing a non-gaussian This work has been supported by the US Department of
proton peak. Energy contract DE-AC04-96AL89607. We would also
like to thank the neutral beam operations group at the
Note the non-Gaussian shape of the proton line. Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory for the loan of the
Such a distribution is indicative of poor beam optics. In Optical Multi-channel Analysis system.
this case, it can be attributed to overdense beam
extraction. Other data taken with 20-µm slits show a
return to Gaussian shape as the current was reduced to REFERENCES
110 mA. The data taken with 50-µm slits is more
Gaussian because the natural line width is convolved with [1] G. Lawrence, “High-Power Proton Linac for APT;
a wider instrument function. Status of Design and Development”, these
Data were also taken during several hours of ion proceedings.
source operation at 75 keV. Immediately prior to when [2] J. Sherman et al., Rev. Sci. Instrum. 69, 1003 (1998).
this data was taken, the ion source was exposed to air for [3] C. F. Burrell, W. S. Cooper, R. R. Smith, and W. F.
accelerator maintenance. The spectrometer slit width was Steele, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 51, 1451 (1980).
back to 50 µm. [4] I. D. Williams, J. Geddes, and H. B. Gilbody, J. Phys.
An interesting spectrum was noted and is shown in B 15, 1377 (1982).
figure 5. Situated at channel 300 is a line due to hydrogen [5] G. Bracco, C. Breton, C. de Michelis, M. Mattioli, and
atoms extracted as water ions. The presence of J. Ramette, J. Opt. Soc. Am. 71, 1318 (1981).
significant water in the beam is attributed to the fact that [6] B. G. Chidley, F. P. Adams, G. E. McMichael, T. T.
the ion source was just beginning to be conditioned and Ngoc, and T. S. Bhatia, in Proceedings of the 1990
that water became absorbed on the source walls during its Linear Accelerator Conference.
exposure to air. [7] J. H. Kamperschroer et al., Rev. Sci. Instrum. 58,
Cross sections for the production of Hα from water 1362 (1987).
incident on hydrogen have not been measured. To [8] F. B. Yousif, J. Geddes, and H. B. Gilbody, J. Phys.
estimate the water fraction, the required cross sections B. 19, 217 (1986).
513
DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATIONAL RESULTS OF THE IGBT
CONTROLLED SOLID STATE MODULATOR HIGH VOLTAGE POWER
SUPPLY USED IN THE HIGH POWER RF SYSTEMS OF THE
LOW ENERGY DEMONSTRATION ACCELERATOR OF THE
ACCELERATOR PRODUCTION OF TRITIUM (APT) PROJECT
J. T. Bradley III, D. Rees, R. S. Przeklasa, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM;
M. C. Scott, Continental Electronics Corporation, Dallas TX
Abstract klystrons which drive the RFQ of the accelerator will
require up to 21 A at 95 kV. In contrast, the RFQ
The 1700 MeV, 100 mA Accelerator Production of klystrons will make up approximately half of the
Tritium (APT) Proton Linac will require 244 1 MW, klystrons in the LEDA RF systems. The function and
continuous wave RF systems. 1 MW continuous wave reliability of all candidate power supply designs must first
klystrons are used as the RF source and each klystron be proven out in the LEDA accelerator before they can be
requires 95 kV, 17 A of beam voltage and current. The considered for the APT plant. In order for candidate power
cost of the DC power supplies is the single largest supply designs to gain significant testing time on LEDA,
percentage of the total RF system cost. Power supply all candidate power supply designs must be capable of
reliability is crucial to overall RF system availability and providing currents of up to 21 A at 95 kV.
AC to DC conversion efficiency affects the operating The output voltage regulation was required to be within
cost. The Low Energy Demonstration Accelerator (LEDA) ±400 V around the setpoint and the ripple was required to
being constructed at Los Alamos National Laboratory be ≤1100 Vpp while the input line voltage varied ±5%
(LANL) will serve as the prototype and test bed for APT. and the input voltage phase unbalance was ≤3.8%.
The design of the RF systems used in LEDA is driven by The input voltage of this power supply design was
the need to field test high efficiency systems with required to be 4160 V three phase service. The power
extremely high reliability before APT is built. We present supplies were required to have a power factor ≥0.98 for all
a detailed description and test results of one type of output voltage levels between -60 kV and full power and
advanced high voltage power supply system using all current levels between 10 and 21 amps. The harmonic
Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs) that has been distortion of the current drawn from the input lines was
used with the LEDA High Power RF systems. We also required to meet IEEE Std 519-1992 specifications.
present some of the distinctive features offered by this When operating at -95 kV and currents between 17 and
power supply topology, including crowbarless tube 21 amps, the efficiency was required to be ≥97%. When
protection and modular construction which allows graceful operating between -80 kV and -95 kV and currents
degradation of power supply operation. between 12 and 21 amps, the efficiency was required to be
≥96%. When operating at or between -60 kV and -80 kV
1 POWER SUPPLY REQUIREMENTS and currents between 10 and 21 amps, the efficiency was
The High Voltage Power Supplies are required to required to be ≥95%. The requirements on efficiency are
convert standard AC distribution voltages to regulated HV summarized in Figure 1.
DC power. The efficiency of this power supply was
required to be greater than that of proven power supply 21
≥97%
Output Current (A)
technologies. The large number of power supplies 18
≥96%
required by APT implies that each power supply must be
≥95%
extremely reliable. Protection of the personnel who will 15
service the power supply systems in the APT plant is of 12
primary importance. Protection of the klystron from
9
damage during a klystron arc is secondary to safety but
still a crucial requirement. The humidity and temperature 6
of the environment around the APT plant at Savanna 3
River Site impose additional requirements on the power
0
supply.
0 20 40 60 80 100
1.1 Performance Output Voltage (kV)
While over 100 of the klystrons in the APT plant will Figure 1: The efficiency requirements were specified over
require a maximum of 17 A of current at 95 kV, the three a range of currents and voltages.
561
transformer are extended by different amounts to produce
1.3 Reliability and Maintenance 24 pulse rectification at the power supply output.
48 Separate 3-phase
The goal for power supply Mean Time Between Failure Interconnnects to 48 Lowpass
Isolated Transformer Filter
(MTBF) was 25,000 hours. This goal was driven by the Secondaries Column
of 48 -95 kV
combination of the MTBF for all other components in Circuit Step-start
Modules
In Series
Control
each RF system and the large number of high power RF Breaker
Circuitry
systems that will be required in the APT plant. Four High Voltage
Transformers with
Serviceability was given consideration from the 24 Isolated
beginning the power supply design. The goal for the 3-phase
Secondaries Each
Column
of 48
Modules
Mean Time To Repair (MTTR) of the supply was one In Series
4160 Primary
hour or less to minimize the cost of maintaining the APT Line Voltage Return
accelerator. Figure 1: Two transformers serve each power column.
1.4 Safety and Klystron Protection Each module uses an IGBT for current control as shown
in Figure 2, eliminating the need for a crowbar. Each
The Kirk® Key locks on the power supplies were module also contains independent control circuitry to
required to integrate with the existing Kirk® Key lock monitor the module output and inhibit the SCRs in the
system used in the existing LEDA High Power RF six pulse bridge in the event that an IGBT fails closed.
systems. Failed modules are bypassed by the control system to
The power supplies were also required to meet all provide graceful degradation of operation. If more than
existing safety requirements at LANL including the five modules have failed, then the maximum voltage the
requirement that debugging the low level power supply supply can produce under the condition of 5% input
control circuits could be done without exposure to voltage droop is reduced by roughly 1 kV per failed
voltages in excess of 24 V. module after the first five.
The power supply was required to NOT use a crowbar Three Phase
Three Phase
Rectifer Bridge
Current Viewing
Resistor
Power
but still limit the energy deposited in a klystron arc to from One Set of
isolated
less than 40 Joules and have a backup means of shutting Secondaries
Control Zero or
off the power in the event that the principal system failed. Circuitry -1.1 kV
1.5 Environment Return
The environmental requirements were specified such Figure 2: Each module contains independent control
that they covered both the expected environmental circuitry to disable the module in the event of module
conditions at the Savanna River Site and the control failure.
environmental conditions at LANL. The power supply 2.2 Physical Structure.
was required to function over an ambient temperature
range of 10°C to 32°C (50° F to 90° F) which was The whole power supply is located behind a 6.1 by 5.5
determined by the indoor location of the power supply. m fence. Each module is contained on a removable circuit
The power supply was required to function over a card. The circuit cards are arranged in the two power
humidity range of up to 85% non-condensing which was columns in four rows of twelve. This arrangement allows
chosen based on the environment at Savanna River Site. cooling air from fans at the bottom of the columns to be
Finally, the power supply was required to function at an blown across each module. The columns support corona
altitude of up to 2438 m (8000 feet) to allow it to be rings on each row to hide sharp edges on the modules
tested at LANL. from high electric fields and to grade the electric field as
the potential increases toward the top of each column.
2 POWER SUPPLY DESCRIPTION
The design of the IGBT controlled Solid State
Modulator High Voltage Power supply is based on the
design of Solid State Modulators sold by Continental
Electronics. Over 100 of these modulators are now in use
and offer impressive AC to DC conversion efficiency.
2.1 Electrical Design.
The power supplies utilize 96 separate rectifying
modules stacked in series. Each module is fed from an
isolated secondary winding on one of four transformers as
shown in Figure 1. The primary windings of each Figure 3: Each module is connected to a unique isolated 3-
phase secondary on one of the four transformers.
562
The backplanes of the power columns contain voltage over a period of 48 hours. Calculations made of
connections to the 24 isolated 3-phase secondaries on each the energy deposited in the wire indicate that the energy
of the four transformers as shown in Figure 3. The that will deposited into a klystron arc will be less than 10
backplanes also contain the shorting mechanisms that Joules when the power supply is operating at full voltage
insure that all modules are shorted out before the fence is and current.
opened when the power supply is to be serviced. The power supply was tested into a 640 Ω load at 21 A
for 48 consecutive hours. During this test a heat wave
2.3 Mean Time Between Failure and Mean Time combined with an air conditioning failure at the vendor's
To Repair facility caused the ambient temperature and humidity rise
The MTBF was calculated after the design was finalized. above the maximum specified levels. Despite the extreme
The power supply was designed such that up to five temperature, the full current test was passed without
modules could fail before the supply's ability to produce failure. Figure 5 shows the core temperature of the first
95 kV under the conditions of a 5% input voltage droop transformer during this run. The time required to reach a
was impaired. A block diagram of the method used to relatively constant core temperature was approximately
calculate the MTBF is shown in Figure 4. ten hours, significantly less than the length of the 48
hour test..
Controller Interface HV Cntrler PS HV Controller HV Assembly The harmonic content of the input current during the 21
33.15/M 2.37/M 3.64/M 2.30/M 13.44/M
A output current tests showed magnitudes that were all
below 20 dB down from the 60 Hz fundamental. While all
Module Failure Rate =
3.69/M
55.6355/M of these values are significantly below the maximum
Module allowed values of IEEE Std 519-1992, these
3.69/M
MTBF = 1/FR measurements will be taken again at LANL where the test
Module = 17974 hrs
3.69/M can be repeated with loads in the MW level. The utility
Module connections at LANL are also expected to provide a more
3.69/M
realistic source impedance to the supply.
Module
3.69/M
Figure 4: The total MTBF for the supply was calculated 100
Transformer Temperature (°C)
from published MTBF data for each component in the
power supply.
80
The power supply was designed with serviceability in
mind. A 44 minute MTTR was achieved in part by
designing the power columns such that it possible to 60
remove and replace any modules in the power columns
without the use of tools once the Kirk® Key locked fence 40
has been opened and the columns have been grounded.
20
3 ACCEPTANCE TEST RESULTS 0 10 20 30 40 50
Acceptance testing of the power supply is done in two 21 Amp Test Time (Hours)
parts. Almost all required functions of the power supply Figure 5: Transformer core temperature while running at
(including output power quality, safety systems and 21 Amps in an ambient temperature of greater than 38° C.
klystron protection systems) are tested at the vendor's 3.2 Final Acceptance Tests
facility before the power supply is shipped. The testing of
power supply efficiency and a full power heat run is done The final acceptance tests will be performed at LANL
at LANL due to the availability of a 95 kV, 2 MW where a 2 MW, 95 kV resistive load is available. The
resistive load at the LEDA facility. power supply is being shipped to LANL for installation.
Three of these power supplies are on order from Final acceptance tests will take place in September, 1998.
Continental Electronics. The first has passed its factory
acceptance tests and is being shipped to LANL. 4 CONCLUSIONS
The first IGBT Controlled SSM High Voltage Power
3.1 Factory Acceptance Test Results
Supply has successfully passed the factory acceptance
All methods of triggering the Fast Shut Down Mode tests. This power supply is being shipped to LANL for
(FSDM or the equivalent of a "crowbar") were tested final acceptance tests. Final acceptance tests will include
successfully. The power supply shut down quickly measurement of efficiency at output power levels in the
enough to prevent a 0.614 meter long 35 gauge copper MW range and more detailed measurements of the input
wire (40 Joules) from melting placed across the high current harmonic content.
voltage output. This test was performed 192 times at full
563
THE COLD MODEL OF THE CDS STRUCTURE
V.V. Paramonov, L.V. Kravchuk, V.A. Puntus
Institute for Nuclear Research, 117312, Moscow, Russia
Abstract accelerating modes and high kc [2],[3] value. In CDS cou-
pling windows serve as real ’window’ trough which main
The Cut Disk Structure (CDS) was proposed as the com-
part of magnetic field for coupling mode penetrates in the
pensated accelerating structure for high energy linacs. Cold
volume of accelerating cells and some conclusions, based
rf model was manufactured to examine CDS parameters,
on extensive experience with coupling slots, are not correct
partially for S-band electron linacs. In agreement with
for CDS. For example, kc is practically not sensitive to the
design parameters, coupling coefficient near 22% was ob-
thickness of window. For = 1; f0 = 2450 MHz increas-
tained together with high shunt impedance. Results of ex-
ing of the window thickness from 3.5 mm to 6 mm (and
periments are presented.
total increasing of the web between accelerating cells from
10 mm to 15 mm) kc reduces only from 22% to 19%. The
1 INTRODUCTION frequency shift for accelerating mode due to coupling win-
dows is also smaller than for slot coupled structures.
The Cut Disk Structure (Fig. 1) was proposed [1] as the re-
May be several (2,3,4...) coupling windows at one side of
sult of investigations for coupling coefficient kc increasing
the cell. The dependencies kc on total windows opening
in compensated accelerating structures. Results of numer-
are shown in (Fig. 2a) together with plots for calculated Ze
ical simulations [1], [2] have shown attractive features of
(Fig. 2b). At (Fig. 2b) Z0 is the effective shunt impedance
the structure - high kc value together with high effective
shunt impedance Ze . Nine cell = 1 cold model with op-
of solid accelerating cell without any windows. For small
erating frequency f0 = 2450 MHz was produced to proof
kc values Ze > Z0 [2] and for every there exists such
CDS design parameters for high region.
kc0 value when calculated Ze = Z0 . Due to increasing of
the volume for accelerating cell with increasing, kc0 de-
creases from 30% at = 0:4 to 22% at = 1.
This paper describes CDS design parameters, rf model,
tuning procedure and results of experiments.
3 CDS MODEL
3.1 Design parameters
As in all Coupled Cells (CCL) structures with
-shaped ac-
celerating cells, Ze value for CDS decreases with increas-
ing of the web thickness t between accelerating cells. As an
example, at (Fig. 3a) 2D calculated plots of Ze are shown
for ”electron” CCL option (aperture diameter 10 mm, nose
cone radius 2.0 mm). At (Fig. 3b) plots for normalised
(to Zemax at zero web thickness) are shown. (For ”pro-
ton” CCL option Ze reduction at low with t increasing is
2 THE CDS PARTICULARITIES
Instead of CDS is very similar outwardly (Fig. 1) to On-
axis Coupled Structure with coupling slots, it realise an-
other idea. In CDS accelerating mode is distributed in
accelerating cell of usual
-shape with distributed elec-
tric and magnetic fields. For coupling mode electric field
is concentrated in the short space between half tubes (in
”coupling cell”, Fig. 1), but main part of magnetic field
is distributed in the volume of accelerating cell. It results
in strong overlapping for magnetic fields of coupling and
579
not so drastic.) In the CDS design we allow Ze reduction 3.3 Tuning procedure
due to increased web thickness hoping this reduction be
As usual, tuning of compensated accelerating structure
compensated with CDS particularities (Fig. 2) and result-
ing Ze value will be not less than for another CCL struc-
should have three procedures:
- tuning of the accelerating mode frequency fa to f0 one;
tures, which loose Ze with kc increasing. The shape of
- tuning of the coupling mode frequency fc to confine with
accelerating cells was 2D optimised for accelerating gradi-
ent E0 T = 10 0 : MV/m to have Ze2D = 89 7
: MOhm/m, fa (closing of the stop-band);
Q2D = 17900 . The web thickness t = 10 mm.
- tuning of the accelerating field distribution (if needed).
During the mode frequencies tuning there were no tuning
of individual cells. Both for accelerating mode tuning and
coupling one the change in dimensions was the same for
all cell in the section. But after each step of the frequencies
tuning the frequencies of accelerating mode and coupling
one were determined by measuring frequencies of two 0
type and one type modes in the assembly from two caps
terminated with end plates. It was just for purpose of in-
vestigation.
The accelerating mode frequency tuning in CDS do not dif-
fers from the same procedure in another CCL and may be
performed by Ra increasing (decreasing of fa ) or drift tube
shortening (increasing of fa ) (Fig. 1). Starting fa value
was 2598 MHz and fa tuning has been performed in three
steps. Two steps (draft) were done by increasing of Ra
value to achieve fa = 2451 MHz. Because this kind of
45
fa tuning is soft enough (dfa =dRa MHz/mm), there
were no problems. Last step of fa tuning was done after fc
tuning by providing narrow circular ditch at the spherical
surface of accelerating cavity.
Due to big kc value, direct determination of the coupling
mode frequency both for each cell and for total section,
3.2 The model description which is reasonable in usual CCL structures, provides big
2
error fc fc kc2 = . The coupling mode frequency fc
The cold CDS model was manufactured from aluminum tuning is based on our experience in the tuning of Disk and
alloy to simplify the manufacturing procedure. The units Washer accelerating structure. In all compensated sturcures
of the model have been manufactured in INR with using the stop-band width f = fa , fc may be determined [4]
reliable, but usual (not numerically controlled) equipment. as:
50
Enough soft tolerances (not stronger than ) were ac-
cepted for essential dimensions of the structure - dimen- f = Fmm2 , Fn ,
, n2 ; Fm = fm + fm , 2f0;
+
(1)
sions of ”coupling cell”, coupling windows and accelerat-
ing cell. The radius of accelerating cell Ra and the length
of ”coupling cell” lc (see Fig. 1) were reduced with respect where fm+
is the mode frequency of (N ,Nm) type at the top
to design values to have 50 MHz reserve for rf tuning.
, - at the bottom
branch of dispersion curve (Fig. 4), and fm
The model contains nine periods of the structure. The ter- one.
mination of the model is with two plates in the middle of
end accelerating cells. In each period of the structure there
are two caps. Joint between caps (the place of rf contact)
are in middle-planes of accelerating and ”coupling cells”.
To reduce quadruple perturbation of accelerating field by
coupling windows, at opposite sides of accelerating cell
windows are placed face-to-face. Because rf properties of
material are not known well, to have information about
quality factor Q, special reference cylindrical cavity was
manufactured from the same material, at the same equip-
ment, with the same requirements, with the same length
2
= , with the same number of rf joints.
The usual equipment was used to provide rf and bead-pool
measurements. As the bead-pool the aluminium sphere 3
mm in diameter was used.
580
The coupling mode frequency tuning in CDS may be per- contribute deviations of kc , because contribution due to de-
formed by Rc increasing (decreasing of fc ; dfc =dRc viations in frequencies of cells ef is estimated as ef
30 MHz/mm) or by increasing the gap between half drift 0 12%
: for kc , fa ; fc and f given. The measured value
tubes lc (increasing of fc ; dfc =dlc 285 MHz/mm) (Fig. of the quality factor for aluminium model QeCDS = 7880,
1). Starting fc value was 2413 MHz and fc tuning has been and for cylindrical reference cavity Qeref = 9850. Tak-
performed in two steps. The first step (draft) to achieve ing into account additional rf losses in two end walls ( 42%
fc = 2447 MHz was done by increasing of lc value at total from rf losses in one CDS period) and assuming 2D calcu-
area of ”coupling cell”. Because this kind of fc tuning is lated Q factor for the solid copper reference cavity Qcref =
not soft, the second step has been performed by providing 19400 , we are expecting Q for solid regular copper CDS
washer-type ditch in the space between half drift tubes. For structure as QCDS 16240 . The calculated from bead-
coupling mode in CDS the tuning procedure should be un- pool measurements R=Q value is R=Q e ( ) = (3 6 0 07)
: :
der special attention. kOm/m, in good agreement with calculated by using 3D
In this study no efforts have been performed to tune accel- (
MAFIA R=Q c ) = 3 625: kOm/m. Together with transit
erating field distribution, because coupling windows in this time factor T = 0 861: for solid regular copper CDS we
model should be identical. The mutual orientation of caps, 85 5
obtain Ze : MOm/m, 95% from 2D calculated one.
to fix mutual orientation of windows, has been controlled This value do not takes into account the surface imperfect-
0 25
with maximum deviation not more : o . ness and possible rf contacts, but is not less in comparison
with another CCL structures (with low coupling) and con-
4 RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS firm that CDS practically do not lose in shunt impedance
due to strong coupling.
5 CONCLUSION
The results of experiments with 9-period =1cold model
of the CDS structure confirm parameters as high coupling
( kc 22% ) and high effective shunt impedance. Another
attractive CDS features are in simple design, manufactur-
ing and tuning procedures, small transverse dimensions.
As the results of experiments, recommendation for CDS
design and manufacturing procedure improvements are de-
veloped. The treatment of ”coupling cells” and windows
regions should be careful.
Figure 5: Electric field distribution along the axis of the With the combinations of these parameters, CDS looks as
model very attractive structure for electron and high energy proton
linacs. The study of the structure continues for medium
After the model tuning, operating frequency f0 =
in investigation of the structure cooling, possibility of mul-
2450:1 MHz, the stop-band width f = 400 kHz (relative
tipactoring, accelerating field ”quality”.
value f=f0 = 1:9 10,4) were obtained. The relative val-
ues for standard deviation for frequencies of accelerating 6 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
cells fa =f0 and ”coupling cells” fc =f0 are 1:63 10,4
and 1:42 10,3 respectively. This fc value is due to only
The authors thank their colleagues from INR Accelerator
Department for their help, support and creative discussions
soft tolerances for ”coupling cell” dimensions. The mea- during different periods of this study, the model production
sured dispersion curve is shown at Fig. 4 and calculated and rf measurements.
with this curve the coupling coefficient value kc = 22%
confirmed the designed one. In spite of one can look
7 REFERENCES
through the structure (there is overlapping of windows), the
CDS has practically ”ideal” shape of the dispersion curve. [1] V.V. Paramonov, The methods of the coupling coefficient in-
The fitting with the standard five parameters lumped circuit creasing ..., Proc. of the 15 Workshop on Charged Part. Ac-
model shows neighbour coupling coefficients k1 and k2 be- cel., Protvino, v.1 p. 161, 1996 (in Russian)
ing practically zero. Nearest high order modes of T E11n - [2] V.V. Paramonov, The Cut Disk Accelerating Structure ...,
like type are placed at frequencies 3670 MHz with the Proc. of the 1997 PAC, Vancouver, (to be published).
passband width 160 MHz. The experimental results for [3] I.V. Gonin, V.V. Paramonov, Proc. of 10-th Part. Accel. Conf.,
spectral parameters of the CDS model confirm fine the de- Dubna, v.l, p. 182, 1985, (in Russian)
sign values. [4] I.V. Gonin et al, Some Methods of the Stop-band Width Eval-
The electric field distribution as the result of bead-pool uation ..., IEEE Trans. , NS-32, n.5, p. 2818, 1985
measurements is shown at Fig.5. and exhibits the stan-
dard deviation value E = 1 05%
: . The main part in E
581
324-MHz RF DEFLECTOR DESIGN AND TEST
S. Fu∗, T. Kato, F. Naito and K. Yoshino
KEK, High Energy Accelerator Research Organization
1-1 Oho, Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki-ken, 305-0801, Japan
by MAFIA[4] and HFSS[5] codes in order to show the
Abstract
detailed design investigation in the geometry needed to
In the design of JHF linac, the beam needs to be meet the requirements mentioned above. Then the
chopped for the injection into the following rapid- measurements of a cold model cavity are presented and
cycling ring. The chopper has been decided to locate in shown to have a good agreement with the code
the 3-MeV medium-energy transport line between the simulation and a satisfactory result for our purpose.
RFQ and the DTL. A 324-MHz RF deflector (RFD) is
adopted as a fast beam-chopper for its various merits, 2 CAVITY DESIGN STUDY
such as compactness and high deflecting field, which
The RF deflector cavity is operated in a TE11-like
benefit for an efficient deflection of the beam within a
mode with two electrodes, as shown in Fig.1. A
short beam line. In the application of an RF deflector for
transverse electric field oscillating at 324 MHz between
an intense-beam linac, the beam loss in the transient
the two electrodes deflects the beam bunches away from
time is a major concerned issue. The shunt impedance
the beam axis to a beam dump downstream during the
should be as large as possible to make the cavity to be
beam-cutoff time of 222 nsec.
powered by a commercially available solid RF source.
An RFD cavity is designed by the HFSS code to have a
very low loaded-Q value of about 10 by means of two
large coupling loops, and meanwhile to keep the higher
order modes sufficiently far away from the deflecting
mode. An aluminum cold- model cavity was made for a
test. In this paper, the design, simulation and the test
results are described in detail.
1 INTRODUCTION
The JHF 200-MeV linac provides a H- beam of 30
mA–60 mA peak current for injection into the following Fig.1 RF deflector cavity with large coupling loops.
3-GeV rapid-cycling ring[1]. A beam chopper must be
used in the linac in order to produce a pulsed beam with One of the design target of the cavity is a high value
a pulse length of 278 nsec and a pulse separation of 222 of Z/Q0, while keeping in mind the beam dynamics
nsec. This chopper is located in the 3-MeV medium- limitation. Here, Z is the transverse shunt impedance and
energy beam-transport line (MEBT) between the 324- Q0 the unloaded Q value. In order to achieve a very short
MHz RFQ and DTL[2]. As a high-current linac, beam- rise/fall time, the cavity will be heavily loaded by two
quality preservation and beam-loss control are of coupling ports. In this case, the power demand from a
superior importance in the design. The MEBT should be solid RF source for operating the cavity becomes very
short so as to avoid emittance growth, since the beam high. To minimize the power demand P, a large value of
energy is low. An RF deflector (RFD)[3] was chosen as Z/Q0 should be pursued according to the approximate
the chopper cavity owing to its compactness and high relation
V 2
deflecting field. A fast rise/fall time is a fundamental P ≅
requirement for the RFD to minimize the beam losses ω 0 τ (Z / Q 0 ) , (1)
due to partial deflection to the beam during the transient
time. This can be achieved in an RF cavity with a very where V is the deflecting voltage, ω0 the oscillation
low loaded Q value. On the other hand, a high transverse frequency and τ the rise time.
shunt impedance is pursued in the design in order to
keep the RF power demand from a solid RF source
2.1 Geometry of the electrode region
within a reasonable range. The ratio Z/Q0 is determined by the equivalent
In this paper, a design study of the RF deflector capacitance C according to the relation
cavity is presented. We first give the cavity simulations 1 . (2)
Q0 = ω C
Z
0
∗
On leave from China Institute of Atomic Energy
585
The C for the mode is mainly dependent on the geometry the loaded Q of the cavity should be decreased down to
of the electrode gap region. Therefore, the parameter about 10.
choice around this region must be carefully made.
The fringe fields of the electrode along the beam 2.3 Cavity design with a very low loaded Q
axis should be taken into account in the beam dynamics The use of two large input/output loops is an easy
to calculate the effective deflection. To avoid an inverse option to realize a low loaded Q. A loop-coupled cavity
deflecting effect of the high fringe field, the length of was redesigned using the HFSS code on the basis of the
the electrode along the beam axis should not be equal to, previous design by MAFIA, provided that the electrode
but less than βλ/2, with β being the relative speed of a region maintains the same geometry. A modification to
particle (v/c) and λ the free-space RF wavelength. To the cavity shape is necessary because of the introduction
determine the length, MAFIA runs were conducted and of large loops into the cavity, which shift the cavity
the electromagnetic field distribution from MAFIA was resonant frequency due to the additional inductive
used in a modified TRACE3-D[6] for beam-deflection reactance.
tracking. The result showed that the length of the Two large loops with the same size are inserted into
electrode should be slightly less than βλ/2. In this way, the cavity. The loops are connected to a coaxial
Z/Q0 is larger (due to smaller C) and the high fringe field transmission line of 50 Ω. To reach such a low loaded Q
beside the electrodes can work in phase with the field in value, the size of the loop is 75×218 mm in the surface
the central part of the electrodes, while keeping the with the maximum flux. An HFSS simulation gives the S
effective deflecting length long. It was concluded that parameters, S21 and S11, versus the frequency, as shown
the electrode length along the beam axis should be 29 in Fig.2. From the figure, it can be found that the
mm. Furthermore, the fringe field between the electrodes resulting QL is about 10, assuming it is given by the
and the cavity wall needs to be sheltered so as to whole frequency width, ∆f (31 MHz), at 70% maximum
minimize its inverse effect. A beam-deflection value.
simulation of a cavity without beam pipes showed that
the net deflection is less than half that in a cavity with
beam pipes. Therefore, two beam pipes are added beside
the electrodes with 5.5 mm gaps between the pipes and
the electrodes.
Of course, the two electrodes should be as close as
possible to generate high deflecting field between them.
This gap is, however, limited by the full beam size. The
beam envelope from TRACE3-D suggests that the gap
should be around 10 mm in order to guarantee no
particle losses on the electrodes.
Fig.2 S-parameters from the HFSS for the cavity with
Also, the size of the electrode in non-deflection
QL=10.
direction should be small in order to obtain a large Z/Q0
value. Again, the beam envelope sets the minimum
The two loops of the same size are placed
limit. The necessary size is 20 mm according to
asymmetrically with respect to the middle plane. This
TRACE3-D simulation on beam size and the MAFIA
induces a spectrum asymmetric with respect to the
result concerning the field distribution.
central frequency: the high-frequency side is wider than
2.2 Cavity shape optimization the other side, as depicted in Fig.2. It thus helps to reach
a larger ∆f. On the other hand, it also makes the
After the electrode size has been decided, the other fundamental mode to be close to and mix with the higher
dimensions of the cavity is then further optimized for the mode. To avoid such a problem, the loop should not be
value of Z/Q0 to be as high as possible. Since two RFD too deeply inserted into the cavity. It must keep a
cavities will be cascaded in the beam line, the cavity sufficient distance between the loop and the electrode in
should not be too long along the beam axis, due to a lack order to insure that the electric field between them
of focusing to the beam in this space, which may result remains extremely low. We thus increase the other
in a beam emittance increase. Taking all of these factors dimension of the loop to a very large value (i.e. 218 mm)
into account, MAFIA runs suggested a cavity of 324 so as to guarantee a sufficient coupling as well as a wide
MHz with Z/Q0= 437 Ω. It can be estimated from Eq.(1) mode separation.
that the demanded power from an RF source is HFSS simulations also showed the dependence of the
reasonably about 27 kW (more accurately, HFSS gives large coupling on the diameter of the coaxial
the power of 22 kW in the next subsection) to generate a transmission line. A large coaxial line of WX-152D was
necessary deflecting field of 1.6 MV/m if a rise time of adopted for the input/output of the cavity, resulting in a
10 nsec is assumed. Such a fast rise time indicates that
586
loaded Q of 10. However, the loaded Q became 17 if a dependence of the loaded Q on the size of the loops. For
coaxial line of WX-77D was used. example, when the loops size became 65×218 mm, the
The variation of the deflecting field (Ey) in three loaded Q increased to 23. With two very small coupling
directions calculated with HFSS is plotted in Fig.3. The loops, the loaded Q equaled 1463 and S21 was –2.18 dB.
original point corresponds to the center of the cavity. The unloaded Q was deduced to be 6580.
The beam radii in x and y directions are both less than 5
mm according to the TRACE3-D result. It can be
observed from the figure that the field has no obvious
variation within the beam-size region, and hence that the
beam can be deflected by a field having the same
magnitude. HFSS gives Ey=1.6 MV/m in the deflecting
gap when the input power is 22 kW.
1 Test
Data
0.9 Ey vs z
0.8 Ey vs.x
Ey (Normalized)
0.7
Ey vs y
0.6
0.5
0.4
Fig.5 Spectrum of S21 showing the QL=9.7.
0.3
0.2
0.1 The field pattern in the deflecting gap was measured
0 with a pulling bead of 5 mm in diameter. In Fig.3 the
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 measured deflecting field (Ey) along the beam axis (z
Distance (mm)
direction) is dotted. It shows a good agreement with the
Fig. 3 Ey field distribution in three directions ( test data calculation result from HFSS.
is in the z-direction). Since the cavity is heavily loaded with a very wide
spectrum, it is possible to operate it without a tuning
3 COLD MODEL TEST device. To verify the temperature dependence of the
resonance frequency, the cavity was heated. It was found
An aluminum cold-model cavity was manufactured
that the cavity has a frequency shift of 60 KHz when the
according to the design by HFSS. A series of
temperature rises up to 10oC.
measurements were conducted to check the applicability
of the design.
A direct measurement of the rise time was performed CONCLUSIONS
by means of a digitizing oscilloscope with the result A 324-MHz RF deflection cavity used for JHF linac
shown in Fig.4. It indicates that the rise time (Delta T) is was designed and a cold model was tested with
18.3 nsec, which includes about a 9 nsec contribution satisfactory results. The measurement gives a loaded Q
from the pulsed RF signal source. The effect of the of about 10, which is necessary for a fast rise/fall time.
transient time on the beam dynamics is discussed in Ref. The test results are in good agreement with the design
[2], in which an improved method is proposed for the calculations with MAFIA and HFSS. To meet the
cavity, and the unstable particles are estimated. deflection requirement, the cavity with a loaded Q of 10
requires an input power of 22 kW according to HFSS.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are very grateful to Y. Yamazaki and X.
Wang for their great support and many helps.
REFERENCES
[1] JHF Project Office, JHF Accelerator Design Study
Report, KEK Report 97-16, March,1998.
Fig.4 Measured rise time ( Delta T) of the RFD cavity. [2] T. Kato, S. Fu, “MEBT Design for the JHF 200-
MeV Proton Linac,” in these Proceedings.
Network Analyzer depicted the scattering parameter [3] T. Kato, “New Design of an RF Beam Chopper,”
S21 versus frequency in Fig.5. It gave a loaded Q of 9.7 Proc. of 7th Symp. On Acc. Sci.& Tech. (1989) 288.
[4] T.Weiland, Part. Accl. , Vol.17 (1995)227.
and a resonance frequency of 324 MHz. The results are [5] HFSS Ver. A.04.01, Ansoft Corp, HP Co..
well concordant with the HFSS simulation. Some small [6] K.R.Crandall, D.P.Rusthoi, TRACE3-D
coupling loops were prepared for a test of the Documentation, LA-UR-97-886, May,1997.
587
DESIGN OF AN OGIVE-SHAPED BEAMSTOP
T. H. Van Hagan, D.W. Doll
General Atomics, La Jolla, California
J.D. Schneider, F.R. Spinos
Los Alamos National Laboratory, New Mexico
Abstract Even smaller orthogonal footprints result when the
conical geometry is combined with an upstream
This paper addresses the evolution, design, and cylindrical scraper section that exploits the divergent
development of a novel approach for stopping cw qualities of the beam to spread the heat distribution. The
(continuous-wave), non-rastered proton beams. Capturing conical end section then would capture the central portion
the beam in vacuo within a long, axisymmetric surface of of the beam while the wings of the Gaussian distribution
revolution has the advantages of spreading the deposited are deposited in the cylindrical section. The cone/cylinder
energy over a large area while minimizing prompt neutron beamstop proportions are governed by the practical
backstreaming and reducing shield size and mass. combination of radius and length that captures the beam
Evolving from a cylinder/cone concept, the ogive shape within a minimum radius without spillage. This typically
avoids abrupt changes in geometry that produce sharp results in a long, thin structure, with a re-entrant
thermal transitions, allowing the beam energy to be configuration that inherently minimizes both the back-
deposited gracefully along its surface. Thermal streaming potential and the radial shield thickness
management at modest temperature levels is provided requirement. The circular cross-section also minimizes
with a simple, one-pass countercurrent forced-convection edge effects which could produce hot spots. However, the
water passage outside the ogive. Hydrophone boiling abrupt cone/cylinder intersection creates a sharp thermal
sensors provide overtemperature protection. The concept gradient that needs to be smoothed out. The graceful,
has been demonstrated under beam conditions in the continuous inflection obtained by replacing the
CRITS (Chalk River Injector Test Stand) facility at Los cone/cylinder with an ogive shape is a logical solution to
Alamos. this problem.
The ogive shape addressed here is generated by
revolving a circular arc about a centerline to produce a
1 INTRODUCTION surface of revolution, as shown in Figure 1. The ogive
The Accelerator Production of Tritium (APT) Beam Beamstop Surface
program [1] requires several commissioning beamstops Direction
x
x
[2]. This paper discusses the first of these, which will be
used to commission the Radio Frequency Quadripole
R
(RFQ) and the first Coupled-Cavity Drift Tube Linac
(CCDTL sections in the Low Energy Demonstration
Accelerator (LEDA) presently being built at LANL (Los
Alamos National Laboratory) [3]. The first LEDA
beamstop must accommodate a 0.1 A proton beam in cw
operation at energy levels of up to 6.7 MeV. Early studies Figure 1: Ogive Shape
showed that conventional beamstop approaches (e.g.,
plate-type with beam rastering to distribute the heat) contour adjusts the angle of incidence as needed to
would result in a large, costly, immobile installation with accommodate the variable power density of the diverging
significant radiation back-streaming issues—attributes beam: the greatest angles occur where the power density is
which would severely complicate the job of developing lowest, and vice versa, resulting in a smooth, relatively
and maintaining the Linac. These issues are addressable mild heat flux profile on the beamstop surface.
with an approach that minimizes the projected area
(footprint) presented by the beamstop normal to the beam.
Eliminating rastering reduces this footprint to that of 2 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
the beam spot size, but requires management of sharply
higher energy fluxes imposed by the Gaussian beam. The Table 1 summarizes the LEDA beamstop design,
circular spot shape of the beam suggests a conical impact which is based on the ogive concept.
surface for the beamstop, a concept which has been
successfully used on other Linac applications.
618
Table 1: LEDA Beamstop Design 2.1 Thermal Management
BEAM CHARACTERISTICS
Energy x Current 6.7 MeV x 0.1 A, Gaussian The thermal design is based on the quasi-Gaussian
Operation 1 Hz to cw (~ 6 mos. At cw) beam characteristics predicted for the LEDA linac,
PHYSICAL FEATURES including the location and severity of hot spots produced
Overall Dimensions ~ 109-in Height x 133-in Length
Beam Centerline Height 72-in
by beam focus and steering errors. Figure 4 shows the
Target Geometry Axisymmetric; Tangent Ogive mild axial heat flux and waterside temperature profiles
Target Dimensions 6-in ID x 92-in L x 0.1-in Thick predicted for the 6.7 MeV LEDA ogive at the nominal
Target Material Electroformed Nickel
Coolant Water outside (vacuum inside)
operating condition. The beam direction is from left to
Coolant Flow Arrangement 1-Pass Forced Convection, right.
Counterflow to Beam Direction
Neutron Shield Water 250
Neutron Shield Tank Material Aluminum Heat Flux
225
200
Gamma Shield 1-in Lead Wall on Upstream Face Normal to 175
150
THERMAL MANAGEMENT Ogive, 125
100
Heat Removal 670 kW W/cm2 75
212 W/cm2 incident to surface
50
Peak Heat Flux 25
Peak Wall Temperatures 275 F water; 430 F beam 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Water Conditions 305 gpm, 60 F/75psig in; 35 psid 400
350
Beam Side
Wall 300
The ogive beamstop is integrated into a simple, Temperature, 250
replaceable water-cooled cartridge that connects directly oF 200
150
to the upstream beam pipe. In the arrangement shown in 100
Water Side
Figure 2, a flow shroud around the ogive creates an 50
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
annular passage for once-through, forced-convection Axial Length, cm
water cooling. Figure 4: The heat flux normal to the ogive surface is
about 1/30th of that normal to the beam cross-section,
Annular
• Flow resulting in modest temperatures.
Beam Port Ogive Passage Water
in The thermal design is based on cooling with high-
velocity water flow under sufficient static pressure to
suppress boiling. Since the flow passage near the tip of the
ogive is a venturi, care must be taken to ensure that the
static pressure in this region will remain above the boiling
limit.
Figure 2: Ogive Beamstop Cartridge 2.2 Structural Design
The shielding advantages of the ogive approach are The ogive structural analysis considered buckling,
evident in Figure 3, which presents a cutaway view of flow-induced vibration, thermal stress due to heat flux,
thermal bowing due to misaligned beam, and the potential
for thermal/flow feedback instability. Figure 5 is an
OGIVE COOLANT
• CONNECTIONS example of the analytical sophistication needed to confirm
structural adequacy.
M SHIELD
BEA CTION
E
DIR
Figure 5 : Temperature Distribution of Ogive Coolant for
Figure 3: Integrated Beamstop Arrangement One Case of Beam Misalignment
the integrated beamstop assembly. The deposition of the
beam energy deep within the small-diameter ogive makes
it possible to have a near-4-pi, minimum-size neutron
shield. The gamma shield wall is not shown.
619
3 DEVELOPMENT
Although the LEDA beamstop has not yet gone into
service, valuable experience has already been obtained on
the fabricability and performance of the ogive concept.
3.1 CRITS BeamstopTesting
By happy coincidence, an adjunct proton Linac
program at LANL urgently needed a new beamstop just as
the LEDA design was being finalized, affording the
opportunity to test out the ogive concept under actual cw,
beam-on conditions similar to those of LEDA, but at
reduced power levels. The water-cooled copper 6.5-in ID Figure 7: Electroformed Ogive for LEDA
x 42-in long ogive, shown in Figure 6, was designed to
accommodate a 1.25 MeV proton beam at 75 mA. With a The 6.7 MeV LEDA beamstop has been installed at
proton energy well below the LANL and is now undergoing precommissioning
checkouts. Testing should begin later this year.
4 CONCLUSIONS
The CRITS and LEDA experience gained to date have
validated the ogive approach, which is now being applied
to the design of the beamstops needed to commission the
low to intermediate energy sections of the APT.
5 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Figure 6: CRITS Ogive
This joint GA/LANL project was sponsored by the
2.2 MeV neutron activation threshold for copper, neutron Department of Energy under Contract No. DE-AC04-
shielding was not required. The ogive easily met design 96AL8907. Key members of the GA/LANL team included
performance, permitting the CRITS linac to reach the Ken Redler, Paul Wegner, Chuck Charman, Hank
highest cw 1.25 MeV beam power ever demonstrated [4]. Brodnick, Ralph Senior, Herb Newman, Denise Pelowitz,
During this testing, calorimetry performed on the ogive Ross Meyer, Jr, and Dave Hodgkins. The support of Joe
cooling water circuit helped verify the beam power Sherman and the CRITS project team is particularly
measurements. The excess cooling capacity in the appreciated.
beamstop design defeated attempts to confirm the
functionality of the hydrophone boiling sensors installed 6 REFERENCES
on the ogive flow shroud.
[1] G. P. Lawrence, “High-Power Proton Linac for APT;
3.2 LEDA Beamstop Fabrication Status of Design & Development,” LINAC 98 Invited
Paper MU1004.
Unlike its CRITS predecessor, which was spun from a [2] D. W. Doll et al, “Low to High Energy Beamstops for
copper cylinder, the nickel ogive for LEDA was produced APT,” LINAC 98 Poster TU4090.
by electroforming. This plating method produced a robust, [3] H.V.Smith et al, “Status Update on the Low-Energy
one-piece, seamless, near-net shape ogive section to which Demonstration Accelerator,” LINAC98 Poster TU4014.
a machined nose was added, using an electroformed cold- [4] J.D.Sherman et al, “A DC Proton Injector for Use in
weld process. Figure 7 shows the completed LEDA ogive High-Current cw Linacs,” Proceedings of the European
beamstop before it was inserted into its cartridge (see Particle Accelerator Conference, 22-26 June 1998,
Figure 2). Stockholm, Sweden.
620
UPGRADING OF LINEAR INDUCTION ACCELERATOR X-RAY
FACILITY (LIAXF)
J.J.Deng, B.N.Ding, J.S.Shi, Y. He, J.Li, Q.Li, G.G.Cao, L. Wen, G.S.Dai
LAPA, Institute of Fluid Physics, CAEP
Abstract 2. DESCRIPTION OF THE LIAXF
Linear Induction Accelerator X-ray Facility(LIAXF)
is a pulsed X-ray machine at Institute of Fluid Physics 2.1 Injector
which produced X-ray by impacting an electron beam on The injector is composed of four induction cells and a
target with beam parameters of 10MeV, 2kA with 90ns field emission diode, each cell of the injector is applied to
pulse width(FWHM). The machine was upgraded to 250kV, for a 90ns(FWHM) high voltage pulse. The
LIAXFU by increasing energy and current and reducing voltage contribution of the four cells is summed along the
its spot size in 1996 in order to increase the capability of hollow stainless steel stem to drive the diode. The surface
penetration. Description of the LIAXF and upgrades to of the cathode is covered by the velvet cloth, the anode
LIAXF are presented. Simulation on the redesigned drift aperture is closed off with fine tungsten mesh. The
and focusing section is also given. Experimental results of emitting current is collimated and matched into the
12MeV, 2.6kA with 90ns pulse width, about 4mm spot accelerating section by axial magnetic field.
size have been obtained.
1. INTRODUCTION 2.2 Accelerating Section
There are total 28 accelerating cells that are arranged
Linear Induction Accelerators are powered by in four-cell blocks in the LIAXF. Each accelerating cell
causing a large, pulsed, time-varying current to once circle contributes about 320keV energy to the beam. The
a ferrite annulus. This results in a large, time-varying, electron beam from the injector is guided by a near-
azimuthal magnetic field to be imbedded in the ferrite continuous array of solenoids that are positioned both
annulus. A particle beam threading the center of the internal and external to the accelerating cell. The current
annulus acts as the secondary of this 1:1 pulsed view resistor(CVR) between the four-cell blocks give the
transformer and is accelerated by the induced beam current and position information for machine tuning.
electromotive force. Stacking many such transformers in The capacitor probe at each cell measures the accelerating
series and having the particle beam be the secondary voltage of each cell.
common to all modules enables high beam energy to be
obtained. 2.3 The Ferrite Toroids Used in LIAXF
Induction Linac has many application in the fields
The characteristics of the ferrite are very important to
such as free electron laser[1], high power microwave,
the accelerating cells. In order to obtain a non-distorted
flash X-ray radiography[2], heavy ion fusion[3], and so on
high voltage pulse, Large saturated and residual fluxes
due to its distinct advantage of high peak power, capacity
are expected. The ferrite toroids used in the LIAXF were
of producing high current, high energy beams with pulse
developed by ourselves. It worked very well. The
durations ranging from tens of nanoseconds to
characteristics of the ferrite toroids are as follows:
microseconds. LIAXF is a linear induction accelerator
designed to produce X-ray by impacting the electron
Bs: 3.9kG
beams onto a tantalum target with the nominal beam
Br: 3.0kG
parameters of 10MeV, 2kA with 90ns pulse width, which
µ: 350
was developed by scientists at Institute of Fluid Physics,
ρ: 10(6)Ohm-cm
CAEP, in the early 1990s’. LIAXF was assembled with a
four-induction-cell injector and 28 accelerator cells. The
first 12 induction modules were used as driver for SG-1 Dimensions:
free electron laser[4].To improve the capability of the
LIAXF, the upgrades to the LIAXF centered on OD: 508mm
improving beam quality and increasing beam energy and ID: 230mm
current. Ht: 25mm
2.3 Beam Drift and Focusing Section
The beam drift and focusing section of the LIAXF is
composed of five solenoids and three thin magnetic
389
lenses, and a tantalum target. The total length of this [4] Ding B.N., Deng J.J., et al., “Free electron laser
section is about 4.5m. amplifier experiment based on 3.5MeV LIA,"
Proceedings of 1995 Particle Accelerator Conference,
2.4 The Pulsed Power System Dallas, TX, USA, 1995.
The pulsed power system can be divided into
charging system and triggering subsystem. There are five
Marx Generators in charging subsystem. Each charges six
or seven Blumlein pulse forming lines through inductors.
There are three stages of triggering switches. One
first stage switch triggers five second stage switches that
then trigger 32 Blumlein switch in turn. Therefore the
output voltage of each Blumlein was synchronized with
the beam and applied to the induction cell to accelerate
the electron beam.
3. UPGRADES TO LIAXF
The first task was to add four induction cells to the
end of LIAXF, then increase the working voltage of each
accelerating module from original 320kV to 350kV. The
total beam energy can be more than 12MeV.
The next tasks in improving LIAXF beam quality
were to realign the mechanical axis of the whole machine
for reducing the corkscrew motion and improve the
synchronization of the accelerating voltage with the beam
for reducing the beam energy sweep.
The injected beam current into accelerating section
was also increased to about 3kA.
The drift and focusing section was redesigned to
achieve smaller spot size. The length of this section was
shortened to about 2cm. Only two solenoids and two thin
magnetic lenses were employed. Simulation showed that
4mm spot size can be achieved.
4. CONCLUSION
With the completion of these upgrades, LIAXFU
produced the electron beam with parameters of 12MeV,
2.6kA with 90ns pulse width. The spot size was reduced
from 6mm of LIAXF to about 4mm. LIAXFU has
stronger capability of penetration and smaller spot size.
REFERENCES
[1] W.E.Nexen, et al., “The ETA-II Induction Linac as a
High-Average-Power FEL Drive," Nuclear
Instruments and methods, NIM-A296(1990).
[2] Kulke B., et al., “Initial Performance Parameters on
FXR," Proceedings of the 15th IEEE Power
Modulator symposium, Baltimore, MD, 1982.
[3] Friedman A., et al., “Progress toward a prototype
recirculating induction accelerator for heavy-ion
fusion," Proceedings of the 1995 16th Particle
Accelerator Conference, Vol. 2, Dallas, TX, USA,
P828-830.
390
INSTALLATION OF THE AIRIX INDUCTION ACCELERATOR
E. Merle, R. Boivinet, M. Mouillet, O. Pierret
CEA / B3-M / PEM 51490 Pontfaverger-Moronvilliers - France
Ph. Anthouard, J. Bardy, C. Bonnafond, A. Devin, P. Eyl, C. Vermare
CEA / CESTA BP n°2 33114 Le Barp - France
Abstract we plan to do at the end of this year in order to validate
industrial production.
The AIRIX flash X-Ray Radiographic facility will consist
of a 3.5kA/4.0MeV/60ns injector and 64 induction cells 2 INJECTOR
powered by 32 H.V. generators (250 kV per cell). The
induction cells studies made on the PIVAIR accelerator The AIRIX injector is a reproduction of the PIVAIR one,
[1], which is the prototype of AIRIX, have allowed to and has been made by PSI corporation [3]. The
design specific vacuum technology cells (ferrite are under association of a 4 MV pulsed generator and a vacuum
vacuum). In this paper, we will present the technical diode create a 4MeV,3.5kA,60ns electron beam. The
features of the injector, and particularly the time-resolved time-resolved energy spectrometer that we use [4], has
energy measurement, the pepper-pot emittance shown that the energy spread is very low: ∆E/E = 1% over
measurement and the results of the three gradient method 60ns (figure 1).
experiment which has been made by optical transition
radiation and Cerenkov radiation observation. In a second
part, we will present the design of the induction cells and
their HV performances. We will see also the different tests
and characterizations we make on each cell, and how we
install the accelerator. Finally, we will expose the
intermediate experiment we plan to do with the electron
beam, after the first 16 cells, that are just installed. Those
experiments will be a comparison between PIVAIR and
AIRIX accelerators. They will allow to characterize the
electron beam, and to optimize beam transport and beam
centering procedures, before continuing the installation. Figure 1: energy spectrum of the AIRIX injector
1 INTRODUCTION The next table gathers the results of the acceptance test of
the AIRIX and PIVAIR injectors. The essential difference
The AIRIX induction accelerator has been designed to is the cathode configuration.
generate an intense bremsstrahlung X-ray pulse of 500 Table 1: injectors acceptance test results
rads @ 1m using a 3.5kA/20MeV/60ns electron beam. It
Injector PIVAIR AIRIX
is made up by an injector that delivers a
3.5kA/4MeV/60ns electron beam, and 64 induction cells Diode voltage 4029keV± 4 keV 4027keV± 4 keV
powered by 32 H.V. generators (250 kV per cell). (spectrometry)
The PIVAIR prototype at CESTA, that is a validation step Voltage flatness < ± 1% < ± 1%
of AIRIX up to 8MeV, has allowed to test two different over 60ns over 60ns
technologies for induction cells [1] and to improve beam Voltage 1% 1%
transport and centering procedures [2]. reproducibility
The AIRIX installation at PEM has begun in 1997 with jitter < 1 ns < 1 ns
the reception of the injector. The accelerator part (H.V. Cathode diam. 76 mm 89 mm
generators and induction cells) is now under construction Velvet recess 2.8 mm 6.1 mm
and partly installed. Beam current 3.5 kA 3.5 kA
We present in the first section the experimental results Normalized 1650 1900
obtained with the injector. In the following paragraphs we RMS emittance Π.mm.mrad Π.mm.mrad
expose the different tests made on the H.V. generators and
induction cells before their installation. We will see, in We have been obliged to increase the cathode diameter
particular, the magnetic alignment constraints for the cells. and the velvet recess in order to hold the 3.5kA current
Finally, we expose the beam characterization experiments value and to have the smaller emittance value as possible.
The beam normalized RMS emittance has been measured
391
with the Pepper-pot method [5]. Nevertheless, the those obtained on the PIVAIR injector with the same
differences we observe (table 2) in the measurement of apparatus.
this parameter, for similar cathode configuration between However, the peak apparition is perhaps produced by
the two injectors aren’t yet explained. combined effects between cathode emission and the
Table 2: RMS emittance comparison between AIRIX and optical diagnostic that visualizes the beam. Future
PIVAIR with: cathode diameter=76mm, recess=2.8mm experiments for optical diagnostic studies will check if
there is a diagnostic effect or no.
ε rms (π mm mrad) We are now continuing tests on the injector to find the
PIVAIR 1600 ± 100 best configuration of the cathode (lower emittance, stable
AIRIX 2100 ± 100 beam profile during the pulse) before determining the
initial parameters of the beam.
The determination of the initial parameters of the beam,
(Ro=beam diameter, R’o=beam envelope slope at the
3 H.V. GENERATOR
origin) is made with the three gradient method [5]. Images
of the beam are made by an intensified and gated camera, The AIRIX high voltage pulsed generator have been
observing Cerenkov radiation (CR) or Optical Transition designed to drive two induction cells with a 250 kV, 75 ns
Radiation (OTR) created when the beam passes through a pulse (flat top deviation less than ± 1%).
5µm thin aluminized mylar foil. The analysis of the beam Some improvements have been necessary in order to reach
profile, with a 5ns gate placed at different temporal specifications and reliability:
position of the pulse, has shown important differences. - the spark gap geometry has been corrected and a
More precisely, at the end of the pulse, we observe an polarization added;
abnormal and centered peak (figures 2-5). - thyratron command unit: initially built by EEV, a new
one designed by EUROPULSE has been successfully
250 tested.
200
- minor modifications on magnetic switch reset circuit and
150
H.V. delay line.
LSB
100
50
Table 3: H.V. pulsed generators characteristics
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 PIVAIR gen. AIRIX gen.
px
Blumlein operating 100 to 270 kV 100 to 270 kV
2 3 range
Figure 2: image of the beam observed with a gate of 5ns Main switch none V/3
placed in the firts 10 ns of the flat-top of the pulse polarization
Figure 3: the associated and centered beam profile SF6 nominal 3 bars 1 bar
pressure
250 Thyratron EEV EUROPULSE
200
command unit (gas switch) (solid state switch)
150
jitter peak-peak 18. 9 ns 12 ns
LS B
jitter rms (1 σ)
100
3 ns 2,6 ns
50
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
px
4 INDUCTION CELLS
4 5 Each induction cell comprises:
Figure 4: image of the beam observed with a gate of 5ns in - 13 ferrite cores (270 mm I.D., 500 mm O.D., 24 mm
the last 10 ns of the flat-top of the pulse thick) housed in a non magnetic stainless steel body
Figure 5: the associated and centered beam profile - a guiding solenoid magnet
- two printed circuit dipoles coils for beam centering
Those images have been made when we used the 89mm - two quadrupoles to correct possible transverse beam
diameter and 5.7mm recess cathode. We have obtained dissymmetry.
equivalent results with the 76mm diameter cathode and a The 19 mm width accelerating gap has been shaped in
recess of 4, 5 and 6mm by observing in the same way order to give good high voltage behavior and minimize
OTR or CR. We have experimentally demonstrated that the beam coupling with the gap cavity to reduce BBU
the importance of the phenomenon is coupled to the value instability.
of the recess. When we use the 76mm diameter cathode, Compare to PIVAIR cells, the ferrite section has been
and a recess of 2.8 or 3.2 mm, the beam profiles are quiet increased by 9% in order to delay ferrite saturation and to
different to those obtained with big recess, and the peak optimize the timing of the acceleration.
seems to be less important but the emittance is higher. In
that configuration, the beam profiles are very similar to
392
6 ‘‘AIRIX 16 CELLS’’ EXPERIMENT
To make a comparison with PIVAIR, and to improve
industrial realization, we are preparing different
experiments with the electron beam accelerated by 16
cells. In a first step, we will characterize the acceleration
with the time-resolved spectrometer. This diagnostic will
confirm also the good machine timing [6].
We will measure the emittance with the Pepper-pot
method. We will improve also the beam transport
calculation code ENV [7] with CR beam imaging, and the
beam centering procedure with the use of new Beam
Position Monitors.
Figure 6: AIRIX induction cell We plan to make experiments during 6 weeks at the end
of this year to well characterize the electron beam and
The H.V. test performed on the 16 first cells loaded with then validate the AIRIX technological choices.
resistors confirmed the flux gain.
7 CONCLUSION
Today 19 H.V. voltage generator have been assembled
and tested at PEM. Three blocks of 4 cells have already
been installed.
The accelerator will be completely assembled in march
99. After the final alignment of the machine with HLS and
WPS technology [8], we will test the entire accelerator.
The complete machine is planed to be operational for the
radiographic experiments at the beginning of 2000.
Figure 7: PIVAIR and AIRIX cells H.V. response on
resistive loads REFERENCES
The next table shows the cell changes from PIVAIR to [1] E. Merle et al., ‘‘AIRIX prototype technological
AIRIX design. results at CESTA’’, Proceedings of PAC 97.
[2] Ph. Eyharts et al., ‘‘Beam transport and
Table 4 : induction cells characteristics characterization on AIRIX prototype at CESTA’’,
PIVAIR cell AIRIX cell Proceedings of PAC’97.
ferrite length 12 x 25 mm 13 x 24 mm [3] Pulse Sciences Inc., 600 Mc Cornick street, San
Leandro, CA 94577, USA.
available flux 24.4 mV.s 26 mV.s
[4] D. Villate et al., ‘‘AIRIX alignment and high current
gap spacing 19 mm 19 mm
beam diagnostics’’, Proceedings of PAC 95.
flat top duration 65 ns 75 ns [5] C. Bonnafond et al., ‘‘Optical and time-resolved
at 250 kV diagnostics for the AIRIX high current electron beam’’,
Quadrupole coil none 2 Proceedings of DIPAC 97.
This should lead to a better behavior after beam loading, [6] Ph. Anthouard et al. ‘‘AIRIX and PIVAIR accelerator
according to PSPICE calculations status’’, Proceedings of Power Modulator Conference 98.
[7] J. Bardy, ENV ‘‘Envelop electron beam transport
5 CELLS ASSEMBLY code’’, Private communication.
[8] C. Bonnafond et al., ‘‘Status of AIRIX alignment and
After vacuum and high voltage tests, the cells are aligned high intensity electron beam diagnostics’’, Proceedings of
and assembled 4 by 4 [8]. We consider after this step only EPAC 96.
the block of four cells with his alignment references.
To minimize chromatic effects, the specific criteria
impose that all the cell magnetic axes have to be enclosed
in a 250 µm diameter cylinder with an angle spread lower
than 500 µrad around the reference beam axis. In order to
install only cells which have consistent magnetic axes with
the criteria, we characterize magnetic defaults with the
pulsed wire field technique.
393
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS OF ELECTRON BEAM NEUTRALIZATION
INDUCED BY A LIMITED SPACE-CHARGE EMISSION
C. Vermare, J. Labrouche, D. Villate, P. Le Taillandier
Commisariat à l’Energie Atomique, Centre d’Etudes Scientifiques et Techniques d’Aquitaine
Bp n°2, 33 114 Le barp - FRANCE
Abstract our optical diagnostic is based on the OTR [5] process.
Figure 1 presents the two different configurations we
At the exit of the flash X-ray photography accelerator have adopted.
AIRIX, an intense relativistic electron beam (4 kA, 16-20 6HWXS $ &HUHQNRY
2SWLFDO GHQVLW\
DQG
MeV, 80 ns) impinges on a high-Z target. The quality of 7DUJHW EOXH ILOWHU
2SWLFDO
*DWHG FDPHUD
the radiograph obtained is directly tied to the properties of ZLQGRZ
the electron beam (RMS size and position, energy and 0H9 N$ HEHDP
current).
In a study on the LELIA linac (1 to 2 MeV, 1 kA) to /LJKW
EHDP
study optical diagnostics, a very strong time-dependent 6HWXS %
3XPS V\VWHP
focusing effect near the target was observed. The size of 275 WDUJHW
2SWLFDO
ILEHU
the spot emitting Cerenkov light was found to vary with
0H9 N$ HEHDP $QDO\]LQJ
time during the beam pulse. This observation was FRPSXWHU
confirmed on the last Optical Transition Radiation (OTR) /LJKW VHSDUDWRU
studies with the PIVAIR linac (7.2 MeV, 4 kA, 80 ns). *DWHG
FDPHUD
After analysis of this experimental results, an
2SWLFDO
explanation of the effect in terms of the emission of WHOHVFRSH
positive ions by the target, and their subsequent tendency
6WUHDN
to move upstream has been simulated using a PIC code. FDPHUD
The results support the concept of backstreaming ions
adding an additional time-dependent focusing force that
acts on the electron beam. Figure 1: Schematic drawings of the two different set-up.
1 THE EXPERIMENTS 1.2 Results of the observation
After a short description of the experimental set-up, we During a “Cerenkov” measurement which used a 1
present the observed phenomena. An hypothesis is mm-thick fused silica foil (set-up A), we have observed a
proposed to explain this observation. dependence of the beam radius as a function of time.
Neither the beam current nor the beam energy exhibit a
1.1 Description of the accelerators and the time variation fast enough to explain this behavior. An
optical diagnostics empirical solution has been found to reduce this effect by
coating the target with aluminum to increase its
Two different induction linear accelerators have been conductivity. An example of the results obtained is given
used. The first, LELIA, delivers a 1 kA electron beam in Figure 2.
with an energy up to 2.2 MeV. Initially developed to
perform microwave FEL experiments [1-2] it has also
been used as a test bed for the AIRIX induction
2 THE IONIC EMISSION HYPOTHESIS
accelerator [3], in particular for beam transport studies
and diagnostics development. 2.1 General description
The second, PIVAIR, is the prototype of AIRIX. It It is well-known that [6-7] the energy deposited in a
operates at 3.5 kA with an energy from 3.5 MeV up to 7.3 target by an electron beam can produce free positive ions.
MeV. In our case, their dynamic behavior is very interesting.
At low energy, as in the case of LELIA, the optical The strong axial electric field generated near the target
observation is based on the emission of Cerenkov light can accelerate and propagate upstream this ionic current
which occurs when the beam hits a transparent target. The to the primary beam. This mechanism is different from
analysis of a part of this light, collected by optical the one described in the references mentioned above. A
cameras, allows us to measure the e-beam transverse neutralization of the strong electron beam current can
dimensions [4]. Above 3 MeV, as in the case of PIVAIR, appear and explain its focusing to small radii.
394
particle dynamics are computed in order to obtain the
effects of the ions on the electron beam radius.
3 COMPARISON BETWEEN
$OXPLQLVHG
6L2 WDUJHW NUMERICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL
506 5DGLXV LQ PP
1R $OXPLQLVHG
6L2 WDUJHW
RESULTS
3.1 The parameters of the simulation
The main parameters are the mass and the charge of
each kind of ion, their production rates and their initial
energies. We have compared the experimental results by
considering only protons. Their production rate is chosen
7LPH LQ QV to obtain the limited space charge ion current and they are
emitted with a kinetic energy close to zero (10 eV).
Figure 2: Behavior of the beam radius as a function of
time. Two Cerenkov images of the beam at different 3.2 Variations with the beam density
times show its convergence.
In the case of the experiment performed with the
2.2 Analytical approach LELIA linac, we have varied the magnetic fields of the
guiding coils in order to obtain, at a fixed total current,
A simple model can be used to take into account the different values of the initial e-beam size, i.e. different
effects of the ions in the calculation of e-beam transport. beam densities. The current density has a strong influence
We have computed the stationary longitudinal electric on the evolution of the beam radius as a function of time.
field generated by the e-beam itself [8]. By neglecting its As shown in Figure 3, the higher the beam density the
transverse variations we have shown that close to the earlier the focalisation appears.
target, the electric field variations with z can be
linearized. Then, the motion of the ions in this field can
([S YDOXHV
be calculated and the corresponding space charge-limited
6LPXODWLRQV
current is given by the following equation:
1 3
e 2 Ie 2
=(
506 5DGLXV LQ PP
I ion ) ( ) (1)
Mε 0 π c
where M is the ion mass, e the elementary charge, Ie the
e-beam current and c the light velocity. The ion energy
becomes constant after a distance at which the electric
field vanishes and is given by:
3e
Eci = ( 3 ) Ie (2)
π ε0 c
7LPH LQ QV
If the e-beam current is 1 kA we find a proton current Figure 3: Numerical and experimental behavior of the
of 4 A and a maximum energy of 40 keV. These 2 values beam radius versus time for three different initial beam
can be used to introduce a neutralization factor in the densities.
space charge term of the envelope equation in order to
determine the influence of the ionic emission on the 4 OBSERVATIONS ON PIVAIR
radius of the electron beam. The results of this calculation The existence of this phenomenon, which has been
have shown a substantial focusing effect over in the pulse observed with LELIA at CESTA as well as at LANL with
duration. ITS [10], has to be understood in order to evaluate its
effects on the final focus of the AIRIX accelerator.
2.3 “PIC” simulations Consequently, we have installed the experiment at the
We have developed a “Particle In Cell” code to PIVAIR facility (Set-up B, figure 1).
simulate the experiment. It uses a 2D “Maxwell-Vlasov”
algorithm in a cylindrical space. The electron beam initial 4.1 OTR Time resolved measurement
conditions are determined thanks to the transport code The behavior of the e-beam size has been measured
ELECTRA [9]. Different species of ions are generated at with an OTR diagnostic. The optical system was
the target position, the electromagnetic field and the developed to obtain both the transverse dimensions of the
395
beam with a 5 ns gated camera and a time resolved 1D LE LIA P IV A IR
image with a streak camera. In this way, we are able to 1XPHULFDO SURILOH ([SHULPHQWDO SURILOH ([SHULPHQWDO SURILOH
WR WR W
&KDUJH GHQVLW\ DX
know the position of the slit of the streak camera in the
transverse beam spot. Two images from the streak camera
are displayed in Figure 4. They have been obtained for
two distinct initial electron beam radii. As in the case of
5DGLXV LQ PP
5DGLXV LQ PP
5DGLXV LQ PP
LELIA, we observe a variation of the radius during the WRQV WRQV WQV
&KDUJH GHQVLW\ DX
beam pulse. It appears earlier for the small radius which
corresponds to a higher beam density. The images from
the gated camera exhibit the same behavior. Furthermore,
these images reveal an unexpected bump in the beam
5DGLXV LQ PP
5DGLXV LQ PP
5DGLXV LQ PP
transverse profile. WRQV WRQV WQV
&KDUJH GHQVLW\ DX
5DGLXV LQ PP 5DGLXV LQ PP 5DGLXV LQ PP
Figure 5: The structure of the e-beam radial profile versus
time. The signature of the “ionic effect” appears with the
two different accelerators.
5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge the valuable support
and participation of the PIVAIR team.
We thank the CESTA/FEL team for their
encouragement and support.
REFERENCES
[1] J. de Mascureau et al., “An induction linac developed
for FEL application”, Nuclear Instruments and
Methods in Physics Research” A318 (1992), 460-
4640.
Figure 4: Examples of time resolved OTR images for 2
different beam radius at the target position. [2] J. Gardelle, J. Labrouche, G. Marchese, J. L. Rullier,
and D. Villate, “Analysis of the bunching produced
4.1 Time behavior of the radial beam profile by a free electron laser”, Phys. Plasmas 3 (11)
November 1996.
The radial profile of the beam as a function of time has [3] E. Merle, “Installation of the AIRIX Induction
been studied and compared with the results of the PIC Accelerator”, Session 4 Posters, LINAC98.
code. In Figure 5, we present the charge density of the [4] E. Merle, “Diagnostics optiques de faisceaux
electron beam at different times, both for LELIA and d’électrons de 1 à 17 MeV”, Thèse spécialité:
PIVAIR, the experiment shows a bump on the axis which physique, Université de Bordeaux I, 1994.
blows up as the time increases. The numerical results [5] L. Wartski, Thèse de docteur es-science, Université
reproduce this effect as indicated in the figure 5 for the d’Orsay, 1976.
LELIA case. We think this behavior, associated with the [6] T. E. Madey, “Electron- and Photon-Stimulated
decrease in beam radius versus time, is the signature of Desorption: Probes of Structure and Bonding at
the ionic focusing effect. It is present in the PIVAIR Surfaces” Science vol. 234, p316, (October 96).
experiment though the beam parameters are very [7] T. W. L. Sanford, J. A. Halbleib, J. W. Poukey, A. L.
different. Consequently, the ionic focusing could be of Pregenzer, R.C. Pate, C. E. Heath, R. Mock, G. A.
prime importance in a higher energy accelerator like Mastin and D. C. Ghiglia, “Measurement of the
AIRIX. electron energy deposition necessary to form an
anode plasma in Ta, Ti, and C for coaxial
bremsstralung diodes” J. Appl. Phys. 66, 10 (1989).
[8] This work will be submitted for publication.
[9] P. Le Taillandier, C. E. A. Internal report
[10] D. C. Moir, D. Prono, Private Communication.
396
PICOSECOND AND SUB-PICOSECOND, HIGH CHARGE ELECTRON
LINACS *
A. M. M. Todd, H. P. Bluem, C. C. Paulson, M. F. Reusch and I. S. Lehrmana
Northrop Grumman Advanced Systems & Technology,
9 Jeffrey Lane, Princeton Junction, New Jersey 08550, USA
Abstract delivered to one beamline or the other through
energization of the bend magnets.
We have built and are presently designing, The bent path fulfills several important functions.
photocathode-based accelerator systems for radiation Firstly, when properly designed, it provides a certain
chemistry applications. One of these accelerators is in amount of longitudinal bunch compression which leads to
operation at Brookhaven National Laboratory. All feature higher peak current and better time resolution. The bent
a photocathode electron gun and produce a short, intense path can also be used for energy analysis of the electrons,
electron pulse with a variable repetition rate. The designs if desired, and provides excellent suppression of the dark
range from 1 nC to 100 nC per pulse, with bunch lengths current due to energy selectivity.
of 0.6 psec at lower charge levels to less than 50 psec at The electron source is a 3.5 cell S-band photocathode
higher charge. A compact design which can deliver 10 nC RF gun which can produce electron energies up to 9 MeV.
of charge in less than 5 psec and a larger machine designed The electrons are produced in a single microbunch through
to deliver up to 100 nC of charge in less than 50 psec, are illumination of the photocathode with a picosecond laser
described. Data on the operating system is also presented. pulse synchronized to the RF that drives the gun cavities.
A variable laser pulse width can be used to tailor the
1 INTRODUCTION electron bunches to suit the needs of the experiment. The
Linear accelerators based upon photocathode RF system runs at a repetition rate of 10 Hz, but this is not a
electron guns are ideally suited for a number of scientific fundamental limit. Quadrupole, dipole steering, and dipole
applications. The unique properties of these systems bending magnets transport the electron pulse to the desired
include the ability to produce a single, intense pulse of target.
electrons at a variable repetition rate whose timing can be The system has achieved the design goals that
precisely controlled. These electrons can be used directly, correspond to the present photocathode drive laser
through a thin window, or to generate an intense burst of performance. The deflected beamline was designed to
gamma rays. produce 10 nC bunches with a pulse width of less than 5
For the past few years, we have been designing psec on target. The straight beamline was specified to
photocathode-based linacs for scientific research [1]. In deliver greater than 20 nC with pulse lengths of less than
particular, we have delivered one accelerator beamline to 30 psec. The transverse spot size on both targets can be
Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL) for pulse varied over a wide range. To date, up to 12 nC have been
radiolysis chemistry research, and have designed two delivered to both target stations with laser energies of 180
others for similar applications. The installed accelerator µJ per pulse. The dark current on the deflected path is
has been operating successfully for almost two years, measured to be less than 0.1 nC summed over the entire 4
producing in excess of 10 nC per pulse. The design and µsec RF pulse.
performance of this accelerator follows. Thereafter, the
other two designs with their differing performance and 3 NEW DESIGNS
packaging, are described. Two new but related designs, with very different
performance parameters, have recently been developed.
2 BNL SYSTEM PERFORMANCE The first is a very compact machine with only two target
The machine presently in operation at Brookhaven stations. The second machine is much larger and
includes two beamlines. The first is a beamline deflected presently envisages five target stations.
90 degrees from the straight path, and the other is a The compact design is very similar to the BNL
beamline along the straight path. Two further deflected machine. An S-band 3.5 cell gun produces the 9 MeV
path beamlines can be installed. The electrons are electron pulses. These pulses can be delivered to one of
two target stations via either a straight path or a bent
*
Funding for this work was provided by the Office of Basic Energy Sciences, United States Department of Energy,
under Brookhaven National Laboratory Contract # 703171 and Argonne National Laboratory Contract # 972582401,
and by the Northrop Grumman Corporation.
a
Present address: General Instrument Corporation, 101 Tournament Drive, Horsham, PA 19044, USA.
397
path. The pulses contain over 10 nC in a FWHM length operated at maximum gradients. A higher gradient in the
of less than 10 psec on the straight path, and less than 5 gun both raises the threshold for charge shielding
psec on the bent path. The entire beamline, from the gun considerations and raises the effective quantum efficiency
to the target stations, fits onto an optical table with of the cathode through the Schottky effect.
dimensions of 2 meters by 3 meters.
The final design is a significant departure from the 0.010
Line A - 3.18 nCoul
two previously described systems. It was driven by two 0.008 Scraped: 85.23 % transmission
2.71 nCoul on Target
separate goals, namely, very high charge and very short 0.006
bunch lengths. 0.004
Achieving much higher charge necessitated a switch 0.002
to an L-band accelerator. Operation of the gun in L-band
Y (m)
0.000
allows a longer laser pulse and a larger laser spot size -0.002
before beam quality starts degrading significantly. The -0.004
longer pulse and larger spot allow more charge to be -0.006
extracted before charge shielding becomes a major issue. -0.008
They also allow more laser energy to be incident upon the -0.010
cathode without exceeding the maximum permissible -0.010 -0.008 -0.006 -0.004 -0.002 -0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010
X (m)
intensity.
To make it possible to attain the shorter bunches, the 1.20
Line A - 3.18 nCoul
Scraped: 85.23% Transmission
design includes a four cell booster accelerator after the 2.5 1.15
2.71 nCoul on Target
cell photocathode electron gun. The booster’s RF phase 1.10
is used to adjust the electrons longitudinal phase space in 1.05
order to achieve optimal compression in the subsequent
Delta P/Po
1.00
magnetic pulse compressor. In addition, the gun has been
0.95
designed to provide a nearly linear relationship in
longitudinal phase space. Through careful matching of 0.90
the gun and booster, compression ratios of around 15 0.85
between the output of the gun and the end of the beamline 0.80
have been achieved. 0.75
-1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0
Delta Phase (deg)
B EAM AT NEL1= 1 I= 4134.0 mA BE AM AT NEL2= 41
H A=-6.490 B= 6.220 W= 7.7946 16.4259 MeV H A= 0.2704 B =0.5831
V A=-6.490 B= 6.220 F REQ=1300.00 MHz
EM ITI= 13.690
EM ITO= 6.863
WL=
13.690
6.704
230.61 mm
354.14
356.38
V A= 5.173 B =0.5956
Figure 2. Transverse (upper) and longitudinal (lower)
N1= 1 N2= 41
MAT CHING TYPE = 11
phase space plots for a 2 mm apertured, 2.7 nC, 0.67 psec
D ESIRED MODIFIED BEAM MATRIX
S11 = 2.000000
S33 = 2.000000 FWHM bunch.
M ATCH VARIABLES (NC=2)
MP P MPE VALUE
9.230 mm x
Z A= 6.650
9.740 mrad
B=0.1073
1
1
35
37
-1.13540
1.12390
2 .000 mm x
Z A= 1.367
25.000 mrad
B =0.5493E-03
The beamline has multiple target stations, as shown
P o w e r T r a c e
COD E: TRACE3D v61 b
in Figure 3, and the layout was designed to fit into an
DATE: 03-17-1998
TIME: 18:56:38
existing facility.
6.160 Degx 3 86.310 KeV 0.450 Deg x 2000.000 KeV Target “C”
NP1= 1 36.50 mm ( Horizontal) 12.5 Deg.(Longitudinal) NP 2= 41
SOL C C C C Q Q Q E B E Q Q E B E Q Q Q
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 1 12 13 14 1516
17 18
1 9 2 0 21 22 23 2 4 25 2 6 2728 29 30
3132 33 34 3 5 36 3 7383940 4 1
36.50 mm ( Vertical) Length= 6068.62mm
Target “D”
Figure 1. L-Band system beamline envelopes at 3.2 nC.
Figure 1 is a TRACE-3D [2] illustration of the Target “A”
beamline envelopes, showing the bunch compression.
Nonlinear analysis of the beam on target using the
Accelerator Quadrupole
TOPKARK [3] code yields, after aperturing, the transverse
and longitudinal phase space plots of Figure 2. Target Bend Dipole
The booster accelerator also assists in achieving the Solenoid
high charge operation. This is because, given a fixed
amount of available RF power, the shorter gun can be
operated at a higher gradient than would be possible with a
Target “B”
longer gun. The gun and booster produce electron pulses
up to an energy of 15 MeV while allowing the gun to be Figure 3. Four target L-band beamline layout.
398
The closest target to the accelerator, “A”, is optimized 4 SUMMARY
for short pulse operation. Also, it is intended that the
electron pulse at this target be synchronized with a sample Northrop Grumman has built or designed three state-
of the photocathode drive laser to provide precise timing of-the-art electron accelerators. Although all three designs
for pump-probe type experiments. At this target station, were driven by chemistry research applications,
a pulse length of 0.67 psec FWHM has been achieved accelerators of this type have a much broader range of
with 2.7 nC on target after aperturing a 3.2 nC beam and applications. These accelerators, based upon photocathode
focusing the electrons to a transverse spot size of 2 mm RF guns, can deliver very intense, very short (sub-
radius. Lesser charge can be delivered in even shorter picosecond) pulses of electrons or longer (20-30 psec),
pulse lengths, while a 10 nC bunch can be compressed to very high single bunch charge. The accelerator presently
less than 2 psec FWHM. At this target, we have in use has met or exceeded all expectations.
achieved, in our non-linear simulations, peak currents in
excess of 5 kA and peak densities in excess of 30 kA/cm2. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The other two target stations on bent paths cannot The assistance and collaboration of Dr. James Wishart
match the performance of target “A” due to their distance at Brookhaven National Laboratory, Professor Jacqueline
away from the accelerator, smaller space for the achromat, Belloni at the Université de Paris-Sud and Dr. Charles
and the necessity to have long sections of drift space. Jonah at Argonne National Laboratory, together with their
They were designed primarily to transport the high charge various colleagues is gratefully acknowledged.
pulses.
The gun can produce up to 100 nC depending upon REFERENCES
the available laser energy. After acceleration in the
booster, this current can be delivered to either the first [1] e.g. I. S Lehrman, et al., “Design and Operation of
target station or any of the other targets. At target “A”, the Compact Infrared Free Electron Laser
the transport efficiency for the high charges approaches (CIRFEL),” Electron-Beam Sources and Charged-
100% and the pulse length can be compressed to less than Particle Optics, Proceedings of the SPIE, Eric
20 psec FWHM for 90 nC. The other two targets on bent Munro and Henry Freund, Eds., 2522 (1995) 451.
paths have transport efficiencies of 81% and 89% with [2] K. R. Crandall and D. P. Rusthoi, “TRACE-3D
pulse lengths of around 25 psec FWHM. For Documentation, Third Edition,” Los Alamos
comparison, the straight path target “D” has close to National Laboratory Report LA-UR-97-886 (May
100% transport with a pulse length of a little over 50 1997).
psec. A summary of the on-target performance at each of [3] D. L. Bruhwiler and M. F. Reusch, “High-Order
the four target stations is shown in Table 1. Optics with Space Charge: The TOPKARK Code,”
Computational Accelerator Physics, AIP Conf.
Proc. 297 (1993) 524.
ID Target Energy C har ge X FWHM Y FWHM T FWHM
# (MeV) (nC) (mm) (mm) (psec)
5 A 16.11 3.2 2.6 2.6 0.87
6 A 16.11 2.7 2.0 2.0 0.67
7 A 16.08 10.2 3.8 2.0 1.90
8 A 16.83 87.2 4.7 5.4 19.6
9 B 16.54 3.0 5.7 0.7 3.61
10 B 17.87 10.0 13.3 4.2 5.04
11 B 16.42 72.9 7.4 3.5 27.73
13 C 16.07 3.2 3.6 5.9 1.92
14 C 17.26 10.2 4.1 1.7 3.72
15 C 16.48 80.1 5.3 5.3 25.81
16 D 16.03 3.2 1.2 1.5 16.29
17 D 16.49 10.2 2.7 5.0 13.31
18 D 16.45 89.1 4.8 3.8 51.53
Table 1. Summary of on-target performance simulations
399
DEVELOPMENT OF AN UPGRADE OF THE CEBAF ACCELERATION
SYSTEM*
J. R. Delayen
Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility, Newport News, Virginia 23606 USA
7.8 MV/m, more than 50% above their design field. In
Abstract
the fall of 1997, the full capacity of CEBAF was
Long-term plans for CEBAF at Jefferson Lab call for demonstrated with the delivery of a 4 GeV, 200 µA
achieving 12 GeV in the middle of the next decade and 24 beam [3]. Some of the arc dipole power supplies are
GeV after 2010. Such energies can be achieved within being upgraded in order to deliver high-energy multipass
the existing footprint by fully populating the accelerator beams, and physics experiments at 5.6 GeV are being
with cryomodules capable of providing 3 to 4 times as scheduled for the first half of 1999.
much voltage as the design value of the existing ones The initial performance of the CEBAF cavities
within the same length. In particular, this requires the corresponded to a 5-pass energy of about 5 GeV. The
development of superconducting cavities capable of
performance was predominantly limited by electron field
operating at gradients above 12 MV/m and Q close to
1010. emission that can manifest itself in additional cryogenic
losses, x-ray production, and periodic arcs at the cold
window which is located close to the beam line [4].
1 CEBAF DESIGN AND STATUS In order to reduce field emission and increase the
CEBAF was designed and constructed to accelerate an operational energy of CEBAF, a program to perform in
electron beam to 4 GeV by recirculating five times situ helium processing of the cavities was initiated in the
through two 1497 MHz superconducting linacs, each fall of 1996. To date 224 cavities in 29 of the 40 installed
providing 400 MeV per pass at the accelerating gradient cryomodules have been processed [3]. This has increased
of 5 MV/m. The two anti-parallel linacs are connected by the installed voltage by 155 MV, which corresponds to an
180 degree isochronous, achromatic recirculating arcs. added energy of 775 MeV for a 5-pass beam. The in situ
The design maximum current is 200 µA cw, processing program will be completed in February 1999
corresponding to a beam loading current of 1 mA [1]. and it is expected that the additional gain will allow
The superconducting RF (SRF) system consists of 20 operation close to 6 GeV.
cryomodules in each of the two linacs and 2 ¼
cryomodules in the injector. Each cryomodule contains 8 2 UPGRADE OPTIONS FOR THE
accelerating cavities for a total of 338 cavities. The
ACCELERATION SYSTEM
cavities, which are 50 cm long, were designed to operate
at a gradient of 5 MV/m, which corresponds to an energy CEBAF’s long-term institutional plan calls for an
gain of 20 MV for each cryomodule. Each cavity is energy upgrade to 12 GeV in the middle of the next
individually powered by a 5 kW klystron and controlled decade, and to 24 GeV after 2010. The short-term goal is
by a low-level rf control system to stabilize the phase and to have developed, installed in the accelerator, and
amplitude of the rf field. Having each cavity individually demonstrated by 2002 prototypes of the key components
controlled allows for precise and careful optimization of of such an upgrade.
the system and results in excellent phase and amplitude While the details of the upgrade path are still being
stability of the accelerating fields in the cavities. developed, a top-level parameter list has been generated
The central helium refrigerator provides 2 K helium to which guides the selection between the various options:
the cavities with availability above 98%. The system, • The highest energy beam of 12 GeV needs to be
capable of providing 4800 W of refrigeration, presently delivered to only one experimental hall.
operates with a constant heat load of 3100 W, of which • CW operation must be preserved.
1500 W is the actual rf heat load. • The maximum circulating beam current will be 400
From the beginning the performance of the acceleration µA (corresponding to an 80 µA beam for a 5-pass
system exceeded the design goal [2]. Early in 1996 a one- design).
pass energy of 1 GeV was achieved, and in the spring of • The maximum installed refrigeration capacity will be
1997 a 90 µA beam was accelerated to 1.16 GeV in a 8.5 kW at 2 K.
single pass (equivalent to a 5.6 GeV, 18 µA 5-pass beam). • Cost and impact on accelerator operation during the
The average accelerating field in the active cavities was upgrade must be kept to a minimum.
• Since the purpose of the 12 GeV electron beam is to
*Supported by US DOE Contract No. DE-AC05-84ER40150 generate an 8 GeV photon beam, the requirements on
400
the electron beam quality can be relaxed from the parameters have been defined, and it can be viewed as a
existing requirements. building block that can be applied to a large number of
• Since the ultimate goal is an upgrade to 24 GeV, an upgrade options. For these reasons, most of the
upgrade path to 12 GeV that could be extended to development efforts in support of the upgrade are directed
higher energy would be preferable. toward the development and demonstration of prototype
The original upgrade plan for CEBAF called for a Upgrade Cryomodules.
maximum energy of about 9 GeV. The most attractive
option to achieve this goal called for a systematic 3.1 Cavities
“reworking” of the cryomodules. This consisted of In order to increase the voltage that is provided by a
removing the cryomodules from the accelerator one at a cryomodule within a given length, one can either increase
time, reprocessing the superconducting cavities, and the gradient at which the cavities are operating, or
replacing or modifying some of the limiting components increase the effective accelerating length, or both. While
(for example relocating the cold windows and shielding it may be argued that maximizing the accelerating length
them from field-emitted electrons). While this option is the approach that presents the least technological risk,
seemed attractive to 9 GeV, it could not be easily for cw accelerators such as CEBAF, maximizing the
extended beyond, either because it could not provide length instead of the gradient has the added advantage of
enough energy or because the cryogenic consumption lower dynamic load on the refrigeration system.
would be excessive. For this reason, it was decided early that the Upgrade
The most attractive option that has emerged from the Cryomodule would still include 8 cavities, but that these
studies that have been conducted during the last year would be 7-cell cavities (70 cm) instead of the present 5-
consists of: cell (50 cm). The option described in Section 2 calls for
• addition of a fourth experimental Hall D at the end of these cavities to provide a minimum voltage of 8.75 MV
the North Linac (turning CEBAF into a 5-pass with a maximum power dissipation of 17.5 W, i.e. their Q
machine for Halls A, B, and C, and a 5 1/2-pass 9
must be at least 6.5x10 at 12.5 MV/m. Thus the greatest
machine for Hall D), challenge is not so much in achieving a high gradient but
• development of high-voltage, high-Q cryomodules in maintaining a high Q at high gradient. Given the
that would be installed in the 5 empty slots in each of constraint imposed by the available refrigeration, cw
the linacs, operation at 15 MV/m would be practical only if the Q at
• replacement of a limited number of existing 10
that field were at least 10 .
cryomodules by the new ones (typically 3 in each of While the CEBAF cavity cell design could have been
the linacs and 2 in the injector), improved, the potential benefits did not seem important
• upgrade of the refrigeration capability to 8.5 kW, enough at that time, and the first 7-cell cavity prototype
• addition of a 10 arc and upgrade of the existing ones.
th
was built using the existing cell design. The first
9
New 80 MV, high Q, 7 cell cryomodules
prototype met the requirement of a Q of 6.5x10 at 12.5
- Install 10 in empty slots–11 GeV MV/m. A redesign of the cells is still an option, although
- Replace 8 existing ones–12.6 GeV
• Increase cryo capacity to 8.5 kW–cw at 12 GeV
D a low priority one.
• Upgrade arcs (mostly power supplies
and spreader/recombiners)
• Add 10th arc for 5.5 pass acceleration 5 New
Cryomodules
3.2 Cryostat Concept and Cavity String
• Add a new hall (Hall D) @ highest energy
(photons only)
Assembly
20 Cryomodules
The existing CEBAF cryomodule is constructed from 4
cyounits, each containing a sealed cavity pair. These
Add Arc
20 Cryomodules cyounits are then joined with bridging sections. In order
5 New
to increase the number of cells from 5 to 7 while
A Cryomodules
maintaining the same cryomodule length, this approach
B
had to be abandoned. The Upgrade Cryomodule will
C include a continuous 8-cavity string assembly without
Accelerator down ~ 1 year
for Installation isolation valves between the cavities. The present design
and Commissioning
calls for a 30 cm separation between cavities into which
must fit the fundamental power coupler, the higher mode
extraction system, the pick-up probe, connecting flanges
3 DESIGN OF THE UPGRADE
and bellows, and connections to the helium tank and
CRYOMODULE mechanical tuners.
The Upgrade Cryomodule is clearly the key component Several cryostat concepts were explored:
of the upgrade of the acceleration system. Its design is • Cylindrical cryostat with radial penetrations for the
also somewhat insensitive to the details of the upgrade power couplers,
option that is ultimately chosen, once the top-level
401
• Cylindrical cryostat with axial (through the end probably piezoelectric, with 1 kHz range and 1 Hz
plates) penetrations, resolution that will provide the fine, frequent tracking.
• Bathtub-type cryostat where all the innards are
suspended from a top plate. 3.6 Processes and Procedures
While all designs had advantages and disadvantages, a While the gradients required are modest compared to
cost/benefit analysis did not reveal an obviously preferred those for proposed linear colliders, a high Q is of primary
option. The overriding consideration was the limited importance. Furthermore, since rf power will be a hard
amount of time and resources expected to be available, constraint, "good" cavities cannot operate at higher
and the radial design was chosen as it was deemed the one gradient in order to compensate for "weaker" ones. For
that would require the least amount of development given these reasons our main goal is to achieve consistent
the on-site experience with the radial design. performance as opposed to the less frequent exceptional
one. We have engaged in a complete review of all the
3.3 Fundamental Power Coupler
processes and procedures involved in the fabrication and
Both coaxial and waveguide couplers were explored. assembly of cavities and cryomodules. Modifications to
The waveguide concept was retained because of its the processing and assembly facilities, such as
simplicity and flexibility at 1500 MHz. Unlike the implementation of final chemistry and rinsing in the
present design, though, we have decided to completely cleanroom, are under way.
separate the functions of fundamental power coupling and
higher mode extraction. This produces a coupler design 3.7 Microphonics, RF Control, and RF Power
that, unlike the existing CEBAF design, is free of In order to contain the cost of the upgrade we have
transverse kick imparted to the beam and allows a cryostat adopted as a goal only a modest increase of the rf power
design where all the power couplers are on the same per cavity from 5.5 to 6 kW. This puts stringent
side [5]. requirements on microphonics and the control system. At
12.5 MV/m and 400 µA circulating current, the maximum
3.4 Higher Order Modes Damping
allowable amount of detuning (including static and
7
The requirements for high order modes (HOM) microphonics) is 25 Hz. The optimum Qext is 2x10 , and
damping for the 12 GeV Upgrade have been substantially the Lorentz detuning is much larger than the loaded
relaxed from the original CEBAF design. Not only is the bandwidth; for this reason a new low-level rf control
energy increased from 4 to 12 GeV but the maximum system will be required. The baseline concept is an agile
circulating current is being reduced from 1000 to 400 µA. digital system capable of implementing a self-excited loop
Additionally, the experience acquired during CEBAF on I/Q feedback.
operation has led to a reduction of the "safety factor" for
the stability threshold current. As a result an upper limit 4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
6
of 10 was adopted for the Qext of the HOMs.
This paper summarizes the work of the Upgrade
The design of the HOM couplers is a departure from
Cryomodule Development Team: I. Campisi, L. Doolittle,
the existing design: we do not rely on any HOM being
E. Feldl, J. Hogan, P. Kneisel, J. Mammosser, G. Myneni,
extracted from the fundamental power coupler, the 2
V. Nguyen, L. Phillips, J. Preble, C. Reece, W. Schneider,
HOM couplers will be of a coaxial type as opposed to a
D. X. Wang, M. Wiseman.
waveguide type, the HOM couplers will be located
outside the helium tank and the HOM power can be
deposited at a temperature other than 2 K. 5 REFERENCES
[1] H. Grunder, “CEBAF Commissioning and Future
3.5 Frequency Tuning Plans,” Proceedings of the 1995 Particle Accelerator
The frequency tuners perform several functions: bring Conference, 1-3 (1995).
the cavities on resonance after installation, detune the [2] C. Reece et al., “Performance Experience with the
cavities that are not operating, and track the changes in CEBAF SRF Cavities,” Proceeding of the 1995
frequency due to Lorentz detuning, pressure and Particle Accelerator Conference, 1512 (1995).
temperature fluctuations. For the Upgrade Cryomodule, [3] C. Reece, “Achieving 800 kW CW Beam Power and
the bandwidth will be small (~75 Hz), the Lorentz Continuing Energy Improvements at CEBAF,” these
detuning large (~500 Hz), and we want to track the Proceedings.
frequency accurately (~2 Hz) in order to minimize the rf [4] J. R. Delayen, L. R. Doolittle and C. E. Reece,
power requirements. For this reason the baseline design “Analysis of Performance Limitations for
incorporates two different tuning schemes: a coarse Superconducting Cavities,” these Proceedings.
mechanical tuner with 400 kHz range and 100 Hz [5] L. R. Doolittle, “Strategies for Waveguide Coupling
resolution that will be used infrequently, and a fine tuner, for SRF Cavities,” these Proceedings.
402
LATEST DEVELOPMENTS FROM THE S-DALINAC AND ITS
FREE-ELECTRON-LASER*
M. Brunken, S. Döbert, R. Eichhorn, H. Genz, H.-D. Gräf, T. Hampel, S. Kostial, U. Laier,
H. Loos, A.Richter, B. Schweizer, A. Stascheck, O. Titze and T. Wesp
Institut für Kernphysik, TU Darmstadt, Schlossgartenstrasse 9, D-64289 Darmstadt, Germany
Abstract
The FEL at the superconducting electron accelerator
S-DALINAC has been operated at wavelengths between
6.6 and 7.8 µm corresponding to electron beam energies
between 31.5 and 29.6 MeV respectively. In house
developments like active stabilization of the optical
cavity’s length based on a laser interferometer and a fast
10 channel online-spectrometer for the near infrared laser
radiation were incorporated and used for investigation of
the properties of the FEL itself. In addition a simple
8 2
focusing system produced power densities of 10 W/cm Figure 1. Layout of the S-DALINAC and its Free-
and enabled us to perform first ablation experiments from Electron-Laser
different tissues. To optimize the complicated bunching
process, the low energy part of the S-DALINAC was resonant frequency of 3 GHz. Behind the injector the
carefully studied by tracking calculations in order to beam can be used in a low energy experimental area or
achieve bunch length < 3 ps corresponding to peak bent 180° by a magnetic arc to be injected into the
currents > 1.5 A, necessary to operate the FEL reliably in 40 MeV main linac consisting of eight 20-cell cavities.
the saturated regime. For operation at higher energies For nuclear physics experiments with electron energies up
using two recirculations of the electron beam, longitudinal to 130 MeV the beam can be recirculated twice passing
tracking simulations show that off crest acceleration through dedicated beam transport systems.
together with nonisochronous recirculation introduce The FEL is driven by transporting the beam from the
longitudinal stability resulting in significant improvement first recirculation into the undulator through a magnetic
in energy spread. bypass system. The infrared radiation generated and
amplified in the 80 periods hybrid undulator is
accumulated in a 15 m long optical cavity formed by two
1 S-DALINAC dielectric mirrors. For experiments part of the stimulated
The S-DALINAC operating since 1991 is a radiation is coupled through the downstream mirror and
recirculating electron linac using superconducting (sc) guided through an evacuated transfer to an optical
accelerating cavities allowing for a continuous wave (cw) laboratory.
electron beam [1]. The machine provides beam to serve a Since its commissioning the S-DALINAC delivered
variety of nuclear and radiation physics experiments and some 16000 hours of beam time for experiments covering
is since 1996 also used as a driver of a Free-Electron- a wide range of beam parameters. Energies ranging from
Laser in the mid infrared wavelength region. A layout of 2.5 MeV up to 120 MeV and currents from a few nA to
the accelerator and the FEL is shown in Fig.1. 50 µA could be realized in a 3 GHz mode. The FEL is
The electron beam is generated by a thermionic driven in a 10 MHz cw mode using a subharmonic
cathode, on a high voltage terminal providing a 250 kV injection scheme leading to peak currents of about 2 A at
electrostatic preacceleration. The beam gets its time energies between 30 and 38 MeV.
structure in a chopper/prebuncher section at room
temperature (see Sec. 3.) and is then accelerated up to 2 FREE-ELECTRON-LASER
10 MeV in the sc injector linac consisting of a 2-cell
(β=0.85) and a 5-cell (β=1) capture cavity and two 20-cell The FEL at Darmstadt benefits from the
(β=1) accelerating cavities. Each of them is made of bulk superconducting drive linac enabling time structures of
niobium and operates at 2 K in a liquid helium bath at a the laser ranging from 100 µs long macro pulses to
10 MHz cw operation. The FEL has been operated so far
at wavelength between 6.6 and 7.8 µm corresponding to
electron energies between 31.5 and 29.6 MeV
* Supported by BMBF under contract number 06 DA 820 and respectively. The wavelength could be tuned continuously
by DFG under contract number Ri 242/12-1 and through the in this range determined by the bandwidth of the dielectric
Graduiertenkolleg “Physik und Technik von Beschleunigern”
403
mirrors by changing either the magnetic gap of the depths were measured with a scanning electron
undulator or the electron energy. During the microscope and the ablation mechanism was described by
commissioning [4] of the FEL using an electron beam an analytical model. It turned out that the ablation was due
with an energy of 30.4 MeV and a measured bunch length to thermal interaction. The measured ablation depths
of 3 ps corresponding to a peak current > 1.5 A, we were could be explained by a model assuming the tissue as
able to extract an average cw laser power of 3 W at a water, being heated and vaporized by the radiation pulses.
wavelength of 7.4 µm through a mirror with 99 % Ablation sufficient for medical purposes demands at least
3
reflectivity. The net gain of the arrangement was a 10 times higher power density in order to avoid too
measured to 3-5 %. much thermal damage for nearby tissue. We are sure to
The laser output power turned out to be very sensitive reach this goal by means of more sophisticated focusing
to length variations of the optical cavity in the micrometer optics and by optimizing the optical transfer system. The
range. These perturbations are caused by vibrations on the use of regenerative amplifiers for the laser beam is also
optical tables due to cryogenic pumps and the heavy envisaged to reach even higher power densities in the
machinery of the helium liquifier as well as long time future.
drifts caused by air pressure and room temperature
changes. Therefore it was essential to develop an active 3 TRACKING CALCULATIONS OF THE
feedback system to stabilize the length of the optical INJECTOR LINAC
cavity. A commercial michelson interferometer (HP
5527A Laser Position Transducer) measures the length The quality of the laser output depends on the
variations and generates a drive signal for the piezo parameters of the electron beam entering the undulator,
transducers holding the mirrors. The control parameters especially the longitudinal properties energy spread and
can be software adjusted. The remaining length variation bunch length are critical for the shape of the spectrum and
due to vibrations was measured to be a gaussian the output power. These properties are almost fixed after
distribution with 232 nm FWHM, as shown in Fig.2., the injector, therefore the beam dynamics in the low
while the long time drifts were eliminated completely. energy part of the accelerator was studied intensively by
Without feedback the position error is about 500 nm tracking calculations. For driving the FEL the thermionic
FWHM with drifts of 20 µm within 24 hours preventing cathode is pulsed with a repetition rate of 10 MHz. Pulses
stable laser operation. with a duration of 1 ns are extracted from the gun at
250 keV. The subharmonic chopper/prebuncher section
th
working at the 5 subharmonic cuts out 370 ps
corresponding to a charge of 6 pC and compresses these
bunches to a length of 5 ps at the entrance of the capture
cavity. For FEL operation we so far used only the 5-cell
capture cavity followed by two 20-cell standard
accelerating cavities.
The tracking simulations of this part of the machine are
performed using the code GPT [5] including space charge
forces and electromagnetic fields of the rf-resonators
Figure 2. Length variation of the optical cavity with calculated by MAFIA [6]. The simulations are performed
interferometric feedback active. to find an optimized parameter set for the injector as well
as to compare empirically found parameter sets and
In order to control and optimize the laser performance measured beam properties with the simulation results. The
an online- spectrometer was developed with a typical gauging relation between the tracking code parameters
Czerny Turner setup for the spectral splitting and a ten and the machine parameters like rf-phases and amplitudes
element pyroelectric strip detector. The detector output is were determined from separate calibration measurements.
monitored online on a LED display or connected to The nice agreement between measured beam properties
ADC’s for further analysis. The resolution of this device from a previous FEL beam time and the simulation results
is 20 nm per element. Drifts and changes in the electron confirmed this calibration method. Searching for an
beam steering through the undulator leading mostly to optimized setting with respect to bunch length and energy
longer wavelengths could be easily corrected with this spread revealed an enormous sensitivity concerning the
device. The laser beam stabilized and monitored in such choice of rf-phases and amplitudes for the first two
an way could be used for first ablation experiments on accelerating cavities due to non relativistic behavior in
different tissues performed in cooperation with J. F. Bille this section. In contrast to the common feeling (accelerate
and his group from the university of Heidelberg. The laser as fast as possible) the simulations suggested to reduce the
beam was focused by a single CaF2 lens with a focal field amplitude of the first 20-cell cavity. Since the
length of 350 mm to a spot size of 160 µm providing a longitudinal phase space is found to be correlated at the
8 2
power density of some 10 W/cm . The resulting ablation exit of the injector we can benefit from magnetic
404
bunching in the 180° bending arc towards the main linac. linac becomes almost negligible. In Fig.4. the tracking
According to the tracking results a bunch length of 2 ps calculations are summarized in a two parameter plot of
(FWHM) with sufficient energy spread of ± 33 keV (rms) the resulting energy spread. These concepts, highly
at an energy of 8 MeV can be achieved at the entrance of relevant for improving the beam quality for nuclear
the main linac as shown in Fig.3. below. physics experiments, could be verified already
qualitatively and will be measured quantitatively soon.
Figure 3. Distributions of particle energy and arrival time
at the main linac for an optimized injector setting.
For the next beam time it is envisaged to verify this
calculated parameter set hopefully leading to an increased
small signal gain and higher peak power of the laser
because of the shorter electron bunch. The simulations
also showed that even at a quite modest bunch charge of
6 pC space charge effects influence the beam dynamics in Figure 4 Energy spread after three linac passes as function
our injector. of the synchronous phase φs and the r56-matrix element of
the recirculating beam transport system.
4 NONISOCHRONOUS
RECIRCULATION 5 CONCLUSION
The principle of phase focusing is well known and used The successful operation of the FEL at the
in circular machines like synchrotrons and microtrons. S-DALINAC has opened a wide new field of research
Recirculating linacs with only a few separate possibilities. Therefore from now on besides the nuclear
recirculations however, like the S-DALINAC, are usually and radiation physics activities, both, user oriented
operated with an isochronous beam transport system and experiments with the infrared light from the laser as well
on crest acceleration. The energy spread is then as investigations of basic FEL properties will be carried
determined by the bunch length and the stability of the rf out. Improvement of the accelerator itself is focused on a
field in the accelerating cavities. But as pointed out by [7] better understanding and an optimization of its low energy
the choice of an off crest synchronous phase together with part. To assure that the influence of space charge effects is
a nonisochronous beam transport system offers a welcome taken into account correctly, we have already started to
longitudinal stability, thus reducing the effects of investigate the pulsed emission in the gun and electrostatic
amplitude and phase jitter in the linac. preacceleration using the time dependent Particle in Cell
We simulated the situation at the S-DALINAC with module of the MAFIA code.
two recirculations and 3 passes through the linac by
simple tracking of the longitudinal phase space. We
6 REFERENCES
assumed a relativistic electron beam coming out of the
injector uniformly distributed in longitudinal phase space [1] A. Richter, Proc. Fifth EPAC, eds. S. Meyers et al.,
with an energy spread of ± 0.1 % and a bunch length of 2º IOP Publishing, Bristol (1996)110.
with respect to the rf-period. The eight cavities of the [2] S. Döbert et al. , Proc. Eighth Workshop on rf
main linac are assumed to have an uncorrelated field superconductivity, to be published.
-3
amplitude jitter of 10 and a phase jitter of ± 1º. The [3] H.-D. Gräf et al. , Proc. Eighth Workshop on rf
longitudinal phase space distribution was calculated at the superconductivity, to be published.
th
exit of the linac after 3 passes as a function of the [4] M. Brunken et al. , Proc. 20 Int. FEL98 Conference,
synchronous phase φs and the longitudinal dispersion of 1998, to be published.
the recirculating beam transport system. The simulations [5] S. B. van der Geer, M. J. de Loos, Proc. Sixth EPAC,
showed that at a working point of φs = -9.7º and Stockholm (1998) , to be published.
r56 = 5.3º / % we can gain a factor of four in energy spread [6] Th. Weiland, Int. Jour. Num. Modeling 9, (1996)295
compared to isochronous recirculation. The remaining [7] H. Herminghaus, Nucl. Instr. Meth. A314 (1992)209.
energy spread is mainly caused by the injected beam,
while the contribution of amplitude and phase jitter in the
405
∗
1-GeV LINAC UPGRADE STUDY AT FERMILAB
M. Popović, A. Moretti, R. Noble and C.W. Schmidt
Fermilab, Batavia, Illinois, USA
Abstract rent and longer pulse length, and add-additional accel-
erating structures to reach 1 GeV as the final kinetic
A linac injector for a new proton source complex at Fermi-
energy.
lab is assumed to have a kinetic energy of 1 GeV. This linac
• Leave the existing linac at its present location, make
would be sized to accelerate 100 mA of H − beam in a 200
necessary modifications needed for higher beam peak
microsecond pulse at a 15 Hz repetition rate. This would be
current and longer pulse length, and use the exist-
adequate to produce ∼ 1014 protons per pulse allowing for
ing Booster tunnel and galleries to house accelerating
future improvements of the new proton source complex. An
structure for acceleration from 400 MeV to 1 GeV.
alternate proposal is to add 600 MeV of side coupled cav-
ity linac at 805 MHz to the existing 400 MeV Linac. This The first option is the least controversial but may be the
addition may either be in a new location or use the present most expensive. The second option assumes increasing
Booster tunnel. A discussion of these possibilities will be the linac energy in a conventional way, simply adding new
given. structure to the existing Linac in the new tunnel to achieve 1
GeV. The additional 600 MeV structure is assumed to be an
1 INTRODUCTION extension of the recent Linac Upgrade using the same side
coupled cavity modules. A preliminary design requires 11
This study investigates a possible upgrade of the Fermilab modules for acceleration and a “half” module for control-
Linac to meet hypothetical muon collider needs, increased ling the energy spread of the exiting linac beam. The total
antiproton production and higher neutrino fluxes. Muon physical length of the structure is 131.3 meters. The design
collider is the most demanding and anticipates 1.25 × 1014 is based on the following assumptions:
protons per pulse at 15-Hz rate and an energy of 1 GeV.
Presently, the Linac can deliver 45-50 mA peak current at • Values for transit time, Emax/Eo and ZTT are extrapo-
15 Hz with a pulse length of 35 to 57 µs for high energy lated from the fits calculated with SUPERFISH for the
physics or cancer therapy respectively[1]. With a small values of β from 0.46 to 0.72.
effort it is likely that pulses of 60 mA and 90 µs can be • Maximum allowed electric field is 1.55 Kilpatrick
achieved at 400 MeV[2]. This represents a beam of 3.4 × which for 804.96 MHz is equal to 40.3MV/m.
1013 protons per pulse at 15 Hz. Producing 20000 µs - mA, • Maximum power for a four section module should be
1.25×1014 protons per pulse, is significantly more difficult less than 9 MW. This power limit includes power to
and would require modifications at every stage of acceler- the copper and power needed to accelerate 75 mA of
ation. For 1 GeV as a final energy, an additional accelerat- beam.
ing structure is needed. Two options have been considered.
Moving the operating Linac to a new location and extend-
ing the present side-coupled accelerating structure to 1 GeV. Existing Linac
The other is to leave the operating Linac where it is, extend
the side- coupled structure through part of the Booster tun-
nel and use existing tunnels to transfer the 1-GeV beam to
a new booster[3].
Curved Existing Booster
2 1-GEV EXTENSION Linac
To have a 1 GeV linac at Fermilab site which will satisfy the
muon collider needs, there are three possible options, (Fig-
Tevatron
ure 1);
New Linac
• Build a completely new Linac based on designs
adopted for spallation neutron sources,
• Build a new Linac tunnel near the Main Injector which Main Injector
will house the whole linac and a new Booster. Move
the existing linac into the new tunnel, make neces- New Booster
sary modifications needed for higher beam peak cur-
∗ Operated by the Universities Research Association under contract
with the U. S. Department of Energy Figure 1: Location(s) of extended Linac and new Booster
406
• ZTT used in the calculations is 85% of the value ex- the exit of the 400 MeV linac and will have two horizon-
trapolated from SUPEFISH calculations. tal bends. The first bend is after three modules at a beam
• Each module is made of four sections. The sections energy of 557 MeV. The bend consists of one FODO cell
are made of 16 cavities of equal β. The value of β is with two 11 degrees bend magnets. The next bend is at 703
equal to the beam’s β at the mid point of the section. MeV with the same type of bending magnets. The mag-
The sections are connected with bridge couplers and nets are two meters long with a field of ∼ 3kG. The H −
spaced for 3/2λβ. stripping probability is less than 4 × 10−12 at 557 MeV and
• Acceleration phase is -32 degrees. less then 5 × 10−8 at 704 MeV. Each bend will introduce
• A FODO lattice is assumed using quads between each horizontal dispersion. TRACE3D calculations show an “in-
section with a phase advance of 90 degrees. crease” in horizontal emittance. Figure 3 shows the output
The third option, a 1-GeV linac extension in the present
Booster tunnel, could prove to be economically and oper-
ationally viable. The H- beam from the 400 MeV Linac
would be transported with the present 400 MeV transfer
line to the Booster tunnel. To preserve the bunched beam
we will use a buncher cavity at the entrance to the chute
and/or retune the phase of the last module of the 400 MeV
Linac. Recent experiments show that bunch length can be
preserved for injection into the side coupled cavity. In this
experiment linac pulses with pulse lengths less than a full
Booster turn were injected in the Booster. The wall current
monitor which is 334.3 meters from the injection point to
the Booster was used to observe changes in the bunch length
as a function of the debuncher phase and/or phase of the last
accelerating module. The debuncher is located in the trans-
fer line 33.2 meters from the exit of the Linac. The total
length of 400 MeV transfer line is 62.2 meters, and by de-
sign it is dispersion free in both planes. Figure 2, shows the
signal from the wall current monitor. The upper trace is a
Figure 3: 1GeV Linac with bends
of TRACE3D where the beam was traced for two differ-
ent cases. Input to the calculations is the linac as describe
above, 13 accelerating modules and four bending magnets.
The first trace simulates a “no bend” situation. In these cal-
culations the bending angles were set to be 0.1 degree and
the radius of curvature was adjusted to have the length of
the “magnet” 2 meters. The second trace is for the case
of four 11 degree bends. The output emittance printed by
TRACE3D in this case is about two times bigger than for
the “no bend” situation. In these calculations there was no
attempt to adjust dispersion trough the linac after the first
bend. The three quadrupoles around each bend can be tuned
to minimum dispersion. The phase advance to the second
bend can be arranged to supress if not cancel the dispersion.
Figure 2: Bunch lenght at injection in the Booster
3 PRESENT LINAC
record of a little more than four Booster turns. The width of
the trace is a measure of the strength of the 200-MHz sig- To achieve 1.25 × 1014 protons per pulse will require con-
nal. The lower trace is an expansion of the last three 200- siderable upgrading of the operating Fermilab Linac at the
MHz bunches seen by a detector on the first turn, after in- source, preaccelerator, low-energy linac and the high- en-
jection. The full width measured at this point is 1.98ns and ergy linac. The maximum current the Linac is likely to
this is at a location which is 396.6 meters away from the achieve is 80-100 mA. This is limited by many constraints,
exit of the linac. On the second turn (474 meters away) the most strongly by the ion source, RF power of the low-
full width of the same bunch was measured to be 3.52ns. In energy linac and the lattice design of the high-energy linac.
the Booster tunnel the new linac will start 30 meters from Extending the pulse length is the other option, given that the
407
repetition rate is fixed at 15 Hz. The lower limit of 80 mA couplers connecting the cavities were cut for a power level
beam current sets the pulse length at 250 µs. These param- corresponding to 35 mA of beam, the traditional beam cur-
eters set the conditions to which the present Linac must be rent when the upgrade was built. The cavities and couplers
capable. have handled up to 50 mA of beam. Whether they can han-
dle 80-90 mA is questionable, and this is probably an upper
3.1 Ion Source limit. It may require rebuilding the bridge couplers. For
90 mA the 12 MW klystrons would need to be increased
The magnetron H − ion source currently in use delivers a
to 14.5 MW. The modulators, cooling systems, pulse trans-
current of 65-75 mA with a pulse length of 90 µs[4]. Of this
formers, oil tanks and low level rf systems would need to
∼ 5% is lost in transport and 70% is captured in Tank 1 for a
be redesigned for the higher power and pulse length.
linac current of ∼45 mA through the Linac. To achieve the
desired current of 80 mA an H − ion source of ∼120 mA
is necessary. BNL achieves 90 mA from a slightly mod-
3.5 Shielding and Losses
ified magnetron source at an extraction voltage of 35 kV At the 1.0 × 1014 protons per pulse and 15Hz, the enclo-
with a pulse length of 500 µs at 7.5 Hz[5]. The Fermilab sure shielding, extrapolated from our present running, ap-
source extracts at 18 kV. It is expected that a higher extrac- pears adequate except for a few areas that can be corrected.
tion voltage could give the desired current. A RF-driven The radiation at the exterior high energy berm may exceed
H − volume source may be another possibility having long the permissible limit for an open unmarked area but could
lifetime. Such a source is undergoing R&D for other ac- be corrected with a fence and signs or by adding soil. The
celerator projects to produce 60 mA, 6% duty factor and a door at the 400 MeV labyrinth into the Linac tunnel and the
normalized emittance of 0.2 π mm- mr[6]. 400 MeV cable penetrations may exceed their allowed lim-
its. This may require closing off the labyrinth and sealing
3.2 Preaccelerator and low energy transport the cable penetrations. The worst possible loss is the case of
a spark in the last accelerating module if the extended struc-
Two 750-kV Cockcroft-Walton generators are used as in-
ture for 1 GeV is located in the Booster tunnel. In this case
jectors to the Linac. Since neither has a bouncer, a voltage
about 2 µs of the beam located between the end of the 400
drop of ∼7 kV occurs for present beam pulses. At higher
MeV Linac and the end of the 1 GeV linac will be lost in
currents and pulse lengths a bouncer or other correction will
the Booster tunnel. This is less than the present losses in
be required. If the Linac were to be moved, one could con-
the Booster during normal operations. The beam in the 400
sider a new tank 1 from 2 or 2.5 to 10.25 MeV, the energy
MeV part of the Linac will be dumped in the present Linac
of tank 2, and a set of RFQ’s replacing the preaccelerators.
dump.
This could also significantly improve the emittance[7].
3.3 Low-energy linac 4 REFERENCES
[1] L.J. Allen, M. Popovic and C.W. Schmidt. “Operation and In-
The Fermilab Linac was designed for 75 mA and four turns
provements of the Fermilab 400 MeV Linac”. Proccedings
of beam to the Booster ( 12 µs plus RF stabilizing time)[8].
of the 1996 Linear Accelerator Conference, September 1996,
At 90 mA the 5-MW RF power tubes will limit the beam CERN, p329.
current. However they can handle longer pulse lengths as
[2] M. Popovic, “Present Near Future and Future Performance of
shown by other U.S. accelerator facilities in table 1. Fermilab Linac”, Fermilab-Pub-96/046
[3] S.D. Holmes(editor). “Development Plan for the Fermilab
Table 1: US Proton Linacs Proton Source”, TM- 2021, August 1997, Fermilab.
Beam BNL FNAL LAMPF [4] C.W. Schmidt. “Review of Negative Hydrogen Ion Sources”,
Peak Current(mA) 37 48 18 Proccedings of the 1990 Linear Accelerator Conference,
Pulse Length(µsec) 500 57 900 September 1990, Albuquerque, NM, USA, p259.
Repetition rate(Hz) 7.5 15 120 [5] J.G Alessi et al.. “Upgrade of the Brookheaven 200 MeV
Linac”, Proccedings of the 1996 Linear Accelerator Confer-
ence, September 1996, CERN, p329.
Thus pulse lengths of 250 µs are possible with only a [6] L. Schroeder et al., editors. “Proceedings og the Ion Source Is-
modest modification of the RF systems. To achieve longer sues Relevant to a Spallation Neutron Source”. LBL, October
pulses the quadrupole system for the drift tube linac will 24-26, 1994, LBL-36347 CONF-9410233 UC-404.
need modification. The pulsed power supplies will need to [7] C. Schmidt et al.,” Redesign of the Low Energy Section of the
incorporate a second harmonic to give a relatively flat 250 Fermilab Linac to Improve Beam Brightness”. Proccedings of
µs pulse. the 1988 Linear Accelerator Conference, October 1988, New-
port News, Virginia, USA, p188.
3.4 High-energy linac [8] Design Report, Nacional Accelerator Laboratory, July 1968.
The upgraded high-energy linac had a design goal[9] for [9] Fermilab Linac Upgrade Conceptual Design, Revision 4A,
the side-coupled accelerating cavities of 50 mA. The bridge November 1989.
408
DEVELOPMENT OF A COMMISSIONING PLAN FOR THE APT LINAC
L. W. Funk+, K. R. Crandall*, J. D. Gilpatrick**, E. R. Gray**, A. H. Regan**,
A. Rohlev**, L. J. Rybarcyk**, and T. P. Wangler**
+
Westinghouse Savannah River Company, Aiken, SC 29808
*TECHSOURCE, Santa Fe, NM 87594-1057
**Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM 87545
Abstract the design values. Many steps, including alignment,
The Accelerator Production of Tritium (APT) facility polarity setting, and calibration of focusing quadrupoles
[1,2] is based on a linac which incorporates both normal- and steering dipoles, alignment and calibration of beam-
conducting and superconducting RF technology and diagnostic components, and relative phasing of multiple
accelerates a 100-mA cw proton beam to an energy of power feeds should be carried out prior to the start of
1030 MeV or higher, depending on the desired production beam tests. Also, commissioning operations that require
rate. Commissioning plans to achieve full power beam should be done using pulsed beam with as small a
operation with minimum beam-induced activation of beam duty factor and as small a peak current as is
components have been evolving [3]. This paper presents practicable, consistent with the capabilities of the beam
the main issues and the basic approaches that are now diagnostics and the ion source. Beam-pulse lengths should
being discussed. be long compared with the transients in the low-energy
beam transport and the RF system. We anticipate using
1 COMMISSIONING OBJECTIVES cw RF power and pulsed beams with approximately 200-
By commissioning of the accelerator, we refer to the µs pulse length and a repetition rate from 1 to 10 Hz.
process whereby the components are brought into Depending on the beam current, an RF-system settling
operation with beam for the first time as a functioning time of 30 to 100-µs is expected before steady state is
integrated accelerator system. Commissioning need not reached. The choice of peak current depends on the
await the complete installation and alignment of all the procedure. We expect a peak current of about 1 mA to be
accelerator components, but may be done in stages. Two adequate for measuring the transverse beam-centroid
main activities make up the commissioning process. First alignment and setting the transverse beam steering. The 1-
is the initial setting of parameters, which includes the mA peak current, for which the space-charge forces are
focusing and steering fields, and cavity-field amplitudes small, is suitable for phase scans used to set the phases
and phases, to values determined by the physics and and amplitudes of the cavity fields. After the 1-mA
engineering design. Second are the measurements to procedures are completed, the peak current will be
characterize the functioning of the integrated system, increased to 100 mA to evaluate beam and system
especially the beam and the RF system. These data will be performance at full space charge and with full beam
compared with the predictions of simulation code. loading. To limit the beam losses during the
Discrepancies that are outside of error tolerances must be commissioning, LANSCE experience suggests that the
understood and, if appropriate, used to update the codes. commissioning procedures should be as simple as
The commissioning process is the time to detect and possible, and should be done one section at a time, where
resolve any unanticipated performance problems that each section to be commissioned consists of one of more
might arise. Also needed for evaluation of the overall accelerating modules.
performance are tests of different operating modes. For After all the parameters have been set, beam
APT this includes operation with some superconducting measurements will be made to characterize the output
cavities turned off, simulating fault conditions, where the beam from that section, using a commissioning beam-
rest of the linac is reset to continue beam operation. diagnostic package placed at the output. After the
diagnostic package, a beam stop is installed, which
2 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR prevents the commissioning beam from inducing
COMMISSIONING APT radioactivity downstream of the section being
commissioned. The beam stops must have sufficient
The experience gained from operating and restarting the
cooling capability to absorb the beam power at 100-mA
LANSCE proton linac, a pulsed machine with multiple
peak current with materials chosen to minimize long-
beam operation that includes a 6%-duty-factor, 1-mA
lifetime activation. After the commissioning of a given
average current, and 800-MeV final energy, will be our
section is completed, the diagnostic package and the
reference point. LANSCE experience has shown that
commissioning beam stop are removed, making room for
minimizing beam loss during normal operation is
installation of the next section.
important, because beam loss produces radioactivity that
Although dividing the linac into sections helps to locate
restricts hands-on maintenance, and can cause equipment
and fix problems, to keep the commissioning time within
damage. Beam loss could be a concern during
reasonable bounds, it is desirable to commission the linac
commissioning because the parameters are adjusted over
in no more separate sections than is necessary, consistent
a wide range and at times can deviate substantially from
412
with the requirement that simple operational procedures phase versus cavity phase gives greatest accuracy when
be used. For practicality and simplicity, LANSCE the longitudinal phase advance between the beginning of
experience suggests that all the commissioning steps, the cavity and the output probe is near an odd-integer
including the cavity phase scans, during which the beam multiple of 90°. The method involves plotting the curves
energy varies over a large fractional range, be carried out for two amplitudes, one for the amplitude corresponding
with fixed quadrupole gradients. This requirement leads to 90° phase advance, and one for the design amplitude,
to a preliminary estimate of perhaps six commissioning- which is known from simulation relative to the former
section final energies: 6.7, 10, 21, 54, 211 MeV, and 1030 amplitude. The two curves intersect at a known phase
MeV. A systematic study to determine the optimum near the design phase. This method has the advantage that
number of sections and their final energies is now in intertank spaces will generally be available allowing us to
progress. install an output probe near a location within the
accelerating module corresponding to an odd-integer
3 SETTING THE PARAMETERS multiple of 90° phase advance. The other method based
Setting the parameters affecting the transverse beam on a plot of output energy versus cavity phase is most
dynamics, primarily quadrupole gradients and beam- accurate when the longitudinal phase advance is an
steering fields should be straightforward except for integer multiple of 180°, a property that is not generally
outright mistakes or possible component failures. satisfied if the probes are installed in the drift space after
Quadrupole gradients can be set accurately to values the module.
determined from the physics design by using magnetic- A phase-scan procedure is also planned for the cavities in
field calibrations. Beam-profile measurements made near the high-energy superconducting linac. In this case the RF
the major focusing-lattice transitions can be used to make modules consist of either two or three independent
adjustments in the quadrupole gradients if needed to superconducting cavities, driven by one klystron, and the
improve the beam quality. As the beam energy increases, longitudinal phase advance is small compared with 90°.
the apertures increase and good transmission can be Each cavity has an RF pickup probe that samples the field
expected over a wide range of the amplitudes and phases in the cavity, and whose amplitude can be calibrated in
of the accelerating cavities. the laboratory using measurements of power and quality
The main task for the parameter-setting part of the factor Q to an accuracy of about ±5%. After the cavities
commissioning process is expected to be setting the are installed in their cryostats in the tunnel, and before
amplitudes and phases of the cavity fields. Beam beam is injected into the linac, the cavity resonant
measurements are required for this because direct RF frequencies are set by calculation to compensate for beam
field-measurement methods are not accurate enough. loading, the cavity fields are set to approximate values
Cavity-field parameters can be set using a phase-scan based on the laboratory calibrations, and relative phases
method, in which the phase of each accelerating cavity of the cavities within the same module are set using low-
relative to the input beam is varied, and for each phase, power RF measurements and by adjusting mechanical
corresponding output beam parameters are measured. The phase shifters. This one-time setting of the mechanical
beam measurements for commissioning can be made phase shifters is determined by the design values of the
using both an interceptive method, such as the cavity phases relative to the beam and the nominal value
absorber/collector technique at low energies that measures of the beam velocity at that location.
the accelerated beam intensity above an energy threshold After presetting these parameters, we use the beam to
set by the thickness of a copper absorber, or a non- determine the required RF drive phase that gives optimum
interceptive method based on beam-image-current probes phasing of the whole RF module relative to the beam,
in which signals are induced by the string of beam using a phase-scan measurement. In this case we obtain
bunches. Advantages of the absorber/collector method for from the measurements a curve of output energy from a
setting phase and amplitude at low energies are pair of beam probes versus RF drive phase. The curve is a
simplicity, and the ability to measure directly the phase skewed sinusoid, and using the phase locations of the
width of the bunch from the shape of the curve of peak and valley from the measured curve, we can set the
accelerated-beam intensity versus input phase. RF drive phase to the design value. A complete analysis
The beam-probe method allows a measurement of beam of tolerances has yet to be completed, but if uncertainties
arrival time or phase using a single probe, or beam-energy are limited to those from the beam diagnostics, the phase
using a pair of probes separated by a drift distance. The can be set to within a degree of the design value.
non-interceptive beam-probe method allows more Because of the accuracy of the beam-energy
accurate measurements over the full range of beam measurement, the klystron amplitudes can be adjusted at
energies and at full peak current. In the normal- each stage to minimize cumulative energy errors as we
conducting linac, plots of either the output-beam energy proceed down the linac. The beam energy from the pair of
from a pair of probes or the output-beam phase from a beam probes is obtained from the relation
single output probe, versus cavity phase are made as a φ(deg)=360L/βλ and solving for β, where φ is the
function of the cavity amplitude. By comparing these measured phase difference of the signals induced by the
curves with corresponding curves predicted by the beam in the probes, L is the spacing of the two probes, β
simulation code, the RF parameters that produce the is the beam velocity relative to the speed of light, and λ is
design values of the cavity amplitude and phase can be the wavelength at the bunch frequency of 350 MHz. For
determined. The method based on a plot of output-beam example, at 1 GeV (β = 0.875), L = 8.54 m (using the
413
spacing of two detectors separated by a lattice period), Comparison of the emittance measurements from the two
and λ = 0.857 m, we find that φ = 4102° or 142° (mod methods will provide a calibration of the multiple profile
360°). We are more interested in the energy uncertainty measurements, which will be used to characterize beam
∆W from the measurement. This can be calculated from operation after the commissioning process. Also,
λ ∆φ (deg) transverse beam-halo measurements will be obtained in
∆W = mc 2γ 3 β 3 . which we acquire the transverse projected profiles of the
L 360 beam from 3 to 5 rms-widths at multiple locations.
If we use mc =938.3MeV, L=8.54m, γ=2.066, β=0.8750,
2
Finally, for the longitudinal dynamics, we depend
λ=0.857m, and ∆φ =±3.1° (a conservative estimate of the primarily on beam-centroid phase and energy
“accuracy” from the beam diagnostics) we obtain a measurements, and bunch length or phase spread
corresponding uncertainty in the beam-energy of ±4.8 measurements [4].
MeV, which is only ±0.48%, sufficient to prevent a Prior to implementing supermodule RF systems in the
significant accumulation of an energy error. normal conducting linac, klystron phase calibration
measurements must be performed. These measurements
4 CHARACTERIZATION OF THE are made to ensure that the RF phase of the klystrons have
ACCELERATOR SYSTEM a unique and fixed relation to one another. In addition, the
Experience from commissioning accelerators over the low-level RF (LLRF) control system has built in some on-
years has shown that as new parameter regimes are line system-characterization capabilities [6]. These enable
explored, new and unanticipated effects can appear. the operator to inject a signal of known frequency
Especially because of the need to control beam loss to characteristics and measure the system response. After the
maintain high availability, carrying out a comprehensive RF parameters are set, measurements will be made to
set of measurements of the beam properties after setting characterize the RF system performance under full beam-
the parameters of each stage is an important requirement. loaded conditions. These measurements will include the
Such data taken at the end of each newly commissioned reflected power, and the errors signals associated with
section will be compared with the predictions of the phases and amplitudes of the cavity fields, which are
numerical simulation code. Discrepancies can be used to controlled by the LLRF system.
identify problems, which may include either component 5 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
errors or physics effects that may not be included in the
beam-dynamics model. Measurements made at the low- We acknowledge support by the U.S. Department of
velocity end of the linac, where space-charge is Energy. We thank Jim Stovall for sharing with us his
important, are particularly important because studies for setting the cavity parameters in the low energy
discrepancies between measurements and simulation can linac, and Andrew Browman for helpful discussions.
provide an early warning of possible problems that could
lead to beam loss at the high-energy end of the machine. 6 REFERENCES
Measurements should be chosen so that, by comparison [1] Lawrence, G. L. “High-Power Proton Linac for APT:
with the simulation code, we can answer three main Status of Design and Development”, these proceedings.
questions. First, do we observe the expected low-peak- [2] Lisowski, P. W., “Accelerator Production of Tritium Plant
current beam characteristics, where space-charge effects Design and Supporting Engineering Development and
are negligible? Second, do we observe the expected rms Demonstration Work”, Proceedings of the American
properties of the beam at the full peak current? These rms Nuclear Society Topical Meeting on Nuclear Applications
properties depend on the space-charge force, and should of Accelerator Technology, Albuquerque, NM, November
be compared with the numerical simulation code. Finally, 16-20, 1997.
do we understand the observed beam distribution
[3] Chan, K. C. D. et al., “Commissioning Plan for a High-
including the beam halo, its density profile and its extent?
Current Proton Linac”, Proceedings of the Particle
Using a commissioning beam-diagnostic package placed
Accelerator Conference, Vancouver, BC, May 1997.
at the output of the section being commissioned, we plan
to measure the beam current, beam loss, transverse beam [4] Gilpatrick, D. et al, "LEDA and APT Beam Diagnostics
profile, transverse rms emittance, transverse beam halo, Instrumentation", Proceeding of the Particle Accelerator
final beam energy centroid, and bunch length at the Conference , Vancouver, BC, May, 1997.
output of each commissioning section [4]. Beam-loss [5] Wangler T. P., Gray, E. R., Krawczyk F. L.,
measurements depend on the beam-halo characteristics, Kurennoy S. S. , Lawrence, G. P., and Ryne, R. D.,
which depend on beam mismatches in either the “Basis for Low Beam Loss in the High-Current APT
longitudinal or transverse phase space [5]. Multiple Linac”, these proceedings,
transverse profile measurements using permanently
[6] Regan, A. H., et al, “LEDA LLRF Control System
installed beam-profile monitors will be compared directly
Characterization”, these proceedings.
with the simulations, and will also be used to determine
the rms emittance during both commissioning and
nominal operation. Because of its interceptive nature, a
separate phase-space measurement using a conventional
slit and collector device will provide beam-emittance
measurements during low peak current operations.
414
STATUS UPDATE ON THE
LOW-ENERGY DEMONSTRATION ACCELERATOR (LEDA)*
H. Vernon Smith, Jr. and J. David Schneider, APT Technical Project Office,
Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico, 87545
Abstract Even though the output energy is low (10 MeV), the
average beam power (1.0 MW) of LEDA will rank it with
As part of the linac design for the accelerator production the LANSCE accelerator as the two highest power proton
of tritium (APT) project, we are assembling the first linacs in the world. Clearly, radiation shielding and
approximately 10-MeV portion of this cw, 100-mA proton power handling are important design issues. We summar-
accelerator. The primary objective of this low-energy ize the LEDA status as of early August, 1998.
demonstration accelerator (LEDA) is to verify the design
codes, gain fabrication knowledge, understand beam 2 SUBSYSTEM DESCRIPTION
operation, and improve prediction of costs and operational
Injector:
availability for the full 1000- to 1700-MeV APT
The injector must match a dc proton beam of at least
accelerator. This paper provides an updated report on this
110 mA at 75 keV into the RFQ. A 2.45-GHz microwave
past year’s progress that includes extensive beam tests of
proton source, a single-gap extractor, and dual magnetic
the LEDA injector using the Chalk River Injector Test
solenoids provide this beam. The ion source requires only
Stand (CRITS) radio-frequency quadrupole (RFQ)
500-800 W to create a suitable plasma from which a beam
accelerator. The CRITS RFQ produces a cw, 100-mA,
having >90% proton fraction and >30% gas efficiency is
1.25-MeV RFQ output beam. We also report on
extracted [4]. The single-gap, spherically convergent
fabrication, assembly, tuning, and installation of the 6.7-
extractor provides a beam with emittance <0.2 π mm-
MeV LEDA RFQ; installation and testing of the 350-MHz
mrad (normalized).
RF system; fabrication of the high-energy beam transport
The low-energy beam transport (LEBT) uses two
(HEBT); installation (as well as prototype testing) of the
solenoids and two steering coils to ensure a proper match
LEDA ogive beam stop; and upgrades to the facility. First
into the RFQ. A well-cooled variable-iris device is used
tests with the 6.7-MeV, 100-mA, cw beam from the RFQ
to control injected current [5], and a microwave power
are scheduled for late fall, 1998. References are given to
modulator is used to provide beam pulsing [6] for
many detailed papers on LEDA at this conference.
commissioning and beam-tuning activities. Multiple
extended beam runs with this injector have shown it
1 INTRODUCTION
capable of the required current, emittance, and stability.
This overview paper summarizes activities completed Measured erosion rates show a predicted maintenance-
and initiated on LEDA since the publication of ref. [1]. free lifetime exceeding 400 hours. The LEBT physics
LEDA is designed as a prototype [2] of the first 10- to 20- design [7, 8] is in good agreement with the mechanical
MeV portion of the APT linac [3] that will be built at design [9] and detailed measurements [10]. The LEDA
Savannah River. LEDA’s beamline components now injector is now installed in the beam tunnel (Fig. 2).
include a 75-keV proton injector, a 6.7-MeV RFQ, a
HEBT, and a beamstop (Fig. 1). Initially, a 10 MeV
CCDTL (coupled-cavity drift-tube linac, a hybrid between
a standard DTL and a CCL structure) will be added after
the RFQ tests are complete.
RFQ Beam
HEBT Stop
Injector
RF Waveguide Fig. 2. LEDA injector installed in the beam tunnel.
Fig. 1. Conceptual layout of the LEDA accelerator, showing the The LEDA injector was used to inject a 50 keV
injector, RFQ (behind waveguides), HEBT, and beamstop. proton beam into the CRITS RFQ. Beam operation with
this 1.25-MeV cw RFQ is summarized in several papers at
* Work supported by the US Dept of Energy, Defense Programs.
this conference [11, 12, 13]. Beam currents up to 100 mA
418
were accelerated by the CRITS RFQ [12]. A modification (insulated-gate, bi-polar) power supply that will drive the
of the source-plasma 2.45-GHz microwave power feed 700-MHz klystrons is being developed [31]. Each of
lowers the rms noise on the output proton beam to < ±1% sixteen 350-MHz RF vacuum windows have been tested
[14]. Also, an on-line method for measuring the proton at power levels >950 kW [32]. During operation, twelve
fraction of the hydrogen beam confirms the previously- of these windows will be run at power levels up to 250
+
measured ~90% H fractions [15]. kW each. The high-power RF system is ready for RF
conditioning of the LEDA RFQ.
RFQ:
LEDA’s RFQ [16-18] is unique in terms of its long Low-Level RF Systems:
physical length (8 meters), high output energy (6.7 MeV), The LLRF controls system will perform a number of
large beam power (670 kW), and cooling requirements functions including: set and maintain the proper phase and
(1.2 MW). It is constructed as an all-brazed, 100% copper amplitude of all accelerating cavities [33], distribute
(OFE) structure, assembled from eight separate 1-meter- reference signals along the beam line, monitor cavity
long sections [17]. When in operation, its only active resonance condition, and provide many field signals from
resonance control is by modulation of the input water cavity pickup loops.
temperature.
Of the eight separate sections, three are used for 350- Controls:
MHz RF power feed [19] via four 250-kW coupling irises LEDA is using a distributed control system based on
(12 total) and three sections provide vacuum pumping. EPICS [34, 35]. Many LEDA sub-systems have localized
Each section includes 16 static slug tuners, used only for control with dedicated PLCs (programmable logic
tailoring the initial field distribution. Fabrication of the controllers), but all operational status and control
LEDA RFQ [20], the vacuum system [21, 22] and the commands can be accessed through the EPICS operator
resonance-control cooling system [23] is complete; this interfaces. An EPICS station and all peripherals have been
equipment is installed in the LEDA beam tunnel (Fig. 3); controlling the LEDA injector for more than three years.
and the RFQ RF-field tuning procedure is complete [24]. An automated control routine provides prompt, hands-off,
full-beam recovery from injector high-voltage
sparkdowns. The safety and protection systems are
monitored using EPICS - in the case of the fast-protect
system the beam is shut down within 10-20 µsec of an
interrupt and the first fault is recorded by EPICS.
HEBT and Beam Stop:
The HEBT safely transports and matches the RFQ
output beam to the high-power beamstop. The HEBT
(described in [36]) contains beam diagnostics that allow
confirmatory measurement of the beam parameters.
For tests at 6.7 MeV, the beam will impinge on a
nickel ogive beamstop [37] that is mounted inside an
aluminum vessel that contains borated water (Fig. 4) to
provide excellent shielding against prompt neutrons.
Fig. 3. LEDA RFQ installed in the beam tunnel. Preliminary calculations indicate this ogive beamstop
CCDTL: apparatus will be suitable for use at 8- and 10-MeV
This new 700-MHz structure [25] captures features of operation with the CCDTL sections.
a DTL and a CCL, using either one or two simple drift
tubes inside each π-mode cavity. Test results [26] for a
CCDTL “cold model” confirms the 2-gap to 3-gap
transition section for the LEDA CCDTL. A CCDTL ‘hot
model’ has been fabricated to test structure cooling and
response [27]. The LEDA CCDTL will be installed after
the LEDA RFQ has been commissioned and tested.
RF Power Systems:
Three 1.2-MW, 350-MHz, cw RF-power systems are
installed to power the RFQ [28-30]. The first of three
700-MHz, 1.0-MW systems that will be used to test the
CCDTL have also been installed [29]. A 95-kV IGBT
Fig. 4. LEDA ogive beamstop.
419
Beam Diagnostics: May 1997), Paper 6W020 (in press).
[10] R. Ferdinand, et al., “Space-Charge Neutralization Measurement
The LEDA (mostly non-interceptive) diagnostics [38] of a 75-keV, 130-mA Hydrogen-Ion Beam,” Proc. 1997 Particle
measure and characterize the beam position [39] and the Accelerator Conf. (Vancouver, 12-16 May 1997), Paper 6W010
beam profile [40]: they also measure the beam current to (in press).
[11] G. O. Bolme et al., “Proton Beam Studies with a 1.25 MeV, CW
obtain the RFQ transmission. This information will be Radio Frequency Quadrupole LINAC, ” this conf.
used to operate the LEDA accelerator and to confirm the [12] J. Sherman et al., “Development and Test Results of the Low
accelerator component designs. Energy Demonstration Accelerator (LEDA) Proton Injector on a
1.25 MeV CW Radio-Frequency Quadrupole, ” this conf.
[13] H. V. Smith et al., “Comparison of Beam Simulations With
Facility Modifications: Measurements for a 1.25-MeV CW RFQ,” this conf.
LEDA is installed in, and will be operated in, a pre- [14] P. Balleyguier et al., “Suppression of the 1-MHz Beam Current
Modulation in the LEDA/CRITS Proton Source, ” this conf.
existing building that has a 140-m-long buried beam [15] J. Kamperschroer et al., “Doppler-Shift Proton Fraction
tunnel. The upgrades required to provide >10 MW of ac Measurement on a CW Proton Injector, ” this conf.
power and cooling water are nearly complete. [16] L. M. Young, “An 8-m-Long Coupled Cavity RFQ Linac,” Proc.
1994 Int. LINAC Conf. (Aug., 1994, Tsukuba, Japan), 178.
[17] D. Schrage et al, “A 6.7-MeV CW RFQ Linac,” Proc. 1997
Safety Systems and Analysis: Particle Accelerator Conf. (Vancouver, 12-16 May 1997), Paper
A safety analysis document (SAD) has been pre- 2W025 (in press).
pared, reviewed, and approved. The LEDA accelerator [18] L. M. Young, “Simulations of the LEDA RFQ 6.7-MeV
Accelerator,” Proc. 1997 Particle Accelerator Conf. (Vancouver,
readiness assessment is scheduled for this September. 12-16 May 1997), Paper 6W024 (in press).
Operational run-permit is incorporated into the EPICS [19] R. Valdiviez et al., “The Mechanical Design and Fabrication of a
control system, with scores of interlocks to ensure that Ridge-Loaded Waveguide for an RFQ, ” this conf.
[20] D. Schrage et al., “CW RFQ Fabrication and Engineering,” this
components and systems operate only when the risk of conf.
equipment damage is very low. A hard-wired fast-protect [21] S. Shen et al, “APT/LEDA RFQ Vacuum Pumping System,”
system ensures the near-immediate (10- to 20-µs) turnoff Proc. 1997 Particle Accelerator Conf. (Vancouver, 12-16 May
1997), Paper 4P017 (in press).
of the beam in event of beam spill as detected by fast [22] K. Kishiyama et al., “Testing of Vacuum Pumps for the
ionization chambers. Totally separate from both these APT/LEDA RFQ,” this conf.
equipment safety systems, a personnel access control [23] R. Floersch and G. Domer, “Resonance Control Cooling System
for the APT/LEDA RFQ,” this conf.
system (PACS) ensures that all personnel are excluded [24] L. Young and L. J. Rybarcyk, “Tuning the LEDA RFQ 6.7-MeV
from the beam tunnel whenever beam or high rf power Accelerator,” this conf.
might be present. This PACS is very similar to the [25] R. L. Wood et al., “Thermal/Structural Design and Fabrication
Development of High-Power CCDTL and CCL Structures,” Proc.
recently upgraded system in use at LANSCE. XVIII Int. Linac Conf. (Geneva, 26-30 Aug. 1996 ) pp. 752-4.
[26] M. Cole et al., “Test Results for a Cold Model of a CCDTL Two-
3 SUMMARY gap to Three-gap Transition to be used in the Accelerator
Region,” this conf.
The LEDA project is on schedule to progressively [27] R. L. Wood et al., “Status of Engineering Development of the
CCDTL for Accelerator Production of Tritium, ” this conf.
assemble and test major components of a high-power, cw [28] D. Rees et al., "Design, Operation, and Test Results of the 350-
accelerator, first at 6.7 MeV, then 8 MeV, and then at 10 MHz LEDA RF System," this conf.
MeV. The possibility of testing the APT plant CCDTL at [29] D. Rees et al., “Accelerator Production of Tritium 700-MHz and
350-MHz Klystron Test Results," this conf.
up to 20 MeV remains. [30] W. T. Roybal et al., “LEDA RF Distribution System Design and
Component Test Results,” this conf.
4 REFERENCES [31] J. Bradley et al., "Design, Construction, and Operational Results
of the IGBT Controlled Solid State Modulator High Voltage
[1] J. D. Schneider and K. C. D. Chan, “Progress Update on the Low- Power Supply used in the High Power RF Systems of the Low
Energy Demonstration Accelerator (LEDA),” Proc. 1997 Particle Energy Demonstration Accelerator of the Accelerator Production
Accelerator Conf. (Vancouver, 12-16 May 1997), Paper 5W024 (in of Tritium (APT) Project," this conf.
press). [32] K. Cummings et al., "Results and Lessons Learned from Condi-
[2] J. D. Schneider, “APT Accelerator Technology,” Proc. XVIII Int. tioning 1-MW, 350-MHz Coaxial Vacuum Windows,” this conf.
Linac Conf. (Geneva, 26-30 Aug. 1996), pp. 22 -26. [33] A. Regan, et al., “LEDA LLRF Control System
[3] G. Lawrence and T. Wangler, “Integrated Normal- Characterization,” this conf.
conducting/Super-conducting High Power Proton Linac for APT,” [34] L. R. Dalesio et al., Nucl. Instrum. Meth. In Phys. Research A352
Proc. 1997 Particle Accelerator Conf. (Vancouver, 12-16 May (1994) 179-184.
1997), Paper 5W020 (in press). [35] M. Moore and R. Dalesio, “A Development and Integration
[4] J. D. Sherman et al., Rev. Sci. Instrum. 69 (1998) 1003-1008. Analysis of Commercial and In-House Control Subsystems,” this
[5] L. Hansborough et al., “Mechanical Design for the LEDA Low- conf.
Energy Beam Transport System,” to be published. [36] W. Lysenko, J. D. Gilpatrick, and M. Schulze, “High-Energy
[6] T. Zaugg et al., “Operation of a Microwave Proton Source in Beam Transport Beamline for LEDA,” this conf.
Pulsed Mode,” this conf. [37] T. VanHagan et al., “Design of an Ogive-Shaped Beamstop,” this
[7] H. V. Smith et al, “Simulations of the LEDA LEBT H+ Beam,” conf.
Proc. 1997 Particle Accelerator Conf. (Vancouver, 12-16 May [38] J. D. Gilpatrick et al., “LEDA and APT Beam Diagnostics
1997), Paper 6W022 (in press). Instrumentation,” Proc. 1997 Particle Accelerator Conf.
[8] L. M. Young, “Simulations of the LEDA LEBT with H+, H2+, and e- (Vancouver, 12-16 May 1997), Paper 8P058 (in press).
particles,” Proc. 1997 Particle Accelerator Conf. (Vancouver, 12- [39] J. D. Gilpatrick et al., “LEDA & APT Beam Position
16 May 1997), Paper 6W023 (in press). Measurement System: Design and Initial Test Results ,” this conf.
[9] L. Hansborough et al., “Mechanical Engineering for the LEDA [40] J. F. O’Hara et al., “Design and Development of the LEDA Slow
Injector,” Proc. 1997 Particle Accelerator Conf. (Vancouver, 12-16 Wire Scanner Profile Measurement,” this conf.
420
BEAM DYNAMICS DESIGN OF THE 211 MEV APT NORMAL
CONDUCTING LINAC *
L. M. Young, J. H. Billen, H. Takeda, R. L. Wood
Los Alamos National Laboratory, MS H817, Los Alamos, NM 87545, USA
Abstract that the match would be current independent. The
longitudinal matching was a little more difficult because
This paper describes the normal conducting linac
the longitudinal focusing goes to zero at the end of the
design that is part of the Accelerator for Production of
final accelerating cell in the RFQ. Also, the beam drifts to
Tritium (APT) project [1]. The new version of PARMILA
the first cavity of the CCDTL before it sees any
[2] designed this linac. This linac accepts the beam from
longitudinal focusing. Another complication is that the
the 6.7-MeV radio-frequency quadrupole (RFQ) [3,4]
RFQ operates at 350 MHz and the CCDTL at 700 MHz.
without a separate matching section. At about 10 MeV, it
This problem was solved by setting the synchronous phase
has a smooth transition in the length of period from 8βλ to
of the first accelerating cavity at -90° and increasing the
9βλ in quadrupole focusing lattice. This adjustment of the
RF fields in this cavity by a factor of 1.65. The second
period was needed to provide sufficient space for the
accelerating cavity was operated at -30° synchronous
quadrupole focusing magnets and beam diagnostic
equipment. The linac consists of the coupled-cavity drift- APT low energy linac 6.7 Mev to 211 MeV.
1.25 x (cm) vs. cell no.
tube linac (CCDTL) [5] up to 97 MeV and coupled-cavity
linac (CCL) above 97 MeV.
0.
1 INTRODUCTION
-1.25
The first 211 MeV of the APT linac consists of the -3
1.25 y (cm) vs. cell no.
531 1066 1600
700-MHz CCDTL and CCL. The CCDTL accepts the
beam from the 350-MHz, 6.7-MeV RFQ without a 0.
separate matching section. The CCDTL accelerates the
100-mA beam to 97 MeV. The CCL accelerates the beam
-1.25
to 211 MeV. The CCDTL uses a transverse focusing -3
90.0 phi-phis (deg) vs. cell no.
531 1066 1600
period of 8βλ from 6.7 MeV to about 9.5 MeV. At this
point the transverse focusing period is smoothly increased 0.
to 9βλ to make more room for the quadrupole focusing
magnets. The 8βλ section of the CCDTL uses one -90.0
accelerating cavity with 1 drift tube between each -3
.02 xp (rad) vs. cell no.
531 1066 1600
quadrupole magnet leaving plenty of space for the
quadrupole. After the transition to 9βλ the CCDTL has 0.
one accelerating cavity with 2 drift tubes between each
quadrupole. The rest of the CCDTL and CCL accelerator
-.02
use the 9βλ focusing period. Figure 1 shows the particle -3
.02 yp (rad) vs. cell no.
531 1066 1600
coordinates versus cell number from a PARMILA
simulation though the 211-MeV linac and the first 6 0.
“Cryomodules” of the Superconducting linac. A
“Cryomodule” is a cryostat with two or more accelerating
-.02
cavities. Each accelerating gap and each quadrupole -3
1.00 w-ws (MeV) vs. cell no.
531 1066 1600
increments the cell number in this figure.
2 RFQ TO CCDTL MATCHING 0.
We used no separate matching section to match the -1.00
-3 531 1066 1600
beam from the RFQ to the CCDTL. By adjusting the
Figure 1.Beam size versus cell number of the 211-MeV APT
length of the fringe-field cell at the output of the RFQ, we Linac. Plotted versus cell number respectively from the
matched the beam into the CCDTL quadrupole focusing top down are particle coordinates x, y, phi, xp, yp, and
channel. In addition, we adjusted the transverse focusing energy. The phase “phi” and the energy are plotted with
strength per cm of the RFQ to equal that of the CCDTL so respect to the phase and energy of the synchronous
particle. Divergence coordinates are xp=dx/dz and
yp=dy/dz. This data comes from a PARMILA
*Work supported by the US Department of Energy. simulation with 95405 particles.
421
phase and normal RF fields. The third and subsequent accelerating cavities while the rest of the segments have 7
accelerating cavities operate at -60° synchronous phase to accelerating cavities. The accelerating structure occupies
provide a large enough longitudinal acceptance to capture 7/9ths of the real estate in this part of the linac. The first
the beam bunches from the 350-MHz RFQ. We chose the segment uses only 6 cavities to make room for a beam-line
RF amplitude at the beginning of the CCDTL to provide vacuum-isolation valve. The field in the first segment is
nearly the same longitudinal focusing strength per cm as increased to give the same energy gain as the 7 cavity
provided by the RFQ near its exit. Figure 2 shows the segments. At the end of the normal conducting linac the
longitudinal and transverse zero-current phase advance real estate accelerating field is 1.427 MeV/m at 211 MeV.
divided by the transverse-focusing-period length plotted Figure 4 shows the transverse and longitudinal emittance
versus energy from 1 MeV (in the RFQ) to 245 MeV (in in the normal conducting linac and the first part of the
the first part of the superconducting accelerator). The superconducting linac.
small discontinuities in the focusing strength in this figure
at 6.7 MeV, show the match in the focusing between the 5.0
RFQ and the CCDTL. σT
3 CCDTL σ
(°/cm) σL
The RF amplitude slowly increasees and the
synchronous phase approaches -30° as the energy 0.5
increases. At 10 MeV, after the transition to the 9βλ
focusing period, the real-estate accelerating field is too
high for the 1-drift-tube CCDTL. The term real-estate
refers to an average over a transverse focusing period. The
CCDTL uses 2 drift tubes in each cavity from 10 MeV to 0.05
21.6 MeV. At 21.6 MeV the synchronous phase has 1 10 100
progressed to -40° and the accelerating field to 1.863 Energy (MeV)
MeV/m. The accelerating structure only occupies 5/9ths of Figure 2. A log-log plot of the longitudinal (σL) and transverse
the real estate. Therefore the real-estate accelerating field (σT) zero-current phase advance divided by the
is 1.035 MeV/m. transverse-focusing-period length. The transition from
The CCDTL uses 2 cavities with 1 drift tube in each the quad-singlet focusing in the normal conducting
between each quadrupole magnet from 21.6 MeV to 96.7 linac to the quad-doublet focusing in the
MeV. The synchronous phase reaches its final value of - superconducting linac causes the spikes at 211 MeV.
30° at 92 MeV. At that point the effective real-estate
accelerating field, E0T, is 1.12 MeV/m. We made the
changes in the accelerating field and synchronous phase to
keep the ratio of the longitudinal and transverse phase
advance per cm nearly constant below 25 MeV. Below 25
MeV the transverse phase advance was keep constant at
~78° per period. Transverse
The effect of changing the period from 8βλ to 9βλ
can be seen between 9.5 and 10 MeV in Figure 2. At
energies above 25 MeV, we slowly decreased the
quadrupole focusing strength as the energy increased. We Longitudinal
reduced the quadrupole focusing strength at higher
energies for two reasons. First, by keeping the ratio of the
longitudinal focusing strength to the transverse focusing
strength constant the bunch shape remained nearly Energy (MeV)
constant. Also, as shown in Figure 3, the longitudinal tune Figure 3. The longitudinal and transverse tune depression from
depression did not fall to extremely low values as it would 1.0 MeV to 211 MeV in the APT linac plotted versus
have without reducing the transverse focusing strength. energy. The tune depression is the ratio of the phase
Second, we had to reduce the transverse focusing strength advance with 100 mA to the phase advance with
at the end of the normal conducting linac to equal that “zero” current.
available at the beginning of the superconducting linac.
5 CURRENT INDEPENDENT MATCH
4 CCL
A current independent match means the beam match
The linac uses the CCL structure from 96.7 MeV to between two parts of the linac does not depend on the
211 MeV. The first segment in each module uses 6 beam current. The APT linac must operate with a 100-mA
422
equipartitioned. With a poorly matched beam, a halo will
develop whether or not the beam is equipartitioned.
Longitudinal
6 CONCLUSIONS
The PARMILA design of the normal conducting linac
for APT is complete. The simulations show essentially no
Transverse emittance growth in this linac. The match between the
RFQ and the CCDTL is current independent. The match
between the various sections of the CCDTL and the CCL
is extremely good because there is no change in the
transverse focusing period and the variation in the real-
estate accelerating field is smooth.
The beam can be matched to the superconducting
linac. Although we have not checked this match with a
complete set of simulations (only with 0 and 100 mA) we
Figure 4. The transverse and longitudinal emittance versus
expect the match to the superconducting linac to be
position in the 6.7-MeV-to-211-MeV linac and the
first 6 “Cryomodules” of the superconducting linac.
current independent, because we kept the focusing
The superconducting linac starts at ~21000 cm in this strength per cm continuous across this transition.
figure.
CW beam. We must keep the beam loss to a very small REFERENCES
level even during commissioning. During commissioning
we will use beam pulses of about 200 µsec duration and [1] G. Lawrence, “High Power Proton Linac for APT; Status of
Design and Development,” these proceedings.
with low peak current at first. Under these conditions we
can allow a larger fraction of the beam to be lost. Later in [2] H. Takeda, J. H. Billen, “Recent Developments in the
Accelerator Design Code PARMILA” these proceedings.
the commissioning process the pulsed beam will have a
peak current of 100 mA and only a small fraction can be [3] L. M. Young, “Tuning of the LEDA RFQ 6.7 MeV
Accelerator,” these proceedings.
lost. During commissioning with a pulsed beam we will
[4] L. M. Young, “Simulations of the LEDA RFQ 6.7 MeV
optimize the quadrupole magnet strengths and the RF
Accelerator,” Proceedings of the 1997 Particle Accelerator
amplitudes and phases for extremely small beam loss. We
Conference.
must not change these settings for the CW beam.
[5] J. H. Billen et al., “A New RF Structure For Intermediate-
Therefore, we need a current independent match so that
Velocity Particles” Proceedings of the 1994 Linear
we can operate the accelerator at any current up to 100 Accelerator Conference, August 21-26, 1994 Tsukuba,
mA without readjusting the quadrupole focusing magnets Japan.
or the RF settings. The current independent match [6 ] R. A. Jameson, “On Scaling & Optimization of High
between the RFQ and CCDTL has been checked by Intensity, Low-Beam-Loss RF Linacs for Neutron Source
running PARMTEQ simulations of the RFQ with input Drivers”, AIP Conf. Proc. 279, ISBN 1-56396-191-1, DOE
beams with currents of 0, 40, 57, 103, and 110 mA. These Conf-9206193 (1992) 969-998, Proceedings Third
output beam distributions from the PARMTEQ Workshop on Advanced Accelerator Concepts, 14-20 June
simulations were then used as the input beam distributions 1992, Port Jefferson, Long Island, NY, (LA-UR-92-2474,
for PARMILA simulations of the beam through the Los Alamos National Laboratory).
CCDTL and CCL without changing any parameters. The [7] M Reiser, “Theory and Design of Charged Particle Beams,”
PARMILA code uses the beam current contained in the John Wiley & Sons, Inc., p. 573 (1994).
input distribution file. The match in all cases was [8] L. M. Young, “Equipartitioning in A High current proton
satisfactory. Linac”, Proceedings of the 1997 Particle Accelerator
We used the following philosophy throughout the Conference.
design of the linac to ensure current independent matching
between different parts of the linac. We kept the ratio of
the longitudinal to the transverse focusing strength nearly
constant and without steps in either the longitudinal or
transverse focusing strengths. This philosophy results in a
linac design with a beam that is nearly equipartitioned
[6,7]. With a nearly equipartitioned beam there may be
less beam in the halo for a well matched beam such as that
shown in Figure 1. Reference [8] shows that a halo can
develop even with a well matched beam if it is not
423
FERMILAB LINAC 1997-98 OPERATIONS, STUDIES AND
IMPROVEMENTS
L. J. Allen, C. W. Schmidt and M. Popovic
Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory*
Batavia, Illinois
Abstract Beam intensity, during the Fixed Target Run, averaged
The Fermilab Linac operated as an injector for the 45 to 48 mA as shown in Figure 1. Problems with the
Tevatron Fixed Target Program, booster studies and as a 2400 l/sec ion pumps used to maintain column vacuum
neutron source for cancer treatment during 1997 and 1998. on the preaccelerators, forced the use less efficient
Operational reliability was 98% of the scheduled operating roughing turbo pumps. The resulting increase in pressure
time. Beam currents were generally in the 45 to 48 mA reduced the intensity slightly until they could be rebuilt.
range with a high of 52 mA during studies. After After the run was over and beam level safety permits were
completion of the Fixed Target Program, the Linac readjusted the Linac achieved 52 mA.
embarked on a series of studies. The studies were intended
to verify visual survey data indicating a misalignment of
the low energy linac, correct the misalignment, and install
and use new wires for determining emittance. Operations
data and studies results will be presented.
1 OVERVIEW
The Fermilab Linac operates at 400 MeV for linac
studies and injection into the 8-GeV Booster for further
studies and high energy physics (HEP). It also operates at
66 MeV as a neutron source for treating cancer in the
Neutron Therapy Facility (NTF). There are two ion
sources, feeding DC accelerating columns powered by
Cockcroft-Walton generators at 745 kV. The Linac RF
pulse repetition rate is 15 Hz, useable RF pulse length is Figure 1. Linac intensity during fixed target run.
120 µsec and the maximum source beam pulse length is
~80µsec. The operating beam pulse length is dependent There are 35 loss monitors in the high-energy linac.
upon on its ultimate use and determined by choppers in They are of the Tevatron type [1] with Main Ring style
the 750-keV line. Pulse lengths for HEP beam are amplifiers. They are not calibrated, but used as tuning
determined by the Booster requirements, typically 15-25 aids and for comparison with previous data. The
µsec. NTF uses the unused 15-Hz pulses with a 57-µsec maximum value of the relative computer signal is 100
length. Linac studies use typically a 20 µsec pulse equivalent to 10V from the amplifier. By saving and
generally at 3 Hz. averaging these values the tuning quality and level of
losses in the Linac can be monitored. Reviewing this
2 FIXED TARGET RUN average since the high-energy linac was installed, Table 1,
shows that the losses have decreased especially in the RF
In 1996 and 1997 Fermilab operated a Fixed Target accelerating structures. Typical beam loss through the
Run providing 800-GeV beams to experimenters in the Linac from tank 2, after the beam has been captured, to
external beam-lines and 8 GeV antiproton beams to the 400-MeV output is ~1% or less. Of the 65-70 mA of
experimenters in the Accumulator Ring. The Linac the preaccelerator beam 70% or more is captured in tank 1.
provided 12 pulse bursts of beam for HEP and single
Table 1. Relative beam loss levels for each period for the
pulses at 2.5 second repetition rates for antiproton
total Linac structures and along the RF accelerating
production along with NTF. In September 1997 the Fixed
cavities.
Target program ended and the Linac embarked on a one
year program of maintenance and studies with the Booster. Time Whole Linac RF Cav. Only
Aside from the usual preventive maintenance a drift tube March, 1994 3.06 2.18
was replaced in tank two, a resurvey was done and
scanning profile wires were added at the 400-MeV output Beginning of run 2.82 1.43
of the Linac. Studies included the sampling of drift tube End of run 2.61 0.95
quadrupole placement to investigate a suggested vertical
misalignment between tank 5 and the high-energy linac. Linac operated for 98% of the 10442 scheduled
___________________________________________ operating hours. As has historically been the case the
* This work supported by the U.S. Department of Energy vast majority of downtimes are very short. There were
through the Universities Research Association under 1166 downtime entries, of which 80% are less than six
contract DE-AC35-89ER40486.
430
minutes and while 4% are one hour or longer they account Linac to be observed at an appropriate position detector.
for 66% of the 212 hours of downtime. Downtime by Usually two detectors, ~90O apart in phase and at the
major system is shown in Fig. 2. The three major causes farthest downstream position of the Linac are used so all
of downtime during the run were; the failure and DT quad positions could be observed relative to the same
replacement of klystron 3, replacing the power amplifier detectors. This is analogous to observing beam motion
for low energy RF station 4 with an unconditioned spare due to quadrupole misalignment in a transport line.
and multiple failures of the SCR switches in klystron This procedure was used on the Linac in the late
charging supplies and PFN’s. 1980’s and predicted a large quadrupole misalignment in
tank 2 by showing a cusp in the data. The drift tube was
subsequently found to be off center by 1 mm. After
correction the cusp was gone and the downstream beam
oscillations reduced. It also indicated tank misalignments
by showing increased errors from one tank to the next.
Figure 3 shows a typical set of measurements for the old
Fermilab Linac before tanks 6 through 9 were removed
and replaced by the side-coupled cavities. The low errors in
tanks 7, 8 and 9 are a result of steering magnets at the
entrance and exit of tank 6 (~90% separated in phase) to
remove beam errors and have the beam leave the Linac on
axis of the 200-MeV beam line.
Figure 2. Linac downtime for fixed target run by major
system
Klystron 3 was the first failure of a klystron and
caused 7.8% of linac downtime. Being the first klystron
to fail in use from aging, it had ~35,000 hours of
operating time, the problem was at first unclear.
Diagnosing the klystron emission failure, assembling the
people and replacing the klystron assembly required a total
of 16.5 hours over two days.
The power amplifier for RF station 4 was the last in
an series of 7835 failures during a time when the test
stand was unavailable for conditioning spares due to
moving the test stand and an error by the manufacturer for Figure 3. Detected beam motion for a 10% decrease in
a new dummy load. Total downtime for this failure was each Linac DT quad pair.
7.4% of the linac downtime.
There have been repetitive problems with SCR Recently similar measurements were made for the
switches and other components in the charging supplies current Linac, figure 4, and consentrating on tank 5, figure
and PFN’s for the klystrons. This has caused 10.3% of 5. The mismatch in tank 5 is a result of beam leaving the
the linac downtime. Solutions have been implemented and tank off axis and at an angle for lowest losses in the high-
the failure rate has decreased dramatically. energy linac. The steering magnets at the beginning of the
high-energy linac were on hard to correct the angle.
3 STUDIES Moving the downstream end of tank 5 down 0.75 mm as
In an effort to confirm survey data which showed a indicated by the survey and beam, reduced the mismatch,
vertical misalignment between tank 5, the last tank of the allowed steering changes to reduce the errors in tank 5 (see
low-energy linac, and the beginning of the high-energy figure 6), decreased the steering at the beginning of the
linac, studies were done of the beam centering for each of high-energy linac, and reduced the losses significantly
the drift tube quadrupoles. This procedure was first used throughout the high-energy linac.
about ten years ago and now repeated where the current of
each drift tube quadrupole pair (in the Fermilab Linac the
DT quads are connected in FD pairs except for the two at
the beginning and end of each tank) is individually
changed by 10% up and/or down. The resulting beam
motion at a downstream position detector (BPM or wire
scanner) gives an indication of the beam centering at the
changed DT quadrupole. If the beam center coincides with
the magnetic center of the quadrupole, no motion of the
beam center at the detector is observed. However, if the
beam is off center relative to the quadrupole, when the
current is changed a kick is given to the beam. This kick Figure 4. Recent detected beam motion for a 10%
would then start an oscillation which continues down the decrease in each Linac DT quad pair.
431
REFERENCES
[1] M. Johnson, "Loss Monitors". AIP Conference
Proceedings 212 Accelerator Instrumentation, 1989, pg.
156.
Figure 5. Error measurements before tank 5 change.
Figure 6. Repeat of figure 5 after lowering the
downstream end of tank 5.
The condition of tank 5, indeed the complete Linac,
depends on the tuning of earlier components. Tank 5 does
not remain this good at all times, never-the-less the losses
in the high-energy linac have remained very low. Table 2
shows current loss averages. Some loss monitors were
moved to places where they are more sensitive to beam
loss.
Table 2. Losses after moving tank 5.
Time Whole Linac RF Cav. Only
After studies 2.17 1.20
4 IMPROVEMENTS
During the recent shutdown, three wire scanners
were installed in a drift space just beyond the 400-MeV
output on the Linac. These wires will give better
monitoring of the beam size, position and emittance
leaving the Linac.
432
MOSCOW MESON FACTORY LINAC - OPERATION AND
IMPROVEMENTS
L.V. Kravchuk, Y.V. Bylinsky, S.K. Esin, P.N. Ostroumov, V.L. Serov
Institute for Nuclear Research RAS, 117312, Moscow
1 INTRODUCTION cavities has been tuned in order to provide 100 Hz
repetition rate of rf amplifiers.
Moscow Meson Factory Linac (MMFL) [1] has Although the linac control system is based on old
provided in 1997-1998, 4400 beam hours for physics, computer equipment, it is adequate for the linac
isotope production and machine development. The lack operation. This system is mainly used for the support of
of adequate funding for machine operation (electricity RF and other technical equipment. Major profit from the
etc.) has put severe limitation on the beam production control system has been obtained by development of
time. Beam energy was limited by 305 MeV and in some software in order to support the RF system operation. In
production shifts even by 209 MeV. A significant part of many cases the restoration of the RF system immediately
the beam time has been devoted to isotope production after the malfunction has increased operational time.
for medical use at an energy of 160 MeV. The maximum This is an important issue for the system with large
average proton current during regular operation is 65 PA electrical power consumption which is the case of the
with a pulse duration of 85 Ps and repetition rate of 50 MMF linac. However the original control system has
Hz. In 1998 a proton beam has been delivered for the very restricted ability for the data processing and
first time to the Pulsed Neutron Source. A number of presentation. The existing beam monitors already
improvements have been implemented, with a strong produce large amount of information which is not fully
impact on the operation efficiency. One of the most available from the original control system. In addition,
important measures is the creation of a new control many beam diagnostic devices have been developed and
network (based on PCs) for the beam diagnostics data installed on the linac, including:
acquisition. The injection beam transport channel and x A new type of detector allowing the measurement
RF power supply system are presently undergoing of the transverse density distribution was installed
reconstruction. The aim of this reconstruction is to in the 750 keV transport line.
increase the beam pulse up to 140 Ps and repetition rate x A new Bunch Length and Velocity Detector
up to 100 Hz which will result to the growth of average (BLVD) is installed in the 160 MeV transition line.
beam current to 200 PA. x Several beam profile harps.
x Non-interceptive beam position monitors.
Therefore the new control system was developed
2 LINAC OPERATION based on PCs which are connected to the local area
network. The analogue and digital hardware is housed in
The total scheduled time of the linac operation includes CAMAC crates (up to 4 crates per sector). The system is
the beam delivery to users, the tuning of the linac and based on MOON-Lab (Multi-tasking Object-Oriented
unexpected down time. On average for the last two years Network Lab System) - a software run-time system and
the beam delivery time to users was ~60%. About 30% an application programming technology developed at
of the time was spent for tuning and accelerator INR [2].
experiments and developments, the rest was down time. The new control system serves different types of beam
Essential development has been done on the linac RF diagnostic monitors: beam current transformers, wire
system with the main aim of increasing the reliability scanners, profile harps, BLVD, beam loss monitors, a
and linac operation efficiency, as well as to prepare the monitor for the measurement of transverse beam density
RF system for operation at 100 Hz and a 140 Ps beam and neutron detectors. Fig. 1, 2 and 3, represent
pulse. Obtaining of 100 Hz repetition rate is simpler task examples of graphical information obtained by new
than providing of the beam pulse length more than 100 control system.
Ps, because of operation at 100 Hz is the design The beam delivery system to the isotope production
specification of all linac equipment. The design beam area includes 27q bending magnet and ~12 m long
pulse duration of the linac is 100 Ps. Therefore the transport channel [3]. The control of beam losses in the
modulators and preamplifiers have been revised. The vicinity of the bending magnet is a problem of great
automatic temperature control system of the accelerating importance due to high level of the average beam
Work supported partly by the RFFI, grant 97-02-17475.
433
current. Discrepancy between the beam energy and the the isotope production target moves too close to the edge
magnet current as well as the violation of the correcting of the target. Fig. 4 shows 2 signals from current
element parameters can lead to instantaneous melting of transformers. The difference between the signals is well
the vacuum pipe during an extremely short time. To inside the tolerance. For initial accelerator tuning at the
prevent such accidents, a number of protections measures repetition rate of 1 Hz the protection is not used. At a
have been undertaken. repetition rate of 2 Hz and higher, the loss threshold may
be reduced from 10% to 1%. As a result of careful
tuning the total beam loss in the course of an isotope
production shift does not exceed 0.5% and is usually
kept near 0.1%.
Figure 1: Scintillating beam loss counters (#1-40) along
the 3rd sector of the MMFL. (Tanks #6-14)
Figure 4: Two overlapped beam pulses: upstream of the
bending magnet (almost invisible) and downstream of
the bending magnet.
The MMFL contains two transition regions at 100
MeV and 160 MeV. It is important to verify the
Figure 2: Beam current and particle losses along the longitudinal bunch length in these regions. The bunch
macropulse. 3rd sector. Beam loss monitor # 21 length measurement (BSM) system is well established at
INR, and the most recently modified device, the Bunch
Length and Velocity Detector (BLVD) has been installed
in the 160 MeV area. The high resolution of the
detectors, which is 14 ps, allows monitoring of the
quality of the Linac beam during operation. The devices
use a 100 Pm wire which allows the measurements to be
performed at up to 50 Hz repetition rate. After many
years experience with the BSM and BLVD systems, we
are able to detect the source of any deviation of the
longitudinal profiles form the nominal state. Fig. 5
shows the bunch shape evolution along the macropulse
Figure 3: Capture coefficient control. Comparison of at the energy of 160 MeV.
current transformer signals: at the input of the Tanks # 1
and at the output of the Tanks # 8. 3 INJECTION CHANNEL UPGRADE
The bending magnet in the 750 keV injection line is
The essential reconstruction of the injection channel
switched off and the 750 keV beam is deflected by a
is under way. Fig. 6 a) shows the existing layout of the
chopper, as well as the injector trigger being shifted with
channel (equipment of 1st and 2nd parts of channel is
respect to the RF pulse if one of the following cases
not shown for simplicity). The channel is designed to
occurs: 1) Difference of the pulse charge in a given cycle
inject 750 keV H and H beam simultaneously into the
registered with current transformers upstream and
Alvarez tank. However, the electrical strength of the 750
downstream of the bending magnet is in excess of the
kV pulsed transformer is not sufficient for operation at
tolerance limit; 2) Beam loss monitor signal is in excess
100 Hz repetition rate, hence the linac operates at 50 Hz
of the tolerance; 3) Phase and amplitude parameters of
any RF system is out of tolerance; 4) Beam profile on
434
with half the average beam current of the maximum
possible.
2.5
1.5
I/Io
1
0.5
100
80
0 60 Time, P s
20 40 40
60 80 101
121 141 20
Phase. deg of 991 MHz 0
Figure 5: Bunch shape evolution along the macropulse at
160 MeV. Figure 7: RFQ booster section.
A decision was taken to insert the RFQ booster High power modulators in the RF power supply
section into the 3rd part of the injection channel (Fig. 6 permit to introduce moderate modification which will
b)). The RFQ has been designed to accelerate hydrogen guarantee operation with longer rf pulses in order to
ions from 400 keV to 750 keV. The high voltage accelerate 140 Ps beam pulse.
equipment of the injector works with good reliability up Thus we hope increase the average beam current by up
to the level of 400 kV. Moreover, the pulse length can be to a factor three over that presently attained.
increased up to 140 Ps without pulsed transformer
saturation. It will allow the average beam current to
4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
beam increased up to 200 PA. The limited space does
not permit to the realisation of adiabatic capture in the In conclusion authors express their deep gratitude to
RFQ. To provide the longitudinal capture efficiency up the whole staff of the MMFL, who made the machine
to 80% at the peak current of 70 mA, the 400 keV operational in recent times, which are not easy for
prebuncher is placed upstream of the RFQ. A 750 keV scientific activity.
buncher and four quadrupoles provide 3D beam
matching between the RFQ and DTL tank. Fig. 7 shows 5 REFERENCES
the RFQ booster section which is now under high power
test. [1] S. K. Esin, L. V. Kravchuk et. al. Commissioning /
Operation of the Moscow Meson Factory Linac.
Proc. of the 1994 Linac Conf. August 21-26,
Tsukuba, Japan, pp.31-35.
[2] S. A. Kryukov. New Programming Technologies for
Beam Diagnostics. Proc. of the Epac-96. Sitges,
Vol3, pp. 1781-1783 (1996).
[3] S. K. Esin et al. Isotope Production for Medical and
Technical Use at Moscow Meson Factory Linac.
Proc. of 1996 Linac Conf. Geneva, 1996, v.1, p. 213.
[4] A. V. Feschenko and P.N. Ostroumov. Bunch Shape
Measuring Technique and Its Application for an Ion
Linac Tuning. Proc. of 1986 Linac Conf. Stanford,
June 2-6, pp. 323-327.
Figure 6: Injection channel layout.
435
STATUS OF A NEW SWITCHYARD DESIGN FOR LANSCE*
R. W. Garnett, C. Rose, F. Shelley, and J. D. Zumbro**,
LANSCE Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM 87545, USA
Abstract are available, time-of-flight experiments for neutron
energies ranging from a few MeV to 800 MeV are
Funding was recently received to study modifications possible.
of a section of the LANSCE beam switchyard. At present, The PSR functions as a high-current accumulator or
the switchyard is used to deliver a proton beam to pulse compressor to provide intense pulses of 800-MeV
-
experimental Area A and an H -ion beam down Line D. protons to the Manual Lujan Jr. Neutron Scattering Center
-
The total H repetition rate is 120 Hz. 100 Hz is (Lujan) spallation neutron-production target. This target
transported to the Weapons Neutron Research (WNR) was upgraded for higher-average-current operation this
area. The remaining 20 Hz is injected into the Proton year. The PSR operates at a repetition rate of 20 Hz. An
-
Storage Ring (PSR). In order to provide H beam to other entire linac macro-pulse is accumulated each turn around
experimental areas without interfering with the PSR the ring with up to 2800 turns accumulated prior to single-
operations, a new design of the switchyard is in progress. turn extraction.
We are presently investigating a solution that would use We recently received internal funding to study
pulsed kicker magnets to deflect a fraction of the WNR H
- technical options that would greatly enhance our existing
beam down a separate existing beam-line at the demand of capabilities. We are presently performing simulation and
the experimenters. conceptual design studies to determine the most cost-
effective reconfiguration of a section of the beam
switchyard. A diagram of the unmodified switchyard is
1 INTRODUCTION
shown in Fig. 1. The desired solution should allow
The Los Alamos Neutron Scattering Center simultaneous, uninterrupted beam delivery to Line D
(LANSCE) accelerator complex consists of an 800-MeV -
(PSR injection) and delivery of a “tailored” H beam-pulse
linear accelerator, a proton storage ring (PSR), and a to either Line B or Line C on the demand of the
number of experimental areas. Two beams are presently experimenters. The beam-pulse delivered on-demand will
accelerated simultaneously on alternating cycles of the rf. be diverted from the 100 Hz beam normally delivered to
The linear accelerator consists of two 0.75-MeV Cockroft- WNR.
Walton injectors, one supplying protons and the other Simultaneous beam delivery to Line B/C and Line D
-
supplying H ions. A separate low-energy beam transport is not possible at present. A few hours are required to
line exists for each beam species. A 0.75-MeV to 100- -
accomplish the required changes to allow the H beam to
MeV drift-tube linac operating at 201.25 MHz, a 100- be directed from Line D to Line B/C. Delivery of beam to
MeV transition region, and a 100 to 800-MeV side- all users of this beam is interrupted during this transition
coupled linac operating at 805 MHz is used to accelerate period.
the two beams. Typically, peak beam currents as high as Immediate beneficiaries of this study will include the
18 mA are transmitted for variable duty factors to give a proton radiography program, neutron resonance
+
maximum average beam current of 1 mA for the H beam spectroscopy studies, Lujan neutron scattering users, and
and up to 100 µA for H .
-
WNR users at LANSCE. Other programs that may also
A beam switchyard is used to direct beams from the benefit may include an ultra cold neutron facility and the
linac to various experimental areas and for injection into future Dynamic Experimentation Laboratory.
the PSR. The 800-MeV proton beam is presently sent to Implementation of a proposed solution will be contingent
an experimental area (Area A) via a separate beam-line upon receiving additional project funding.
where it presently interacts with a series of different
targets for the Accelerator Production of Tritium program 2 TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS
and for isotope production. Up to 3 µA of the 800-MeV H
-
Beam delivery for the present Line B/C users requires
beam is sent to the Weapons Neutron Research Facility
delivery of 800-MeV protons with ∼2-3x10 protons per 5
8
(WNR) where it strikes a target producing an intense
white-neutron source. Since variable proton pulse widths ns (201.25 MHz) micro-pulse. The present ion-source and
linac are capable of delivering this beam to the
switchyard. The number and sequence of micro-pulses
*Work supported by the U. S. Department of Energy
delivered, per macro-pulse, is determined by the
Contract W-7405-ENG-36.
accelerator master-timer and controls software.
**Physics Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory.
Modifications to this software will be required to fully
436
implement any proposed solution and satisfy vacuum beam box design would also be required to match
programmatic requirements. the new configuration to the existing beam-lines. Figure 3
shows a conceptual layout for this solution. The figure is
not drawn to scale and only illustrates the relative
positioning of the beam-line components.
Figure 1 – LANSCE Beam Switchyard
Any proposed kicker solution must be capable of Figure 2 – Schematic of the Line B/C and Line D split in
continuously delivering full-beam macro-pulses, for the LANSCE beam switchyard.
tuning, at a repetition rate of 1-20 Hz to Line B/C. The
magnet response time requirement is 8 ms. This is the
time between beam macro-pulses (120 Hz). Additionally,
the capability to deliver a single macro-pulse on demand
must be possible. Preserving the capability to operate in
all the other existing facility modes is also a requirement.
In particular, operation should not interfere with the 20 Hz
-
H beam delivery for injection into the PSR. A desired
feature, although not absolutely necessary, is that the
solution be achromatic.
3 A TWO-KICKER SOLUTION
-
A schematic diagram of the unmodified H beam-line
where the split between Line B/C and Line D occurs is
shown in Fig. 2. The diagram is not to scale, but shows
the general features of this area of the beam switchyard
that we are proposing to modify.
3.1 TRANSPORT Results
We have modeled a two-kicker solution using
TRANSPORT [1]. This solution requires the removal of
the disabled kickers, the dipole bender, and the beam
vacuum box just before the beam-line split (See Fig.2).
These components would be replaced with two d.c. dipole
magnets and two pulsed dipole kicker magnets. A new Figure 3 – Schematic of the proposed two-kicker solution
437
The two smaller d.c. dipole magnets will provide the implementation scheme able to accommodate the final
same total bend angle of the single larger dipole magnet versions of the kicker power supplies. Our estimation is
for the normal operation mode where beam is delivered based on our past implementation of the RIKI magnet
down Line D. When the two kickers are fired, the beam is power-supply controls into the LANSCE control system.
deflected in each kicker an amount equal to the bend of The RIKI power supply has control functions that use 9
the first d.c. dipole, thus canceling out its effect. Beam is binary input channels to indicate status and 5 binary
then delivered down Line B/C when the kickers are on. command channels to provide on/off controls and reset
The solution shown is also achromatic. This should functions. Two analog read-back channels are required to
help to preserve the relatively small linac energy spread. indicate voltage and current. One analog command
Table 1 gives the bend angle, field, and effective length channel is used to set the output current level. The
requirements for the new magnets based on the simulation modular design of the control system hardware provides
results. the adaptability and flexibility required to implement the
actual power supply controls.
Table 1 – New magnet parameters for the two-kicker One possible controls-hardware configuration is as
solution. follows. A VME crate using a Motorola processor module
Magnet Effective Field Bend connected to the control system’s Ethernet network can
Length (KG) Angle (deg) provide the foundation for the system and create an
(m) Experimental Physics and Industrial Control System
Pulsed Kicker 1.016 1.26 1.5 (EPICS) input/output controller [3]. The use of the EPICS
DC Dipole 0.724 3.53 3.0 system allows existing operator interfaces to be used with
Pulsed Kicker 1.016 1.26 1.5 a minimum of modifications, thereby reducing the cost of
Dipole 0.656 3.53 2.7192 the system. The addition of VME Industry Pack carriers
and Industry Packs, to provide the necessary signal
3.2 Kicker Magnet and Pulsed-Power System conditioning, will complete the system. Industry Packs
are small cards that perform specific I/O functions and are
The magnet requirements, as determined by the mounted on carrier boards for the bus system they are
simulations, for this solution will allow use of a pulsed housed in. The interface between the Industry Pack and
magnet and power-supply similar in design to that of the the carrier board is defined in the standard, ANSI/VITA 4-
pulsed ring injection kicker magnet (RIKI) for the PSR at 1995. Selection of Industry Packs similar to those already
LANSCE [2]. used in the control system can reduce the cost of software
The RIKI magnet is typically operated at 20 Hz. It development. Local control for the power supply must be
can, however, also be operated in d.c. mode. This magnet provided on each unit. This implementation has the
is a laminated H-magnet with 20-turns/coil using hollow advantage of providing isolation of the power supply
water-cooled conductor. control from the rest of the control system along with a
The pulsed-power system will provide a controlled modular design to increase maintainability and reduce
current pulse to each kicker magnet. The RIKI pulsed- system downtime.
power system is capable of producing a current pulse with
an amplitude that can be set in a range from 180 to 220 A
with a flat-top width of up to 1.4 ms. Repetition rates
4 SUMMARY
ranging from 1 to 40 Hz have been tested with pulse A solution for modification of the LANSCE
regulation better than ± 0.5 %. switchyard has been described. In future studies, other
This system operates by resonantly discharging a solutions will be sought and compared to the two-kicker
capacitor of known voltage into a kicker magnet of known solution presented here.
inductance through the following cycle. Initially, the
current in the magnet builds resonantly. After the current REFERENCES
has peaked, the circuit goes into “Freewheel” mode [1] K. L. Brown and S. Howry, “TRANSPORT,
producing a settable flat-top of up to 1.4 ms width. computer Program for Designing Charged Particle Beam
Finally, the circuit goes into recovery mode where most of Transport Systems,” SLAC Report No. 91, July 1970.
the stored energy in the magnet is recovered by returning [2] C. R. Rose and D. H. Shadel, “Proton Storage-Ring
it to the pulse capacitors. Implementing the firing of both Injection-Kicker Pulsed-Power System,” Accelerator
kickers simultaneously and the potential problems that Operations and Technology Technical Note AOT-1: 95-
may be caused by timing errors have not yet been 162, Los Alamos National Laboratory, June 26, 1995.
investigated. [3] Dalesio, L. R., Kraimer, M.R., Kozubal, A. J., "EPICS
Architecture," in Proceedings of International Conference
3.3 Hardware Controls Requirements on Accelerator and Large Experimental Physics Control
Systems, C. O. Pac, S. Kurokowa and T. Katoh, Eds.
We have estimated the approximate number and types
(ICALEPCS, KEK, Tsukuba, Japan, 1991), pp. 278-282.
of data channels that will be required for a flexible
438
UNDERSTANDING ACCELERATOR RELIABILITY
Christopher M. Piaszczyk
Advanced Science & Technology Center
Northrop Grumman Corporation
Bethpage, NY
Abstract the component in each socket is described as a
superposition of two alternating Poisson processes: one
The event data collected during operation of the LANSCE consisting of times between failures and the other
accelerator facility are being analyzed as part of an effort consisting of down times. Each one is generally a
to understand accelerator reliability in support of current nonhomogenous Poisson process (NHPP), with the
design activities for future large scale accelerator systems. number of failure events per unit time, typically called the
In this paper, the sequence of failures and repairs of the rate of occurrence of failures (ROCOF), and the rate of
system is represented as a composition of alternating “occurrence” of repairs (ROCOR), functions of time. The
stochastic failures and repairs processes and the process two processes are usually uncorrelated.
parameters are estimated. The derived estimates can also
be used for practical maintenance planning. Thus, the analysis of data collected for a repairable system
seeks to determine the type of the stochastic process
1 PREAMBLE represented by the data, rather than estimates of
component population statistics. Of particular interest is
Previous work [1] has identified the current state of the art the existence of any trends. If ROCOF is increasing, it is
as lacking in the area of reliability database information an indication of the system’s deterioration and a potential
for components typically used in rf accelerator systems, basis for a significant action, such as a major
such as rf stations, rf drives, rf transport, cooling, vacuum improvement program (or abandonment: for example, by
systems, magnets, and magnet power supplies. This led sending an old car to the junk yard). Decreasing ROCOF,
to intensive data collection efforts [2]. The data has on the other hand, is an indication of reliability growth.
already been used to derive initial estimates of failure and
repair rates for typical individual accelerator components LANSCE C71
[3]. 48:00
43:12
38:24
Time Between Failures [h:min]
The present paper examines the data set of failure events 33:36
for Cycle #71 for the complete LANSCE 800 MeV 28:48
DTL/SCL accelerator facility. Instead of deriving failure 24:00
19:12
and repair rates for individual components, we estimate 14:24
here the parameters of the failures and repairs processes for 9:36
the complete system [4]. 4:48
0:00
0:00 120:00 240:00 360:00 480:00 600:00 720:00 840:00 960:00
Cumulative TBF [h:min]
2 ESTIMATING THE
FAILURES/REPAIRS PROCESS
Figure 1. Times Between Failures
An accelerator is an example of a repairable system [5].
Reliability of a non-repairable system is determined by Application of this analysis procedure is illustrated here
reliabilities of its individual components and the typical with the LANSCE Cycle 71 data. This data set was
problem of interest for this kind of system is that of the selected because it provides an example where the failures
first failure. For a repairable system, the analysis must process is truly nonstationary. Over long periods of time
also include the interactions between the system and the stretching over many cycles, the observed tendencies are
repair policies, maintenance procedures, spare parts more balanced.
policies, etc.
Raw data comes in the form of a sequence of times of
2.1 The Failures Process occurrence of the failure events. One can extract from this
data the sequence of times between failures shown in
We tend to think of a complex, repairable system such as Figure 1.
an accelerator facility as a set of sockets, each carrying its
corresponding part. The cycle of operation and repair of
439
LANSCE C71 LANSCE C71
200 0.35
180
System Reliability Over the Next 8 hrs
0.30
160
Cumulative No. of Failures
0.25
140
120
0.20
100
0.15
80
60 0.10
40
0.05
20
0 0.00
0:00 120:00 240:00 360:00 480:00 600:00 720:00 840:00 960:00 0:00 120:00 240:00 360:00 480:00 600:00 720:00 840:00 960:00
Cumulative TBF [h:min] Cumulative TBF [h:min]
Figure 2. Cumulative Number of Failures Figure 4. Expected Reliability over the Next 8 Hours
Figure 2 shows the cumulative number of failures as a Once an estimate of ROCOF is obtained, we can use it to
function of cumulative operating time (sum of the times predict the system behavior, such as the expected number
between failures). Comparison with the straight line fit of failures in the next 8 hours or the expected system
indicates that the rate of occurrence of failures drops with reliability in the next 8 hours for any desired instant of
time (after about 480 hours of operation). time shown in Figure 4 (since ROCOF is a function of
time, both are functions of time as well).
LANSCE C71
1.0 Assuming a power relationship for MTBF(t) one can
0.9
estimate the constants from the sample (resulting fit is
0.8
shown in Figure 5):
Estimated ROCOF [1/h]
0.7
0.6
0.5 0.2457
0.4 MTBF(t) = 0.1056 t
0.3
0.2
LANSCE C71
0.1
6:43
0.0
0:00 120:00 240:00 360:00 480:00 600:00 720:00 840:00 960:00 6:14
Cumulative Time Between Failures [h:min]
5:45
Cumulative MTBF [h:min]
5:16
4:48
Figure 3. Estimated ROCOF
4:19
3:50
The Rate of Occurrence of Failures (ROCOF) is the limit 3:21
of a series of discrete functions obtained by dividing the 2:52
number of failures counted over a fixed delta interval when 2:24
0:00 120:00 240:00 360:00 480:00 600:00 720:00 840:00 960:00
the length of the interval tends to zero. Cumulative TBF [h:min]
Searching for ROCOF as a limit of the sequence of such Figure 5. Estimating MTBF (t)
discrete approximations is not practical. Direct statistical
estimate of the parameters of the ROCOF assumed in the
power form: 2.2 The Repairs Process
β
λ(t) = αβt Figure 6 shows the cumulative number of repairs as a
function of the cumulative down time (sum of the down
results in α = 0.5036, and β = 0.8339, which is shown in times).
Figure 3.
440
LANSCE C71 LANSCE C71
200 24:00
180 21:36
160 19:12
Cumulative No. of Failures
140
Cumulative MDT [h:min]
16:48
120
14:24
100
12:00
80
9:36
60
7:12
40
4:48
20
2:24
0
0:00 24:00 48:00 72:00 96:00 120:00 144:00 168:00 0:00
Cumulative Down Time [h:min] 0:00 24:00 48:00 72:00 96:00 120:00 144:00 168:00
Cumulative Down Time [h:min]
Figure 6. Cumulative Down Times Figure 8. Estimated MDT(t)
The down times are random just like the times between
failures. However, in LANSCE Cycle 71, the down times 3 CONCLUSIONS
history is dominated by a long 59 hour down time in the
beginning of the cycle caused by the Magnet Power The capability to predict the behavior of a repairable
controller. system is important for many reasons. Maintenance
scheduling, advance spare parts procurement, and early
The ROCOR can still be assumed in the form of a power detection of trends are essential in management and
law. This time, this function is growing, indicating that operation of the facility and planning for reliability
the durations of the individual down times have a improvement. The type of analysis presented in this paper
diminishing trend: may be used to gain such a capability from records of
operational data.
1.3063
µ(t) = 0.24114 t
REFERENCES
LANSCE C71
1.2
[1] C. M. Piaszczyk, “Reliability Analysis of the
1 IFMIF”, AccApp ‘98, 2nd Topical Meeting on Nuclear
Applications of Accelerator Technology, September 20-
Estimated ROCOR [1/h]
0.8
23, 1998, Gatlinburg, TN
0.6
0.4 [2] C. M. Piaszczyk, “Reliability Survey of Accelerator
0.2
Facilities”, Maintenance and Reliability Conference, May
12-14, 1998, Knoxville, TN
0
0:00 24:00 48:00 72:00 96:00 120:00 144:00 168:00
Cumulative Downtime [h:min]
[3] M. Eriksson and C.M. Piaszczyk, “Reliability
Assessment of the LANSCE Accelerator System”,
Figure 7. Estimated ROCOR - Rate of Occurrence of AccApp ‘98, 2nd Topical Meeting on Nuclear
Repairs Applications of Accelerator Technology, September 20-
23, 1998, Gatlinburg, TN
A diminishing system MDT(t) can be fitted to the last
part of the data (past 96 hours): [4] P. Tobias and D.C. Trindade, “Applied Reliability”,
Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1995
- 2.5186
MDT(t) = 5.7302 t
[5] H. Asher and H. Feingold, “Repairable Systems
Reliability”, Marcel Dekker, Inc. 1984
441
STATUS OF 200 MeV ELECTRON LINAC AND ITS APPLICATION
Y.J.Pei, Y.F.Wang, S.Dong, X.F.Luo, G.R.Huang
G.C.Wang, W.Wang, Y.X.Li
National Synchrotron Radiation Laboratory
University of Science & Technology of China
Hefei, Anhui 230029
Abstract 2 IMPROVEMENTS
200 MeV Electron LINAC is an injector of HLS. The
LINAC has been running well for ten years since 1987. A 2.1 Energy Stabilities
typical operation parameters are energy of 200 MeV, The 200 MeV LINAC has been run for 50,000 hours
Current of 50 mA and energy spread of 0.8%. Some since 1987. The LINAC is running for both injecting the
improvements are described in this paper, such as electron beam into HLS storage ring and providing the
developing an energy stabilized system, developing a two beam for producing some short lifetime isotopes,
mode combined pulser for the electron gun to meet single- irradiation biology effects etc. The typical operation
bunch and multi-bunch mode running in the storage ring. parameters are summarized in table 1.
Some applications are briefly described here also.
Table 1. Operation Parameters of LINAC
Keywords LINAC Synchrotron Radiation Gun
Single bunch Isotope production Energy(MeV) 200.5
Current (mA) 70
1 INTRODUCTION Frequency (MHz) 2856.04
cavities’ temperature ( $ C ) 42
200 MeV Electron LINAC is an injector of HLS(Hefei output power of Klystron (MW)
Synchrotron Radiation Light Source) [1], which layout is 1# Klystron 9.7
shown in Fig.1. The LINAC has been running well for ten 2# Klystron 16.2
years since 1987. A typical operation parameters energy 3# Klystron 15.7
of 200 MeV, Current of 50 mA and energy spread of 4# Klystron 16.8
0.8%. Since 1991 some improvements were done, such as 5# Klystron 9.3
developing an energy stabilized system, adding a post- beam pulse length( µs ) 0.2~1.0
transport line in order to guide the beam into a nuclear Energy spread (FWHM) 0.8%
physics experimental hall, developing a two mode
combined pulser for the electron gun to meet single-bunch
Vacuum (mbar) ( without beam ) < 1 × 10 −8
and multi-bunch mode running in the storage ring. The (with beam ) < 1 × 10 −7
LINAC is also an electron beam source for some
application users, such as detector crystal calibration, In the beginning of the LINAC, its energy was not so
isotopes products using photonuclear reaction, and so on. stable that sometime it was difficult to inject the beam
into the storage ring. After machine study, we adopted
some measures. The energy stability has been improved.
The main improvement was established an automatic
energy stabilization system(AESS). Fig.2 showed a layout
Figure 1. Plan of HLS
Figure 2. Layout of the automatic energy stabilizer
442
of the AESS. The energy stabilizing system was Both grid pulser for long and short beam are
successful in stabilizing the energy. Typical running assembled together in a circuit board, and employed a
results are as following. When the AESS was not on, the power splitter/combiners to transmit their signal
central energy change rate ∆E 0 E 0 was more than 0.8%. respectively and isolate them each other. The trigger
When the AESS was on, the ∆E 0 E 0 was reduced down signals for the long and short beam are from a center
control room and LINAC control room respectively.
0.4%. Now the LINAC has been running stably [2]. Both long pulse and short pulse have been got and
measured by means of Toroid monitors and wall current
2.2 Combination pulser monitors which are installed in the LINAC and the
The electron gun has been running for providing a transport line. The beam waveform are shown in Fig.
pulse of µs beam for injection since 1989, so that there are 5(a),(b).
multi-bunch running in the storage ring. Some users hope
the ring running on a single bunch mode. This means that
(a)
the beam pulse length from the LINAC must short than
4ns and the jitter time of the timing system is less than 0.5
ns. In order to meet the requirement, we need to improve
the timing system, trigger system, beam diagnostic system
and develop a ns pulser, and so on.
In order to produce a short pulse beam with width less
than 3 ns, a grid pulser was developed and tested. The
electronic circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 3. A key
element of the circuit is employed a high frequency
transistor 3DA87C with avalanche characteristics. The
pulser can produce a short pulse of 2.5 ns (FWHM) and
its amplitude is 120 volts. The waveform of the pulse is
shown in Fig.4. (b)
E
R C(1.6M)
200pF
R L(18)
R B (50)
CAB
Figure 3. Circuit diagram of the ns pulser Figure 5. Waveform of output voltage of the combination
pulser (a) ns waveform, (b) µs waveform
A single bunch mode running in the HLS storage ring
has been successful using the combination pulser and a
new timing system with jitter time less 100 ps (3σ) [3]. A
waveform of the single bunch in the storage ring is shown
in Fig. 6.
Figure 4. Waveform of the ns pulse
To transmit a trigger signal from the ground potential
to a high potential, an optical fiber is most suited. The
trigger signal transmission system consists of an electric-
optical signal conversion circuit (E/O), and an optical- to -
electric signal conversion (O/E). Time jitter including
timing system, trigger system and pulser is less than 0.5 Figure 6. Waveform of a single bunch in the ring
ns which is better enough for us.
443
3 APPLICATIONS 19
F(γ , n )→18 F
In the beginning the 200 MeV LINAC was designed
16
O(γ , n )→15 O
for two purposes, one was as an injector of the HLS 12
C(γ , n )→11 C
storage ring, another was to provide an electron beam of
β+
200 MeV or less so that the machine can meet X e (γ , n )→123 X e →123 I
124
requirements from different scientific fields. Meanwhile Fig.7 showed a typical Gamma spectrum of the
the budget was shortage, a transport line for guiding the products of photonuclear reaction of natural Xenon which
electron beam into a nuclear experimental hall and was irradiated by bremsstrahlung beam of 200 MeV, half
necessary experimental equipment were not constructed hour generated via Tungsten convertor of 6 mm thick.
yet. last year a post-transport line for guiding the beam
into the hall was added and an electron beam line was also
established. The beam line will be used for studying the
properties of single piece of Pb WO 4 , such as light yield,
decay time of the light and uniformity of the light output
etc..
In order to utilize the electron beam from the LINAC
fully, we established an equipment for photonuclear
reaction at the end of the LINAC. As everyone knows,
radioactive isotopes with short lifetime have been widely
applied in medicine as tags or traces to study complex
bodily processes and to diagnose some illness.
Sequentially some new technologies , such as PET
(positron emission tomography), SPECT (single photon
emission computed tomograpgy), have developed. All of Figure 7. Gamma spectrum of products of photonuclear
these have promoted a requirement of short-lived reaction of Xenon
isotopes.
How do we get the radioactive short- lived isotopes?
Neutron-capture reactions have long been used to induce REFERENCE
them. By contrast, photon-induced nuclear reaction have
been relatively neglected. But photonuclear reaction have [1] Y.J. Pei, D.F. Wang, D.H. He, Proc. of the 3rd
great potential because they can results in medically
International Conference on Synchrotron Radiation
important biological elements, such as carbon, nitrogen,
Instrumentation, Review of Scientific Instruments,
oxygen and fluorine etc.
Vol. 60, No. 7, 1701 (1989)
Since 1994, some researches on producing short-lived
isotopes have been done in our LINAC. Some short [ ] Y.J. Pei, M. Bai, G.R. Huang, Proc. of the 1994
2
lifetime isotopes, such as 18 F , 15 C , 11 C , 123 I , were got International Linac Conference, p.196 (1994)
using the following photonuclear reaction , [ ] Y.J. Pei, G.C. Wang, P.J. Zhang, et al., Proc. of 2nd
3
National Symposium on Particle Accelerator
Technology, p.107 (1998)
444
STATUS OF PLS 2-GEV ELECTRON LINAC PERFORMANCE
M.H. Cho, K.R. Kim, J.S. Oh, S.H. Park, S.S. Park, I.S. Ko, and W. Namkung
Pohang Accelerator Laboratory, POSTECH
Pohang, 790-784 Republic of Korea
Abstract clipping with thyrite disks, pulse transformer with 1:17
step-up turn ratio, and high power thyratron tube
The 2 GeV electron linac at the Pohang accelerator switching. The major operational parameters of the
laboratory (PAL) has been operated continuously as a full K&M system (PLS-200MW modulator) are listed in
energy injector for the Pohang Light Source (PLS) since Table-1. The shot-to-shot beam voltage stability is
its completion on Dec. 7, 1994. There has been controlled by the (1) the feedback of the DC high voltage
continuous effort to make the linac system more stable to SCR primary input voltage control and (2) the resistive
and reliable, such as the modifications of the klystron De-Q'ing. SCR DC feedback provides less than 0.5%
modulators, temperature stabilization of the main rf drive fluctuation and additional De-Q'ing stabilizes the beam
line, installation of one more klystron-modulator station voltage better than 0.1% level. The details of the system
with the addition of two sets of acceleration sections. design and performance characteristics are described
The average high voltage operation time of the klystrons elsewhere [2].
(E-3712, Toshiba) installed at the very beginning, 8 tubes Table 1: K&M operation parameter summary.
are survived out of total 11 tubes, has been reached near Peak beam power 200MWmax. (400kV @500A)
32,000 hours as of May 1998. Current overall system Beam vol. pulse width ESW 7.5Ps, 4.4Ps flat-top
availability is well over 90%. In this paper, we report Pulse rep. rate 120pps max. (currently 30pps)
the major linac system upgrade for the nominal 2.5 GeV PFN impedance 2.64: (5% positive mismatch)
operation as well as the system performance and relevant Voltage stabilization SCR, DC feedback &
machine statistics such as lifetime of klystrons and 5% De-Q'ing
thyratrons, and overall system’s availability, and others. Pulse transformer 1:17(turn ratio),
LL:1.3PH, CD:69nF
1 INTRODUCTION Thyratron switch
9
heating factor: 46.8x10 VApps,
PLS linac[1] has been injecting 2-GeV electron beams 8.5kA peak anode current
to PLS (Pohang Light Source) storage ring since Klystron tube drive power:~300W,
September 1994. The linac klystron modulator system efficiency.:40%, gain:~53dB,
peak power:80/65 MW
(K&M system[2]) has started its normal operation at the
(currently running at 50 to
end of 1993, and the total accumulated high voltage run 65MW)
time of the oldest unit has reached beyond 37,000 hours.
At the end of 1997 we have installed one more additional For the fault free stable operation of the system the
K&M module (total 12 modules with 44 accelerating thyratron tube is one of the most important active
structures), for the higher beam energy margin. The components which require continuous maintenance and
K&M system is normally operating in 70 to 80% of the adjustment. The thyratron tubes which meet the PLS-
rated peak power level to avoid the multipactoring 200MW K&M system specifications are listed in Table-2
phenomena occurring occasionally in random fashion in together with their specifications, i.e. ITT/F-303,
the waveguide networks and accelerating structures. The EEV/CX-1836A, and Litton/L-4888. We have all 3 types
sum of all the high voltage run time of the K&M system of tubes installed in our system, and the performance
is approximately 360,000 hours as of June 1998. evaluations are underway. This effort is initiated to
In this paper we have reviewed overall system improve the system from the frequent occurring fault
performance statistics of the high power K&M system of caused by the irregular recovery action of the thyratrons,
the PLS linac for the period of September 1994 to June which strongly depends upon the reservoir control.
1998. During this 4.5-year period the machine has been There are three types of system's interlocks, namely
in operational mode for total 27,072 hours (counted only dynamic, static, and personal protection interlocks. All
the scheduled run time). the static fault activation is initiated by the relay logic
circuit, and dynamic faults which require fast action
2 K&M SYSTEM OVERVIEW response are activated using the electronic comparator
circuit. When the system operation is interrupted by the
Key features of the K&M system design include 3- static fault it can be recovered either by the automatic
phase SCR controlled DCHV power supply, resonant remote control computer or by the manual reset switch.
charging of the PFN, resistive De-Q'ing, end-of-line
445
MTTR (mean time to repair) is equal to the total down
Table 2: Comparison of the thyratron tubes
time divided by total fault counts, MTTR = TD/FC.
ITT Litton EEV CX- During the early phase of the operation, from the late
F-303 ITEM L-4888 1836A 1993 to early 1995, relatively low machine availability (A
Heater (Vac/A) max 6.6 / 80 6.7 / 90 6.6 / 90 = 1-MTTR*FC/TO) has been obtained. This is due to the
Reservoir (Vac/A) max 6.0 / 20 5.5 / 40 6.6 / 7 maintenance crew training as well as system debugging
Peak anode (kV/kA) for 50 / 15 50 / 10 50 / 10 exercise. Most of time for the repair was spent for the
Peak anode vol.(kV) inv 50 n/c 50 extensive system diagnostics. The major changes that we
implemented at the beginning of 1996 were the computer
Avg. anode cur.(A) max 8 8 10
controlled automatic static fault reset and the
Min DC anode vol.(kV) 2 10 5 modification of the circuit breaker (CB) trip interlock.
9
Heating factor (x10 ) max 300 400 n/c They greatly contributed to the improved availability
dI/dt (kA/Ps) max 50 16 10 reaching over 90% as shown in the Table-5. Fig-2 shows
Anode delay (Ps) max 0.3 0.4 0.35 the MTTF (mean time to failure) and the MTTR statistics
Trigger jitter (ns) max 2 10 10 of key component replacement works for the K&M
system. For instance, the klystron replacement takes
40
about 16 hours, and the thyratron tube replacement takes
35 around 8 hours. Time estimation counted from the time of
Run Time (x1,000 Hour)
30 the fault to the time of complete recovery of the system.
25
100000 18
20
16
15
MTTF 14
MTTR (hour)
10 MTTF (hour) 10000 MTTR 12
5 10
0 8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1000 6
Modulator Unit Number Klystron 4
Thyratron 2
Klystron : M01 : SLAC5045 tube,
100 0
M02 : 2nd tube (1995/8/15, magnet coil shorting),
ion pump controller
charging inductor
thyratron tube
klystron tube
magnet power supply
over current relay
triaxial cable
fan
EOLC comp.
M06 : 2nd tube (1997/2/25, gun arcing),
M08 : 2nd tube (1997/3/28, heater open),
M12 : new module (1997/10/14, system upgrade)
Thyratron : ITT F-303 : 7 tube (M01, M04, M07, M08, M09, M10, M11),
EEV CX1836A : 3 tube (M03, M05, M12),
LITTON L-4888 : 2 tube (M02, M06)
Figure 1: Run time statistics of all klystron and thyratron
tubes (as of June 15, 1998). Figure 2: MTTF & MTTR for component replacement
(data collection period: 94.9~98.6).
3 SYSTEM AVAILABILITY STATISTICS
Since the completion of the PLS 2-GeV linac in 4 COMMENTS ON SYSTEM FAULTS
December 1993 all the K&M systems have been It has been observed that the most frequent system
operating continuously except scheduled short term and fault is the circuit breaker (CB) trip. This is mainly due to
long term maintenance shut down. Fig-1 shows the the problems in thyratron recovery characteristics which
accumulated run times of klystron and thyratron tubes as depend on the elaborate reservoir ranging (hydrogen gas
of June 15, 1998. As one can see in the figure rather pressure control in the tube). Thyratron tubes of F-303
shorter bars indicate that corresponding tubes have been and L-4888 require ranging adjustment (see Table-2), and
replaced at least once or more. In fact we have replaced according to our experience they are very sensitive to the
total 3 klystrons and 14 thyratrons during the total effects which may cause internal gas pressure change.
~360,000-hr of operation time (run time sum of all 12 Once out of normal operating point self-fire, firing miss,
K&M modules). Table-3 & 4 show the calculated or slow recovery (causes shorting of the PFN charging
statistics of mean time to failure (MTTF) for the klystrons power supply) can occur. The CX-1836A thyratron tubes
and thyratrons, respectively. require not so delicate ranging according to the
Machine availability analysis has been performed manufacturer's specifications.
based on the data using the techniques described in detail Other occasional troubles were corona discharges that
in reference[4]. The results are summarized in Table-5. are found to occur when there are bad contacts in high
The MTBF (mean time between failure) is calculated by voltage components. It has been found also that even a
dividing the sum of the accumulated modulator run time small corona discharge disturbs the ground potential,
with the total fault count (MTBF = N*TO/FC). The which are configured to have a single point ground
446
connection inside the modulator, causing noise
interference in digital displays as well as SCR phase 6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
controls.
Authors gratefully acknowledge the sincere efforts
performed by PAL linac division members to keep the
5 SUMMARY PAL linac system at an excellent condition. This work
It has been approximately 5 years since the PLS 2-GeV was supported partly by POSCO and MOST, Korea.
linac has started its normal operation. We have analyzed
the klystron modulator system's performance record for 7 REFERENCES
the period, which is the major source of the beam [1] W. Namkung et. al, "PLS 2-GeV Linac," Proc. of
injection failure. It is observed that the average lifetime 17th Int'l Linac Conf., Tsukuba, Japan, Aug. 21-26,
expectancy of the klystron is over 25,000-hr, and it is pp.14-16 (1994)
getting longer. Lifetime of the thyratron tube also appears [2] M.H. Cho et. al, "High Power Microwave System
to be reasonable except the occurrence of the infant for PLS-2GeV Linac," Proc. of 17th Int'l Linac
failure, however the major improvement is necessary for Conf., Tsukuba, Japan, Aug. 21-26, pp.418-420
the reservoir control which is the main source of the (1994),
system trouble. The machine availability statistics of the [3] I.S. Ko et. al, "Control of PLS 2-GeV Linac," Proc.
K&M system for the beam operation mode is calculated of 17th Int'l Linac Conf., Tsukuba, Japan, Aug. 21-
to be over 90%. It appears to us that there are still lots of 26, pp.825-827 (1994)
[4] A.R. Donaldson and J.R. Ashton, "SLAC Modulator
rooms for the improvement of the availability more than
Operation and Reliability in the SLAC Era," IEEE
95% with the smart design of the protection circuits and
Conf. Proc. 20th Power Modulator Symposium,
control schemes. pp.152-156 (1992)
Table 3: Klystron MTTF of the PLS linac.
Per Period Cumulative
Period Failed Total Failed Living
MTTF MTTF
no. of Mean age (hrs) no. of no. of Mean age no. of Mean age (hrs)
tubes (hrs) tubes tubes (hrs) tubes (hrs)
1994 0 11 0 11 9,990
1995 1 18,833 89,671 12 1 18,833 11 16,430 199,558
1996 0 12 1 18,833 11 24,244 285,517
1997 2 27,031 24,960 15 3 24,298 12 21,879 111,812
1998 0 15 3 24,298 12 25,818 127,569
Jyear Nfp Tfp T(MTTFp) Nt Nfc Tfc Nlc Tlc T(MTTFc)
Table 4: Thyratron MTTF of the PLS linac.
Per Period Cumulative
Period Failed Total Failed Living
MTTF MTTF
no. of Mean age (hrs) no. of no. of Mean age no. of Mean age (hrs)
tubes (hrs) tubes tubes (hrs) tubes (hrs)
1994 4 5,070 25,885 15 4 5,070 11 7,569 25,885
1995 3 8,828 26,416 18 7 6,680 11 12,366 26,112
1996 3 16,837 26,973 21 10 9,727 11 15,130 26,371
1997 4 23,820 20,712 26 14 13,754 12 12,833 24,754
1998 0 26 14 13,754 12 18,203 29,356
Jyear Nfp Tfp T(MTTFp) Nt Nfc Tfc Nlc Tlc T(MTTFc)
*Note; T(MTTFp) = {(Nfc*Tfc+Nlc*Tlc) of jyear – (Nfc*Tfc+Nlc*Tlc) of j-1year}/Nfp
T(MTTFc) = {(Nfc*Tfc+Nlc*Tlc) of jyear}/Nfc
Table 5: K&M system availability of the PLS linac.
Operation period 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 Total
Total no. of modulators 11 11 11 11 12 11.2
Operation time (hr) 2,298 7,152 6,432 7,128 3,432 27,072
Total failure counts 103 175 131 130 147 686
Total down time (hr) 563 1,076 413 529 232 2,813
Modulator MTTF (hr) 313 450 540 603 280 442
System MTTF (hr) 28 41 49 55 23 39
MTTR (hr/failure) 5 6 3 4 2 4
Availability (%) 81 85 94 93 93 90
447
THE DRIVE BEAM ACCELERATOR OF CLIC
D. Schulte, CERN, Geneva, Switzerland
Abstract
The drive beam of the Compact Linear Collider (CLIC) re-
a)
quires a current of several amperes. The time structure of
this beam is discussed. First simulation results on longi-
tudinal single bunch effects are presented and achievable
bunch lengths and sensitivity to jitter of the gradient, initial
energy and charge are analysed. The transverse stability of
the beam is discussed based on the present structure model.
Requirements on the damping and detuning of the cavities b)
are given in detail. A beam-based alignment technique is
presented and the stability with respect to jitter and ground
motion is investigated.
1 INTRODUCTION
c)
CLIC [1] is based on a two-beam scheme. The RF power
used to accelerate the main beam (at 30 GHz) is produced
by a second beam (the drive beam) running parallel to the
main one [2] through so-called “power extraction struc-
tures”. This beam has a high current but low energy and
is decelerated thus producing the RF power.
The drive beam is accelerated to a final energy of d)
1:2 GeV in a fully-loaded low-frequency linac (937 MHz),
consisting of 99 3:1 m long structures with a loaded gradi-
ent of 3:8 MV=m. The beam is then separated into trains of
bunches. In so-called “combiner rings”, 16 of these trains
are merged to form a single one. The length of the final
train is the same as that of one of the inital ones, but the e)
distance between bunches is reduced by a factor 16. These
short pulses are then sent to the decelerator sectors. Figure 1: The charge distribution along the pulse—in
The total length of the charge pulse to be accelerated is case a) different trains are shown in different tones, in the
equal to twice the main linac length. Assuming a fill factor other cases different half-trains are shown different tones.
of 80 %, the main linac will be 13:75 km long, and the pulse The number of bunches on the flat top is constant but differ-
length will therefore be 92 s. ent from the real value. The curves indicate the variation of
the energy gain. Depending on the injector, a distribution
2 TIME STRUCTURE in the range of d) to e) will be chosen.
At the combiner rings, the beam must consist of short trains
of bunches, separated by gaps that are larger than the rise the bunches of the first half are put into even buckets, and
time of a kicker. In the drive beam accelerator these gaps the bunches of the second half into odd ones, see Fig. 1b.
would however lead to a significant variation in multi- In this case the beam-loading is not constant only where
bunch beam-loading, so it would be difficult to keep the one switches from odd to even, or even to odd buckets.
bunch-to-bunch energy variation small, see Fig. 1a. On the The first half of each train is sent into a delay line, using
other hand, the tolerance on the final energy is tight. an RF-deflector at the end of the linac, running at half the
A solution to this problem is not to fill every bucket, but linac frequency. The second half is deflected to the other
instead only every second one, increasing the train length side and passes with no delay. The delay line is adjusted
by a factor of two. Each train is split into two half-trains, to interleave the two halves of the train to form one, with
451
every bucket filled. This train has the length of an initial the result on the wakefield model.
half train and is followed by a gap of the same length. Using the second approach, the bunch is compressed as
While this solves the problem in the case of constant much as possible at three positions along the linac, then
charge per bucket, the beam-loading compensation in the uncompressed to 2 mm, and recompressed after the bends
main linac requires that each half-train starts with a charge (case 3). The bunch length achievable with this method
ramp. The charge is thus increasing over the first few is z 170 m. This is significantly shorter than in for
bunches. This would also create a significant variation in case 1 and the final energy spread of E = 13:4 MeV is
beam-loading (Fig. 1c). This is solved by adding a tail of also smaller. If the RF-phase is set to RF = 0 after the
bunches to the previous half-train which overlaps the ramp first two compression steps (case 4) one can still achieve
(Fig. 1d). This is feasible since different buckets are used z 200 m with an energy spread of E 11:4 MeV.
for consecutive half-trains. The charge in the tail can be Figure 2 shows the phase space distribution after the final
adjusted to make the beam-loading constant. compression for this case.
If the injector is only able to vary the charge per bunch
1200
slowly along the train, a longer ramp and a longer tail
would be required, see Fig. 1e. In the following simula- 1190
tions, it is assumed that the charge rises linearly from zero
1180
to full intensity over the 20 bunches in the ramp and de-
E [MeV]
creases, also linearly, in a tail of the same length. 1170
The flat top of each train contains 47 bunches each with
a charge of q 17:6 nC [2]. The total pulse (92 s) is thus 1160
sufficient to feed 20 drive beam decelerator sectors. 1150
1140
3 COMPRESSION -2000-1500-1000-500 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
z [micro m]
The initial bunch length is assumed to be about z = 4 mm
at an energy Ei = 50 MeV with an energy spread of 0:75 % Figure 2: The phase space distribution of the particles after
(L.Rinolfi [3]). While this spread is partly correlated with the last compression step in case 4. The particles represent
the longitudinal position, in the following it is assumed to different charges.
be completely incoherent—to be pessimistic.
A simple calculation of the achievable compression was
performed using a linear approximation. Since the exact Table 1: Deviations from nominal values that result in a
longitudinal wakefield was not available, the values derived longitudinal shift of the bunches of about 10 m.
for an S-band structure [4] were used. The longitudinal case 1 2 3 4
wakefield amplitude W ^ L scales as W^ L / f 2 with the ac- G=G0 [10,4 ] 0.45 0.4 0.5 0.4
celeration frequency f . The ratio of aperture a to wave-
^ L / (=a)2 Ei =Ei;0 [10,4 ] 0.8 16 0.9 0.8
length is also different, here the scaling W RF [0:1 ] 0.12 0.1 0.12 0.12
was used as an approximation. q=q0 [10,2 ] 0.2 — 0.25 0.2
In order to avoid large energy losses due to coherent syn-
chrotron radiation in the combiner rings and in the bends Energy variations of the bunches are transformed into
into the decelerator, the bunch length in these sections has longitudinal position errors by the bunch compression.
to be at least z = 2 mm (R. Corsini [3]). The final com- These energy variations can be caused by variations of the
pression is therefore done afterwards. For the compression initial beam energy Ei , the acceleration gradient G, the
two different approaches are possible. One can either com- RF-phase and the bunch charge. Table 1 shows the size of
press the bunch to a length of z = 2 mm inside the linac these variations that lead to a longitudinal shift of 10 m.
(preferably at low energy) and do the final compression af- The differences in gradient and RF-phase are assumed to
ter the bends. Or one can compress the bunch inside the be constant along the accelerator, not random errors.
linac in several stages as much as possible. Then it has to
be uncompressed at the end of the linac to z = 2 mm.
4 LATTICE
Finally it has to be compressed again after the bends.
An example of the first approach uses an RF-phase for The lattice of the drive beam accelerator consists of sim-
the beam of RF = ,12 . The first compression is ple FODO-cells with a constant quadrupole spacing of
done at E 100 MeV, achieving the required z = 3:9 m. The phase advance per cell is about 116. One
2 mm. The final compression step at the decelerator en- 3:1 m long accelerating structure, consisting of 29 cells,
trance yields z = 290 m and an RMS energy spread of and a beam position monitor (BPM) are placed between
E = 18 MeV (case 1). Without wakefields (case 2) one two quadrupoles. The iris radii of the cells of the structure
would reach z = 340 m and a final energy spread of vary from 42:2 to 54:4 mm. The initial beam energy after
E = 8:5 MeV—this shows the relative independence of the injector is 50 MeV.
452
5 STABILITY A = 0:5 10,6 (m)2 =(sm)[6]. For a test case, the maxi-
mum offset after T = 105 s of any slice was 0:02 and the
average was 0:01 without any feedback or steering. The
To evaluate the beam stability, simulations with
P LACET [5] were performed for the first 2000 bunches as-
suming initial transverse emittances of x = y = 100 m.
linac is thus insensitive to ground motion.
The fast beam-ion instability [7] can also increase the
Each of the 29 cells of a structure is simulated using its
beam emittance. A charged beam can ionise the rest gas in
two most important transverse modes. Three cells were
an accelerator. An electron beam will deflect the electrons
calculated with ABCI (L. Thorndahl [3]) at a frequency
f = 3 GHz and frequencies and loss factors of the modes that are set free in this process towards the outside. The
positive ions however are accelerated towards the beam
were derived by interpolation. A short model structure
centre. In an unbunched beam they would oscillate. If
using a single cell size has been built (L. Thorndahl [3]).
in a bunched beam the ion oscillation frequency is smaller
Due to the length of the pulse the structures have to
than the bunch frequency, the ions will be trapped. For the
be damped to avoid beam breakup. The measured up-
per bound of the damping Q of the transverse mode is
drive beam accelerator this condition is fulfilled. At the
Q 100. The limit was due to the experimental setup, cal- moment, simulations of this effect are not available for the
culations for perfect loads predict Q 11 (M. Luong [3]).
drive beam, and analytic formulae [7] give no clear indica-
tion of importance of the problem.
In the simulations each bunch is cut longitudinally into
21 slices. Using an undetuned structure with Q = 100
leads to an amplification of an initial beam jitter by a factor 6 ALIGNMENT AND STEERING
15 for some of these slices. A reduction to Q = 20 reduces The initial position errors for quadrupoles are assumed to
this to a factor of less than 2. be quad = 500 m and for beam position monitors and
Detuning the structures by varying the iris radii from structures BPM = struct = 100 m.
42:2 to 54:4 mm reduces the amplification factor to less Already with a simple one-to-one steering the total emit-
than 2 for a damping of Q = 100. Figure 3 shows the fi- tance growth along the linac was found to be 3:5 % in a test
nal positions of the slices after the linac. Within the region case. The maximum position deviation of a slice from the
of constant charge, the bunch to bunch variations are rel- beam centre at the linac exit was about 0:2 .
atively small, while in the transient parts where the trains
overlap they are significantly larger. From train to train
7 CONCLUSION
the variations are also small. Using the detuned structures,
even a damping of Q = 500 does not increase the amplifi- The drive beam accelerator seems to be very stable if de-
cation factor significantly. tuned and damped accelerating structures are used. Initial
beam jitter is amplified by less than a factor 2 for any parti-
500
cle. The alignment tolerances are rather relaxed even when
400
300
only simple steering is used for correction. The fast beam-
200 ion instability remains to be investigated in detail.
x [micro m]
100
0 8 REFERENCES
-100
-200 [1] J.-P. Delahaye and 30 co-authors, “CLIC a 0.5 to 5
-300 TeV Compact Linear Collider.”, EPAC 1998.
-400
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 [2] H.H. Braun and 14 co-authors, “A new method of
Slice no RF power generation for two-beam linear colliders.”,
EPAC 1998.
Figure 3: The final slice position for detuned structures
with Q = 100. Each bunch is cut longitudinally into 21
[3] H.H. Braun and 14 authors, “The CLIC RF power
source”, to be published in CERN/PS 98-011 (LP).
slices, the first 500 bunches are plotted. The horizontal
lines visible, are formed by equivalent slices of successive [4] K. Bane, M. Timm, and T. Weiland, “The short range
bunches. The slices of each bunch are filling the space be- wake fields in the SBLC linac.”, DESY-M-97-02.
tween the minimum and maximum position. [5] D. Schulte, to be published.
An uncorrelated jitter of the quadrupoles of quad = [6] R. Assmann, C. Salsberg, and C. Montag, “Beam sta-
1 m leads to a small movement of the beam of less than bility measurements with a stretched wire system in
0:06 for any slice at the accelerator exit. The simple the FFTB.”, Linac 1996.
ATL-law is used to estimate the sensitivity to ground mo- [7] F. Zimmermann and 8 co-authors, “Experiments on
tion. In this model, the relative transverse offset y of the fast beam-ion instability at the ALS.”, SLAC-PUB-
two points, separated by a distance L, is given after a 7617.
time T by (y )2 = ATL. The value of the constant
A is site dependent and can have a value of less than
453
HIGH CURRENT TRANSPORT AND ACCELERATION AT THE
UPGRADED UNILAC
W. Barth, J. Glatz, J. Klabunde
GSI, Planckstraße 1, 64291 Darmstadt, Germany
Abstract
Ne1+ Stripper Ne7+
The UNILAC will be upgraded as a high current injector WIDERÖE ALVAREZ
Emittance Emittance
for SIS. This paper focuses on beam dynamics studies in Measurement Measurement
the newly designed stripper section, the poststripper Al-
2.0
varez accelerator and the transport line to SIS considering
Emittance Growth Factor
Stripping Efficiency: 42%
space charge effects along the UNILAC. Simulation results 1.8
measured
for the matching to the Alvarez linac, emittance growth ef-
fects in the poststripper linac and the beam transfer line to 1.6
calculated
the SIS including the modified foilstripper and charge sep-
1.4
aration system will be discussed. The beam brilliance loss
due to foil straggling and space charge forces will be cal- 1.2
culated. Beam experiments at the present UNILAC under
1.0
comparable space charge conditions are reported. 0 0.6 1.2 1.8 2.4 3 3.6 4.2
Ne7+ Intensities [emA]
1 INTRODUCTION
Figure 1: Measured and calculated emittance growth fac-
Within the GSI high-intensity program, the present pre- tors at different neon current levels.
stripper linac will be replaced by an RFQ and two IH-
tanks [1] designed for the acceleration of high current,
low charge state beams. The beam behavior influenced by 3 THE NEW GASSTRIPPER SECTION
space charge forces is simulated for different input phase
space distributions through the complete system to the SIS.
Emittance growth occurs in all sections of the UNILAC.
A reduction of emittance growth could be expected by the
newly designed gasstripper section at 1:4 MeV=u. Beam
dynamics calculations within the poststripper and the trans-
fer line will be presented.
2 HIGH CURRENT BEAM
MEASUREMENTS
At the present UNILAC, beam experiments with neon ions
were carried out under comparable space charge condi-
tions as expected for the upgraded UNILAC, particularly
in the stripper region. The SIS could be operated at the
space charge limit with N e10+ beam. Measurements in
the gasstripper section at 1:4 MeV=u are shown in Fig. 1.
The N e1+ beam accelerated by the Wideröe linac passes
the gasstripper and is transported through the charge state
analyzing system by four 30Æ bending magnets. The most
abundant N e7+ is selected for further acceleration, the
stripping efficiency is about 40%. The emittance growth
rates are shown at different current levels. For intensi-
ties up to 10 emA total current behind the 9 mm stripper
aperture, the emittance growth is in good agreement with
computer simulations, neighbouring charge states are taken
into account. Simulations have indicated that the emittance Figure 2: Layout of the new stripper section.
growth can be reduced by increasing the diameter of the
stripper tube from 9 to 16 mm. Experimental and simula- The design of the new transport line between the pre-
tion results supported the new design of the stripper section stripper and the Alvarez linac is faced with different re-
described in the following paragraph. quirements: lowest emittance growth under considerable
454
space charge forces, charge state separation, achromatic zontal and longitudinal 90% emittance. The calculated
transport after the bending magnets, transverse and longi- beam transmission in all cases is approx. 95%. In addition
tudinal matching to the poststripper. The new design has to the space charge parameter SP C (relatively) is exposed in
cope with the ion time-share operation on a 50 Hz pulse-to- Fig. 5: SP C P article Current Charge State2 1
pulse basis. The layout of the gasstripper section is shown Bunchvolume 1 .
in Fig. 2. The beam from the IH section is matched to In the following the beam behavior in the several UNI-
the stripper tube by two magnetic doublets. After stripping LAC sections is discussed.
the beam goes immediately into the first 15Æ bending mag-
net. The analyzing slit is directly before the second dipole
(30Æ ). The last dipole bends the beam back to the UNI- 5.5
Norm. Emittance [π*mm*mrad]
5.0
LAC axis. In the following transport line the longitudinal
4.5
matching (with two rebunchers) and the transversal match- 4.0
ing (with a quadrupole doublet and a triplet) to the post- 3.5
stripper accelerator is accomplished without any particle 3.0
loss. The beam from the second injector (HLI) is delivered 2.5
to the poststripper by a 180Æ bending section. All magnetic 2.0
IH
1.5
lenses, dipoles of the stripper section and the kicker magnet 1.0
Gauss
of the HLI transport line allow the pulsed operation. 0.5 Longitudinal Emittance ( 90% ) Highbrilliance
0.0
IH Gas- Foil- SIS
SLIT SLIT INPUT
4 CALCULATED EMITTANCE OUTPUT stripper
ALVAREZ 1-4
stripper
GROWTH FROM THE PRESTRIPPER
TO THE SIS Figure 4: The longitudinal 90% emittances complementary
to Fig. 3.
3.0
Vertical SIS-Acceptance
Norm. Emittance [π*mm*mrad]
GAS ← ALVAREZ 1-4 →
FOIL SIS-INPUT
2.5 IH (EXIT)
STRIPPER STRIPPER
IH (horizontal) IH (vertical)
2.0 Gauss (horizontal) Gauss (vertical)
Space Charge Parameter [a.u.]
Highbrilliance (horizontal) Highbrilliance (vertical)
1.5
1.0
0.5 Horizontal SIS-Acceptance
0.0
IH Gas- Foil- SIS
OUTPUT SLIT ALVAREZ 1-4 SLIT INPUT
stripper stripper
Figure 3: Variation of the horizontal and vertical 90% emit- Z-Position [m]
tances from the UNILAC stripper section to the SIS input
for different input beams. The transmission in all cases is Figure 5: The Space Charge Parameter (SPC) along the
approx. 95%. stripper section, the Alvarez and the transfer line.
For the simulations three input distributions are selected:
the ’IH distribution’ will be expected behind the new pre-
4.1 Gasstripper section
stripper linac [2]. This particle distribution was calculated
from an initial Gaussian distribution at the prestripper en- In the matching section to the gasstripper no significant
trance with a current of 16:5 emA U 4+ . In order to ex- emittance growth occurs, the jump of the charge state af-
clude effects of the distorted IH distribution, simulation be- ter stripping increases the SP C dramatically. Amplified
gin with an ideal Gaussian distribution with the same 90% by the reduction of the bunch volume, the emittance in all
values of emittance at the IH exit. The limit of the sys- three planes accumulates until the slit of the charge state
tem is evaluated by a high brilliant transversal Gaussian analysis, where the particle current abruptely decreases. To
distribution as expected from the RFQ. In all three cases match the beam to the Alvarez a very small bunch length is
the beam was transformed through the stripper section, indispensable. For the Gaussian distribution the transversal
the poststripper accelerator and the transfer line with the emittance growth factor at the Alvarez input is only 1.37,
same settings of the quadrupole gradients and rebuncher compared to 2.18 for the IH distribution, which occurs due
fields. In Fig. 3 and Fig. 4 the development of the hori- to the longitudinal phase space aberrations in interaction
455
with the strong space charge forces after the stripping pro- SP C boost which is only 40% of the effect in the gasstrip-
cess. The emittance growth factor is optimized by iteration per section.
of the transversal beam divergence at the gasstripper. The
transversal emittance of the high brilliant beam increases
by a factor of 2.2, but the absolute emittance growth is com-
parable with the Gaussian case.
Emittance Growth Factor
High Brilliance
4.2 Poststripper Accelerator
Particularly in the first Alvarez section emittance growth is IH Gauss
high, thereafter the effect is moderate because the accel-
eration gain becomes higher. The stripper section is opti- Gauss at Foil
mized for low horizontal emittance growth at the expense KV
of vertical beam quality. Because of that equipartitioning
takes place for the IH distribution in the poststripper accel-
erator caused by strong space charge forces. If the same Intensity [%]
transverse distribution combined with a matched Gaussian
one in the longitudinal phae space (IH modified) is used,
Figure 6: Emittance growth factor due to particle scattering
the transversal emittance growth is reduced from 30% to
at the foilstripper for several phase space distributions.
15%. To minimize emittance growth for beams with higher
brilliance (Gauß, High Brilliance) the zero current phase
advance in the periodic structure has to be increased from
45Æ to 54Æ . This can be achieved by 11% higher quadrupole 5 SUMMARY
field strengths. The calculated deformation in the phase space distribu-
tion coming from the prestripper accelerator results in high
4.3 Transfer Line to the SIS emittance growth. The new stripper section may work very
well for a Gaussian distribution. If a high brilliant beam
In the transfer line the transverse matching to the foilstrip- is preserved the zero current phase advance in the post-
per is not critical. With a narrow upright beam spot on the stripper has to be increased to minimize emittance growth.
stripperfoil the emittance growth in the horizontal plane is Beside the gasstripper section the first Alvarez tank is the
minimized, while an increase of the vertical emittance is most critical part due to space charge effects. The transport
tolerated in view of the acceptance of the synchrotron (see through the transfer line does not lead to considerable hori-
Table 1: IH distribution with and without stripping) [3, 4]. zontal emittance growth. The vertical scattering effect in
Comparing the Gaussian and the high brilliant distribution the foilstripper is much higher because of the upright beam
with the IH one, an conspicuous increase of the vertical spot and depends strongly on the phase space distribution.
emittance caused by stripping effects has to be considered. The final transverse emittance exceeds the acceptance of
the SIS in all three cases. Nevertheless, the SIS can be
Table 1: Emittance growth (90 %) in the transfer line filled up to the required 2 1010 particles per pulse U 73+ .
Foil (in) Foil (out) Charge Sep. TK (out)
IH horizontal 0.88 0.89 1.86 1.30 6 REFERENCES
(with stripping) vertical 1.10 1.36 1.52 1.47
IH horizontal 0.91 0.91 1.16 1.31 [1] U. Ratzinger,“The New GSI Prestripper Linac for High Cur-
(without stripping) vertical 1.11 1.11 1.11 1.07 rent Heavy Ion Beams”, Proc. of LINAC96, p. 288, Geneva,
Gauß horizontal 1.11 1.16 2.97 1.71 1996
(with stripping) vertical 1.36 2.11 2.51 2.36
High Brilliance horizontal 1.20 1.28 4.18 2.34 [2] W. Barth, J. Glatz, J. Klabunde, U. Ratzinger, “Space Charge
(with stripping) vertical 1.12 2.59 2.96 2.57 Dominated Beam Transport in the 1.4 MeV/u-UNILAC
Stripper Section”, Proc. of LINAC96, p. 131, Geneva, 1996
[3] W. Barth, L. Dahl, J. Glatz, J. Klabunde, U. Ratzinger, A.
Fig. 6 displays the emittance growth factor due to par- Schempp, “High Current Beam Dynamics for the Upgraded
ticle scattering as a function of the distribution fraction at UNILAC”, Proc. of 1997 PAC, in press, Vancouver, 1997
the same vertical beam size. The IH distribution has a very [4] J. Glatz, B. Langenbeck, “A High Duty Foil Stripper System
intense core (peaked distribution), the emittance growth is in the Injection Line to the Heavy Ion Synchrotron SIS at
much lower for the outer area of the distribution. An in- GSI”, Proc. of EPAC96, p. 2406, Sitges, 1996
verted characteristic for the emittance growth as a function
of intensity results from a transverse homogeneous KV dis-
tribution.
Increasing the charge state from 28+ to 73+ entails in a
456
ANALYSIS AND MODELING OF A STRIPLINE BEAM KICKER AND
SEPTUM
B. R. Poole, G. J. Caporaso, Y. J. (Judy) Chen, L. –F. Wang
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California 94550 USA
Abstract a matched load impedance for the dipole transmission
mode on the structure. It should be noted that steering in
A fast stripline beam kicker and septum are used to both planes can be accomplished by also driving the other
dynamically switch a high current electron beam between pair of plates.
two beamlines. The transport of the beam through these
structures is determined by the quality of the applied 2 KICKER TEM FIELDS AND BEAM
electromagnetic fields as well as temporal effects due to DEFLECTION
the wakefields produced by the beam. In addition,
nonlinear forces in the structure will lead to emittance To steer the beam in x, opposite polarity high voltage
growth. The effect of these issues is investigated pulses are applied to the downstream ports in the y=0
analytically and by using particle transport codes. Due to plane. The potential within the kicker plates (r<b) is
the distributed nature of the beam-induced effects, given by
multiple macro-particles (slices) are used in the particle
transport code, where each slice consists of an ensemble
φ
of particles with an initial distribution in phase space. = ∑ ( φ )
(1)
Changes in the multipole moments of an individual slice π =
establish electromagnetic wakes in the structure and are
allowed to interact with subsequent beam macro-particles
where b is the interior radius of the kicker plates, and φ0 is
to determine the variation of the steering, focusing, and
the angle subtended by the kicker plates. The voltage
emittance growth during the beam pulse.
applied to the plate is Vp giving a total steering voltage of
2Vp. The solution is determined by solving for the
1 INTRODUCTION potential in the region r<b, and using the boundary
condition that the potential at r=b is given by the
The stripline kicker is designed to spatially separate a appropriate applied plate voltages and that the potential in
high current electron beam for transport into two separate the gaps between the plates is zero. The TEM fields can
beamlines. However, to provide a significant angular kick be easily derived from this scalar potential. The m=1 term
to the beam, a magnetic dipole septum is required. This in Equation (1) represents a transverse dipole force which
system is shown schematically in Figure 1. provides the beam steering while the higher order terms
will contribute to emittance growth in the beam. The
beam deflection due to the combined electric and
magnetic dipole forces is given by
π
∆ = (2)
(φ )
Figure 1 Kicker and septum configuration for dynamic where the critical current, Ic is defined by
beam steering in one plane
π γβ
The operation of the system is as follows: A high voltage = (3)
pulse is applied to the downstream ports of the kicker and φ
the beam is spatially separated (kicked) by a combination
of the transverse electric and magnetic dipole forces
associated with the TEM waves propagating on the strip
transmission lines. The beam is then directed into a and I0 = 17 kA, Z0 = 377 Ω, L is the length of the kicker,
septum magnet with opposite polarity dipole fields on b is the inner radius of the kicker plates, Zk is the kicker
either side of the plane separating the two downstream impedance, and γ is the usual relativistic factor.
beam lines. All the upstream ports and the two
downstream ports in the non-kick plane are terminated in
457
3 DIPOLE WAKE IMPEDANCE AND
BEAM INDUCED STEERING
In our application, the beam current is sufficiently large
as to induce substantial voltages and currents on the strip
transmission lines. These voltages and currents are
introduced on the transmission lines as the beam traverses
the upstream and downstream gaps as well as from
changes in the dipole return current as the beam is
deflected. A detailed model has been previously described
[1],[2]. The m=1 transverse dipole wake impedance for
this structure [3] is given by
φ ω
⊥ (ω ) =
π ω Figure 2 Dipole wake impedance
(4)
The effect of the wake impedance on the deflection of the
ω ω
+ . beam can be quite dramatic. For example, for a 6 MeV, 2
kA beam initially offset by 2 cm going into the kicker, the
tail of the emerging beam will be offset by 3.1 cm at the
The imaginary part of the dipole impedance, exit of the structure. These effects have been observed
⊥ = [ ⊥ (ω = )] is a measure of the asymptotic beam experimentally [4] and are consistent with theory.
deflection due to the beam-induced fields. It has been 4 NONLINEAR FORCES AND
shown that the asymptotic beam deflection for an initially
offset beam with current IB injected into the kicker has the EMITTANCE GROWTH
form [1]
From Equation (1) it is seen that for a dipole excitation
= (5)
of the kicker, all higher order odd multipoles will be
∞ excited in the structure. Although the higher order
multipoles reduce in strength as (r/b)m it is possible under
where x0 is the injection offset of the beam. It is easily certain conditions that the beam will experience these
shown for sufficiently small beam currents that fields, especially the m=3 sextupole component. For
example, with ETA-II parameters the space charge fields
π due to the beam may require that the beam entering the
∞ ≈ + ⊥ . (6) kicker have a large radius to enable the downstream beam
γβ to be at or near a waist when entering the dipole septum.
This is important in order to minimize any emittance
To examine the relevant physics issues, a kicker has been growth due to the nonlinear fields associated with the
designed and installed on the Experimental Test septum magnet. In order to estimate the effect of the
Accelerator (ETA-II). The ETA-II kicker has the higher order multipoles due to the kicker on the beam
following set of parameters: b=12.87 cm, φ0=78°, emittance, a simple particle transport code was developed.
Zk=50 Ω, L=164 cm and Ic=3.9 kA. The outer enclosure The code includes the external fields in the kicker region
has a radius of 19 cm. To verify the validity of the as defined by Equation (1) and is being expanded to
transmission line model the structure was modeled using a include the beam-induced effects and space-charge effects
3-D time domain electromagnetic code to determine the self-consistently. Presently, the particles respond only to
dipole impedance spectrum. Figure 2 shows a comparison the external fields. However, we can estimate the
of the dipole impedance as calculated from Equation (4) emittance growth in the structure by using the external
with numerical results from a 3-D time domain fields only. As an example, using the ETA-II kicker
electromagnetic code for the ETA-II kicker. As can be previously described, a 6 MeV beam is injected into the
seen there is a good agreement between the transmission kicker with an unnormalized edge emittance of
line model and the 3-D code results. The differences can 13 cm-mrad and a convergence angle of .03 rad. The
be attributed to end cavity effects associated with the injected beam radius is 4 cm, which allows the beam to
feeds to the external ports and effects due to higher order experience the higher order multipoles. Figure 3 shows a
modes in the structure. configuration space image of the emerging beam from the
kicker showing a centroid location of 2.7 cm consistent
458
with Equation (2). The triangular image has been where is the axial length of the magnet, θi is the
observed experimentally [4]. incident beam angle, θi +∆θ is the desired exit beam
angle, and Eb is the beam energy. A preliminary design
for a dipole septum magnet to be used with the ETA-II
kicker is being developed. The parameters for the design
are an axial length of 20 cm, and a magnetic field of about
276 Gauss for a beam energy of 6.3 MeV. The
dimensions of the aperture are about h=6 cm high and
w=31 cm wide. Careful optimization of the design is
required to minimize possible emittance growth in the
transition region where the field changes sign. Currently,
magnetic modules are being developed for particle
transport codes to estimate the emittance growth through
the septum magnet. With careful design including shims
preliminary estimates show an emittance growth on the
order of 4% through the septum magnet.
6 CONCLUSIONS
Figure 3 Configuration space image of beam emerging Self-consistent models are being developed for
from kicker experiencing a large sextupole field modeling the transport of high current space-charge
dominated beams through fast beam kickers and dipole
Despite the strong deformation of the beam image the septum magnets. The effect of beam-induced forces due
emittance growth is predicted to be about 53% for this to the wakefields of the beam are included in the analysis.
beam. However, transport calculations have also shown In addition, emittance growth due to nonlinear forces
that it is possible to transport a smaller radius high current associated with higher order multipoles in both the kicker
beam ~2 kA through the kicker giving an estimated and septum have been estimated. Preliminary estimates of
emittance growth on the order of 2%. beam-induced steering are consistent with the
experimental program [4]. The effect of space-charge,
5 MAGNETIC DIPOLE SEPTUM image forces, and fringe fields in the structures have yet
to be included.
The septum magnet provides an additional angular kick
to the beam as it emerges from the kicker. The kick is in 7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
opposite directions on either side of x=0. The septum is
shown schematically in Figure 4. This work was performed under the auspices of the
U. S. Department of Energy by the Lawrence Livermore
National Laboratory under contract No. W-7405-Eng-48.
8 REFERENCES
[1] G. J. Caporaso, Y. J. Chen, B. R. Poole,
“Transmission Line Analysis of Beam Deflection in a
BPM Stripline Kicker,” 1997 Particle Accelerator
Conference, Vancouver, B. C. Canada, May 12-16,
1997, LLNL UCRL-JC-126073.
[2] B. R. Poole, G. J. Caporaso, W. C. Ng, “Wake
Properties of a Stripline Beam Kicker,” 1997 Particle
Figure 4 Magnetic dipole septum magnet Accelerator Conference, Vancouver, B. C. Canada,
May 12-16, 1997, LLNL UCRL-JC-126075.
The dipole magnetic field required to produce a beam exit [3] K. –Y. Ng, “Impedances of Stripline Beam-Position
angle of ~ Monitors,” Particle Accelerators 23, 93-102 (1988).
[4] Y. J. Chen, G. J. Caporaso, J. Weir, “Experimental
Results on the Active Deflection of a Beam from a
= + Kicker System,” XIX International Linac Conference
(Linac98), Chicago, Ill. USA, August 23-28, 1998.
×[ (θ + ∆θ ) − (θ )]
459
HIGHER-ORDER-MODES AND BEAM BREAKUP SIMULATIONS IN THE
JEFFERSON LAB FEL RECIRCULATING LINAC*
L. Merminga, I.E. Campisi
Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility, Newport News, Virginia 23606, USA
From these measurements, rough estimates of the
Abstract
upper and lower limits of the BBU threshold current were
Measurements were performed of the frequencies and derived, which bracketed the operating current of 5 mA.
external Q’s of the first two Higher-Order Mode (HOM) This result forced us to more carefully re-evaluate the
dipole passbands in the eight superconducting cavities of instability threshold by using the simulation code
the cryomodule used in the recirculating linac of the TDBBU [2] and the actual measured values, as described
driver accelerator of JLab’s IRFEL. Anomalous high-Q below.
resonances were found, which could lead to beam
instabilities at currents close to the operating current of 2 MEASUREMENTS OF HOM’S
the machine. These results led to more detailed
The TE111 and TM110 passbands’ frequencies and Q’s
simulations of its beam breakup (BBU) behavior. The
were systematically measured for all the superconducting
analysis indicates that a few modes are responsible for the
cavities in the FEL linac [3]. Several modes exhibited
relatively low value of 27 mA of the threshold current. A
high Q’s (see table 1), with the highest Q’s associated
simple modification of the superconducting cavities could
with the vertical polarization of the TE111 π/5 mode.
lead to an increase of the threshold current by an order of
Figure 1 shows the correlation of Q’s for all the modes
magnitude.
observed. All modes except the TE111 π/5 (large circles)
show a direct correlation, pointing to no preferred
1 INTRODUCTION polarization alignment. The TE111 π/5 does not follow this
The Jefferson Lab Free Electron Laser is presently correlation, indicating that the extraction efficiency is
being commissioned at current levels of about 1 mA [1]. subject to strong polarization. Since this particular mode
The driver accelerator is based on a recirculation design, has most of the energy stored in the center cell, the strong
which incorporates energy recovery as an important polarization is possibly associated with overall
feature. The accelerating-decelerating linac consists of a mechanical bending of the cavity in the vertical plane,
slightly modified CEBAF 2 K cryomodule, containing thus preventing that polarization to couple to the FPC.
eight 5-cell superconducting cavities operating in the Although the TE111 π/5 mode has been observed to
TM010 π mode at 1497 MHz. have the highest Qext, it is actually the 4π/5 mode which
The Higher Order Modes (HOM) are extracted by two contributes more to possible beam instabilities because of
mutually orthogonal waveguides, with a frequency cutoff its substantially higher transverse impedance (Table 1).
of 1900 MHz, terminated in loads thermally anchored at
50 K. Modes at frequencies below 1.9 GHz can only be 1E+6
extracted via the fundamental power couple (FPC). Four Qext2
out of five dipole modes of the TE111 passband fall into
1E+5
this category, and their external Q’s can be lowered only
if some component of their fields is aligned with the FPC.
In the case of strong polarization, orthogonal modes 1E+4
could exhibit large values of Qext.
Due to the energy recovery feature of this accelerator
and the relatively low number of superconducting cavities 1E+3
involved in the process, even a few poorly damped modes
can have a devastating effect on the beam, especially at Qext1
the low energy end in either one of the passes through the 1E+2
cavities. 1E+2 1E+3 1E+4 1E+5 1E+6 1E+7 1E+8
In this paper we describe the results of the Figure 1 Distribution of external Q’s for the first two
measurements of frequencies and Qext values of the first dipole passbands in the eight FEL superconducting
two HOM dipole bands (TE111 and TM110). cavities. • represents the TE111 π/5 modes.
___________________________________
* Work supported by the US Department of Energy, contract
DE-AC05-84ER40150
460
Table 1. Previously reported by Amato [4] (denoted by The "HOM kick" section includes all five TE 111
subscript A) and presently measured (subscript M) and five TM110 horizontal and vertical modes. Each mode
parameters for the most relevant modes for the FEL. The is characterized by its Q value, frequency, and transverse
QM’s in this Table are the highest measured in the whole shunt impedance, as given in Ref. [4] scaled by the
cryomodule. frequency of the mode.
The total path length of the recirculation is 501.5 RF
TE111
2
(Z"T /Q)A
2
(Z"T /Q)QA QM
2
(Z"T /Q)QM wavelengths [5] and the transport matrix elements are
π/5 -x 2.0 E2 6.2 E6 1.2 E5 2.4 E7 calculated using DIMAD.
π/5-y 2.0 E2 6.2 E6 3.8 E7 7.6 E9
4π/5-x 7.0 E4 1.1 E9 1.2 E4 8.6 E8 3.2 Results
4π/5-y 7.0 E4 1.1 E9 4.0 E5 2.8 E10
The threshold current for a system containing the real
cavity parameters and optics for the FEL was determined
Six out of eight cavities show that the vertically via several runs and found to be about 27 mA.
polarized TE111 4π/5 mode has a Q high enough to
10 -0.3175
generate a shunt impedance of 1-3 10 , two orders of
Horizontal offset (cm)
magnitude larger than what originally measured by -0.3177
Amato [4]. The frequency of this mode falls right below
the cutoff of the HOM extraction waveguides. A more -0.3179
effective extraction of this dangerous mode could be
attained if a slight modification of future cavities could be -0.3181
made to allow propagation of this mode.
The simulations described below were performed both -0.3183
for the real system and for a modified system with 0.E+00 2.E+05 4.E+05 6.E+05 8.E+05
realistically decreased Qext of the six cavities TE111 4π/5
modes. Bunch number
Figure 2 Horizontal bunch offset as a function of bunch
3 SIMULATIONS number at 25 mA. The beam damps rapidly to a stable
condition in the horizontal plane.
3.1 Method
0.1050
Vertical offset (cm)
Simulations of beam breakup were performed using the 0.1045
code TDBBU [2]. In it, every bunch is characterized by a
0.1040
phase space vector which gets updated according to the
fundamental equations of dynamics described in 0.1035
Reference [5], as deflecting modes in each cavity impart 0.1030
kicks in the horizontal and vertical directions. 0.1025
In the FEL simulations, a 10 MeV beam is injected into
0.1020
the linac, interacts with the HOM fields of each cavity,
gets transported around the recirculation path and enters 0.E+00 2.E+05 4.E+05 6.E+05 8.E+05
the linac again, 180° out of phase for energy recovery. As Bunch number
the decelerated beam traverses the RF cavities, it interacts
with the HOM fields of the cavities again, and, as the Figure 3 Vertical bunch offset at 25 mA. In the vertical
beam energy becomes smaller, the transverse deflections plane the damping occurs more slowly than in the
imparted to the beam have a stronger effect. Therefore, horizontal plane.
we expect the threshold current to be lower in the case of
recirculation with energy recovery than in the absence of Figure 2 shows the convergence behavior at 25 mA for
energy recovery. the horizontal plane and Figure 3 shows the convergence
The beam is injected into the linac with energy equal to in the vertical plane at the same current. A clear
10 MeV with a bunch repetition frequency of 37.4 MHz, divergence in the vertical place is observed at 28 mA
th
the 40 sub-harmonic of the RF frequency. Each cavity is (Figure 4).
described by a 0.25m drift delivering an energy gain of 2 In the horizontal plane, on the contrary, no instability is
MV, followed by the "HOM-kick" section for the observed at these current values, since the relevant modes
particular cavity and this is followed by another 0.25m are polarized in such a way that those aligned with the
drift delivering 2 MV energy gain, for a total of 8 MV/m horizontal axis are well damped by the fundamental
acceleration gradient per cavity. power coupler.
461
Several other simulations with currents well above It is possible that the Q's of these modes is limited to
threshold were performed to determine the growth rate of about 5 x 105 because at these frequencies, slightly below
the instability and to extract the functional dependence of the HOM waveguide cutoff, there is enough leakage of
growth rate on current. Figure 5 shows a typical run the evanescent mode in the waveguide to effect some
performed for currents well above threshold. In Figure 6 damping. The π/5 mode, being at lower frequencies,
the growth rate is plotted as a function of current. From it, exhibit considerably higher Q’s, even two orders of
it is possible to get a relatively good agreement with the magnitude larger.
actual estimate of the threshold by direct simulation, by The results of the simulations, performed in exactly the
making only two simulation runs above threshold and same manner as for the real measured Q’s, indicate that
extrapolating the threshold via the plot in Figure 6. The the threshold current is now increased to 207 mA.
value thus obtained is approximately 35 mA, about 25%
higher than what obtained by direct simulation.
Growth rate (e folds/sec)
The analysis of the mode impedance for the real 1000
cavities shows clearly that the TE111 4π/5 mode is in most
800
cavities the one responsible for a major part of the current
limitations. This mode often falls only a few MHz below 600
the threshold for propagation in the HOM waveguide and
it would be damped more effectively if the cutoff 400
frequency of the HOM waveguide could be lowered by 200
only one percent or so.
0
0.1045
0 100 200 300
Vertical offset (cm)
Threshold current (mA)
0.104
Figure 6 Growth rate of the bunch offset as a function of
0.1035 current. This plot can be used to estimate the threshold
current as the abscissa intercept.
0.103
4 CONCLUSIONS
0.1025
Detailed measurements of the Q’s and frequencies of
0.E+00 5.E+05 1.E+06 the first two dipole Higher Order Modes in the FEL linac
Bunch number indicated that the vertical polarization of some modes in
several cavities are only marginally damped.
Figure 4 Vertical bunch offset at 28 mA. The beam TDBBU simulations of the Beam Breakup threshold
becomes unstable at this threshold current. performed with the actual configuration yield a value of
threshold current of 27 mA, only a factor of 5 higher than
35 the design operating current.
ln (vertical offset)
Analysis of the mode shunt impedance indicates that
25 with a slight modification of the cavities, a few dangerous
modes could be more adequately damped. With such
15 modification, the TDBBU estimate of the threshold
5 current would be increased above 200 mA.
-5 5 REFERENCES
0.E+00 5.E+05 1.E+06 [1] C. Bohn et al., “Performance of the Accelerator
Driver of Jefferson Laboratory's Free-Electron
Bunch number Laser,” Proceedings of the 20th International FEL98
Figure 5 Logarithmic representation of the bunch offset Conference, August 16-21, 1998 Williamsburg, VA
for a current well above threshold, 200 mA in this case. [2] TDBBU was written by G. A. Krafft at JLab
[3] I. E. Campisi and L. Merminga, ”Higher-Order-Mode
Spectra in the FEL cavities”, JLAB TN 98-011, 1998
Such mechanical modification of the coupler might be
[4] J. Amato, “Summary of HOM Measurements to date”,
possible with minimal effort [6]. Based on that Cornell LNS Tech Note SRF-831002, 1983
assumption, we have recalculated the threshold current [5] D. Douglas, Private communication, 1998
for the case in which the Q's of the TE111 4π/5 modes are [6] J. Preble, Private communication, 1998
5
lowered by a factor of 10 if above 10 . This was done for
cavities 1-6 in the cryomodule. The cavities with Q's
5
already below 10 (7 and 8) were left untouched.
462
TESLA INJECTOR SIMULATIONS WITH MAFIA
P. Schütt, T. Weiland
Darmstadt University of Technology, Fachbereich 18,
FG Theorie Elektromagnetischer Felder, Schloßgartenstraße 8, 64289 Darmstadt, Germany
Abstract 2 SIMULATION TOOLS
The TESLA Test Facility (TTF) is a test bed for the su- 2.1 MAFIA-TS2 and -TS3
perconducting option of a linear e+/e- collider in the TeV
regime. The injector delivers a 20 MeV beam with 1 nC TS2 and TS3 are the names of the Particle in Cell (PIC)
charge per bunch of 1 mm length. It consists of an RF- modules in MAFIA. They have been used successfully
for the computer aided design of klystrons and other RF
gun, a superconducting 9-cell Capture Cavity and a chicane
sources[2]. The PIC programs solve Maxwell’s equations
bunch compressor. The MAFIA modules TS2 and TS3, the
in the time domain with a FDTD algorithm and in parallel,
particle in cell programs in 2D and 3D, as well as the mod-
selfconsistently, integrate the equations of motion of the
ule L, a tracking program, have been used to study the par-
ticle dynamics in the TTF, e.g. the emittance growth due to charged particles. These particles, in turn, are the source of
the electromagnetic fields.
space charge effects in the bunch compressors. Dedicated
interfaces for the three different simulation tools allow to TS2 is the axisymmetric, two dimensional version, TS3
study components separately and to hand over beam data works with three dimensional cartesian coordinates. Both
from one accelerator section to another or one simulation are fully relativistic and due to their basic physics algorithm
tool to another, respectively. a priori include all interaction of the charged particles and
electromagnetic fields. Therefore, space charge, self mag-
netic fields, wake fields etc. are all included. Furthermore,
1 INTRODUCTION both codes can use precalculated static and resonant fields,
which are provided by other solvers in the MAFIA pack-
A typical linear accelerator consists of a diversity of com- age.
ponents, which are usually developed with different de-
sign tools. When the beam dynamics in an accelerator is 2.2 MAFIA-L
studied, the low energy part near the particle source usu-
ally requires the use of a simulation program that includes L is a specialized module for the tracking of relativistic par-
the calculation of space charge forces. On the other hand, ticles in an accelerator. It has been used to study single
the tracking of ultrarelativistic particles can be done much bunch and multibunch instabilities[3]. Featuring a modular
faster with a different class of simulation codes. description or the accelerator, including alignment errors,
as well as optimization strategies, it is a tool for the overall
Problems may arise when parameters of the beam must
be communicated between the different programs. Often, design of a linear accelerator. The statistical description of
definitions e.g. for the units of the emittance differ. More the beam allows an uncorrelated energy spread and a phase
over, beam models may be different: e.g. macroparticles in jitter.
one code versus gaussian bunches in the next. L calculates the longitudinal as well as the transversal
dynamics of the beam. It includes realistic external fields.
Within the electromagnetic CAD package MAFIA[1],
The transversal space charge forces may be calculated in a
three solvers are offered which allow the simulation of the
fast approximation, wake fields can be included by a quasi
full electrodynamics in the low energy part of the accel-
Green’s function algorithm, where the Greens functions are
erator as well as the fast tracking in the high energy part.
provided by MAFIA-T2.
Interfaces are being developed to ease the handover of pa-
rameters from one code to the next.
In the low energy region, a handover of beam parame- 2.3 Interfaces
ter from one accelerator element to the next is challenging Several interfaces have been developed to facilitate the data
even in the case where both are handled in the same code. exchange from one accelerator section to the next.
This is due to the fields which accompagny the beam and If both sections are calculated by L, the data exchange is
must be interpolated from one calculation grid to the other trivial: beam data can just be reused.
without inducing numerical noise. In the case of the PIC codes, it is necessary to store not
The status of this project is described in this paper. only beam data but also the field data for one period in a
steady state. Furthermore, to avoid noise in the downstream
work supported by DFG (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) component, the beam current must be artificially raised to
463
its nominal value over several RF periods. The algorithms required: typically z = 20
m. The results have been
for interfaces from TS2 to TS2 or TS3 have been published compared to PARMELA calculations: when wake fields
earlier[2]. are artificially suppressed in MAFIA-TS2, both codes give
Especially for the use in accelerator design, an interface the same results.
from TS2 to L has been developed. This requires the trans-
lation between two different beam models: in TS2, the 3.3 The Capture Cavity
beam is described by a number of macro particles, char-
acterized by their position and momentum at a fixed time. The capture cavity has also been simulated with TS2 (see
In L, the bunch at a fixed position in the accelerator is de- figure 2, next page). Since the spatial bunch dimensions are
bigger here than in the gun, the resolution may be some-
scribed by a number of time slices. These slices are char-
acterized by their first and second order statistical moments what coarser: we used z m and r = 100
m. = 120
of transversal position and momentums as well as their en- In order to reduce the numerical noise in the calculation,
ergy and their longitudinal position in time. data were not taken from previous calculations, but initial-
ized at the entrance of the cavity. The bunch length was
The interface has been built into TS2. During the calcu-
z = 800 m, the radius r = 600
m. In the test case,
lation, all particles are registered when they cross the mon-
itor plane, which is located at the beginning of the structure we used an injection phase of ' , . The start en- = 10
to be simulated in L. The slice parameters for L can then be ergy was 5.3 MeV with an uncorrelated energy spread of
calculated via statistics formulae. In order to keep as much 13.3 keV. The maximum field amplitude in the cavity was
information as possible, no further smoothing of the data is 15 MeV/m.
used.
It will rarely be necessary to hand data from L to TSx. 3.4 Handing Data over to L
But it can be useful to calculate single elements without the Close to the end of the capture cavity, an interface to L was
calculation of all upstream components in TSx. In order to placed in the TS2 simulation.
facilitate the input of starting parameters, we plan to enable
the input of Twiss parameters into TSx and to develop an
interface from L to TSx. 26.3
3 NUMERICAL RESULTS 26.2
LORENTZ FACTOR GAMMA
3.1 Injector Layout 26.1
Figure 1 shows schematically the layout of the TESLA FEL 26.0
injector. A Laser RF gun delivers a beam with about 5
MeV. In a first superconducting TESLA structure, the cap- 25.9
ture cavity, it is accelerated to 15 - 20 MeV, then longitu-
dinally compressed in a chicane and delivered to the first 25.8
complete TESLA module. 0.554 0.555 0.556
POSITION / M -->
0.557 0.558
The beam dynamics in the gun and possibly in the cap-
ture cavity must be simulated in TS2, because of the strong 12.90
collective forces. Either at the end of the gun, or at the end
of the capture cavity, L may take over.
12.85
quadrupole
quadrupole
doublet chicane
ENERGY / MEV
triplets
gun capture cavity compressor Linac (TESLA module) 12.80
z/mm
25
130
250
390
420
550
603
752
1143
0
Not to scale
12.75
E/MeV 0 5 20
TS2 12.70
0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00
L
TIME / PS -->
Figure 1: Schematic Layout of the Injector. The application
Figure 3: Energy distribution in the bunch at the end of the
regions of the MAFIA modules TS2 and L are indicated.
TS2 simulation (top) and at the start of L (bottom).
Figure 3 shows the energy distribution in the bunch as
3.2 The Gun represented in TS2 and in L. In the TS2 graphic, the bunch
Simulation results for the TESLA TTF gun have been pub- moves from left to right, so the head of the bunch is on
lished elsewhere [4]. For a correct treatment of the collec- the right. In L, the energy is plotted as a function of time,
tive forces, a very fine resolution of the calculation grid is therefore the head of the bunch is on the left. Slices in L
464
0.103
5.165E-02
0.
-0.576 -2.888E-05 0.576
Figure 2: Capture Cavity as simulated in TS2. The structure is rotationally symmetric, the bottom line is the axis of
rotation. The spot near the center shows the tiny dimensions of the electron bunch that moves along the axis from left to
right.
carry different charges. The number of slices was chosen 6 REFERENCES
very high. Statistics is better for fewer slices at the cost of
[1] The MAFIA collaboration, User’s Guide MAFIA Version
details in the distribution. 4.00, CST GmbH, Lauteschlägerstr. 8, D-64289 Darmstadt,
Germany
4 CONCLUSION [2] U.Becker, M.Dohlus, T.Weiland, Three Dimensional
MAFIA provides tools to simulate the low energy part of a Klystron Simulation, Particle Accelerators, 1995, Vol. 51, pp.
135-154
linear accelerator as well as a fast calculation of ultra rela-
tivistic particles with some approximations. Interfaces al- [3] M.Drevlak, On the Preservation of Single- and Multi-Bunch
low to use the result of one calculation as starting condi- Emittance in Linear Accelerators, Thesis, DESY 95-225,
tions for the next one. Nov. 1995
[4] M.Zhang, P.Schütt, TESLA FEL Gun Simulations with
5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT PARMELA and MAFIA, Proc. of the 1996 Computational
Accelerator Physics Conference, Williamsburg, Virginia,
The authors wish to thank Stefan Setzer for his calculation September 1996
of the capture cavity.
465
HALO FORMATION IN 3-D BUNCHES WITH DIFFERENT PHASE
SPACE DISTRIBUTIONS
A.V. Fedotov, R.L. Gluckstern
Physics Department, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742
S.S. Kurennoy, R.D. Ryne
LANSCE Division, Los Alamos National Lab, Los Alamos, NM 87545
Abstract 2 NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS
We recently constructed, analytically and numerically, a In this paper we compare particle simulations performed
new class of self-consistent 6-D phase space stationary dis- for the 6-D stationary distribution given in [1] with the
tributions [1], which allowed us to study the halo devel- non-stationary 6-D Gaussian distribution, and the non-
opment mechanism without being obscured by the effect stationary 6-D uniform distribution. We also consider an
of beam redistribution. In this paper we consider non- axisymmetric beam bunch by putting a = b with a; c be-
stationary distributions and study how the halo character- ing the minor and major semiaxes of our spheroidal bunch,
istics compare with those obtained using the stationary dis- respectively. Both the Gaussian and uniform distributions
tribution. In contrast to bunches with a large aspect ratio we are constructed in the rms matched sense.
find that the effect of coupling between the r and z planes
is especially important as the bunch shape becomes more 2.1 Stability of the Matched Distribution
spherical.
Both numerical studies of the unstable modes and multi-
particle simulations for the 2-D breathing KV beam with
1 INTRODUCTION zero mismatch confirmed that the beam is unstable for tune
depressions below = 0:4 [6]. However, no halo was
A realistic treatment of halo formation must take into ac- observed in the corresponding 2-D simulations. Similar
count 3-D beam bunches and 6-D phase space distributions. studies for other 2-D rms matched distributions which are
Barnard and Lund [2] performed numerical studies with a not stationary solutions of the Vlasov equation showed
3-D beam bunch using the particle-core model, drawing at- the existence of a halo for severe tune depression and
tention to the existence and importance of a longitudinal zero mismatch [4]. The existence of a halo for such
halo for a spheroidal bunch. However, all studies based rms matched distributions was attributed to the unavoid-
on the particle-core model do not address the question of able plasma oscillations generated by the initial density-
whether halo formation is influenced by the density redis- redistribution process which is clearly shown in [4].
tribution which follows for a non-stationary beam, even In our recent 3-D simulations [1] with the stationary dis-
if it is rms matched (See for example [3]). In fact, halo tribution no such redistribution occurred. However, for the
formation in 2-D due to the redistribution process in rms Gaussian distribution one can see the strong redistribution
matched beams was shown, for example, by Okamoto [4] process which occurs very quickly in both the transverse
and Jameson [5]. We therefore continued our effort to study and longitudinal planes. In contrast to the 2-D simulations
the halo development mechanism in 3-D beam bunches in [4] this redistribution process happens for both modest and
the absence of the redistribution process [1]. Such an ap- severe space charge. In Fig. 1 we plot the maximum x and
proach allowed us to study the fundamental mechanism of z among the million particles in our run for severe (z =
halo formation associated with the beam mismatch. To ac- 0:27; x = 0:38) and modest (z = 0:65; x = 0:75) tune
complish this we constructed a new class of stationary 6-D depressions, respectively. Figure 2 shows the phase space
phase space distributions for a spheroidal beam bunch [1]. z , pz diagram for z = 0:27; x = 0:38 without and
We then explored the formation of longitudinal and trans- with a low-density cut [1] which enables us to observe the
verse halos in 3-D bunches in great detail [1]. halo structure clearly. Similarly, one can see the redistribu-
Now that we have established the parameters which lead tion process for the uniform distribution. One again finds
to halo formation in 3-D beam bunches for the 6-D self- halo formation for both modest and severe space charge
consistent phase space distribution, we explore distribu- [7]. Thus, we have found that an rms matched 3-D beam
tions which are not self-consistent, to determine the extent can produce transverse and=or longitudinal halos (of rela-
to which the relatively rapid redistribution in the 6-D phase tively small extent) for a wide range of space charge inten-
space contributes to the formation of halos. This is the fo- sity even when it is initially perfectly matched. Of course,
cus of the present paper. from a practical point of view such halos are not important
because the halo extent is very small for the mismatch fac-
Work supported by the U.S. Department of Energy tor = 1:0. The important consequence is that the redis-
466
(a) (b)
tribution process by itself (zero initial rms mismatch) does 6 0.5
not lead to significant emittance growth.
0.4
zmax
ez
4
(a) (b) 0.3
8 8
0.2
2
xmax
ex
6 6 0.1
zmax
zmax
0 0
4 4 0 500 1000 0 500 1000
t t
xmax
xmax
2 2 (c) (d)
2
2
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 100 200 300 1
t t 1
0
0
pz
pr
Figure 1: Maximum x and z as a function of time for ini- −1
−1
tially matched beam x = y = z = 1:0 with 6-D Gaus- −2
−2
sian distribution (c=a = 3) a) x = 0:38, z = 0:27 b) −5 0 5
−3
0 1 2 3
x = 0:75, z = 0:65. z r
Figure 3: 6-D uniform distribution x = y = z = 1:5
(a) (b) (c=a = 3, x = 0:53, z = 0:39) a) maximum x and z
b) emittance growth c) z , pz diagram at t = 900 (with
2 2
1
1 32,768 particles plotted) d) r , pr diagram at t = 900
0 for particles with the angular momentum jLz j < 0:1 (with
0
pz
pz
−1 25,000 particles plotted).
−1
−2
−2 −3 6
−5 0 5 −5 0 5
z z
Figure 2: Longitudinal phase space diagram at t = 50 of
initially matched beam x = y = z = 1:0 with 6-D 4
x max/ x r m s
Gaussian distribution (c=a = 3, x = 0:38, z = 0:27) a)
without low-density cut (with 32,768 particles plotted) b) 3
with low-density cut (with 20,000 particles plotted). c/a=3
µz = 1 . 0
2
ηx = 0 . 5 3
ηz = 0 . 3 9
1
2.2 Initially Mismatched Beam
0
Numerical 3-D simulations with the initially mismatched
0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
non-stationary distributions described above confirm all the µx
characteristics of halos observed for the stationary distribu-
tion [1]. The main difference is that for a non-stationary Figure 4: Extent of the transverse halo for the 6-D station-
distribution the halo extent is larger (especially for the ary distribution with zero longitudinal mismatch z = 1:0
Gaussian) than the halo extent of the stationary distribu- (c=a = 3, x = 0:53, z = 0:39).
tion with the same initial mismatch parameters. As an
example, in Fig. 3 we show the maximum x, z , emit-
tance growth, z , pz diagram without the low-density cut halo [8] we show in Fig. 4 the dependence of the trans-
and r , pr diagram (with angular momentum jLz j < 0:1 verse halo extent on the mismatch for fixed space charge,
to make the “peanut” diagram relatively clear) with initial with tune depressions z = 0:39, x = 0:53. The main dif-
x = y = z = 1:5 for the uniform distributions. The 6- ference is the behavior near = 1:0 which clearly shows
D stationary distribution constructed in [1] gives a picture the existence of threshold for halo formation in beams with
of halo development almost identical to the uniform non- stationary distributions. Similar behavior exists for the lon-
stationary distribution except for a slight difference in the gitudinal halo [7] (the extent of the longitudinal halo is
halo extent. smaller than that of the transverse halo).
A systematic study for bunches of different shape (c=a) However, the existence of a threshold for halo formation
and mismatch factor (with simultaneous mismatch in all observed in 2-D simulations and then confirmed by our 3-D
planes) was presented recently [1]. Below we present some particle simulations turns out to be a feature only observed
examples of the mismatch in the transverse plane only. To for self-consistent stationary distributions. For example,
compare our results with those available for a transverse Fig. 5 for the 6-D uniform non-stationary distribution has
467
6 (a) (b)
4 2
5
3 1
zmax
2 0
pr
4
xmax
x max/ x r m s
1 −1
3
c/a=3 0 −2
µz = 1 . 0 0 200 400 600 800 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
ηx = 0 . 5 3 t r
2
ηz = 0 . 3 9
Figure 6: Coupling effect for the 6-D stationary distribution
1
with zero transverse mismatch x = y = 1:0, z = 1:5
(c=a = 2, x = 0:55, z = 0:45) a) maximum x and z b)
r , pr diagram at t = 800 for particles with the angular
0
momentum jLz j < 0:1 (with 25,000 particles plotted).
0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
µx
Figure 5: Extent of the transverse halo for the 6-D uniform
distribution with zero longitudinal mismatch z = 1:0 to study the halo development mechanism in 3-D beam
(c=a = 3, x = 0:53, z = 0:39). bunches where no phase space redistribution occurs. After
we established the parameters which lead to halo forma-
tion in 3-D beam bunches for the self-consistent 6-D phase
no obvious threshold behavior. In fact, we showed above space stationary distribution [1], in this paper we explored
that, in a non-stationary beam, a halo can form even for a rms matched distributions which are not self-consistent, to
zero initial mismatch. Therefore, in a “real” beam which determine the extent to which the relatively rapid redistri-
goes through a redistribution and relaxation process one bution of the 6-D phase space contributes to the formation
should not expect a threshold for halo formation due to a of halos. We also found that the effect of coupling between
mismatch. the r and z planes is very important in the halo develop-
ment mechanism and can lead to serious consequencies,
2.3 Coupling Effects especially for a very short beam bunch.
In performing 3-D simulations we encounter halo forma-
tion in a beam bunch, where we clearly see coupling be-
4 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
tween the longitudinal and transverse motion. It was al- We thank Tom Wangler for helpful conversations. In addi-
ready noted [1] that due to the coupling between r and z , a tion RLG and AVF wish to thank Andy Jason and the LAN-
transverse or longitudinal halo is observed even for a very SCE1 group for its hospitality during part of these studies.
small mismatch (less than 10%) as long as there is a signif-
icant mismatch in the other plane. Further numerical inves- 5 REFERENCES
tigation of this question showed that the effect of coupling
becomes extremely important for nearly spherical bunches [1] R.L. Gluckstern, A.V. Fedotov, S.S. Kurennoy and R.D.
(c=a 2) which is typical of the parameter range of in- Ryne, Univ. of Maryland Physics Dept. Preprint 98-107,
scheduled for publication in Phys. Rev. E (October 1998).
terest for the APT design [9]. For example, for the short
bunch with c=a = 2, with only a longitudinal initial mis- [2] J.J. Barnard and S.M. Lund (I), and S.M. Lund and J.J.
match (z = 1:5, x = y = 1:0), one finds particles Barnard (II), in Proceedings of the 1997 Particle Accelerator
at large amplitude in both the longitudinal and transverse Conference, Vancouver, Canada (unpublished).
directions, as can be seen in Fig. 6 for the 6-D station- [3] M. Reiser, Theory and Design of Charged Particle Beams,
ary distribution. Of course, the intensity of particles in the Wiley, New York (1994).
transverse halo is much smaller than it is when there is in [4] H. Okamoto and M. Ikegami, Phys. Rev. E 55, 4694 (1997).
addition a transverse initial mismatch. (In our example in [5] R.A. Jameson, Los Alamos Report No. LA-UR-93-1209 (un-
Fig. 6, we have 0:05 percent of the particles in the trans- published).
verse halo with zero transverse mismatch compared with [6] R.L. Gluckstern, W-H. Cheng, S.S. Kurennoy and H. Ye,
several percent in the longitudinal halo.) A similar effect Phys Rev. E 54, 6788 (1996).
due to coupling was seen for the non-stationary distribu- [7] A.V. Fedotov, R.L. Gluckstern, S.S. Kurennoy and R.D.
tions. Ryne, Univ. of Maryland Physics Dept. Preprint 98-108
(1998).
3 SUMMARY [8] T. Wangler et al., in Proceedings of the 1997 Particle Accel-
erator Conference, Vancouver, Canada (unpublished).
Recently we constructed, analytically and numerically, a
[9] APT Conceptual Design Report, Los Alamos Report No. LA-
new class of 6-D phase space stationary distributions for
UR-97-1329, 1997.
an azimuthally symmetric beam bunch which allowed us
468
STUDY OF THE TRANSVERSE BEAM MOTION
IN THE DARHT PHASE II ACCELERATOR*
Y.-J. Chen and T.L. Houck
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California 94550 USA
W. M. Fawley
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720 USA
Abstract 2 CONFIGURATION AND DESIGN
The accelerator for the second-axis of the Dual Axis PARAMETERS FOR DARHT II
Radiographic Hydrodynamic Test (DARHT) facility will The accelerator is arranged in eleven 8-cell blocks with
accelerate a 4-kA, 3-MeV, 2-µs long electron current pulse pumping ports located between cell blocks. About one
to 20 MeV. The energy variation of the beam within the hundred solenoids are used to transport the beam. Three
flat-top portion of the current pulse is ± 0.5%. The different cell configurations were used in the transport
performance of the DARHT Phase II radiographic machine simulations. Two configurations are for a beam line
requires the transverse beam motion to be much less than aperture of 25.4 cm and differ only in the insulator/gap
the beam spot size which is about 1.5 mm diameter on design of the cells. The final configuration has a larger,
the x-ray converter. In general, the leading causes of the 35.6 cm, aperture for the first 8-cell block followed by ten
transverse beam motion in an accelerator are the beam 8-cell blocks with a 25.4 cm aperture.
breakup instability (BBU) and the corkscrew motion. We
To achieve the performance criteria of x-ray dose and
have modeled the transverse beam motion in the DARHT
spot size, the normalized Lapostolle emittance (95% of
Phase II accelerator with various magnetic tunes and
beam current) at the x-ray converter has to be no greater
accelerator cell configurations by using the BREAKUP
than 1500 π-mm-mr, and the transverse beam motion
code. The predicted sensitivity of corkscrew motion and
should be no greater than 10% of beam radius. The
BBU growth to different tuning algorithms will be
designed beam parameters are:
presented.
1) current of 4 kA in a 2 µs pulse with 200 ns rise time,
2) energy at the injector exit of 3 MeV ± 0.5% increasing
1 INTRODUCTION to 20 MeV ± 0.5% at the accelerator exit, and
Transport simulations of the beam from the exit of the 3) emittance (4 x Lapostolle emittance) at the injector exit
injector to the accelerator exit have been performed for the of 500 π-mm-mr increasing to less than 1000 π-mm-mr
second axis of the Dual Axis Radiographic Hydrodynamic at the accelerator exit.
Test (DARHT) facility [1]. The motivation for
performing these simulations was to establish engineering 3 BBU INSTABILITY AND
tolerances and design criteria to ensure that the DARHT-II TRANSVERSE IMPEDANCE
facility meets performance goals. These goals are to
The beam breakup instability arises from the beam
produce four 60-ns long pulses, each with a time-
interacting with the accelerating cells’ dipole TM modes.
integrated x-ray dose of 1000 R at one meter, with a 1 - 2
The transverse impedance is a measurement of the strength
mm time-integrated x-ray spot. Transverse motion of the
of the interaction. As the beam axis is offset from the
beam is a principle limitation in achieving the desired
cavity axis, these modes extract energy from the leading
accelerator performance. Leading causes of the transverse
part of the beam and deflect the trailing part of the beam
beam motion typically are the beam breakup instability
transversely. This instability typically sets the upper limit
driven by injector noise and misalignments, and the
for a transportable beam current and the lower limit for the
corkscrew motion [2] caused by misalignments and
focusing field.
chromatic aberration of optical elements. In this paper, we
show that both corkscrew motion and misalignment 3 .1 Equations Governing BBU
driven beam breakup instability can be controlled
effectively by using the corkscrew tuning V algorithm The BBU instability is a convective instability. For the
[3].We have also examined growth of beam breakup misalignment driven beam breakup instability, the
instabilities in these cells for various accelerator maximum number of e-fold in the beam breakup
configurations. instability growth is given by
L dz ′
∫
c I
α=
*
The work was performed under the auspices of the U.S. Department Z⊥ , (1)
of Energy by LLNL under contract W-7405-ENG-48 , and by LBNL l Io 0 γkc ( z ′ )
under contract AC03-76SF00098.
469
and the peak growth will occur in the pulse after a time rapid increase in magnetic field slows the BBU growth as
τ = 2αQ ω o , (2) seen in equation (1).
where I is the beam current, Io = 17 kA, Z ⊥ is the The DARHT-I alignment specifications is expected to
transverse cell impedance for the BBU mode frequency ωο. produce a corkscrew amplitude of several millimeters by
The gap separation is l, and the accelerator length is L. the end of the accelerator without corrective measures. The
For an electron beam pulse with a long rise time, the “tuning-V” steering algorithm has demonstrated an order
beam breakup instability driven by misalignment starts to of magnitude reduction in corkscrew on the ETA-II
grow at the head of the pulse and may not propagate into accelerator. In the simulations described below, only one
the flat-top portion of the pulse before the beam leaves the steering coil per 8-cell block was used to implement the
accelerator. Therefore, the beam breakup instability driven steering algorithm.
by misalignment is generally not a threat to a DARHT-II
pulse with long rise time. In contrast, the beam breakup 5 SIMULATION RESULTS
instability driven by injector noise would appear The BREAKUP code was used to model the beam
throughout the pulse length. BBU growing from injector centroid’s transverse motion in the DARHT-II accelerator.
noise a significant concern for the DARHT-II beam Both motion due to the BBU instability and corkscrew
transverse motion. motion was included. Three different configurations were
simulated. The gain factor, a figure of merit for BBU
3 .2 Transverse Impedance growth, is defined as BBU amplitude divided by the
Three DARHT-II accelerator cell configurations have injector noise amplitude. The goal is to have a gain factor
been designed [4]. The configurations differ primarily in ≤ 20, or 3 e-folds based on an injector noise amplitude of
the geometry of the insulator and aperture size. However, 100 microns. The goal for the amplitude of the transverse
only the impedance and frequency of the primary resonant motion, including corkscrew and BBU, is 0.6 mm.
modes are required for the purpose of the simulations.
Examples of the simulation results for misalignment
Table 1 lists the pertinent cell characteristics for BBU
errors are shown in Figures 1 and 2. The beam pulse was
calculations. Note that Z = c Z⊥/ωo. “Initial” and “current”
simulated for 350 ns including a 200 ns rise time. An
refer to the insulator/gap designs under consideration.
energy variation of ±5% was imposed on the 150 ns of
Table 1: Impedances of different cell configurations flat-top to model the effect of corkscrew on the longer
Design Freq. (MHz) Z/Q (Ω) Q 2-µs pulse. Two observations can be made from the
Initial 262 34.9 2.0 results. First is that the BBU motion, the fast oscillation
at the start of the pulse, extends only a short distance into
(25.4 cm ID) 580 1.1 7.2
the pulse and is insignificant compared to the corkscrew
672 3.9 6.9
amplitude. Second, the V-tuning steering correction
Current 200 37.6 1.9 reduced the corkscrew amplitude by over an order of
(25.4 cm ID) 535 7.3 3.8 magnitude. The effects of injector noise and misalignment
Current 171 25.4 2.0 are shown in Fig. 3. The BBU motion extends throughout
(35.6 cm ID) 443 4.3 4.2 the pulse as expected while the corkscrew amplitude is
relatively unchanged from the no noise case.
4 CORKSCREW MECHANISM AND 3.6
TUNING STRATEGY
Transverse Motion Amplitude (mm)
3.2
Corkscrew motion is a differential oscillation of the
2.8
beam centroid between the leading and trailing portions of
a beam pulse driven by chromatic aberration of the 2.4
focusing elements and misalignment of the machine. The 2.0
DARHT-II accelerator’s alignment requirement is to meet
the alignment specification of the first axis of DARHT 1.6
accelerator’s: random 3-σ magnetic tilt to be 1.95 mrad 1.2
and random 3-σ magnet offset to be 0.45 mm. There are
0.8
about one hundred of solenoids with steering/correction
coils along the DARHT-II accelerator. 0.4
The magnetic tune was chosen to focus the electron 0.0
beam from an 8 cm radius at the exit of the injector to a 6 220 240 260 280 300 320 340
mm radius as rapidly as possible without adversely Pulse Time (ns)
affecting the current distribution. The 6 mm radius is then Figure 1. Simulated transverse beam centroid motion
maintained through the remember of the accelerator. The driven by misalignments with no steering correction.
470
0.28 The second configuration modeled consisted of eleven
8-cell blocks with an aperture of 25.4 cm and used the
Transverse Motion Amplitude (mm) 0.24 “current” cell impedance parameters. Results are shown in
Table 3.
0.20
Table 3. BBU growth for “current” accelerator cell design
0.16
Mode Frequency Gain Factor at Gain Factor at
0.12 (MHz) exit of 1st accelerator exit
block
0.08
200 3.1 34.3
0.04 535 3.1 34.3
0.00 Corkscrew amplitude at accelerator exit is 0.24 mm.
220 240 260 280 300 320 340
Pulse Time (ns) The third configuration modeled consisted of a 35.6 cm
Figure 2. Simulated transverse beam centroid motion aperture 8-cell block followed by ten 8-cell blocks with
driven by misalignments with steering corrections. Note apertures of 25.4. All cells used the “current” cell
the change in vertical scaling from Fig. 1. impedance parameters. Results are shown in Table 4.
0.24 Table 4. BBU with larger aperture first 8-cell block
Mode Frequency Gain Factor at Gain Factor at
Transverse Motion Amplitude (mm)
0.20 (MHz) exit of 1st accelerator exit
block
0.16
170 1.9 12.2
0.12 200 1.5 10.7
0.08
Corkscrew amplitude at accelerator exit is 0.16 mm.
0.04 6 SUMMARY
Corkscrew motion can be kept well within design goals
0.00 for the expected accelerator misalignments by applying the
220 240 260 280 300 320 340 V-tuning algorithm. The BBU instability growth required
Pulse Time (ns) the lower impedance characteristics associated with the
Figure 3. Simulated transverse beam centroid motion larger aperture cells to stay below the desired gain factor.
driven by misalignments and injector noise. V-tuning A possible factor not considered in the BBU growth is
steering corrections used. loss of the low energy head of the beam. This would lead
to a faster rise time as the pulse travels down the
Results of the different configurations are summarized
accelerator. The gain factor will remain the same, so the
below. For all cases, the simulations included both
issue is the magnitude of the shock excitation due to the
misalignment and injector noise. The gain factor at the
short rise time and misalignments. If this excitation is no
end of the first 8-cell block is listed in the results to
more than the injector noise, the BBU growth should
emphasize the effect of the low focusing fields at the start
remain within design goals.
of the accelerator. The first configuration modeled
consisted of eleven 8-cell blocks with an aperture of 25.4
cm and used the “initial” cell impedance parameters. 7 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Results are shown in Table 2. R. Briggs, G. Caporaso, D. Prono, and S. Yu provide
Table 2. BBU growth for “initial” accelerator cell design valuable advice and guidance.
Mode Frequency Gain Factor at Gain Factor at
(MHz) exit of 1st block accelerator 8 REFERENCES
exit
[1] H. Rutkowski, “An Induction Linac for the Second
262 2.9 132.7 Phase of DARHT”, this conference MO2001.
[2] Y.-J. Chen, Nucl. Instr. and Meth. A 292 (1990) 455.
672 2.1 115 [3] Y.-J. Chen, Nucl. Instr. and Meth. A 398 (1997) 139.
Corkscrew amplitude at accelerator exit is 0.24 mm. [4] T. L. Houck, et. al., “Physics Design of the DARHT
2nd Axis Accelerator Cell,” this conference TH4040.
471
EM-PIC SIMULATIONS OF e-BEAM INTERACTION WITH FIELD
EMITTED IONS FROM BREMSSTRAHLUNG TARGETS *
P. W. Rambo and S. Brandon
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore CA 94550
Abstract total current of Ib≈2.3 kA focused to a spot size of
We investigate electron beam defocusing caused by rb≈0.1 cm; thus the current density is approximately
field emitted ions from the bremsstrahlung target of a Jb≈70 kA/cm2 and particle flux Jb/e=5×1023 /cm2⋅s. At the
radiography machine using fully electromagnetic particle- beam energy εb =16 MeV, ionization energy loss in Ta is
in-cell simulations. This possibly deleterious effect is dε/dx≈20 MeV/cm at solid density, and the average energy
relevant to both current radiography machines (FXR) and increase per atom is approximately 0.2 eV/ns. Thus the
machines being built (DARHT-2) or planned (AHF). A target is very quickly heated, and any surface contaminants
simple theory of the acceleration of ions desorbed from the are expected to be available for ionization and subsequent
heated target, and subsequent beam defocusing due to acceleration.
partial charge neutralization is in reasonable agreement A simple theory serves to estimate the properties of
with the more detailed simulations. For parameters these emitted ions and their interaction with the electron
corresponding to FXR (Ib=2.3 kA, εb=16 MeV), beam; units are Gaussian, except where results in more
simulations assuming space-charge-limited emission of convenient units are specifically indicated. Approximate
protons predict prompt beam defocusing. Time integrated the beam as a cylinder of radius rb with uniform density
spot-size measurement, however, is dominated by early- n b, both corresponding to the target focus. The beam is
time small spot brightness, and so is not a sensitive traveling at nearly the speed of light, c, with relativistic
diagnostic. Comparisons are made to available FXR data. factor γ b . The potential difference between the center of
We also investigate use of a recessed target geometry to the beam and its edge, as well as the (radial) electric field
mitigate field emitted ion acceleration; only modest are easily calculated; the axial field at the target will be
improvements are predicted. approximately the same,
1 INTRODUCTION Φ b ≈ πenb rb2 ≈ Ib / c ; Ez ≈ Er = 2Φ b / rb . (1)
Current radiography machines such as FXR, as well For FXR parameters, this predicts an electric field at the
as future machines such as DARHT-2 and the proposed target surface of order E z≈1.4 MeV/cm. The current of
Advanced Hydrodynamic Facility (AHF), make use of an emitted ions (mass Mi=Aimp and charge qi =Zie, with mp
intense electron beam striking a high-Z target to generate the proton mass) may be estimated using the well known
high-energy bremsstrahlung radiation. It is necessary that result for Child-Langmuir space-charge-limited current.
the electron beam be focused to a small spot for good Using the beam potential just estimated and a distance
radiographic definition. In FXR and DARHT-2, and the equal to the beam radius,
proposed AHF machine, the beam is created in a linear
(2qi / Mi )1 / 2 Φ3b / 2
induction accelerator (LIA), and is focused in a low Ji ≈ ; Ii ≡ πrb2 Ji , (2)
applied-field drift region. Dale Welch [1] at MRC first 9πrb2
identified a potential problem due to ion field emission for which predicts an emitted ion current Ii/Ib ≈0.2% for FXR.
DARHT–2, arguing that target heating from the beam The ions are quickly accelerated to an energy of the order
would quickly provide a source of ions which can be of the beam potential, and hence velocity vi=(2qiΦb/Mi)1/2.
accelerated by the beam space-charge, and back stream The ion density is then estimated from ni=Ji/viqi, showing
toward the beam source. The excess charge neutralization the surprising result that the charge neutralization fraction
then causes the beam to pinch, and subsequently ƒ is a constant: ƒ≈1/9. The contribution to the radial field
defocus.We describe results from electromagnetic PIC from this ion charge is equal to the field generated by the
simulations for FXR parameters, which predict prompt beam decreased by the factor ƒ, E+=ƒEr. In a time τ, the
defocusing for space-charge-limited proton emission. ions will move a length L≈τvi and beam electrons will be
Comparison to available experimental data suggests that radially accelerated as they traverse this distance to the
the emission onset is substantially delayed in time or target, t≈L/c. Equating the radial deflection to the beam
reduced from the space-charge-limit, if not absent entirely. radius gives an estimate for the time τ required to defocus
2 SPACE CHARGE LIMITED the beam,
EMISSION AND BEAM DEFOCUSING 1 eE+ 2 1 e 2Φ b τvi 2
δr ≈ t ≈ f ≡ rb ,
Welch has argued that once the target surface is heated 2 γ b me 2 γ b me rb c (3)
beyond 400 °C, impurities are readily desorbed and
ionized. These impurities, including both protons and r ( mm) γ b Ai
τ ≈ 5ns b .
carbon ions, are then free to be accelerated by the beam Ib ( kA) Zi
space charge potential. Nominally, FXR operates at a
*This work was performed under the auspices of the U. S. Department of Energy by Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory under contract No. W-7405-Eng-48
475
For FXR parameters, this theory predicts a time to Fig. 1 Time dependent beam radius at target from a
defocus of τ≈10 ns for proton emission, well within the simulation of FXR with proton emission turned on at
pulse time of 60 ns. Of course this theory is quite t=15ns.
simplified; we next turn to self consistent simulations. agreement with our previous estimate. As the beam
defocuses, emission decreases (from a peak of Ii≈8 A)
3 EM-PIC SIMULATIONS because of the reduced electric field at the emission area.
Direct particle-in-cell (PIC) simulation of intense Many aspects of the simple theory previously developed
beams has a long and successful history, both at LLNL are observed in these simulations, namely the magnitude
and elsewhere. We have simulated ion emission and of the axial electric field at the target surface, the time for
subsequent beam defocusing with both CONDOR, a well- pinching to occur, and the small ratio of emitted ion
tested design code developed over many years within A- current to beam current (<1%). The scaling of the time to
division, and a new code, CODA, that allows non- defocus, Eq. (3), with ion mass and beam current has also
rectangular zones. Both codes are fully relativistic, 2-1/2 been confirmed by additional simulations. An important
dimensional (2-spatial dimensions in axisymmetric Z-R observation is that the total number of field emitted ions,
geometry, 3-velocity dimensions) electromagnetic (EM) N i, is quite small: for this simulation Ni=5.7×1011 at
PIC codes. The simulation geometry is a cylinder of t=30 ns. This corresponds to a fraction of approximately
radius 4 cm and length 25 cm with conducting boundaries. 10-4 from a monolayer of equal area, suggesting that
The beam is injected at the left hand boundary with an surface cleaning would be a very difficult proposition.
initial radius of 2.0 cm, and with uniform current density.
The beam is injected with finite emittance so as to be 4 COMPARISON WITH FXR DATA
focused at the target; no externally applied fields are We now consider available data from FXR. Two
present. The injected beam current is linearly ramped up in principle measurements are used to assess spot quality at
10 ns, constant for 40 ns, then linearly ramped down FXR; both are time-integrated radiographic measurements.
again in 10 ns. The right hand end-plate forms the The first uses an opaque “roll bar” to cast a shadow from
absorbing target, from which ions are emitted. No the bremsstrahlung spot; the width of the edge of this
modeling of the target heating or surface physics is shadow reflects the finite spot size. Careful unfolding of
included; the space-charge-limited emission is simply the data shows a central peak with FWHM spot size of
turned on at a preselected time, over a specified radial 1.1mm, surrounded by a low density “halo” with relative
region. Simulations presented here were all performed brightness of a few percent of the central peak [2]. In the
with CODA utilizing a converging mesh that allows second measurement, forward bremsstrahlung dose is
much better resolution at the target surface, ∆r=200 µm measured both with and without an 800 µm diameter
and ∆z=600 µm. collimator. The collimated dose is observed to be
The time history of the RMS beam radius at the approximately 1/3 of the forward dose in the absence of
target is shown in Fig. 1 from a typical simulation. The the collimator; this is observed to be the case both for
injected beam is characteristic of FXR, with Ib=2.3 kA, beam currents of 2.3 kA and 3.3 kA [3].
εb=16 MeV (γb≈32) and initially focused to a root-mean Although the experimentally observed small spot
squared (RMS) radius rb=0.06 cm. Proton emission is seems at odds with the defocusing seen in the simulations,
turned on at t=15 ns, in the region 0<r<0.06 cm. The e.g. Fig. 1, this is not necessarily so. Because the beam
initial pinch and subsequent defocus occur very quickly in density at the target is inversely proportional to the square
of the spot size, nb∝I/r2, the bremsstrahlung emission
from the defocused beam is very dim and a time integrated
measurement can be dominated by the early-time small
0.3 spot brightness. In Figure 2, we show the time integrated
beam density at the target (normalized) as a function of
radius from the simulation illustrated in Fig. 1. As can be
seen, the contribution from the defocused beam is a low
density halo. The level of the halo relative to the central
0.2
Rrms (cm)
peak is determined by the relative duration of the focused
and unfocused periods of the time history. This is
illustrated in Fig. 2, which also shows results from
simulations with the ion emission turned on at 10 and
30 ns. The level of the halo is also affected by the
0.1 defocused radius; allowing ion emission from a larger area
increases the defocused beam spot, decreasing the relative
beam density in the halo.
We next consider the collimated dose measurements.
The angular spectrum of bremsstrahlung photons created
0.0 by 16 MeV electrons striking a 1mm thick Ta target was
0 20 40 60 calculated using a Monte Carlo code [4]; this angular
spectrum is then used to determine the contribution to the
t (ns) forward dose from each simulation electron as it strikes
the target. Figure 3 shows the time dependent forward
476
dose (normalized) for the simulation shown in Fig. 1. of ion emission is 0.30. Decreasing the focused beam
Because the electrons strike the target with larger angles radius to rRMS= 0.05 cm (by decreasing the injection
emittance) increases the unperturbed fractional
10 0 transmission to 0.40; for this focus and Ib=3.3 kA, proton
emission turned on at t=30 ns decreases the time
integrated fractional forward dose to 0.26. Further decrease
of the focused beam radius would be in disagreement with
10
-1 the spot size measurements.
<n e ( r ) >
Simulations were also performed with singly ionized
carbon emission for comparison. Turning on C+ emission
at t=15ns for the Ib=3.3 kA case gives a forward dose
fraction of 0.20 due to the slower defocusing, still
10-2 Ion emission time significantly less than observed; delaying the C+ emission
t=10ns until t=30 ns results in a forward dose fraction of 0.28.
t=15ns
t=30ns 5 DISCUSSION
FWHM=1.1mm We have seen from simulations with parameters
10-3 relevant to FXR, that beam defocusing occurs quickly
0.0 0.1 0.2 after the onset of proton emission. Time integrated spot
r (cm) size measurements are not a sensitive measure of
defocusing, however, because the defocused beam only
Fig. 2 Time averaged beam density at target from FXR
contributes a dim halo compared to the central peak from
simulations including proton emission; three different
the small spot emission. But the level of the halo,
emission onset times are shown.
observed to be a few percent relative to the central peak in
FXR measurements, does rule out prompt proton
1.0 emission, t<15 ns. The collimated dose is a more
stringent test. Proton emission beginning at time earlier
TOTAL than t≈30 ns is inconsistent with the observation that one
0.8 third of the forward dose is transmitted through an
800 µm collimator. Bounds on the emission of singly
ionized carbon are only slightly less restrictive.
0.6 The simplest explanation is that ion emission is not
Pbrems
occurring on FXR, or at currents reduced far below the
space charge limit (approximately a factor of 30 decrease
0.4 is necessary). This does not preclude a disastrous effect on
r<0.04 cm machines with higher current densities, however, since
there may still be a threshold for ion formation. Because
0.2 of this, methods to minimize this effect are being pursued.
In particular, we have simulated the effect of recessing the
target so as to reduce the emitted ion current. Although
0.0 the time for defocusing is increased, and the defocused
0 20 40 60 beam spot size decreased, this still does not appear to be
satisfactory. Used in conjunction with other means for
t (ns) isolating the emitted ions, however, might be acceptable.
Fig. 3 Time dependent forward dose from FXR We look forward to experimental results from ETA-II (to
simulation including proton emission for t>15 ns. be reported at this conference), including time resolved
measurements that may give a more definitive answer
after pinching, the total forward dose decreases concerning these effects.
approximately 20%. More importantly, however, the
forward dose from electrons striking the target with ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
r<400 µm is abruptly cut-off as the spot size increases. The authors wish to acknowledge numerous useful
For this case the time integrated forward dose from discussions with Y.-J. Chen, G. Caporaso, N. Back, R.
electrons entering the target with r<400 µm is 0.14 of the Scarpetti, M. Aufderheide, D. Ho, and P. Bergstrom.
total calculated forward dose. Again, this fraction varies
with the onset time for ion emission; for onset times of REFERENCES
10 ns and 30 ns (see Fig. 2) the forward dose fractions are [1] D. R. Welch, “Effects of electron-ion streaming due to
0.10 and 0.23 respectively. With the beam current beam-target interactions,” presented at the DARHT-2
increased to Ib=3.3 kA, similar results are obtained except Review (January 16, 1997).
that the forward dose fraction is further decreased: for [2] N. Back, internal memorandum (March 24, 1997).
proton emission onset times of 15 ns and 30 ns the [3] R. Scarpetti, private communication (May 14, 1998).
forward dose fractions are 0.11 and 0.20 respectively. The [4] P. Bergstrom, private communication (October 3,
forward dose fraction for these simulations in the absence 1997).
477
TRANSVERSE WAKEFIELD EFFECT MEASUREMENT VIA
MODEL-INDEPENDENT ANALYSIS
John Irwin, Chun-xi Wang, Karl Bane, Yiton Yan, Michiko Minty, Franz J. Decker, Gennady Stupakov
Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94309 USA
Abstract
Table 1: Correlation coefficients of beam current and bunch
Transverse wakefield effects due to structure misalign- length with other beam parameters
ments can be an important source of emittance degradation
current I bunch length z
in a linear collider. Though important, it is difficult to mea- horizontal position x ,: 0 17 ,: 0 52
sure local wakefield effects and identify the sources. Re- horizontal angle x0 ,: 0 03 ,: 0 15
cently, we have developed a novel method for analyzing the vertical position y ,: 0 08 : 0 01
beam dynamics in an accelerator based on BPM readings, vertical angle y 0 : 0 10 : 0 20
that is independent of any machine models. This method long. beam phase ,: 0 48 ,: 0 20
relies on, instead, statistically analyzing an ensemble of beam energy ,: 0 37 ,: 0 18
readings from a large number of BPMs and for a large num- bunch length : 0 05 1
ber of pulses. In addition, pulse-by-pulse information of beam current 1 ,: 0 05
beam (and machine) parameters are used. By taking ad-
vantage of the spatial correlation and temporal structure of Recently, a novel approach to analyze beam dynamics
all these signals, such analysis allows observation of beam has been developed which we call “Model Independent
dynamics at a level well below the single BPM resolution Analysis (MIA)”. It is a statistical analysis of BPM data
as well as studies of subtle beam dynamics effects. Using and does not rely on any particular machine model. There
this method, which is quick and non-invasive, we are able are two major parts in MIA. One is noise reduction and
to measure the transverse wakefield effects due to structure degree-of-freedom analysis via singular value decomposi-
misalignments in the SLC linac. tion of a BPM-reading matrix. The other is a physical
base decomposition of the BPM-reading matrix based on
1 INTRODUCTION the time structure of beam (and machine) parameters. The
combination of these two methods allows one to go below
A beam, when passing by a misaligned accelerator struc- the resolution limit set by individual BPMs and to observe
ture, will excite transverse wakefields that kick different the beam dynamics at a much finer level. Physical base
parts of the beam by different amounts and therefore blow decomposition is particularly useful for understanding var-
up the beam emmittance. Such a wakefield effect can be ious beam dynamics issues, because it takes all known sig-
a major source of luminosity degradation in a linear col- nal correlations into accounts. In the next section we de-
lider. However, it is very difficult to measure transverse scribe MIA. Then, in the following section we apply MIA
wakefield effects due to the weakness of the signals and the to obtain information about the structure misalignments in
difficulty of separating such effects from other sources of the SLC linac and their transverse wakefield effects.
perturbations. Using the current dependency of the wake-
field, one can separate the wakefield effects from other ef- 2 MODEL INDEPENDENT ANALYSIS [1]
fects. One idea is to measure beam orbits at different cur-
rents and then calculate the difference. Unfortunately, such The transverse beam position of a pulse depends on various
measurements hardly succeed. One reason is the limited physical variables such as the initial conditions of the pulse,
resolution in orbit measurements. More importantly, when the settings of magnets, and the RF conditions. We can
beam current is changed, many other beam parameters (as Taylor expand the beam position b over all variables as
well as the orbit) will be changed also. To avoid problems
= b(x1 ; x1; ; ; ) + v
X @b
coming with current change, bunch length change has been b 0
(1)
z
used but with limited success. To illustrate this problem, @v v=v
v2fx1 ;x0 ;g
1
+ 12
Table 1 shows the correlations of current (bunch length)
@ 2b
v1v2 +
X
change with other beam parameters that we are able to
monitor in the linac of Stanford Linear Collider (SLC). It @v2 @v1 v1 =
v1
v1 ;v2 2fx1 ;x0 ;g
1 v2 =
v2
was computed with 5000 electron pulses collected under
normal running conditions. Clearly such correlations have where x1 , x01 , , z are respectively initial beam position,
to be taken into account in order to measure the wakefield angle, relative energy, and bunch length, given as examples
effects correctly. of possible physical variables; the over bar indicates the
Work supported by the Department of Energy under Contract No. expansion points; v =
v , v and so on. The zero order
DE-AC03-76SF00515 term may have complicated dependency on the variables
478
and is sensitive to the unknown BPM offset errors. To get In other words, the BPM reading pattern generated by each
rid of it, we subtract the average over a large ensemble of pulse is a superposition of certain basic patterns. This fact
pulses and study the difference allows us to apply linear algebra concepts and matrix anal-
ysis techniques to the BPM data analysis. The statistical
,h i = ( , h i)
X @b
b b v v (2) meaning of CB and CQ provides the connection between
v
@v
=v v matrix analysis and statistical analysis.
+ 12
2
(v1 v2 , hv1 v2i)
X
@ b
Though SVD analysis of the BPM-reading matrix B
@v2 @v1 1 =1
(statistically, it is the principle components analysis of
2 =2
v v
v1 ;v2
v v BPM readings) is a major aspect of MIA, it will not be
where h i indicates the average over an ensemble of pulses. described here due to space limitation. However this anal-
Although we have found that some second derivatives ysis is not crucial in the discussion of the wakefield effect
(which characterize, e.g. the chromatic dependency of measurements. What we will use is physical base decom-
the betatron motion) may be significant at times, the third position of B using various kinds of pulse-by-pulse beam
and higher order terms are generally negligible and will be and machine parameters as tags –signals form a subset of
dropped. We treat the first and second order terms on the the matrix Q. Mathematically, we know Q (or a subset of
same footing and rewrite Eq.(2) in a concise form: it) and B of Eq.(4), and need to solve for F . If we know
all the physical variables with sufficient accuracy, the cor-
,h i =
X
b b q fq (3) responding physical basis can be computed as
fg q
=( ),1 = ,1
,h i 1 2 ,h 1 2 i
T T T T
where the variable q or = v
std( )
v v v
std( 1 2 )
v v
F Q Q Q B CQ Q B (5)
std(v ) or
v v v
@b
and fq is the corresponding derivative @v and the errors due to noise are generally proportional to
std( 1 2 ). The physical variables are p1 . The first expression reflects the least-squares fitting
v
1 2
2
@ b
v v
@v2 @v1
1 2
v ;v
P
aspect of the solution, while the second expression empha-
normalized by their standard deviations over the ensemble
of pulses, so that all the q 's are dimensionless and reflect sizes the importance of taking care of correlations among
the relative changes, while all the f 's have the same di- the observed variables.
mension as the BPM readings. The accuracy of Eq.(5) does not rely on the number of
For an ensemble of P pulses monitored with M BPMs, BPMs used. It simply fits each BPM reading to various
according to Eq.(3), the BPM-reading matrix B , consisting temporal patterns individually and ignores any correlations
of b , hbi, can be factorized as among BPM readings. In fact, the BPM noise can be re-
= +
T
duced statistically by taking into account the correlations
B QF N (4) among BPM readings. Therefore, if we cut the noise first
where QP d = [ 1 ],
q ;
~ ;~
qd FM d = [ 1 ], and
~ ;
f ~
;f d
and then apply Eq.(5), the noise level can potentially be
reduced by a factor of p1M , and we have
NP M contains the noise associated with each BPM read-
ing. The column vector ~qi contains the P values of the i-th
physical variable and f~i contains the M components of the
corresponding physical pattern. The q 's are referred to as
F
T
= CQ Q
,1 T
U SV
T
+ (p 1 )
O
P M
(6)
temporal patterns or time structures of the pulses, while the
f 's as spatial patterns or physical vectors. Note that the
where U S V T is the SVD of B , and S indicates the ze-
BPM-reading matrix B is the central object of MIA analy- roing of small singular values that are due to noise. This
sis. Eq.(4) is called the physical base decomposition. statistical error limit may be hard to achieve however due
We assume all the physical vectors are linearly indepen- to problems such as machine instability and incomplete in-
dent, i.e. F has full column rank given by d. They form a formation in Q.
complete basis for the row space of the BPM-reading ma-
Usually we know only a subset of Q, say Qs of Q =
trix (i.e. range of B T ). Unlike P and M which can be
chosen at will, dimension d is determined by the dynamics.
[ ]
Qs ; Qr . We can still calculate Fs according to Eq.(5) with
Qs , The error due to the missing part is
One of the MIA achievements is to determine d. Gener-
ally, d is a small number and, we choose P and M so that
( , e ) =( ),1
d M P to obtain statistical benefits. Typical num-
xact T T T T
Fs Fs Qs Qs Qs Qr Fr (7)
bers that we use are d , M 2 , and P p 3. 10 10 10
For convenience, we normalize B , Q, and N by P , so Therefore, if the known subset Qs are uncorrelated with
that the important (variance-)covariance matrices of BPM (orthogonal to) the remaining unknown temporal patterns,
readings and temporal patterns (q 's) can be formed simply i.e. QTs Qr =0 , then we would obtain the same results as
=
as CB B TB and CQ QT Q. = if we had measured all Q. Otherwise, the unknown part of
According to Eq.(3), a beam orbit is a linear combina- the physical basis (i.e. Fr ) will be mixed into the measured
tion of a limited number of ”basic” orbits given by the fq s. parts. This is the major limitation of this method.
479
3 TRANSVERSE WAKEFIELD EFFECT sidering the fact that the BPM resolution is about 10 m,
MEASUREMENT which is as large as the signals. Furthermore, no external
beam perturbation was used, and the signal is a rather weak
Because of the detrimental effects of transverse wakefield 1.3% natural current jitter. As far as we know, such accu-
due to structure misalignments, various methods [2, 3] have rate transverse wakefield effect measurements in a linac are
been used for the detection and correction of such wake- unprecedented. Note that the errors are on the order of a
field effects. In the following, we present some prelimi- few microns, which is much larger than the statistical limit.
nary results where MIA is used to measure the transverse Therefore, it is still possible to further improve both mea-
wakefield effects. At the SLC, in addition to the beam surement and analysis. Frames 1 and 2 demonstrate that
transverse position, we can monitor beam current, bunch the current vectors obtained via Eq.(5) are correct. The bot-
length, incoming beam (longitudinal) phase, and relative tom frame shows the current vectors of conditions a and c,
beam energy on a pulse-by-pulse basis. Other signals such which are the wakefield effects due to misalignments (and
as klystron phases along the linac have not been used in corrector offsets, etc.) in the normal running machine. An
the present analysis. As is shown in Table 1, there are sig- immediate application of such current vectors is the detec-
nificant correlations among these signals, especially for the tion of structure misalignments and confirmation of wake-
wakefield sensitive variables. MIA takes all known corre- field calculations.
lations into account, and therefore should provide a better We performed a similar analysis in x also. We found
measurement of the wakefield effects. To investigate this, that, one set of results agrees with the calculation while
we generated a 5 corrector, 1.2mm, local bump in the linac another has much larger deviations. The discrepancy in the
of SLC and measured its wakefield effect via MIA. We used horizontal cases may be due to some unknown jitter sources
readings from the beginning to about the 1/3 point of the that are correlated with the current. We repeated these ex-
linac (LI02–LI13), and collected 3 sets of 5000 pulses un- periments several weeks later and obtained similar results
der the conditions: before the bump was applied (a), after it in both the vertical and horizontal planes.
was applied (b), and after the bump was removed (c). Each Our measurement results are still preliminary because
set of data took a few minutes to collect. limited machine time prevented us from thorough inves-
500
tigation. Nonetheless, they are very encouraging and
0
promising. Since such measurements need not perturb the
−500
beam, they are basically non-invasive to normal machine
−1000
operation and in principle can be done parasitically and
−1500 quickly after the method matures. On the other hand, in-
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
tentionally introduced larger current variation will improve
10 the sensitivity to the misalignments. This method can po-
0
tentially become a powerful tool for finding structure mis-
alignments.
−10
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
10
4 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
5
0
We would like to thank M. Ross and N. Phinney as well as
−5 the SLC operation crew for their support. Special thanks
−10 is due to L. Hendrickson for her updating the SLC solo
−15
0 20 40 60
BPM #
80 100 120 control program (SCP) to support our data acquisition. We
would also like to acknowledge A. Chao, M. Lee, P. Rai-
Figure 1: wakefield effect measurements in vertical plane mondi, S. Smith, F. Zimmermann, and P. Tenenbaum for
helpful discussions.
We applied MIA on all sets of data and then compared
the vectors corresponding to the current jitter, and the re- 5 REFERENCES
sults in y are shown in Figure 1 (all ordinate units are [1] A comprehensive documentation of MIA will soon be pub-
in m). The top frame shows the differences of the av- lished under the title “Model independent analysis of beam
eraged beam orbits. The solid line shows the difference dynamics in accelerators”
between conditions b and a, while the dots are between [2] T.O. Raubenheimer, K. Kubo, “A technique for measuring
conditions b and c. The corrector bump is clearly visible and correcting emittance dilutions due to accelerator structure
(it is not closed). The middle frame shows the difference misalignments,” NIM A370, p. 303-311
of current vectors–the vectors correponding to current jit- [3] F.-J. Decker, et al., “Super-ASSET: a technique for measur-
ter. The dots are the differences between b and a, while ing and correcting accelerator structure misalignments at the
the crosses are between b and c. The solid curve shows SLC,” Proceedings of PAC97
the calculated wakefield effect due to the bump. We see
that the agreements are fairly good, especially when con-
480
MULTIPLE COUPLING AND BEAM LOADING OF A RF CAVITY
H. Safa
Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, 87545, NM, USA
& C.E.A. Saclay, 91191 Gif/Yvette Cedex, France
Abstract a steady state regime, a current beam Ib will induce a total
Future high power accelerators are aiming at increasing the voltage V0 = − R I b . The induced voltage is always
power transferred to the beam through radiofrequency (RF)
decelerating the particles. The beam can then be merely
cavities. Consequently, multiple main coupler drives may be
required to withstand the high RF power needed per cavity. An
seen as a drive line having a fixed current source Ib with
analysis including multiple couplers and beam loading is an equivalent voltage V0 and will therefore be labeled
described here, featuring the interaction between all couplers, drive 0 from now on. Let us now consider many RF lines
the beam and the cavity. In this description, the beam is shown (labeled 1,2,k) with characteristic impedances Zck coupled
to act as if it were merely an additional drive for the cavity. to the cavity through a coupling factor βk. The external Q
Special focus is given to the case of superconducting cavities in of each line k is defined as Q k = Q 0 β k and the loaded
a continuous (CW) operation mode. Some important
conclusions derived from this analysis are briefly discussed as, quality factor Ql results from Q l−1 = (∑ Q k−1 ) . Introducing
for example, power coupler fault conditions or a way to handle the alpha coefficients α k = Ql Q k = α 0 β k , these will
the commissioning of an accelerator in a CW mode.
always be between 0 and 1a, and obey the closure relation
1 INTRODUCTION ∑ α k = 1 . The cavity detuning angle ψ is, by definition,
k
The superconducting radiofrequency APT (Accelerator
Production of Tritium) cavities will be driven tan ψ = − Ql (2∆ω ω0 ) . Each drive k will see the cavity
simultaneously by two power couplers. Consequently, an impedance Z0 in parallel with all the other drive
analysis involving multiple couplers will be needed to impedances transformed to the cavity (R/βm) through its
understand the behavior of the interaction between the own coupling coefficient βk (Fig. 1). Consequently, drive
beam, the cavity and all the couplers, extending the beam k will see the overall impedance :
loading introduction given in reference [1]. β Z 1 α k Z ck
Z = k ck = (4)
β (1 − α k ) − j tan ψ
R + ∑ m
1
2 CAVITY, BEAM AND COUPLERS
Z 0 m≠ 0 , k R
Standard notations will be used to define the cavity
parameters. If W is the stored energy, Pc the dissipated Therefore, the reflection coefficient ρk of drive k will be :
power and ω0 the resonance pulsation (ω0 = 2π F0), then ρ k = 2α k cos ψ e jψ − 1 (5)
the shunt impedance R and the quality factor Q0 are In order to get the different RF powers traveling on each
2
defined by Pc = Vc 2R and Q 0 = ω0 τ0 = ω0 W Pc , line, we will use the incident and reflected voltages
normalized to their relative coupling coefficient, that is
τ0 = Q0/ω0 is the filling time of the cavity. A
superconducting cavity will have a very high R (1012 Ω)
( ) (
Vik β k and Vr k β k . Each normalized drive should )
compared to a normal copper cavity (5.106 Ω). This exhibit the same voltage
(V ik + Vr k ) = cons tan t. The cavity
reduction of losses by more than 105 will increase the αk
cavity filling time and the available beam power by the voltage is Vc = Vi 0+ Vr 0 , equal to the sum of all the
same amount. The cavity voltage Vc is arbitrarily defined induced voltages from each drive :
through the effective length l of the cavity and the
effective accelerating field Eacc : Z c1
β1
Vc = E acc l (1) R
Z c1
The cavity impedance is
R R
Z0 = ≅ (2) (V × Z c1 R ) Vc
ω ω0 2∆ω
i1
1 + jQ0 − 1 + jQ 0
ω0
ω0 ω
Z0 (R/ β 2 ) (R/ β 3 ) (R/ β m )
If the injected time of a particle passing through the cavity (V r1
× Z c1 R )
is shifted by δt = φ/ω as compared to the maximum energy
(V / β1 )
gain, then the accelerating voltage will be (V /
i1
β1 )
Vacc = Vc cos φ
r1
(3)
Figure 1. Impedance transform as seen from drive 1.
It can be shown that the induced voltage of a crossing
particle with charge q on each mode of the cavity will
simply reduce to Vind = − q (R Q) ω0 and the corresponding
energy deposited W = (R/Q)ω0q2/2 will decay after the
a
This is an advantage over the use of the β (those can be infinite) as it
significantly reduces computation errors.
particle had passed with the time constant τ0. Therefore, in
481
Vi m (Vi k + Vr k ) detuning frequency using (12). Correlatively, the cavity
∑ (1 + ρ m )
Vc
= = (6) voltage Vc and the phase beam φ will be the desired ones.
α0 m αm αk Table I gives the sensitivity of each parameter.
The above basic equations (6) will give all the return Nominal Drive Phase Drive External Q Beam
Parameter
voltages including the cavity one. Once the incident Values Power Current
powers (with their phases) and the coupling coefficients Variation - θ1 = θ1ref + - 10° P1=P1ref (1+ -10%) Q1=Q1ref (1+ -10%) Ib=Ibref (1+ -10%)
αk are set, all the reflected powers in each line, the beam P1 Reflected (W) 0 1500 119 472 2097
power and the cavity accelerating field may be deduced. P2 Reflected (W) 0 4872 393 0 2097
3 EXAMPLE OF TWO COUPLERS Beam Power (kW) 420 414 420 + - 20 420 416
Phase Angle Φ (°) -30 -30 + - 7,7 -30 - + 1,15 -30 + - 0,02 -30 + - 5,1
Let us look more deeply at the case where two couplers
Energy Gain (MeV) 4,20 4,14 4,20 + - 0,20 4,20 4,20 - + 0,42
are driving a single cavity. If the injected powers are P1
and P2 with phases θ1 and θ2, then, the corresponding Table I - Sensitivities of reflected powers, beam power,
normalized incident voltages are : phase angle and energy gain on various parameters.
Vi1 = 2R P1 e jθ1 One can notice the importance of the drive phases. If the
(7) maximum allowable reflected power is for example 1‰
Vi2 = 2R P2 e jθ 2
(200 W), they should be set equal to the phase angle φ to
And the reflected voltages derived from equations (6) : better than 2 degrees. Whereas the drive power, the
jθ jθ jθ
V e jφ V e 0 V e 1 V e 2 external Q or the beam current may vary by as much as
c ψ i0 jψ i1 ψ i2
= 2α cos ψ e j + 2 α cos ψ e + 2 α cos ψ e j (8)
α 0 α 1 α 2 α 6.3% for the same amount of reflection. Note the
0 0 1 2
jθ
0
jθ
1 V e 2
jθ negligible effect of an external Q variation on φ. As a
Vr1 V e V e
jψ i0 jψ jψ i2
+ 2α cos ψ e − 1
i1
= 2α cos ψ e
0 1
+ 2α cos ψ e
2 matter of fact, one can even get by without any adjustable
α α α α
1 0 1 2
jθ jθ jθ coupling. Coupling can be pre-adjusted for each cavity,
V V e 0 V e 1 V e 2
r2
= 2α cos ψ e
jψ i0
+ 2 α cos ψ e
jψ i1
+
jψ
2α cos ψ e − 1
i 2 taking in account the variation of (R/Q) along the linac.
α 0 α 1 α 2 α
2 0 1 2 Fixed coupling has the advantage of simplicity, reliability,
and can avoid unwanted failures. On the other hand,
The cavity voltage phase is, like in equation (3), noted φ,
adjustable coupling may reduce the total AC power
the reference phase taken opposite to the beam induced
consumption of the accelerator when operated at reduced
voltage, Vi0 = −R I b with θ0=π. The cavity power is current (at half current of 50 mA, a fixed coupling would
Pc = Vc
2
2 R , the beam power Pb = Re Vc I∗b = Vc I b cos φ , ( ) require 12%b more RF power than an adjustable coupler).
and ∑ (Pi k − Pr k ) = ∑ (Pi k − Pr k ) − (Pc + Pb ) = 0 show that 5 FAULT SCENARIOS
k k ≠0
power is conserved. The reflected voltages are : 5.1 Beam Failure
If the beam trips, then the couplers will have to withstand
Vrk = β k Vc − Vik
(9) almost full reflection. The accelerating energy gain will
To minimize the generator power, all Vr k should be set to exactly double in the cavity. The energy increase will rise
zero. That imposes to have for any line k : with the time constant τ = α0τ0 (46 µs for the 0.82 cavity).
θk = φ The amplitude control loop of the cavity should correct
(10)
Vi k = βk Vc and bring back the voltage to its nominal value. This RF
control feedback has generally a bandwidth exceeding
And the external Q of each line have to be chosen so that
2
10 kHz and should easily compensate for the field
Pc Vc variation. Therefore, the couplers will see the full 210 kW
Qk = Q0 = (11)
Pi k 2 (R Q ) Pi k reflection only for about tens of microseconds, while
hundred of microseconds after beam failure, the RF drive
A specific relation follows between the detuning angle ψ should be set back to 105 kW per coupler (again with full
of the cavity and the beam phase φ : reflection). By that time, the RF drive can be shut down.
tan ψ = − (1 − 2 α 0 ) tan φ (12) Consequently, beam failure has no severe impact,
In particular, if (α0 = 1/2), corresponding to the case of a provided RF control ensure that the cavity field would not
matched single coupler (Q1 = Q0), then ψ = 0 for any exceed a given level.
phase φ. Whereas if (α0 « 1), general case for running a 5.2 Cavity Failure
superconducting cavity with beam (Q0 » Q1), then ψ ≈ - φ. The cavity may fail in many ways. It may experience a
The cavity will have to be detuned by an angle equal to sudden change in its resonance frequency (due to
the opposite of the beam phase. For the APT cavities, mechanical stress or pressure), it may leak, it may exhibit
where the beam phase is (- 30 degrees), this corresponds field emission and finally it may quench. In the case of a
to a frequency shift of 947 Hz off resonance. quench, we are back to the above discussion during beam
trip and that should be handled by a quench interlock. A
4 SENSITIVITIES
In order to match the beam, external couplings have to be b
This reduces to 9% for the whole accelerator taking in account the
adjusted using (11), powers and phases using (10), and warm section, the cryoplant load and klystron efficiency.
482
shift in the resonance frequency would mainly impact the Pi k
2
= 1 I
phase and should be corrected by the phase loop. If field 1 + b (17)
Pi k nom 4 (1 − α 0 )2
emission occurs (inducing excessive Q losses and/or high Ibnom
X-ray levels), then the impact should be minimal. No In the case of the superconducting cavities, α0 is very
effect will be seen on the couplers. The Q losses will small and can be neglected. The input power required to
induce higher cryogenic losses and the X-ray level can be achieve the same accelerating field at zero current beam is
monitored. In either case, the cavity field can be reduced one fourth of the full power at nominal beam. Of course,
accordingly to an acceptable level without having to react almost all this power is then fully reflected. If the cavity
promptly by shutting down the RF or the beam (Here, one frequency is changed according to (15) (linearly with
may allow a slow reaction time). Finally, in the case of a beam current) and the input power according to (17)
leak, a vacuum interlock should be set. (quadratic with current), everything should remain stable
5.3 RF Power Failure while increasing the beam current. This should provide an
easy way for commissioning the accelerator.
The RF system failure may concern power supply,
klystron, circulator, divider or waveguide. In any case, the 7 TRANSIENT ANALYSIS
klystron is turned off. Cavity voltage will then be exactly
In a transient mode, the use of the Laplace transform will
opposite to the one without beam, the beam inducing
make all the above relations, established for a steady state
exactly as much power as what it has been designed to
regime, straightforwardly extended. The Laplace
receive. The required action is to detune the cavity far
p
enough from resonance, reducing the beam induced transform of the cavity impedance is Z 0 = R
p
voltage. A detuning frequency of 10 bandwidths (34 kHz) p 2 + + ω02
will reduce the beam power loss to less than 0.65% τ0
(1.37 kW). which gives, once transformed through each drive k :
p τ
5.4 Coupler Failure Z = α k Z ck (18)
p + (1 − α k ) +ω02
2 p
The coupler might fail either because of a window
τ
problem (ceramic cracking, multipacting, breakdown, ...)
or because of the coaxial part itself (breakdown, leaks, with the time constant τ = α0τ0.
cooling, high dissipation, multipacting, ...). A coupler The reflection coefficient is like in equation (5)
2 α k (p τ)
failure might lead to a serious failure (case of a leak, for (ρ k +1) = p
(19)
example) where the beam and RF should be shut down p 2 + + ω02
and the cavity isolated. τ
The basic equations (6) are still valid in the Laplace
6 ACCELERATOR COMMISSIONING transform. In particular, using (6) and (19), one may write
During commissioning, one might use either a pulsed the cavity voltage as
beam and increase the duty cycle, or start at a very low
Vc (p ) =
(p τ)
∑ 2 α 0 α k Vi k (20)
CW current slowly increasing to reach its nominal value. 2 p 2
p + + ω0 k
Let us examine this latter case. In order to get the same τ
accelerating energy and the same phase angle φ in the
p
cavity, equations (8) give This function has two poles, solution of p 2 + + ω02 = 0 ,
τ
Vc e− jψ = −2α0 cosψ R Ib e− jφ + 2 α0α1 cosψ Vi1 + 2 α0α2 cosψ Vi2 (13)
1
If one recalls that the nominal value of cavity voltage for which are p± = − ± jω0 1 − 1 ≈ − 1 ± jω0 . The
the nominal beam current Ibnom is 2τ 4Q 2 2τ
l
Vc = 2 α 0 cos φ (R I bnom ) (14) cavity voltage as a function of time is then deduced by
then, taking the imaginary part of (13) leads to the relation inverting the Laplace transform Vc (t ) = ∫ e pt Vc (p ) dp :
tan ψ = − (I b I bnom ) tan φ which is equivalent to :
∆F
=
tan φ Ib
(15)
(
)
Vc (t ) = A p+ ep + t + B p− ep − t + ∑ 2 α0αk Vik cos ψ e jψe jωt (21)
F 2Ql Ibnom k
The first bracket is the transient one, with the time
Therefore, the cavity frequency shift should be kept
constant (2τ). The second term is the stationary solution.
proportional to the current beam.
Finally, using the simplification Ql » 1, the solution is :
Taking the real part of (13) and using (14) with the
(22)
nominal input voltages given by (10), one gets t t
− −
Vc (t ) = Vc (0)e 2τ jω0 t
+ ∑ 2 α0αk Vi k cosψ e jψ (e jωt − e 2 τ e jω0 t )
2 α1
Vi1
+ α2
Vi2 = 1 + I b
(16)
e
k
Vi1nom Vi2nom
Ibnom
which, considering that the two ratios are identical, gives References
the input powers on each coupler [1] P. B. Wilson, “High Energy Electron Linacs: Applications
to Storage Ring RF Systems and Linear Colliders”, SLAC-PUB-
2884, February 1982.
483
ANALYTICAL TREATMENT OF SINGLE BUNCH STABILITY IN A LINAC
G. Guignard, J. Hagel, CERN, Geneva, Switzerland
Abstract 4%. After normalisation the thus approximate expression
for becomes
Single bunch stability is analysed by solving the equation
" #
of motion of the particles travelling in a linac, for a Gaus-
41 4z , 22 + 1 4z , 24
(z ) = 4675l 1 , 100
sian distribution of charge, a linear variation of the trans-
verse wakefield along the bunch, a smooth focusing and B lB 20 lB
(2)
=4
negligible acceleration. The treatment is based on a non-
standard perturbation expansion that has been specifically where lB z .
developed for this study and preserves at each order the in- We choose to deal with the effect of an initial offset 0
trinsic detuning likely to stabilise the resonant beam break- as well as an initial slope along z . Although we do not con-
up. It provides a closed expression for the tune shift along sider here randomly misaligned quadrupoles and accelerat-
the bunch resulting from BNS damping and autophasing, ing cavities, it has to be noted that these off-set and slope
methods proposed in the past to control the emittance, and represent well the misalignment of a single component of
a first-order solution for the transverse off-sets within the the linac. The initial conditions are then
bunch. The analytic result obtained makes it possible to
study the behaviour of the solution and compute the emit-
x(0; z ) = 0 + 1 z (3)
tance dilution in specific cases. The present theory is a use- dx (0; z ) = 0
ful complement to the numerical simulations done with the ds (4)
MUSTAFA code in the Compact Linear Collider scheme
(CLIC). It also gives an interesting as well as comprehen- 2 SEPARATION OF VARIABLES AND
sive view of the physics involved in the single-bunch mo- AUTOPHASING
tion and the damping of the instability. Equation (1) is a linear, partial, homogeneous integro-
differential equation of second order. This type of equa-
1 EQUATION OF MOTION tion can often be solved analytically by separating the two
( )
independent variables, i.e. s and z . Rewriting x s; z as
Since in most linear colliders a flat beam design (low ver- = ( )+ ( )
x X s y s; z and performing some algebra leads to
tical to horizontal beam size ratio) is used, emittance blow the following new equations for X and y
up due to transverse wakefields is most critical in the ver-
tical plane. Disregarding acceleration, using a weak fo- d2 X + q2 X = 0
cusing model for the betatron motion and assuming a lin- ds2 (5)
early varying wakefield within a single bunch the equation @ 2 y + q2 [1 + k(z )]y =
of motion reads as (refs [1, 2]) @s2 Zz
@ 2 x(s; z ) + q2 [1 + k(z )]x(s; z ) = X (s) ,q k(z ) + l
2 CW 0
(z )(z , z )dz +
0 B 0
@s2Z z Z
CW0 (z )(z , z )x(s; z )dz CW0 z (z )(z , z )y(s; z )dz
0 lB 0 (1) 0 lB 0 (6)
The two independent variables s and z describe the posi- The coherent motion (5) is given by the unperturbed be-
tion of the bunch inside the linac, and the position inside tatron equation and its solution according to the initial con-
the bunch, respectively. The quantity q =1 = y is the ditions given above is
()
weak focusing tune, k z a z -dependent additional focus-
X (s) = 0 cos qs = 0 cos s (7)
ing force (arising from a correlated energy spread and/or y
()
RF quadrupoles) and z the line charge density distribu-
tion. The constant C is defined by C =4 0 re N where Considering the case of no z dependent focusing across the
N is the number of particles inside the bunch and re is the ( )=0
bunch ( k z ), we face a resonant situation due to the
classical electron radius. W0 is the value of the transverse fact that the frequency q of the unperturbed betatron mo-
(
wake at the tail of a truncated bunch in units of V= Asm2 . ) tion appears on the right hand side and generates a secular
() 2
For z a truncated Gaussian distribution ( z ) has been solution in s. This is related to the well-known head to tail
used. In order to facilitate the analysis, the Gaussian has instability of a single bunch traveling through a structure
been replaced by its 4-th order Chebyshev approximation with wakefields. In order to suppress the resonance excita-
2
within z which results into an error of not more than tion term, it is necessary to introduce a tune spread along
484
(s) in Eq. (6). z-dependent tune shift. Then the perturbation series reads
the bunch [3] cancelling the coefficient of X
Zz as v = v (s; ; E ) + v (s; ; E ) + and no resonant
(0) (1)
CW
k(z)AUTO =
lB q (z )(z , z )dz (8) terms
0 arise at any order. At the end of the computation,
0
2
0 both and E are set to unity. A detailed description and
justification of the partial expansion method introduced for
In this paper we do not specify the mechanism creating
the detuning (RF quadrupoles or correlated energy spread).
this study is given in [2]. Setting =0 in eq. (11) leads
to a linear, inhomogeneous differential equation of second
However, in order to also study the bunch dynamics in the order and its solution is
1 + 3 , 1 lB [cos qs,cos(q( )s)]
case of no correction or only partial correction through a
z -dependent focusing, the actual detuning is defined as v(0) = 0 ,
7
CW Zz
k(z) = k(z)AUTO =
l q2 (z)(z , z)dz
0 (13)
0 B
with
0
q( ) = q 1 + CW
(9)
=0 =1
0 q2
0
where means no correction while corresponds (14)
16 6 , 48 5 + 79 4 + 1 3 + 3 2 21
to the autophasing condition (8) (resonance suppressed).
Inserting our definition (9) into Eq. (6) gives
23 23 46 23 23
@ 2 y + q2 1 + CW0 Z z (z )(z , z )dz y = The equation for the first order perturbation contribution
@s2
0 lBZ q2 0 v(1) becomes
CW z
( , 1)
0 lB X (s) (z)(z , z)dz +
0
@ 2 v(1) + q2 ( )v(1) =
@s2 Z
CW0 Z z (z )(z , z )y(s; z )dz
0
CW0 lB (l )( , )v(0) ( ; s)d (15)
0 lB 0 (10)
B
0 0
3 PERTURBATIVE SOLUTION The detailed solution of this equation is given in Ref. [2].
As a first example, Fig. 1 shows a typical solution
Introducing the normalised bunch coordinate = z=lB (to order zero of the perturbation) of the form y =
( )=
and further separating y such as y s; 1 lB cos qs + cos + ( ) 520
1 lB qs v0 s; at a distance of m downstream
( )
v s; results in of the linac. The increasing frequency of the incoherent
@ 2 v + q2 ( )v = CW0 cos qs
bunch oscillations from the head ( =0 ) to the tail (=1 )
of the bunch becomes clearly visible.
"@s
0 lB y( )[m]
2
Z
[ 0(1 , ) , 1lB ] lB2 (lB )( , )d 200
0
#
150 s = 520m == ,0:10
0
5 m
Z 100 =1 1
+ 1 lB (lB )( , )d
3
50
0
Z 0
+ CW 0
0 lB 0 lB (lB )( , )v(s; )d (11)
2 -50
-100
where -150
" Z # -2000 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
q ( ) = q 1 + E CW
2 2 0
lB2 (lB )( , )d
0 lB q
2
0
(12) Figure 1: Autophasing solution in CLIC
In order to avoid secular terms and preserve the detun- Next we show in Fig. 2 the solution (including the first
ing of the oscillatory motion we use a specific partial per-
( )
turbation expansion of the solution v s; . It consists
order term v (1) of the perturbation) for =0 , i.e. in the
absence of detuning along the bunch. While the full line
of separating the perturbation of the (analytically) solvable represents the analytical solution, the points indicate the
part of the equation of motion (11), marked with E in (12), results obtained with the tracking code MUSTAFA [4].
from the integral driving-term on the right hand side of (11) By comparison with the detuned example of Fig. 1, the
marked with . Both and E indicate that the associated amplitude of the oscillation increases significantly because
terms contain products of the wakefield W0 with the os-
( )
cillation amplitude due to the wakefields v s; and are
of the resonant effect. However, some residual detuning
remains visible due to the influence at large amplitudes of
perturbations w.r.t. the rest of the equation. The expan- the last integral term in Eq. (11).
sion is only done w.r.t. and not w.r.t. E describing the
485
y( )[m] (
y )[107m]
200 105
150 s = 520m 01 = =0
10 m 100 1 = 0:5
100 = 0 95
50 90
0
-50 85 Autophasing
-100 80 6
-150 75
-2000 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 700.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2
Figure 2: Resonant solution in CLIC at s = 520 m Figure 3: Asymptotic emittance growth as function of
4 EMITTANCE DILUTION The same figure 3 clearly shows for 1 = 0:5 that the
autophasing condition is not leading in general to the
Since a low emittance beam is needed at the interaction minimum single bunch emittance. Instead, the mini-
point to provide high luminosity collisions, it is interest- mum is shifted to a lower value of where two effects are
ing to study the emittance dilution due to wakefields in best balanced: namely an increase of the decoherence of
the accelerating structures of the collider. If we consider the bunch with that leads to an emittance growth and a
the emittance increase due to transverse wakes in a single rise of the distance from the resonance with that induces
bunch, the total normalised emittance at the end of the main an emittance reduction. The actual (flat) minimum of the
linac is given by emittance in this example appears at a value of near 75%
tot =
inj + (
y ) (16)
of the one corresponding to the autophasing condition.
where 5 CONCLUSIONS
Z " 2 # The equation of the transverse single-bunch motion has
( ) qy2 (s; ) + q1 @y
1
(
y ) = lB
0 @s (s; ) d been analytically solved for initial off-set and slope along
0 the bunch, similar to those generated by the misalignment
(17) of a single linac element. Weak focusing is used and the ac-
and y = 1 lB cos qs + v(s; ). Instead of v we use celeration within a linac sector is not included. The trans-
v(0) (s; ) as given in Eq. (13) since it is believed to give verse wakefield along the bunch is taken as linear and the
the strongest contribution. Although y has then a relatively charge density approximated by Chebyshev polynomials.
simple form, the integral in (17) becomes non elementary, The transverse displacement x(s) is split into a coherent
leading to complicated expressions of trigonometric and term X (s) and a part y (s; z ) that depends on the position
Fresnel functions. However, it can be demonstrated that the z in the bunch. A particular partial perturbation treatment
emittance in the case of an initial offset tends to an asymp- worked out by the authors is then applied in order to keep
totic value as s goes to infinity. It is straightforward to the detuning property through all orders and prevent the
compute this limit by only considering slowly oscillating creation of artificial resonances. In this way, zero and first
terms in as s increases and averaging the fast oscillating order solutions for x as well as the asymptotic emittance
terms before performing the quadrature. As above, all the dilution for s ! 1 have been derived as functions of the
details are described in Ref. [2]. The result for the asymp- fraction of the wakefield that is damped. They all agree
totic emittance becomes with the results of the code MUSTAFA and confirm the
a,2 + a,1 +a +a +a 2 (18) existence of a given where the single-bunch emittance
!1(
0 y ) =
0 inj +
slim 2 0 1 2 blow-up is minimum. This minimum is proven not to cor-
respond generally with autophasing.
where the parameters a,2 to a2 are polynomial expressions
of the transverse wakefield W0 with coefficients that are ra- 6 REFERENCES
tional functions of 0 , 1 , q and lB . They are all listed
in Ref. [2]. The form of the expression (18) makes it ob- [1] See for instance A.W.Chao, B.Richter, C.Y.Yao, Nucl. In-
vious that y must have a certain minimum as a function of str. Meth,, 178, 1 (1980), and H.Henke, W.Schnell, report
, since the first and second terms decrease with while CERN-LEP-RF 86-18 (1986).
the last two increase. Evidently = 0 leads to an infinite [2] G.Guignard, J.Hagel, report CERN-SL-98-015 AP (1998).
asymptotic emittance due to the resonance effect. [3] V.Balakin, Proc. 1988 Workshop on Lin. Coll, SLAC-report-
Fig. 3 gives an illustration of this effect for the case of 355, 55 (1988).
0 = ,10 m, 1 = 0:5 and 0:4 < < 1:2. [4] G.Guignard, J.Hagel, MUSTAFA users’ guide CERN-SL-
98-002 AP (1998) and this conference.
486
APPLICATION OF THE MODE MATCHING TECHNIQUE TO THE
ANALYSIS OF WAVEGUIDE ARRAYS
A. Jöstingmeier, M. Dohlus and N. Holtkamp, DESY, D-22607 Hamburg, Germany
Abstract shorter than the curvature of the structure in the relevant
frequency range.
In this contribution the mode matching technique is ap-
plied to compute the absorption characteristics of a two- Such a grating can be analyzed by the application of the
dimensional array of rectangular waveguides. This anal- mode matching technique. Above the grating the electro-
ysis is motivated by a proposal of a broadband absorber magnetic field is expanded in terms of an infinite series of
for TESLA. Outside the waveguide array the so-called spatial harmonics, which is known as the Rayleigh expan-
Rayleigh expansion is used which represents the electro- sion; and inside the waveguides the field is represented by
magnetic field in terms of space harmonics whereas the the complete spectrum of TE and TM waveguide modes.
complete modal spectrum of eigenmodes is taken into ac- Matching the waveguide aperture tangential electromag-
count inside the waveguides. In the case of normal inci- netic field, yields an infinite algebraic system of equations
dence the validity of the presented method is confirmed by the unknown of which are the field expansion coefficients
MAFIA computations. The absorption characteristics for [2].
various angles of incidence are calculated for a broad fre- The ratio describing how much of the power of the in-
quency range. The accuracy of the results is checked by a coming wave is coupled into the waveguides is denoted as
study of convergence. It is shown that the Rayleigh expan- the grating efficiency. It is used to estimate the power ab-
sion has to be modified if the waveguide array is excited sorption properties of the structure. This quantity is calcu-
by an ultra-relativistic beam instead of an incoming plane lated for a grating with typical absorber dimensions over a
wave. Numerical results for the beam parameters are pre- broad frequency range and for various angles of incidence.
sented for an array of parallel-plate waveguides and com- If we use a grating as HOM absorber we have to keep
pared with those obtained by other methods. in mind that such a structure itself also contributes to the
beam impedance. The second part of this paper is there-
1 INTRODUCTION fore dedicated to the computation of the beam parameters
of infinite periodic structures.
A HOM (higher order modes) absorber for TESLA has The mode matching technique is employed to calcu-
been proposed in [1] which consists of an array of rectan- late the electromagnetic field which is excited by an ultra-
gular waveguides surrounding the beampipe (Fig. 1). This relativistic bunch of particles in the presence of an infinite
absorber is used to extract the HOM in the THz region from array of parallel-plate waveguides (Fig. 3). Subsequently
the superconducting accelerating structure and to attenuate the beam parameters are calculated by making use of the
the extracted fields by the ohmic wall losses of the rectan- results of the field analysis. In [3] it has been demonstrated
gular waveguides. that the results of this planar model can also be used for a
For the sake of simplicity we consider instead of the circular configuration if certain scaling laws are taken into
circular waveguide array a two-dimensional infinite pla- account.
nar grating (Fig. 2). The absorption characteristics of this The Rayleigh expansion for the field representation
model are expected to be very close to those of the orig- above the grating is known to be complete which means
inal absorber because the free-space wavelength is much that it can be used to represent any kind of pseudo-periodic
field. Nevertheless it has to be modified for an ultra-
relativistic beam since the phase advance of the exciting
Figure 1: Sketch of the waveguide array absorber. Figure 2: Two-dimensional planar grating.
487
x 0
magnetic wall
-2
TE10
-4 TE30
Grating efficiency in dB
TE50
Js TE10 (MAFIA)
-6 TE30 (MAFIA)
TE50 (MAFIA)
d -8
L
-10
y
z -12
-14
L0
5 10 15 20
k0 * Lx
Figure 5: Comparison between the MAFIA computer code and the pre-
Figure 3: Infinite array of parallel-plate waveguides which is excited by sented mode matching technique.
an ultra-relativistic current backed by a magnetic wall.
1
1
0.95 0.8
k0 * Lx = 70
Grating efficiency
0.9 35
0.6
Grating efficiency
17
0.85 7
0.4
0.8
0.75 0.2
0.7
0
0.65 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
5 10 15 20 25 k0 * Lx
Nx
Figure 4: Grating efficiency as a function of the number of field expan- Figure 6: Absorption characteristics for a nearly grazing incident field.
sion terms for various frequencies.
to a waveguide discontinuity problem which can also be
current is in this case equal to the vacuum wavenumber. solved using the MAFIA computer code [4]. Fig. 5 shows
Consequently the zeroth order spatial harmonic satisfies the the excitation of the TE10 , the TE30 and the TE50 rectangu-
Laplace equation instead of the usual wave equation. Thus lar waveguide modes as a result of both methods. It is found
we have to use a constant and a linearly increasing function that in the investigated frequency range from 100 GHz to
in the x-direction as expansion terms for the y-component about 700 GHz the results agree very well.
of the magnetic field instead of the zeroth order spatial har- In the case of normal incidence the grating efficiency
monic of the standard Rayleigh expansion. is greater than 0:6 (except for frequencies which are very
close to the cutoff frequency of the fundamental mode of
2 ABSORPTION CHARACTERISTICS OF the rectangular waveguide) which means that more than
A RECTANGULAR WAVEGUIDE ARRAY 60% of the power of the incoming wave is extracted by
the grating. Nevertheless the grating efficiency decreases
The mode matching technique leads to an infinite system for obliquely incident fields. But even if the angle between
of equations for the unknown field expansion coefficients the direction of propagation of the incoming wave and the
which has to be truncated if the method is implemented on a grating interface is only 15 the average grating efficiency
computer. Therefore it is essential to study the convergence is still about 40% (Fig. 6).
of the results with respect to the number of field expansion
functions.
3 BEAM PARAMETERS OF AN INFINITE
Fig. 4 shows the grating efficiency as a function of the
PERIODIC STRUCTURE
maximum order of the spatial harmonics in the x-direction
for a grating with typical dimensions of the proposed ab- Fig. 7 shows the real part of the beam impedance for a pla-
sorber. The normalized wavenumbers k0Lx = 70, 35, 17 nar grating as a function of frequency. The maximum nor-
and 7 correspond to frequencies of approximately 2000, malized wavenumber which is k0L = 200 corresponds to a
1000, 500 and 200 GHz, respectively. For a frequency of frequency of about 10 THz for a period length of the grat-
200 GHz accurate results are already obtained for Nx = 5 ing of 1 mm. The beam impedance is calculated at 32768
whereas Nx = 20 is required for a frequency of 2000 GHz. frequency points and 200 spatial harmonics are taken into
Thus Nx = 20 is used for all further calculations which account.
means that approximately a (1500 1500) linear system The beam impedance is a smooth function of k0L in
of equations has to be solved. Assuming this parameter, a the frequency range from dc to k0L = . On the other
typical frequency scan with 1000 points requires about 2 d hand it starts to oscillate rapidly at for higher frequencies
of cpu-time on a modern workstation. where the first higher order spatial harmonic turns from
If the electric field vector of the incoming wave goes evanescent to propagating with respect to the x-direction.
along the x- or the z -direction the grating analysis reduces This leads to resonances between the magnetic wall and
488
0.001 1e-05
σ/L = 0.1
9e-06 1
5
Wake per unit length / ( Z0 * c0 / L2 )
Real part of the beam impedance / Z0
0.0001 8e-06 20
ω-3/2 7e-06
1e-05
6e-06
5e-06
1e-06
4e-06
3e-06
1e-07
2e-06
1e-08 1e-06
0
1e-09 -1e-06
1 10 100 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100
k0 * L s/L
Figure 7: Real part of the beam impedance for a planar grating as a Figure 9: Dependence of the wakefield on the bunch length. Parame-
function of frequency. Parameters: L = 4=15 mm, L0 = 0:5L and L0 = 0:5L, a = 262:5L.
ters:
d = 35 mm.
0.00025
Bunch shape detailed study of convergence has been carried out in or-
Grating analysis
0.0002
MAFIA der to demonstrate the accuracy of the presented method.
Furthermore the validity of the results has been checked
Wake / ( Z0 * c0 / L )
2
0.00015 by comparing the excitation of the rectangular waveguide
modes with corresponding numbers from MAFIA compu-
0.0001
tations for the special case of normal incidence. The analy-
5e-05 sis of a grating with typical absorber dimensions has shown
that the average grating efficiency is quite high. Although
0
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 this quantity decreases as we approach the case of graz-
s/L
ing incidence the overall absorption properties of such a
Figure 8: Comparison of the wakefields between the presented mode grating seem to be acceptable. In the second part of this
matching analysis and the MAFIA computer code. Parameters: L = contribution the mode matching technique has been applied
4=15 mm, L0 = 0:5L, a = 5 mm and = 1 mm. to compute the electromagnetic field excited by a bunch of
ultra-relativisitic particles traversing a planar grating. It has
the grating interface with a high spectral density because been shown that the standard Rayleigh expansion which is
d = 35 mm L = 4=15 mm. usually used to represent the field above the grating has to
In Fig. 7 a logarithmic scale is used for both axis. Thus be modified in this case. The beam parameters have been
a curve which is proportional to !,3=2 corresponds to a calculated for various structures; and the validity of the pre-
straight line with a slope of ,3=2 which is also given in sented method has been checked.
this Fig. From the two curves it can be concluded that the
averaged beam impedance also drops as !,3=2 which has
already been shown in [5]. 5 REFERENCES
In Fig. 8 the wakefields corresponding to the presented [1] A. Jöstingmeier, M. Dohlus, N. Holtkamp and M. Shahabadi,
mode matching analysis and the MAFIA computer code [4] “Computation of the absorption characteristics of a two-
are compared. For the MAFIA calculations a corrugated dimensional rectangular waveguide array using the mode
circular beampipe with a length of 200 periods is assumed. matching technique”, will be published as TESLA report,
The wakefield corresponding to the mode matching tech- 1998.
nique is obtained by scaling the result from the equivalent [2] A. Wexler, “Solution of waveguide discontinuities by modal
planar model. The agreement of the two wakefields is quite analysis”, IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory Tech., vol. MTT-
good which confirms the validity of the presented method. 15, pp. 508–517, 1967.
The dependence of the wakefield on the bunch length [3] A. Jöstingmeier, M. Dohlus, N. Holtkamp and M. Shahabadi,
is illustrated in Fig. 9. The results which are presented in “Application of the mode matching technique for the com-
this Fig. are valid for a circular configuration with a radius putation of the beam parameters of an infinite periodic struc-
a. The curves converge to an asymptotic wakefield corre- ture”, will be published as TESLA report, 1998.
sponding to an infinitely small bunch length. For the given [4] T. Weiland, “On the numerical solution of Maxwell's equa-
parameters the wakefield gets very close to the asymptotic tions and applications in the field of accelerator physics”, Par-
curve (=L = 0:1) for a bunch length in the order of one ticle Accelerators, vol. 15, pp. 245–292, 1984.
grating period. Such an asymptotic wakefield has also been [5] S. A. Heifets and S. A. Keifets, “High-frequency limit of the
used in [6] where it is approximated by a special fit. longitudinal impedance of an array of cavities,” Phys. Rev. D,
vol. 39, pp. 961–970, 1989.
4 CONCLUSIONS [6] R. Brinkmann et al. (ed.), Conceptual design of a 500 GeV
e+ e, linear collider with integrated X-ray laser facility,
The mode matching technique has been applied for the DESY 1997-048, 1997.
analysis of a two-dimensional array of rectangular wave-
guides which serves as a model for a HOM absorber. A
489
SIMULATION STUDY OF THE BUNCHING SECTION OF X-BAND KLYSTRONS
S.Matsumoto, S.Michizono, H.Tsutsui, Y.H. Chin and S.Fukuda
High Energy Accelerator Research Organization (KEK), Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-0801 Japan
Abstract sections is done at the middle of the long drift tubes.
The first section is the gun section where the DC beam
A precise simulation of a klystron is useful not only to un-
from the gun is simulated[3]. The beam energy is specified
derstand its operation but for the design work. For this pur-
here by the cathode voltage. The next region is the buncher
pose, MAGIC code, which is a 2.5 dimensional PIC code
section which includes the input cavity, the gain cavities
for self-consistent simulation of plasma physics problems,
and the penultimate cavity. The RF voltage supplied at the
is used to simulate the entire klystron performance includ-
input gap modulates the beam. The last section simulates
ing the production of the beam at the gun, the modulated
the output cavity. The actual output cavity has two ports to
beam motion and the beam-cavity interaction at the output
conduct the power. The ports are represented by an equiv-
cavity as well as the gain cavities. In this article, the simu-
alent axisymmetric load in the simulation[4]. The output
lation of the buncher section of KEK XB72K, a relativistic
power is estimated as the consumed power in this load.
X-band klystron, is described.
In the present paper, the simulation of the buncher section
of XB72K, an X-band klystron developed at KEK [5], is de-
1 INTRODUCTION scribed. This section is divided into 2 subsections, since the
An X-band klystron is a possible RF power source in future whole section is still long for a single simulation. The first
linear colliders. The design performance of such a klystron half covers the input and gain cavities while the last half in-
is high. In R&D of such a klystron, a precise simulation of cludes the penultimate cavity.
the performance is preferred. For this purpose, we recently
subsection 1 subsection 2
adopted MAGIC code at KEK. MAGIC is a 2.5 dimen-
15
sional fully electromagnetic and relativistic Particle-in-Cell Gain 1 Gain 2 Output
Penult.
(PIC) code for self-consistent simulation of plasma physics 10 Input
r (mm)
problems[1]. The primary inputs of MAGIC simulation are
5
the electromagnetic boundary condition on the perimeter
4.6 mm 4.8 mm
(simulation boundary) and the initial condition of beam. 0
In a klystron simulation, the geometry of the klystron 200 240 280 320 360 400 440
determines the physical boundary (conductor perimeter), mm (from cathode bottom)
while in the gun region, for example, an external DC field
should be given properly along a line between the cathode Figure 1: The structure of the buncher section of XB72K.
and the anode. This kind of lines is also a part of the perime- The import line from the gun section is located at 170 mm
ter. As for the initial condition of beam, MAGIC can simu- and the export line is at 410 mm. There is another line at
late the thermal emission from the cathode surface. The fo- 300 mm, which divides the section into two. These lines are
cusing solenoidal field is included as an external field in the indicated by the double lines in the figure. The TW output
simulation. We calculate this field by POISSON code[2]. structure of XB72K#9 is also shown in the figure.
In our simulation study, the whole klystron structure
breaks into three simulation sections. This separation is
technically unavoidable since the whole length (from the 2 SIMULATION METHOD
gun to the output cavity) of our klystron is too long for a sin-
2.1 Input cavity
gle simulation. In a MAGIC simulation, 1024 is the maxi-
mum number of the grids (cells) in z direction (the direction MAGIC can simulate straightforwardly the gain cavities or
of beam axis). If the grid size in z is 0.2 mm (this is the case the penultimate cavity. However, the simulation of the in-
of our simulation), about 20 cm is the maximum length. put cavity is not straightforward since it has a port (not ax-
The stream of beam particles and electromagnetic fields isymmetric) through which the power comes in (or out). In
from the upstream simulation section can be transferred to our simulation, the input cavity is removed and its electri-
the downstream by MAGIC IMPORT/EXPORT command. cal effect is represented by an external field on the gap line,
Once EXPORT command is invoked, MAGIC records the a new boundary which is defined as the (shortest) straight
fields and particles on the “export line” for a specified du- line between the nose cones of the cavity. The external
ration of time. The data is launched by IMPORT command field, Ez (z, t), is calculated primarily as the electric field
on the “import line” in the downstream simulation section of the trapped mode of the input cavity with the operation
which should be matched to the export line. This tech- frequency. It is
nique works if there is no backward wave and particles and Vg
a klystron is the case. The separation into these simulation Ez (z, t) = ē(z) sin ωt,
d
490
where Vg is the gap voltage, d is the gap length (7 mm in our 2.3 Other issues
case) and ē(z) is a function shown in Fig. 2. In the simula-
We use uniform spatial grids. The grid size in z is 0.2 mm
tion (with beam), Ez (z, t) is applied on the gap line as an
overall while that in r is 4.6 mm/15 ∼ 0.3 mm in the drift
external field. Fig. 3 shows the electric field generated by
tube and a little small grid is used in the cavity space. We
Ez (z, t). The gap voltage Vg is related to the input power
set the time step manually to be 1/360 cycle (for the entire
P as
simulation sections). This step is smaller than the default
Vg2 = ρP. step set by MAGIC automatically from the given grid size.
We adopt ρ such that Vg = 2.0 kV when 100 W input power. The external field on the boundary should be started from
The dependence of ρ on the beam energy or beam current is zero value and slowly raised to its desired value. Other-
small thus we neglect it. wise we often see the numerical oscillation occurs. The
similar treatment should be done when we import particles.
2 SCALE is a MAGIC command for this trick.
We are interested in the beam and fields in their stationary
state. Realization of such a state requires a finite duration of
1.5
time in the simulation. For example, in Fig. 4, the evolution
ez
Gap Center of the gap voltage at the 2nd gain cavity is shown. The volt-
1 age becomes constant after about 20 nsec, which is 230 RF
cycles. Although the relaxation time should depend on the
0.5 current carried by the beam or the beam energy as well as
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 the frequency shift of the cavity, the duration of 300 cycles
z (mm) is enough for the first subsection while 200 cycles is enough
for the second subsection.
Figure 2: The function ē(z) of XB72K input cavity.
20
MV/m 10
-10
-20
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
time (nsec)
Figure 3: A snapshot of the electric field. The external field Figure 4: The averaged electric field strength (in unit of
is given on the gap. The arrows indicate the direction and MV/m) on the gap line of the 2nd gain cavity. It saturates af-
strength of the electric field at this moment. ter about 20 nsec. Beam energy is 525 kV and input power
is 300 W.
2.2 Gain and Penultimate cavities
3 SIMULATION RESULTS
The resonant frequency of the gain and penultimate cavi-
ties is shifted from the operation frequency (11.424 GHz) as 3.1 Modulation and its enhancement
tabulated below. The resonant frequency can be measured
Let us see how the bunching process is seen in the MAGIC
by EIGENMODE command. All the cavities were tuned
simulation. As an example, we show the case of XB72K#9
within at most 0.5 MHz by a tiny change of the cavity ra-
with the beam energy being 525 kV and input power being
dius.
300 W. Fig. 5 is a snapshot of the beam energy in the first
subsection as a function of z. We clearly see the enhance-
ment of the energy modulation occurred at the gain cavities.
Table 1: Frequency Shift of cavities The modulation in energy (velocity) is turned to be the den-
Cavity df (MHz) Cavity df (MHz) sity modulation downstream and this is actually seen in the
1 (input) 0 3 (Gain) +26 next subsection. See Fig. 6. The cavity in the figure is the
2 (Gain) +12 4 (Penult.) +376 penultimate cavity which enhances the bunching process.
The bunching process can be more clearly seen in the cur-
rent growth along the z direction, which is calculable from
491
MAGIC output. See in Fig. 7. The enhancement of bunch- 700
ing by the cavity can be seen as a kink of the growth curves. I1 (11.424 GHz)
600 I2
I3
500
Current (Ampere)
I0= 458A
400
300
200
100
0
150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
z(mm)
Figure 7: The RF current growth in XB72K #9. Beam volt-
age is 525 kV, 300 W input. The fundamental (I1) as well
as the second (I2) and third (I3) harmonics are shown. The
Figure 5: The snapshot of the beam energy along the longi- ratio of I1 to I0 (DC component) reaches about 1.3 in the
tudinal direction z. output cavity but decays rapidly.
macro-particles emerge from the import line of the first sub-
section is about 3800 per a single cycles (360 time steps).
This number is not changed throughout the whole simula-
tion sections (unless the particles hit the wall). CPU time
depends largely on the number of the macro particles ap-
peared in the simulation region. The grid size, the time step
and the number of macro particles that we used so far are
rather conservative.
4 SUMMARY
The basic techniques for simulating a klystron by 2.5D
MAGIC code are established. Although the code primarily
solves the problem, we still need a trick like the port approx-
imation for the input cavity, as shown above. Eligibility of
the trick is checked by the experiment or by the other code.
Figure 6: The snapshot of the particle distribution in sub- So far the MAGIC model is a good simulator of a klystron.
section 2.
5 REFERENCES
The output power can be estimated in the next simulation
section by using the exported data from the buncher sec- [1] Mission Research Corporation, Virginia, USA.
tion. The simulation of the #9 TW output structure predicts [2] J.H.Billen and L.M.Young “POISSON SUPERFISH”, LA-
80.5 MW in this particular case. Since DC current is 458 A UR-96-1834,(1997).
(the perveance is 1.2 × 10−6 ), therefore MAGIC simula- [3] S.Michizono, et al., “Electron Gun Simulation using
tion for XB72K #9 predicts the efficiency of 33% at 525 kV. MAGIC”, these proceedings.
A discussion on the MAGIC predictions and experimental [4] H.Tsutsui, et al., “X-band klystron output cavity simulation”,
results is found in Ref. [6]. The MAGIC predictions agree these proceedings.
well to the observations so far [7]. [5] J.Odagiri, et al., “FCI Simulation on 100MW Class Klystron”
in Proc. 1994 Int. Linac Conf., Tsukuba, Japan.
3.2 Required CPU time [6] Y.H. Chin, et al., “Computational Modeling of Klystrons”,
these proceedings.
Required CPU time is 10.5 hours for first subsection (du-
[7] Y.H. Chin et al., “The 120 MW X-band Klystron Develop-
ration 300 cycles) and 7.5 hours for the second subsection
ment at KEK”, in Proc. of EPAC 98.
(200 cycles) in pentiumII-300 MHz PC. The number of the
492
HIGH ENERGY BEAM TRANSPORT BEAMLINE FOR LEDA
W. P. Lysenko, J. D. Gilpatrick
Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM 87544 USA
M. E. Schulze
General Atomics, Los Alamos, NM 87545
Abstract When the beam reaches the last quadrupole, the bunch
length is 4.5 times its original value and space charge is no
Here we describe the High Energy Beam Transport (HEBT)
longer important. In the drift to the beamstop the beam is in
the zero-emittance regime (x <<xmax x0max ). We can ap-
for the Low Energy Demonstration Accelerator (LEDA),
which is part of the Accelerator Production of Tritium
proximate the beam by a point source located near the final
(APT) project. We used the TRACE 3- D linear design
quadrupole. Emittance growth does not significantly affect
code[1] for the first-order design and performed r-z and 3-
the beam size. The linear TRACE 3- D code is a good pre-
D particle-in-cell (PIC) simulations to study the beam dis-
dictor of beam size even though it cannot model emittance
tribution and halo. T RACE 3- D predicts rms beam proper-
growth produced by space-charge nonlinearities.
ties well. The PIC simulations are important for determin-
The beam from the RFQ has a fairly uniform core and no
long tails in the x and y distributions. The HEBT should
ing the presence of beam halo, which is present for some
tunes. We propose halo experiments to help validate our
preserves these qualities and not introduce any beam halo.
simulation codes for modeling nonlinear space charge.
To compute these effects, we need particle simulations,
which can take into account details in the phase-space dis-
1 REQUIREMENTS tribution and nonlinear space-charge forces.
The HEBT, which matches the 6.7 MeV 100 mA CW beam
3 DESIGN PROCEDURE
from the RFQ into the water-cooled nickel beamstop must
meet the following requirements: We used TRACE 3- D to design the beamline. We fixed the
quadrupole positions, providing space for beamline instru-
Match beam to beamstop. The rms size of the beam mentation and diagnostics. The input beam used rms values
at a point 45 inches past the entrance of the beamstop from RFQ simulations. We specified the beam at the match
must be 44 mm in both transverse directions. point, 45 inches past the start of the beamstop, and let the
Provide space for equipment. Diagnostics and other TRACE 3- D optimizer determine the magnet gradients. Our
equipment take up a certain amount of length. results depended on the specified values of x and y at the
Have rms beam sizes < 1/5 of aperture radius. In- match point. (These determine the cross-over points, which
side the HEBT, we require the rms beam sizes to be must be near the final quadrupole.) We searched for tunes
less than than one-fifth of the bore radius. having rms beam sizes everywhere less than one-fifth the
Be insensitive to beam or quadrupole errors. The bore radius.
rms beam sizes and phase-space centroids must be When we ran particle simulations (see below), we found
within the safe operating range of the beamstop. some tunes developed halos. That is, the distributions
Minimize beam halo generation. Under normal op- in x or y developed long, Gaussian-like tails. This hap-
eration, we do not want any beam to be scraped off pened in two situations. First, we got halos whenever the
in the beamline. To meet his requirement, we must quadrupoles were too far apart. We also got halos when-
ensure that no beam halo is introduced. ever the beam size in x or y was very small at some point
in the upstream part of the HEBT. Because of this effect,
2 BEAM PHYSICS we accepted only tunes with fairly constant beam sizes.
We can increase the focusing strength of the lattice by de- 4 TRACE 3-D DESIGN
creasing the distance between quadrupoles. With sufficient
external focusing, the relative strength of the space-charge Figure 1 shows the TRACE 3- D output for our standard
force is decreased to harmless levels. The 100 mA beam tune. The graph shows the initial and final phase-space el-
current forces us to use four quadrupoles. If there were less lipses at the top and the transverse profiles at the bottom.
space charge, only two or three quadrupoles would have The beam is traced from the RFQ end wall to the 45-inch
been sufficient to match the RFQ beam to the beamstop. match point, i.e., 45 inches past the start of the nickel beam-
stop. The scale for the x and y profiles (4.5 mm total) is ap-
Work supported by the US DOE, Defense Programs. propriate for the beam in the region of the quadrupoles. The
496
BEAM AT NEL1= 1 I= 9.2mA BEAM AT NEL2= 11
H A= -3.1000 B= 0.87000 W= 6.7048 6.7048 MeV H A= -423.00 B= 1055.6 50
V A= 1.8400 B= 0.48000 FREQ= 350.00MHz WL= 856.55mm V A= -500.00 B= 1067.9
EMITI= 1.832 1.817 178.50
EMITO= 1.832 1.817 178.50
N1= 1 N2= 11 LINAC RZ
PRINTOUT VALUES
40
(mm)
PP PE VALUE LINAC 3D
1 2 333.90000
1 3 9.70004 TRACE 3-D
1
1
4
5
370.00000
-6.91615
30
1 6 700.00000
1 7 6.26071
1 8 150.00000
rms
1 9 -10.56546
1 10 1111.15000 20
2.000 mm X 5.000 mrad 1 11 1143.00000 80.000 mm X 50.000 mrad
x
MATCHING TYPE = 8
Z A= 0.30800 B= 0.39710 DESIRED VALUES (BEAMF) Z A= 31.463 B= 35.083
alpha beta 10
x -423.0000 1055.6000
y -500.0000 1067.9000
MATCH VARIABLES (NC=4)
MPP MPE VALUE 0
1
1
3
5
9.70004
-6.91615
0 1 2 3 4 5
1 7 6.26071
1 9 -10.56546 z (m)
CODE: TRACE3D v61
FILE: leda27.3D
DATE: Apr 28 98
Figure 3: Rms value of x as a function of z for the r-z and
20.000 Deg X 30.00 KeV TIME: 16:15:46 180.000 Deg X 100.00 KeV
NP1= 1 NP2= 11
4.50 mm (Horiz) 1.0 Deg (Long.)
250.00 mm (Centroid) 3-D PIC simulation using the LINAC code and the TRACE
3- D code. The two 3-D codes produced similar results.
Q Q Q Q
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 LINAC RZ
2.4
(mm.mrad)
LINAC 3D
2.2
-250.00 mm (Centroid)
4.50 mm (Vert) Length= 4415.25mm
NP1= 1 NP2= 11 2
50.00 mm (Horiz) 1.0 Deg (Long.)
250.00 mm (Centroid)
ex_rms
TRACE 3-D
1.8
Q Q Q Q
1.6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
0 1 2 3 4 5
z (m)
-250.00 mm (Centroid)
50.00 mm (Vert) Length= 4415.25mm
Figure 4: Rms value of x emittance as function of z .
Figure 1: TRACE 3- D output for the standard tune. The
beam is traced from the RFQ end wall to the 45-inch match
point. The transverse profile plot is repeated at the bottom
5 SENSITIVITY STUDY
with a larger scale to show the beam in the beamstop. We studied the sensitivity of the beam at the beamstop to
errors in the quadrupoles (strengths and offsets) and to var-
ious errors in the input beam. We found no errors that could
beamline aperture
5σx not be handled by our diagnostics and control system. The
beamstop entrance
beam spot at the beamdump depends on the beam current.
nickel
collimator
While lower-current beams have a smaller spot size, the
Q4
RFQ Exit
current density (current per unit area) is smaller than for
Q1 Q2 Q3
σx the normal, full-current beam. There is no need to retune
0 for different currents.
-σy
6 PIC SIMULATIONS
1 in
0 -5σy
We verified our TRACE 3- D designs with particle-in-cell
(PIC) simulations. We ran r-z and fully 3-D PIC simula-
0 10 in
tions. Figure 3 shows xrms as a function of z for our stan-
Figure 2: The 1- (rms) and 5- beam profiles compared dard tune as predicted by TRACE 3- D and the r-z and 3-D
to the minimum aperture in the HEBT beamline. versions of the PIC code LINAC[2]. The two 3-D codes
agree very well but the r-z code produces slightly different
results. As Fig. 4 shows, there is about a 30% emittance
lower part of Fig. 1 shows the profile with a scale of 50 mm growth. This did not affect the TRACE 3- D result for the
total to show the expansion of the beam in the beamstop. beam size because the emittance is so small. The conclu-
In our TRACE 3- D simulations, we use rms emittances and sion is that 3-D effects are important but nonlinearities are
thus the plots show the rms beam sizes. The current wep use not in predicting rms beam size. Our TRACE 3- D designs
(9.19 mA) is the actual current (103 mA) divided by 5= 5. produce the correct rms beam at the match point.
Figure 2 shows the rms and 5rms profiles together with P IC simulations are essential in determining if our tunes
the minimum beam apertures in the HEBT. generate halos. Figure 5 shows the TRACE 3- D output for
497
BEAM AT NEL1= 1 I= 9.2mA BEAM AT NEL2= 11 0.02 0.02
H A= -3.1000 B= 0.87000 W= 6.7048 6.7048 MeV H A= -423.00 B= 1055.6
V A= 1.8400 B= 0.48000 FREQ= 350.00MHz WL= 856.55mm V A= -500.00 B= 1067.9
EMITI= 1.832 1.817 178.50
EMITO= 1.832 1.817 178.50
N1= 1 N2= 11
PRINTOUT VALUES
PP PE VALUE
1 2 333.90000
1 3 13.09275
1 4 370.00000
1 5 -7.77146
1 6 700.00000 x’ 0 x’ 0
1 7 9.07239
1 8 150.00000
1 9 -11.09435
1 10 1111.15000
2.000 mm X 5.000 mrad 1 11 1143.00000 80.000 mm X 50.000 mrad
MATCHING TYPE = 8
Z A= 0.30800 B= 0.39710 DESIRED VALUES (BEAMF) Z A= 35.687 B= 39.378
alpha beta
x -423.0000 1055.6000
y -500.0000 1067.9000
-0.02 -0.02
MATCH VARIABLES (NC=4) -0.15 0 0.15 -0.15 0 0.15
MPP MPE VALUE
1 3 13.09275
1 5 -7.77146 x x
1 7 9.07239
1 9 -11.09435
CODE:
FILE:
DATE:
TRACE3D v61
leda27bad.3D
May 11 98
Figure 7: The x-x0 phase-space scatter plots for bad tune at
20.000 Deg X 30.00 KeV TIME: 15:27:04 180.000 Deg X 100.00 KeV
NP1= 1 NP2= 11 start of Q2 (left) and center of Q2 (right).
4.50 mm (Horiz) 1.0 Deg (Long.)
250.00 mm (Centroid)
Table 1: Properties of x distributions at wire-scanner.
<x2 >1=2 xmax <x4 >=<x2 >2
Q Q Q Q
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Beam (mm) (mm)
1
-250.00 mm (Centroid)
Uniform 16 28 1.8
4.50 mm (Vert) Length= 4415.25mm
Gaussian 16 3.0
Standard 16 41 2.2
Figure 5: TRACE 3-D output for a bad tune, which has a Bad 16 56 2.9
halo in the x-direction. Halo-generating tunes have a small
waist in the upstream part of the beamline.
kurtosis of the x or y distribution. The kurtosis is sim-
S.D.= 4.39844 S.D.= 4.47432 ply the fourth moment of the distribution, normalized by
6000 6000
5000 the square of the second moment to obtain a dimensionless
particles
particles
5000
4000 4000 quantity. The fourth moment depends on the whole beam
3000 3000
2000 2000
distribution. It should be easy to measure even if the wire
jj
1000 1000 scanner does not have a large dynamic range (the amount
of beam for the bad tune that is past the maximum x value
0 0
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
x x
of the standard tune is only 0.35%).
Figure 6: Beam profiles in the x-direction at the match
point for the standard tune (left) and the bad tune (right). 8 CONCLUSION
Our HEBT design meets all readily quantifiable require-
another tune that produces the same beam at the 45-inch
ments. Our 3-D PIC simulations verify that the TRACE 3-
match point. Only the quadrupole settings are different.
D design code can accurately predict rms beam properties.
The input and final beams and all lengths are the same as
before. We see that the beam has a small waist in x early in
Nonlinear space-charge effects are important, however. We
have found that having adequate focusing (no less than four
the HEBT. We find this characteristic is always associated
with the existence of a halo. Figure 6 shows the x distribu-
quadrupoles) and a good tune are essential to avoid halo
formation, which could result in undesirable particle losses
tion in a 3-D PIC simulation at the 45-inch match point for
before the beamstop.
both the standard and bad tunes. Also shown are Gaussians
The codes clearly indicate when halo formation occurs.
having the same rms values as the actual distributions. The
We therefore propose that we do some halo experiments
halo is generated in the first part of the second quadrupole,
at LEDA. We can obtain the required information from the
just before the waist. Figure 7 shows the phase-space scat-
ter plots in the x direction at the beginning and the center of
wire-scanner data. If we verify the simulations’ predictions
about the differences between the good and bad tunes, we
Q2. We see that the distribution becomes very nonelliptical
will have greatly increased confidence in the ability of our
because of the nonlinear space-charge forces.
codes to correctly model nonlinear space-charge effects.
7 HALO EXPERIMENTS 9 REFERENCES
Table 1 shows properties of the x profile at the wire scan- [1] D.P. Rusthoi, W.P. Lysenko, and K.R. Crandall, “Further im-
ner for both the standard tune and the bad tune. Also shown provements in TRACE 3-D,” Proceedings of the 1997 Particle
are a uniform (rectangular) and Gaussian distribution hav- Accelerator Conference.
ing the same sigma (<x2 >1=2 ) value. A good way to char- [2] K. Crandall and R. Ryne, private communication, 1998.
acterize whether or not we have a halo is to determine the
498
BEAM DYNAMICS SIMULATION OF THE SPALLATION NEUTRON
SOURCE LINEAR ACCELERATOR*
H. Takeda, J. H. Billen, T. S. Bhatia
Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545 USA
Abstract alternating gradient focusing system. The letter O was
The accelerating structure for Spallation Neutron originally a numeral zero, and indicates a drift space
Source (SNS) consists of a radio-frequency-quadrupole- between a focusing magnet F and a defocusing magnet D.
linac (RFQ), a drift-tube-linac (DTL), a coupled-cavity- Above about 95 MeV the efficiency of a conventional
drift-tube-linac (CCDTL) [1], and a coupled-cavity-linac CCL exceeds that of the CCDTL. The 805-MHz CCL
(CCL). The linac is operated at room temperature. We continues the 12 βλ periodic transverse lattice of the
discuss the detailed design of linac which accelerates an CCDTL. The first part of CCL consists of 8-cavity
−
H pulsed beam coming out from RFQ at 2.5 MeV to segments separated by singlet quadrupole magnets and
1000 MeV. We show a detailed transition from 402.5 accelerates the beam to 165 MeV. Above 165 MeV, the
MHz DTL with a 4 βλ structure to a CCDTL operated at CCL consists of 10-cavity segments and completes the
805 MHz with a 12 βλ structure. After a discussion of acceleration to 1000 MeV. The 8-cavity segments are
overall feature of the linac, we present an end-to-end used at lower energy to provide more space for the
particle simulation using the new version of the quadrupole magnets and diagnostic elements. This entire
PARMILA code [2] for a beam starting from the RFQ CCL maintains the FODO lattice structure with a
entrance through the rest of the linac. At 1000 MeV, the transverse period of 12 βλ [3]. Table 1 shows the linac
beam is transported to a storage ring. The storage ring characteristics. Figure 1 shows the cavity field along the
requires a large (±500-keV) energy spread. This is linac. The field is discontinuous, but the “real-estate”
accomplished by operating the rf-phase in the last section longitudinal focusing force which is proportional to E0T
of the linac so the particles are at the unstable fixed point averaged over a transverse focusing period is continuous,
of the separatrix. We present zero-current phase advance, where E0 is the average axial electric field and T is the
beam size, and beam emittance along the entire linac. transit-time factor. Figure 2 shows the design phase along
the linac. Figure 3 shows the zero-current phase advance
1 LINAC STRUCTURES per transverse focusing period through the CCDTL and
CCL.
We consider the DTL, CCDTL and two types of CCL
part of linac structure. At the linac structure change
between structures, we apply discontinuous accelerating Table 1. Linac characteristics
electric fields between structures to maintain a continuous
real-estate phase advance per unit length. The design Linac Type Energy (MeV) Length (m)
phase was made continuous at the structure junctions to DTL 2.50 to 20.275 8.712
avoid the abrupt longitudinal separatrix change. The DTL CCDTL 20.275 to 94.428 68.78
with focusing lattice FOFODO structure accelerates the CCL1 94.428 to 164.65 46.24
−
2.5-MeV H beam from the RFQ to 20 MeV. Between the CCL2 164.65 to 1000. 369.94
RFQ and the DTL, we have a symmetric beam chopper
section which consists of a number of quadrupoles and
three buncher cavities.
The CCDTL then takes the beam from the DTL and 4.00
Cavity Field E0, Real Estate E0T
accelerates it to 94 MeV. To match the beam from the
DTL to the CCDTL, we use the first two cavities (4 cells) 3.50
E0
of the CCDTL operating at −90° and adjust the first four 3.00
E (MV/m)
quadrupole magnet strengths. Each cavity in the CCDTL E0T
contains a drift tube. A focusing (or defocusing) 2.50
quadrupole magnet follows every two CCDTL cavities. In Real Estate E0T
2.00
the DTL the transverse lattice is of type FOFODODO
with a 4 βλ period at 402.5 MHz. Starting in the CCDTL 1.50
the transverse lattice changes to FODO with a 12 βλ
1.00
period at 805 MHz. The term FODO (pronounced “foe- 0 200 400 600 800 1000
doe”) refers to singlet quadrupole magnets arranged in an Energy (MeV)
Figure 1. The cavity field E0 E0T real estate E0T from
*This work sponsored by the Division of Materials CCDTL to CCL2.
Sciences, US department of Energy, under contract
number DE-AC05-96OR22464 with Lockheed Martin
Energy Research Corporation for Oak Ridge National
Laboratory.
499
30
Cavity Phase along the CCDTL, CCL Table. 2. Matching section parameters at the CCDTL.
20 Beam Element Parameters
10 Drift 13.27 cm
−2.692 T
Phase (Deg.)
0 Q between DTL and
-10 CCDTL
-20 Drift 7.0 cm
-30 Q1 +2.161T
-40 Q2 −2.278T
-50 Q3 +2.261T
−2.199T
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Energy (MeV)
Q4
Figure 2. The design phase starting in the CCDTL. The First 2 Cavities 1.9529 MV/m, −90°
phase change near the end of the CCL from
−24 to +24 degrees increases the energy spread BEAM AT NEL1= 5 I= 110.8mA BEAM AT NEL2= 72
H A= 1.9854 B= 1.8597 W= 20.2746 21.4339 MeV H A= -1.0182 B= 0.59737
as required for ring injection. V A= -1.5365 B= 0.90320 FREQ= 805.00MHz WL= 372.41mm
EMITI= 4.531 4.500 1185.70
EMITO= 4.405 4.375 1185.70
N1= 5 N2= 72
PRINTOUT VALUES
V A= 4.7793 B= 2.9104
PP PE VALUE
MATCHING TYPE = 9
DESIRED VALUES (BEAMF)
0 mA Phase Advance per Transverse Focusing Period alpha beta
x -1.0182 0.5974
y 4.7792 2.9104
z 0.0547 0.1978
in the Linac MATCH VARIABLES (NC=0)
MPP MPE VALUE
15.000 mm X 25.000 mrad 15.000 mm X 25.000 mrad
90 CODE: TRACE3D v61L
FILE: trnscdta.0d1
Z A=-0.32800 B= 0.21870 DATE: 07/29/1998 Z A= 5.46559E-02 B= 0.19776
TIME: 13:22:12
80
Phase Advance/period (Deg.)
70
35.000 Deg X 200.00 keV 35.000 Deg X 200.00 keV
60
NP1= 1 NP2= 80
10.00 mm (Horiz) 30.0 Deg (Long.)
50
Sig_x,Sig_y
40 Q QQ G G G G QQ G G G G QQ G G G G QQ G G G G QQ G G
45
3
2
1 6 78 9 10
1112 1314
1516
1718 1920
21 22 2324 25 26
2728 2930
3132
3334 3536
37 38 39
40 41 42
4344 4546
4748
4950 5152
53 54 55
56 57 58
5960 6162
6364
6566 6768
69 70 71
72 73 74
7576 7777
30
Sig_z
20 10.00 mm (Vert) Length= 2259.74mm
10
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Figure 4. Beam profiles in the first few lattice periods of
Energy (MeV)
the CCDTL. This part of the structure is used
Figure 3. Zero-current phase advance per 12 βλ in the to match the beam from the DTL.
CCDTL and CCL.
3 PARMILA SIMULATION FROM DTL
2 DTL TO CCDTL TRANSITION TO CCL
To achieve a smooth beam match between the DTL Starting at the entry to the DTL with the RFQ exit
and the CCDTL, we require that the transverse and beam distribution we performed a PARMILA 10,000-
longitudinal real-estate phase advances are continuous particle simulation. The normalized rms emittance was
across the matching section. The longitudinal matching 0.01845 π cm-mr in the transverse phase plane, and
section consists of the first two CCDTL cavities with a 0.1056 π deg-MeV in the longitudinal plane. The beam
total of 4 accelerating gaps operating at −90°. The microbunch current was 55.4 mA. Figure 5 shows the rms
transverse matching section consists of four quadrupole beam radius, the maximum radius, and the linac aperture
magnets after the first segment of the CCDTL. The zero- along the linac. It shows that we have sufficient beam
current transverse phase advance at the end of the DTL is clearance along the linac. Figure 6 shows the normalized
57.35° with a transverse period 4 βλ at 402.5 MHz. The rms emittances through the linac. The artificial
equivalent phase advance at the entry to the CCDTL, discontinuity in longitudinal emittance at 20 MeV is
which operates at 805 MHz is 86.025° (= caused by the doubling of the rf frequency.
57.35*12/(4*2)). The longitudinal phase advance is 40° Beam Radius and Aperture
over the transverse period 4 βλ. This translates to 60° at 2.50
CCL1 CCL2
the CCDTL entry. Table 2 shows the matching section
Beam Radius, Aperture (cm)
Aperture Radius
linac parameters. Figure 4 shows the transverse and 2.00
longitudinal beam profiles at the matching section
1.50
performed with the TRACE 3-D code [4].
1.00
CCDTL Beam Max
0.50 DTL
Beam RMS
0.00
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Energy (MeV)
Figure 5. Linac aperture and beam size along the linac.
500
*** ORNL *** 2 tank FFDD DTL 29.45mA : MEBT Full Quad entry DTL***
Normalized RMS Emittance in the Linac 1.2 x (cm) vs. cell no.
0.06 0.300
Longitudinal Emittance (Deg-MeV)
Transverse Emittance (cm-mr)
Longitudinal Emittance
0.05 0.250
0.
0.04 0.200
-1.2
-51 -4 43 90
0.03 0.150 1.2 y (cm) vs. cell no.
Transverse Emittance
0.02 0.100
0.
0.01 0.050
0.00 0.000 -1.2
-51 -4 43 90
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Energy (MeV) Figure 8. Beam x and y profiles through the MEBT and
Figure 6. The normalized rms emittances are constant DTL for a 29.4-mA beam.
along the linac. Figure 9 shows the x, y, phase, and energy profile of
The beam profiles x, y, phase φ and energy W through the end-to-end simulation showing from the MEBT
the entire linac from DTL to CCL are plotted in Figure 7. through the CCL. The beam starts at the RFQ.
Transport from END of MEBT to first cell of CCDTL (12bet1cg)
By shifting the rf phase to operate at +24 degrees for the 2.2 x (cm) vs. cell no.
last five 10-cavity segments of the structure, the energy
width increases from ±163 keV to ±667 keV.
0.
-2.2
-49 1034 2117 3200
2.2 y (cm) vs. cell no.
*** NSNS *** 2 tank FFDD DTL 55mA ***
2.2 x (cm) vs. cell no.
0.
0.
-2.2
-49 1034 2117 3200
60.0 phi-phis (deg) vs. cell no.
-2.2
0 1067 2133 3200
2.2 y (cm) vs. cell no.
0.
0. -60.0
-49 1034 2117 3200
2.00 w-ws (MeV) vs. cell no.
-2.2
0 1067 2133 3200 0.
40.0 phi-phis (deg) vs. cell no.
-2.00
-49 1034 2117 3200
0.
Figure 9. End-to-end simulation for a 29.4-mA beam.
-40.0
The profiles are the same as in Figure 7. The
0
2.00 w-ws (MeV) vs. cell no.
1067 2133 3200
plot shows the profiles starting at the MEBT,
but the simulation started at the RFQ entrance.
0.
5 SUMMARY
-2.00
0 1067 2133 3200
The PARMILA simulation from the DTL to the end of
Figure 7. The beam profiles x, y, phase φ, and energy W CCL shows that the beam could be accelerated to 1000
along the linac from DTL. Shifting the rf phase MeV without loss by the sequence of linacs DTL,
to +24° expands the beam energy width. CCDTL, and CCL.
4 END-TO-END PARMILA 6 REFERENCES
SIMULATION FROM RFQ TO CCL
1 J. H. Billen et al., “A New Rf Structure for
A 30-mA beam with normalized transverse rms Intermediate Velocity Particles,” Proceedings of the
emittance 0.2 π mm-mrad was generated with 4-d 1994 Linear Accelerator Conference (August 21-26,
waterbag distribution for the RFQ input. The RFQ 1994 Tsukuba, Japan).
accelerates the beam to 2.5 MeV. Then a medium-energy
beam transport section (MEBT), which houses the 2 H. Takeda and J. H. Billen, “Recent Developments in
chopper and consists of 18 quadrupole magnets and 3 the Accelerator Design Code PARMILA,” this
buncher cavities, guides the beam to the DTL. At the conference.
entry to the MEBT, the normalized rms beam emittances 3 T. S. Bhatia et al., “SNS Linac: Revised
are 0.206 π mm-mrad transversely and 0.1π MeV-deg Configuration” Los Alamos National Laboratory
longitudinally. Figure 8 shows the x and y beam profiles Report LA-UR-98-3595.
at the interface between the MEBT and the DTL.
4 K. R. Crandall and D. P. Rusthoi, Trace 3-D
Documentation, Los Alamos National Laboratory
Report LA-UR-97-886.
501
CW RFQ DESIGNING USING THE LIDOS.RFQ CODES
Boris Bondarev, Alexander Durkin, Stanislav Vinogradov
Moscow Radiotechnical Institute,
132, Warshavskoe Shosse, Moscow, Russia, 113519
Jean-Michel Lagniel, Robin Ferdinand,
CEA-Saclay, DSM/DAPNIA/SEA, France
New criteria arise when high-current CW linacs forces. The functions U(n), m(n), ϕs(n) and R(n) obtained
are considered. The main requirements for such linacs are at the first stage are used as input data. The third level
beam acceleration with very low beam losses and reduced codes LIDOS.PIC are used for beam simulation. Beam is
intervane voltage. In such cases the traditional algorithms represented as a set of macro-particles and Poisson
can lead to undesired versions of the RFQ. equation is solved at every step with boundaries in the
New concepts for parameter choices based on form of "ideal" vane shape. The amount of macro-
optimization methods and scientific visualization of space particles is 50 000. A saved cartoon is used for the
charge-dominated beam are incorporated in the new presentation of the beam transport. Phase portraits all
multilevel codes RFQ.3L [1]. along the RFQ are showed on cartoon's pictures, as well
This new RFQ code package gives users the as plots of several beam parameters (transmission factor,
possibility to proceed successfully from input data up to rms emittance, mean longitudinal and transverse kinetic
accelerating-focusing channel design and space-charge- energies…). Information on lost particles, their input
dominated (SCD) beam simulation. There are two main distribution, total lost power and maximal lost power per
features: a maximum of scientific visualization for each unit length are also obtained. Distribution of lost particles
calculation step and the possibility to cut off undesired as functions of length along the RFQ, number of RFQ
linac versions long before the time-consuming periods and particle energy are presented.
calculations start. The package contains codes with three When the RFQ structure is chosen (first level)
levels of mathematical model complexity. and primarily checked (third level), the 3D calculation of
The first-level codes make only a preliminary the real external electrical fields (i.e. fields from the
choice of the main parameter arrays on the basis of a electrodes, without the beam Coulomb field) is performed
simplified physical model. These codes are richly for the real form of the electrodes. On this stage the
supplied with visual information, which helps to quickly second-level codes are used. These codes calculate the
find the best linac version. distribution of the field potential for each cell in an
electrostatic approach. The calculations are the solution of
The second-level codes are used for channel data
the Laplace equation with the relaxation method. As the
calculations with the real shape of the RFQ vanes.
field is supposed to be quadruple-symmetrical, the
Information from the first level codes is used as input
potential distribution is calculated only for one quarter of
data.
the whole region. As the parameters of neighbor cells
The third-level codes are based on information
(modulation, mean radius, length) are very close to each
from the first and second level codes and on complex
other and the fields differences in them occur to be less
PIC-models that are needed for a correct beam simulation
than the calculations accuracy, then base cells are used for
in the chosen channel version. the definition of the fields in the whole channel. The field
In the case of the IPHI high-current CW RFQ, in a cell is calculated as a function of two parameters: m -
radiation purity (minimum of lost particles) and reduced the electrodes modulation- and the ratio s = R0/L, where L
intervane voltage are considered as the main optimization is the cell length. Cells are chosen based on those
criteria. parameters and the fields E(mn,sn), E(mn,sn+1), E(mn+1,sn+1)
RFQ.3L codes have been used to find the region are then calculated. Thereafter, the field in cells with
of RFQ parameter space most likely to satisfy the design intermediate values of m and s is calculated with a linear
requirements. The process is fast because the beam interpolation between the three base fields. Total number
simulation is used only for the final RFQ version. RFQ.3L of base points is 39. The new length of the cells are
gives an user intellectual advises and helps him to come to calculated taking into account the efficiency of
the best RFQ version by the shortest way.
acceleration in real fields using the dependencies of ϕs(n)
The first level stage the channel, data must be
and m(n) defined previously.
chosen in a way that beam transmission can be as large as
On the last stage, the calculations of the particles
possible. The periods of vane modulation are calculated at
dynamics is performed taking into account Coulomb
the second stage taking into account the "ideal" vane
forces and real shapes of the electrodes. The code
shape (2 terms potential) and nonlinear space charge
502
LIDOS.PIC is used for this task where the calculated real increased up to 25% from input to output. Vane
fields are used instead of the ideal fields. On this stage modulation at the RFQ output does not exceeded 1.5. It
study of different tolerance influence (channel axis means that bore radius is increasing not only at the cost of
displacement, different sorts of voltage deviations) on R0(n) increasing, but also at the cost of m(n) decreasing.
beam dynamics are also performed. The chosen parameters are showed on Figs. 1-2 as
The above code tools were used for RFQ functions of the period number. In Tables 1 and 2 RFQ
designing in favor of IPHI Project (CEA, France) [2]. The parameters are given.
following parameters were preset as well as some
Table 1. Main RFQ Parameters
restrictions and requirements:
Operating Frequency 352 MHz
Accelerating Particles protons Length (w/o output part) 7.906 m
Input Energy 0.095 MeV Electrical Length 9.28 ( λ=0.85 m)
Output Energy 5 MeV Number of Periods 267 (534 cells)
Beam Current 100 mA Bore Radius, mm 4 → 3.43 → 3.95
Total Beam Emittance 0.15π cm·mrad Vane Modulation 1→ 1.53
Operating Frequency 352 MHz ρ/R0 0.85
Peak Surface Field < 29.5-30 MV/m Vane Voltage, kV 91.6→ 82.4→ 114.4
Kilpatrick Factor < 1.6 Kilpatrick Factor 1.62 – 1.64
Length about 8 m
Beam Transmission > 90% Table 2: Parameters of RFQ Parts
Power of Lost Particles < 1–1.5 KW W, ϕs, Cell L, m
Minimum of Lost Particles with energy more than 3 MeV MeV deg Nos
Matching Section 0.104 -83 180 1.098
A strategy was elaborated for creating a RFQ and Shaper
version who satisfies the conditions set above. A lot of
Gentle Buncher 0.72 -40 190 1.7
versions were examined to create the needed channel.
Acceleration 5 -35 164 5.108
Following is the essence of this strategy: If the
Total 5 534 7.906
calculations show that particles capture in the accelerating
regime is sufficiently high (~ 95%) then one can conclude
that the regularities for the equilibrium phase ϕs variation
and for the acceleration rate UT are defined finally. To
prevent transverse particles losses in the last part of the
channel (particles with high energy), it is necessary to
increase the focusing strength when they achieve the first
minimum of phase oscillations (first focus) and to
increase the aperture of the following channel part.
Besides, it is necessary to satisfy the upper limit of the
field Er=U/R0. The aperture increase must be
accompanied with the proportional voltage increase. The
increasing of the focusing strength diminishes the size of
the beam halo in the region of first focus. Simultaneously,
Fig.1.
the aperture decrease at this location leads in halo losses
in a channel region where particle energy slightly differs
from the input value. According to calculations and
investigations there is a range where the raise of the
transverse beam size due to the decreasing focusing
strength is compensated by the aperture increasing. Thus
we can avoid losses of high-energy particles in the last
channel part. To keep the product U⋅T constant, we must
also change the vane modulation.
The best RFQ version with constant U and R0
was first calculated (U = 91.6 kV, R0 = 4 mm). This
version gave good transverse and longitudinal captures
but leads in losses of high energy particles. In order to Fig.2.
minimize power of lost particles the plots U(n) and R0(n) The arrays of the calculated fields in the input
were chosen and correction of m(n) was made. In optimal section and in regular channel are got united. The united
case the mean bore was decreased from 4 to 3.6 mm and array is used for beam dynamics calculations We have not
then increased up to 5 mm. Intervane voltage must be understood that sentence.
503
The results for different RFQ versions are and y, the end of each section is shifted on +0.1 mm, the
presented below in Tables 3-5. We indicate the beam channel axis has tears at sections ends.
normalized emittance, E, the overall beam transmission, Table 4
Trans., the accelerated particle, Acc., as well as the
Version axis Trans Acc P
integrated power of lost particles, P. All results are
(%) (%)
presented for a beam current of 100 mA. The initial
particles distribution is a uniform filling in the 4- 1c ideal 95.9 92.8 0.92
dimensional ellipsoids in phase space X,X/,Y,Y/ with 2a straight 95.5 92.6 1.05
uniform distribution along the longitudinal coordinate Z 2b broken 95.5 92.5 1.06
and without longitudinal velocities spread. Version 0 is 2• disrupt 93.6 90.6 2.18
with constants U and R0. Versions 1a and 1b correspond
to RFQ structure with ideal RF fields (no multipoles, with As it is seen from the table, the most dangerous
images effect), 1c – with real RF fields. The next versions are the independent shifts of sections ends (no continuity
are presented for real RF fields and beam emittance of of the channel).
0.15π cm⋅mrad. The influence of RF fields tilts in RFQ sections
on beam motion was a goal of the next series of beam
Table 3
simulation. There are results for the following versions:
Version • Trans Acc P 3a - RF fields are decreased at the beginning of
(π⋅cm⋅mrad) (%) (%) (kW) each of four sections by 5%, and increased at the ends by
0 0.1π 97.7 97.0 1.55 5%; 3b – reversed for 3a, +5% then –5%; 3c -RFQ linac
1a 0.1π 98.1 96.8 0.59 was considered as unique section. At the beginning of the
1b 0.15π 97.6 96.2 0.80 linac, RF fields are increased by 5%, at the ends -
1c 0.15π 95.9 92.8 0.92 decrease by 5%; 3d -RFQ linac was considered as
unique section. At the beginning of linac RF fields are
As it is seen from the Table 3 new version 1b decreased by 5%, at the ends - increased by 5%. All RF
with ideal fields leads practically to the same results as variations are linear.
version 0, even for greater emittance (0.15π versus 0.1π). Table 5
The comparison of versions 1b and 1c shows that in real
field the overall current transmission suffer a diminution Version Section RF Field Trans Acc P
of 1.7% and a capture diminution of 3.5%. For the Nos (%) (%)
investigation of the influence of real fields, non-linearity 1c 1 Nominal 95.9 92.8 0.92
in matching section on overall current transmission there 3a 4 Increasing 93.2 90.5 2.58
was performed the calculation of the particles dynamics 3b 4 Decreasing 95.3 92.0 1.54
for the intermediate version when the real regular part was 3c 1 Increasing 94.9 91.3 1.32
combined with ideal matching section. The difference 3d 1 Decreasing 96.4 93.9 0.73
occurs to be practically zero. One may conclude that the
non-linearity of the regular channel field diminishes both As is easy to see, the RF field tilts from smaller
the overall current transmission (95.9 versus 97.6) and the values at the beginning of sections to larger ones at its
number of accelerated particles (96.8 versus 98.6). Note ends decrease beam transmission in a greater extent that
that the definition of the input beam parameters matching the opposite case. Nevertheless, the last case (version 3b)
with real nonlinear channel represents itself a separate leads to a beam halo growth on longitudinal phase plane.
problem. When the mean square emittance <xx/> The third level code formally called LIDOS.PIC
calculated in z points only slightly oscillates through z, also implement error studies (vane voltage, misalignment
then we have a good beam matched. and tears…). It can be used to help the designer to set the
Among all calculated effects, a great interest was manufacturing precision and to get the expected
expressed to study the influence of a channel axis transmission for multi errors.
displacements on output beam parameters as well as
influence of a tilt of intervane voltage. In Table 4 resume REFERENCES
this analysis.
Version 2a – the channel axis is uniformly 1. B.I.Bondarev, A.P.Durkin, S.V.Vinogradov
shifted of 0.1 mm in x and y. “Multilevel Codes RFQ.3L for RFQ Designing”, CAP-96,
Version 2b – the channel is divided in 4 sections, Williamsburg, Virginia, USA.
the ends of sections are shifted of ± 0.1 mm in x and y, 2. R.Ferdinand et al. “Optimization of RFQ
and the axis represents broken line without tears. Design”, EPAC-98.
Version 2c – the channel is divided in 4 sections,
the beginning of each section is shifted on –0.1 mm in x
504
MULTI-FIDUCIAL TECHNIQUES FOR TRACKING LARGE PHASE SPACE
DISTRIBUTIONS IN NON-LINEAR FIELDS
S.M. Lidia*
E.O. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720 USA
Abstract many, many particles to provide adequate sampling of
both the beam phase space and the fields experienced.
One of the challenges in tracking intense beams One of the main disadvantages of tracking by mapping
through linacs is to account for the differences in non- can be seen immediately. The resultant map is
linear forces experienced by portions of the beam separated fundamentally a power series expansion about the initial
by large regions of phase space. In many situations, the and final coordinates of the fiducial orbit. When the extent
high-order maps generated by a single fiducial trajectory of the beam distribution in phase space is no longer
fail to capture or describe the dynamics of distant particles ‘small’ in some sense, then the map generated about the
within the beam. I describe here a technique which given fiducial orbit loses accuracy when applied to the
overcomes this difficulty by piecing together lower-order outlying particles. There are various solutions that may
maps induced by multiple fiducial orbits. This atlas of be applied to this problem. The pre-calculated fiducial
maps can more accurately track the evolution of a beam may not faithfully represent the orbit of the beam
spread over a large phase space region. I discuss centroid, but another fiducial may be found which does.
applications of this technique to simulating beam The order of non-linearity carried by the calculation may
dynamics in two-beam accelerators. be too low to adequately describe the given external field
structure. Increasing the order of the calculation may be
1 INTRODUCTION sufficient. However, these ‘fixes’ make for a good
Particle dynamics in relativistic klystrons pose several solution only when the beam occupies a small enough
thorny problems for simulations. Possibly the most region of phase space such that a single fiducial orbit and
important element of the dynamics in a relativistic the map it induces captures the essential dynamics.
klystron two-beam accelerator (RK-TBA) [1] occurs in the In many applications of intense, modulated beams,
longitudinal phase space. The beam is modulated at high however, this is not the case. These beams are most often
frequencies (11 - 40 GHz), and each bunch carries a charge present in single pass, linear beamlines, with constantly
of 10’s-100’s of nC. Space charge effects will produce changing parameters. The beams may also have a
debunching forces (a capacitive impedance) which is relatively long pulse length with respect to any time-
counteracted by (inductively) detuning the rf output dependent rf fields they encounter. To sufficiently capture
structures. A bunch will undergo numerous synchrotron that interaction via a single map would require a degree of
oscillations during transport through the full-scale device. non-linearity far too high, and involve the computation of
Also, the bunches are not short compared to the rf too many map coefficients, that the intrinsic efficiency of
wavelength; they typically subtend 60°-120° of rf phase. the method would be quickly lost. This problem is only
Hence, they sample very non-linear fields in the rf output compounded when self-field effects are included.
structures.
From this description we can identify the main 2 CONSTRUCTION OF A MULTI-
problems present in a device simulation. The beams are FIDUCIAL MAP
sufficiently intense that space charge forces present more The construction and evaluation of the multi-fiducial
than a small perturbation. The beamline elements are map upon the particle coordinates is straightforward.
necessarily spaced close together, and this requires Algorithmically, it may be described by a sequence of
treatment of overlapping, non-linear fringe fields. simple steps. In any calculation, the beamline under
Transverse focusing is strong so that a complete betatron consideration is initially divided into a set of mapping
oscillation occurs between rf output cavities (~1 m). intervals. Beam particles are propagated by mapping
Transverse emittance, while low, is still sufficiently large successively through each interval. We define a ‘center’
that particles at the beam edge sample significant non- fiducial as a single orbit that continuously threads through
linearities present in the beamline elements. The all the mapping intervals. This single fiducial is
instantaneous energy spread is large (~10%) to handle the important to maintain as it provides a single reference
low-frequency BBU, and to produce the bunching by rf frame, and hence a reference ‘clock’ and ‘meter stick’, for
rotation. The particle simulation, of necessity, must track
* The author may be contacted via email at [email protected].
505
the problem. Each mapping interval is defined by referring 12
to the coordinates of this center fiducial. 11 Mid tail
For each interval, the beam phase space is partitioned
10
and a set of nominal values of coordinates are selected,
one set for each region. These nominal coordinate sets 9
Center
provide the initial values for ‘sub-fiducials’ and their 8
associated maps to be constructed. The particles in each γ Far head
7
region are then propagated according to these local maps. Mid head
The number and method of partitioning is highly 6
dependent upon the physics to be modeled. Partitioning 5
should represent a balance between the order of non- Far tail
4
linearity carried by the calculation, the degree of non-
linearity present in the external fields and sampled by the 3
-2.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
beam, and the non-homogeneity of the beam density
profile when self-fields are a concern. For example, in a Distance from cavity center [cm]
magnetostatic transport region, only a single fiducial and Figure 2. Fiducial trajectories in an rf cavity
map may need to be calculated. Whereas, in a region with
time-dependent rf fields where the wavelength and period 3.1 Fiducial Particle Trajectories
of the external fields is comparable to the bunch length The fiducial trajectories are calculated using the exact
and transit time of the beam, then perhaps 10 or more single-particle equations of motion. During transit
fiducials may be required. When self-field effects are through the rf cavity field, different fiducials will
included, the number of partitions may depend upon the experience different forces due to arrival time differences.
non-uniformity of the beam density profile. The final coordinates of the various fiducials will
generally differ in a non-linear way. The fiducial
3 LONGITUDINAL BEAM DYNAMICS trajectories in this case are shown in Figure 2.
IN AN RF CAVITY
12
As an example to illustrate the method, I consider the
problem of tracking a bunched beam through an rf cavity. 11
Here, I follow only a single bunch, where the modulation
Final distribution
carried by the beam is comparable to the rf period of the 10 using 11 fiducials
cavity, as in the case of an RK-TBA. Also, I will only Initial distribution
consider the longitudinal phase space. The center fiducial 9
is placed at the center of the beam distribution, with the γ
8
sub-fiducials at locations that span the interval in arrival
time (t) of the bunch at a given beamline position (z).
7
The initial bunch distribution and fiducial positions is Final distribution
shown in Figure 1. 6 using 1 fiducial
5
9
-0.015 -0.01 -0.005 0 0.005 0.01 0.015
Arrival time * c [m]
8.8 Figure 3. Final longitudinal beam distribution under a
Center fiducial
3rd order map with multiple fiducials
Far head Mid head Mid tail Far tail
8.6 3.2 Comparison of Single Vs. Multiple Fiducial
γ
Calculation
8.4
Sub-fiducials The maps induced by the fiducial orbits can, in
principle, be calculated to arbitrary order. The accuracy of
8.2
the mapping for outlying particles is determined by this
order parameter. In Figure 3 is shown the results of the
-0.015 -0.01 -0.005 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 mapping through the rf cavity for two cases. The first
Arrival time * c [m] case uses a 4 th order Hamiltonian, with a single fiducial
(identical to the center fiducial in Figures 1 and 2). The
Figure 1. Initial fiducial coordinates and beam second case uses a 3rd Hamiltonian, but with 11 fiducials.
distribution in longitudinal phase space. In the first case, the combined effect of sampling only
low-order field variations and tracking outlying particles
506
leads to inaccuracies. The final distribution suffers representations is provided by the ‘world-line’ diagram of
additional local energy spread growth, and does not exhibit the fiducials, Figure 4. The fiducial trajectories (z vs. t)
the appropriate curvature, as seen in the head of the are shown as world-lines. The constant-z beam
bunch. The second case avoids these problems by distribution is shown as black line segments. The first
sampling the fields at the location of the outlying step is to calculate the motion of the sub-fiducials about
particles. The effects of errors in the field evaluation and the center fiducial, and the associated non-linear maps.
in large coordinate deviations between particles and their This brings all the fiducials to the same time, but at
associated fiducials are kept small. different beamline positions (green lines and arrows). The
particles attached to a given sub-fiducial are still spread in
4 INCLUSION OF SELF-FIELD time (red line segments). The last step is to apply a linear
EFFECTS transformation to all the particles associated with a given
fiducial, to bring them to the nominal time (blue line
4.1 Split Operator Algorithm segments). The beam distribution now exhibits a spread
in beamline position consistent with observation at a
Two separate mappings are applied to the particle phase given moment in time.
space coordinates using split-operator techniques [2].
These techniques are based on splitting the Hamiltonian W
into pieces that can be solved exactly (or through some or
desired order of accuracy), and then combining the separate Head ld-
lin
maps to produce an approximate map for the full
Hamiltonian. Split operator symplectic integration
es
algorithms, including the well known ‘leap-frog’
algorithm of plasma physics simulations [3], are widely t
used in the treatment of Hamiltonian systems.
The total Hamiltonian is represented in the form
Htot = Hkin + Hext + Hself , (1)
Tail
where Hkin is the kinetic portion describing single-
particle motion in the absence of all fields, Hext is the
contribution from external fields, and Hself is the
contribution from self-fields. The maps from the first two
z
Figure 4. Changing beam distribution representation
contributions are calculated together, while the map from constant-z to constant-t.
resulting from self-forces is calculated separately. A
combined map is then produced to advance particles over 5 CONCLUSIONS
an interval τ. Accurate through second order in this step,
the combined map is expressed as I have presented a new method for improving the
accuracy of tracking algorithms, by using low-order
Mtot(τ) = Mkin+ext(τ/2) Mself(τ) Mkin+ext(τ/2). (2) integrators and multiple fiducials. Extensions to self-field
calculations have also been made.
The self-fields are determined by numerical solution of
Poisson’s equation on a 3-D Cartesian grid in the beam’s 6 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
rest frame. Standard techniques are used to solve for the I would like to thank Simon Yu and Glen Westenskow
fields at the grid nodes. For accurate representation of the for their continued support of this work. This work was
3-D fields from a bunched beam, we may use grid sizes up performed under the auspices of the U.S. Department of
to 64x64x512 nodes, as well as 104-105 macroparticles. Energy under contract AC03-76SF00098.
4.2 Changing Representations 7 REFERENCES
Since we are solving the Maxwell equations at a given [1] A.M. Sessler and S.S. Yu, Phys. Rev. Lett. 54, 889
instant in time, the particle distribution be represented at a (1987); G.A. Westenskow and T.L. Houck, IEEE
given moment. However, for the single particle maps, we Trans. Plasma Sci. 22, 750 (1994).
represent the particles at a given beamline location (z), [2] E. Forest and R.D. Ruth, Physica D 43, 105 (1990);
with a spread in arrival time (t). To faithfully calculate the H. Yoshida, Phys. Lett. A 150, 262 (1990); E. Forest,
self-forces, then, we must change the distribution from a et. al., Phys. Lett. A 158, 99 (1991).
‘constant-z’ to a ‘constant-t’ representation. [3] C.K. Birdsall and A.B. Langdon, Plasma Physics Via
The multi-fiducial approach again provides some Computer Simulation, Adam Hilger, Bristol,1991.
utility. A visual aid to the process of changing
507
PRODUCTION OF NEGATIVE HYDROGEN AND DEUTERIUM IONS IN
MICROWAVE-DRIVEN ION SOURCES*
David Spence, Keith R. Lykke **
Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, Illinois 60439 USA
Previous attempts elsewhere [3] at negative ion extraction
Abstract
from this type of source have been singularly
We report progress we have made in the production of unsuccessful. Our approach involves application of
negative hydrogen and deuterium atomic ions in pioneering studies by Hall et al. [1] which demonstrated
magnetically-confined microwave-driven (2.45 GHz) ion the effectiveness of freshly evaporated tantalum surfaces
sources. The influence of source surface material, in producing copious quantities of vibrationally excited
-
microwave power, source gas pressure and magnetic field molecular hydrogen (a required precursor to H
configuration on the resulting ion current is discussed. formation). The observations of Hall et al. appear to
Results strongly suggest that, at least in our source, never have been deliberately, or successfully, applied to
- -
vibrationally excited molecular hydrogen, the precursor to the production of high-current cw H or D beams.
atomic negative ion production, is produced via a surface
mechanism suggested by Hall et al. [1] rather than via a 2 APPARATUS AND SOURCE
gas phase reaction as is generally believed to be the case DIAGNOSTICS
in most ion sources.
1 INTRODUCTION
In order to accumulate (store) or accelerate large
+
currents of protons (H ) in circular machines, it is
necessary, from phase-space considerations, that the ions
be injected into the circular storage/acceleration ring in
- -
the form of negative ions, H , with the H being stripped of
+
its electrons to form H at the point of injection. Linac
accelerator performance can also be significantly
improved through simultaneous acceleration of positive
and negative ion beams. Suitable positive ion sources are Figure 1: Schematic of apparatus.
available now, but negative ion source development has
lagged somewhat. The major components of our apparatus shown in Fig. 1
-
All advanced high current H sources currently include a magnetically-confined microwave-driven (ECR)
available, including surface sources and RF driven source purchased from Atomic Energy of Canada, Ltd.
(2MHz) volume sources require the addition of cesium in which is powered by a 2.45 GHz microwave generator ( 2
-
order to achieve high H current. This is undesirable for kW). The microwave generator is coupled to the source
several reasons, not the least being the technical problems via a circulator and a four-stub autotuner. The ion source
associated with introduction of cesium into the source in a is attached to a large high-vacuum oil-free diagnostic
controllable manner over a long period of time. -8
chamber with a base pressure of 1x10 Torr.
- -
Moreover, all high current RF H and D sources Ion beams extracted at few hundred volts from the 5
developed to date consume tens of kilowatts of power and mm source aperture by an accel-decel arrangement are
can only produce beams of a few mA per square primarily collected on the decel electrode that is in the
centimeter of extraction aperture when operating cw (i.e., configuration of a faraday cup. A 0.5 mm aperture in the
100% duty factor). decel electrode allows a small portion of the beam to be
- -
Our novel approach to high current cw H and D transported to a quadrupole mass spectrometer (QMS) via
formation involves modification of an extremely simple an electrostatic zoom lens for quantitative beam
low power consumption (100’s of watts vs. 10,000’s for composition measurement. Light from the ion source is
other type) microwave-driven source. monitored by an optical monochromator by a clear line-
________________ of-sight through the QMS (sapphire window). The
*Work supported by US DOE via Laboratory Directed monochromator continuously monitors the atomic
Research and Development Funds. hydrogen Balmer α radiation (656 nm) to give a measure
508
+
of the atom concentration in the source under varying power (as we can demonstrate for H production), then
- 3
conditions. the H current will be proportional to (power) . This is
indeed what we observed, shown in Fig. 2 below, thus
-
confirming a novel mechanism for production of H and
-
D.
3 H-, D- PRODUCTION MECHANISMS
AND RESULTS
-
The mechanism for production of H is via the
dissociative attachment of slow (<2 eV) electrons to
vibrationally excited molecular hydrogen [H2(v)], i.e.,
eslow + H 2 ( v ) → H − + H (1)
-
The initial production of H2(v), the precurser of H , is
generally accepted to be by excitation of ground state
hydrogen H2 in the gas phase by fast electrons, i.e.,
H 2 + efast → H 2 ( v ) + efast (2)
It is the initial production of H2(v) that is the limiting step
-
in the production of H .
-
-
Figure 2: Log-log plot of H (D-) current extracted from
Our novel cw H source takes advantage of observations microwave driven (ECR) source vs. microwave power to
(in experiments not directly related to ion sources) that source. Plot indicates current is proportional to cube of
copious quantities of H2(v) are produced by recombinative power and strongly supports the surface production of
desorption of two hydrogen atoms on a tantulum surface H2(v) hypothesis.
(M) (the Eley-Rideal reaction mechanism) i.e., + +
Based on the ratio of total H extracted to H sampled
H (g) + H (ads) M → H 2 ( v )(free) (3) by the mass spectrometer in other experiments, we
-
estimate that a total H current of 4-5 mA being extracted
from the 5 mm diameter source aperture.
where H(g) is an atom in the gas phase and H (ads) is an - -
A comparison of the performance of our H , D ECR
atom adsorbed on a tantalum surface.
source compared with the arc-driven CWDD source at
In order to produce H2(v) via equation (3) we have -
ANL, the previous D cw current record holder, is shown
sputtered a thin layer of Ta on the inner surface of our ion
in the table below.
source. Our earlier experiments [3] used a bulk Ta liner
-
to the source, which, though effective in producing H ions
led to strong effects. Namely, Ta like other transition Beam Current Power
metals strongly absorbs hydrogen, which would Current Aperture Density Consumption
periodically escape the metal in large pressure bursts. Use Present cw source 4-5 mA 5 mm 20 700 W
of a thin Ta film avoids this unwanted effect. Also, in -
H, D
-
mA/cm
2
-
order to prevent destruction of H by fast electrons in the
CWDD source D- 22 mA 23 mm 4 50,000 W
source the solenoids are centered over the microwave mA/cm
2
window rather than over the center of the source. This
results in the magnetic field diverging at the extraction Because of H2/D2 isotope effects, the production rate for
aperture and diverting hot electrons. Failure to do this -
D- is generally much lower than H , often by a factor
-
initially resulted in no H ions being extracted. greater than ten. This results from H2(v) production via
Electrons necessarily extracted along with the negative equation (2) leading to low vibrationally excited levels
ions were removed from the beam prior to mass analysis from which the isotope effect is pronounced, whereas
by a weak (~30 Gauss) transverse magnetic field in the H2(v) via equation (3) is expected to lead to populations of
region of the accel-decel electrodes. About 100 mA of high vibrationally excited levels from which the isotope
extracted electrons were collected on these electrodes. effect can disappear. This is what we observe in our
Simple arguments show that if production of H2(v) - -
experiments. Figure (2) shows H and D mass spectra
occurs via equation (2) (as previously generally believed), obtained under identical experimental conditions where
- - 2
then production of H (D ) is proportional to [e] , where [e] the cw ion currents are represented by the areas of the
is the electron density in the plasma, whereas if it is via -
peaks and are essentially the same for H and D and
-
- - 3
equation (3) then H (D ) production is proportional to [e] . indicating little or no isotope effect.
If one assumes that [e] is proportional to microwave
509
- -
Figure 3: Mass spectra of H /H2 and D /D2 extracted from
modified microwave driven (ECR) ion source. Spectra
obtained under identical source conditions (power,
- -
density, etc.) shows no isotope effect for H D production.
A first for any type of source.
4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank C. Batson for continued technical expertise in
this project.
**Present Address: National Institute of Standards and
Technology, Washington, D.C.
5 REFERENCES
[1] R. I. Hall, I. Cadez, M. Landau, F. Pichou, and C.
Schermann, “Vibrational Excitation of Hydrogen via
Recombinative Desorption of Atomic Hydrogen Gas
on a Metal Surface,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 60, 337 (1988).
[2] J. S. C. Wills, Chalk River Laboratory, private
communication.
[3] D. Spence, K. R. Lykke, and G. E. McMichael,
“Plasma Modified Production of High-Current, High-
+ + -
purity cw H , D and H Beams from Microwave-
driven Sources.” Proc. 1996 Int. LINAC Conf.
Geneva, Switzerland, 26-30, Aug. 1996.
510
BEAM SIMULATIONS FOR THE H-INJECTOR UPGRADE AT
LANSCE
Ralph R. Stevens, Jr., William Ingalls, Oscar Sander, Ben Prichard,
and Joseph Sherman
Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545
Abstract
2 LANL ION SOURCE
An upgrade program is being carried out at Los Alamos to
The configuration of the present LANL converter ion
increase the peak beam current from the present H- source together with the 80-kV accelerating column is
injector to provide 200 µA average current for the proton shown in Fig. 1.
storage ring at LANSCE. In order to meet this objective,
the injector must provide at least 30% more current than
presently available. More optimal operation, however,
requires a factor of two higher peak current in order to
reduce circulating losses in the ring. At these higher
currents, a lower beam emittance is needed to limit beam
losses in the linac. Beam simulations have been carried
out to model the operation, of the present injector and to
determine what changes will be required to operate with
these higher beam currents. A collaboration with the
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL) is now in
progress to modify our present converter ion source to
produce 40-mA peak of H- beam current with reduced
beam emittance. Beam simulations show that a new 80-
kV accelerating column will be needed to accelerate and
transport these higher current beams with acceptable beam
size and divergence. Experimental results for the initial
phase of this program are presented together with a
comparison to these beam simulations.
1 INTRODUCTION
The upgraded H- injector must produce high-duty factor,
low-emittance H- beams with good reliability and
availability in order to meet the operational requirements
at the Los Alamos Neutron Science Center (LANSCE). Figure 1: Layout of the LANL converter ion source
The present surface converter ion source provides the with the present accelerating column.
reliability and availability needed [1]. Previous work at
LBNL with a similar barium converter source [2,3] has The H- ions are sputtered from the surface of a cesiated
demonstrated that a factor of two increase in converter molybdenum converter electrode and are subsequently
efficiency can be obtained for this type of ion source by accelerated to several hundred electron volts by the cathode
filtering the primary plasma. Experiments carried out sheath formed at the converter surface by the applied bias
with a cesiated molybdenum converter [4] have voltage. These ions are self-focused by the spherical
demonstrated that the required 40 mA of beam current can surface of the converter and form a converging beam that
be produced. exits the source at the plasma electrode. The ion beam is
The design of a new accelerating column was carried collimated both by the 1.0-cm diam. plasma electrode
out by first benchmarking the ray-tracing code PBGUNS aperture and by the plasma repeller assembly within the
against the operation of the present accelerating column. source itself. The emittance of the beam extracted from
Then this code was used to determine what changes were the ion source is determined by the geometrical
needed to design a column capable of accelerating higher admittance. For low converter voltages, the beam fills
beam currents with the required exit beam parameters. the phase space available and the beam emittance is equal
to the ion source admittance. The extraction electrode is
located 2.5 cm from the plasma electrode and has a 2.2-cm
diam. aperture. The extraction voltage required for our
present 16-mA production beam is only 12 kV. This is
514
a consequence of the high energy (250 eV) of the typical emittance scan for the 12-kV case is shown in Fig
converter beam and of the relatively low plasma density at 2.
the plasma electrode. The difference between the
extraction voltage and the total column voltage is applied
across two high-voltage gaps in the column with the
intermediate voltage being variable. For the present
operation, this voltage difference is split equally between
these two high-voltage gaps.
3 BEAM SIMULATIONS
The ray-tracing code PBGUNS Version 3.20 [5] has been
used to model the production of the H- beam in the ion
source and the subsequent acceleration in the 80-kV
accelerating column. This code computes beam Figure 2: Horizontal emittance scan of a 16-mA H- beam
trajectories starting at the converter surface and propagates at the column exit with 12-kV extraction voltage.
the beam through the ion source plasma and then
subsequently accelerates the beam through the 80-kV Simulations were then run for all the extraction voltages
accelerating column into the low-energy beam transport with the ion source parameters fixed at the production
(LEBT) line. Emittance plots can be produced at four values. The calculated phase-space distribution for the 12-
positions along the beam line, and the evolution of the kV extraction voltage case is shown in Fig. 3.
beam phase space can be followed through the system as
the ion source and accelerating column parameters are
varied.
4 TEST STAND PROGRAM
To carry out the development of a new ion source, the
LANSCE ion source test stand (ISTS) was rebuilt to have
the same configuration as the injector in the accelerator.
Thus, it now provides a means for testing ion source
improvements and modifications in an off-line
environment [6]. A spare converter ion source was
mounted on the ISTS, and beam tests were carried out
which demonstrated that the operation of the ion source
on the test stand was the same as that on the injector.
Although the PBGUNS code had been benchmarked
against experiments for positive ion sources, there has not
yet been a similar validation for the negative ion sputter Figure 3: Calculated emittance distribution of a16-mA H-
sources that we are using [7]. We decided, therefore, to beam at the column exit for 12-kV extraction voltage.
carry out an experimental program to compare the
simulation predictions to the emittance data taken with The experimental data observed at EM-1 and the
our present ion source. A series of emittance scans were corresponding PBGUNS simulations are compared in
taken at the first emittance station (EM-1) in which the Table I.
ion source parameters were held constant and the
extraction voltage was varied from 8 kV to 15 kV. A Both the ray-tracing code and the emittance analysis code
Table 1: Comparison of Emittance Data and PBGUNS Simulations
kV π mm-mrad cm mrad
Extraction Normalized rms Mismatch Beam Beam
Voltage Emittance Factor Size Divergence
EM-1 PBGUNS EM-1 PBGUNS EM-1 PBGUNS
8.0 0.0984 0.1096 1.53 0.880 0.879 29.19 18.41
9.0 0.1096 0.1065 1.53 0.893 0.924 31.34 21.88
10.0 0.1003 0.1071 1.30 0.853 0.948 30.68 24.85
11.0 0.1032 0.1040 1.23 0.848 0.941 31.86 25.79
12.0 0.1023 0.1063 1.20 0.803 0.939 31.08 27.44
13.0 0.1018 0.1044 1.26 0.763 0.913 30.78 27.21
14.0 0.0100 0.1036 1.27 0.714 0.891 29.97 27.44
15.0 0.0972 0.1028 1.32 0.672 0.856 29.86 27.57
515
carry out a second moments analysis to determine the We see that the emittance of the beam at the column exit
rms emittance of the beam. We see that for the rms remains essentially constant over this range of currents for
emittance the experimental data and beam simulations the perveance matching employed in the extractor gap.
agree to within a few percent. We note that for the The beam size in the beam line increases continuously
converter source being modeled, the beam size and with increasing current and exceeds the aberration limit in
divergence values given by PBGUNS on the emittance the solenoid lens (half the bore aperture) for 27 mA and
plots are closely approximated by the 2rms values fills the bore aperture for currents approaching 40 mA.
calculated by this code, i.e., by the beam parameters of a Thus, the present injector can be used for beam currents
4rms beam. We have, therefore, chosen to compare the up to 27 mA without emittance degradation, but a new
beam parameters for the experimental beams with the accelerating column with stronger focusing will be
4rms beam parameters calculated by PBGUNS. We see required for beam currents at the 40 mA level.
that the beam sizes for the observed EM-1 beams are Several accelerating column designs have been
typically 10% smaller than the calculated 2rms beam size studied using this simulation code. The beam profiles for
and that the observed beam divergences at EM-1 are a high gradient tetrode column with a decel ion trap and
approximately 15% larger than the 2rms divergence for the present accelerating column are presented in Fig.
values. Thus, while the beam code calculates the phase 5. The beam envelope sizes in the LEBT for the tetrode
space area correctly, there are still systematic differences design with 40 mA are essentially the same as those with
between the measured and simulated beam size and the present column for 16-mA beams.
divergence which probably arise from errors in the
location of beam transport elements or errors in the
assumed space-charge neutralization model. Work is in
progress to resolve these discrepancies.
5 HIGH-VOLTAGE COLUMN
SIMULATIONS
Having established that the LANSCE H- injector beam
can be modeled with the PBGUNS code, we carried out
simulations for the higher beam currents. We first
determined the performance of the present injector systems
as we increased the extracted beam current. We increased Figure 5: Trajectories and equipotentials for the 16-mA
the extraction voltage to keep the beam perveance production beam with the present accelerating column (a)
constant in the extraction gap as the extracted current was and for a 40-mA beam with a high gradient tetrode
increased. Thus, as the beam current was increased from column (b).
16 mA to 40 mA, the extraction voltage was varied from
12 kV to 22 kV. The variation of beam emittance and REFERENCES
beam sizes at several locations in the beam line are shown
in Fig. 4. [1] R. L. York and Ralph R. Stevens, Jr., “Third
International Symposium on Production and
Neutralization of Negative Ions and Beams,”
Brookhaven National Laboratory, 1983, p 410.
[2] C.F.A. van Os, K.N. Leung, and W.B. Kunkel,
Appl. Physics Letters, 57 (9), August, 1990, p 27.
[3] C.F.A. Van Os, K.N. Leung, and W.B. Kunkel,
J. Appl. Physics, 69 (6), March 15, 1991, p 3485.
[4] M. Williams et al., “Ion Source Development for
LANSCE Upgrade,” Proc. of 1998 LINAC Conf., to
be published in these proceedings.
[5] Jack E. Boers, Proc.of 1995 Particle Accelerator
Conference, May 1995, p 2312.
[6] W. Ingalls et al “Enhanced H- Ion Source Testing
Capabilities at LANSCE,” Proc. of 1998 LINAC
Conf., to be published in these proceedings.
[7] Jack E. Boers, private communication.
Figure 4: Beam emittance at the column exit and beam
sizes in the LEBT as a function of extracted current.
516
ION SOURCE DEVELOPMENT FOR LANSCE UPGRADE
M. Williams, R. Gough, R. Keller, K. Leung, D. Meyeri and A. Wengrow
E. O. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720
O. Sander, W. Ingalls, B. Prichard, and R. Stevens
Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM, 87545
FILAMENT (6)
Abstract PERMANENT
MAGNETS
Design and testing of the prototype ion source for the Los
Alamos Neutron Science Center (LANSCE) Facility is
REPELLER
described.
CONVERTER
H- Beam
1 INTRODUCTION
The next generation spallation neutron sources, such as
the upgrade of the Los Alamos Neutron Science Center
(LANSCE) Facility will require high intensity negative
-
hydrogen (H ) beams. Lawrence Berkeley National
Laboratory has been contracted by Los Alamos National
-
Laboratory to develop an H ion generator that can meet
the upgrade LANSCE neutron source requirement.
-
Specifically, the output current of the new H ion source
has to increase from 16 to 40 mA. In addition, source CESIUM OVEN AND INJECTOR
emittance, reliability, and availability will need to be
improved. All of which must be achieved while operating Figure 1: Schematic of the surface conversion ion source.
under the facility’s prescribed 12% duty factor (1 ms
pulse at 120 Hz).
In order to meet the LANSCE source requirement, The positive ions present in the hydrogen plasma
+ + +
the Ion Beam Technology (IBT) Program at LBNL chose (H , H2 , H3 ) are accelerated towards the converter
-
the surface-conversion multicusp ion source as the base surface. H ions can then be formed either by a
-
candidate. The present LANSCE H source is also a backscattering process or by a sputtering process when
-
surface-conversion source [1]. However, the H output the ions impinge on the converter surface. The converter
current doesn’t improve much beyond 20 mA with higher is coated with a low work-function metal such as cesium
discharge power. Previous experimental study at LBNL to enhance negative ion conversion.
demonstrated that if the surface converter source is The current LANSCE ion source has a cylindrical
-
operated with a magnetic filter, the H output current body and the negative ions are extracted radially. The
generated by a barium converter can increase without two filament cathodes are located on the cylinder end
saturation with increased discharge power [2]. Based on flanges. The LBNL prototype, Figure 2, is also of
this study, a prototype ion source has been developed to cylindrical design, however the negative ions are
utilize the multicusp magnet arrangement as a filter. extracted along the source axis. This allows six filaments
-
Cesium is used to enhance the H yield. to be placed within the magnetic field generated by the
cusp magnets on the wall (Figure 3).
The magnets provide a filter field which reduces the
2 ION SOURCE CONFIGURATION
number of energetic electrons in the main plasma volume.
This reduces the negative ion stripping due to energetic
LBNL has been developing multicusp surface
electrons. A converter of twice the area of the current
conversion ion sources for many years [3,4]. The typical
- converter is also used. The radius of curvature is
multicusp H surface conversion source is primarily
increased to maintain the same projection angle. The axial
composed of a plasma chamber and a negatively-biased -
position of the converter was optimized for maximum H
converter electrode as illustrated in Figure 1.
output.
_______________________________
i
Permanent address: Kernfysisch Versneller Instituut, The
Netherlands.
517
was 12 %, 1 msec pulses at 120 Hz. Figures 5 and 6 show
-
the H beam pulses at 12 % duty factor. These results
were obtained without the normal LANSCE accelerator
system.
50
40
H- Current [ mA ]
30
20
Figure 2: A 3-D rendering of the prototype ion source. 10
0
A B 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Arc Power [ kW ]
FILAMENT
-
Figure 4: Plot of H current as a function of arc power
WALL CUSP MAGNETS
Figure 3: Location of the filament within the wall cusp
magnet field. A. View along longitudinal axis. B.
Viewed side on.
The prototype source utilizes a repeller electrode
similar to the one in the current LANSCE ion source [1] Figure 5: An oscilloscope display of the 40 mA H-
This electrode is typically biased a few volts positive with pulse. The vertical scale is 10 mA/div. The time scale is
respect to the anode to repel electrons. It also 250 µsec/div.
incorporates a dipole cusp arrangement in the extraction
region which deflects the energetic electrons produced by
secondary emission from the converter surface.
Figure 2 shows a 3-D rendering of the prototype ion
source. The vacuum manipulator is used to optimize the
converter position. In order to reduce cesium
consumption, the ion source is designed for the walls to
run at approximately 100° C, so as to avoid condensation
of cesium in cool areas.
3 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
The prototype ion source has been operated at the
-
design specifications. Figure 4 is a plot of H output as a
function of arc power. The arc voltage was 80 volts, the
source pressure was 1.2 mTorr and the converter voltage Figure 6: An oscilloscope display of the H- pulse at 12%
-
was 330 volts. It can be seen that the highest H current duty factor. The vertical scale is 10 mA/div. The time
measured exceeded the required 40 mA. The duty factor scale is 5 msec/div.
518
4 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE PLANS 5 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
It has been demonstrated that the prototype ion We would like to thank C. A. Matuk, R. Low S. B.
source for the LANSCE upgrade can produce the Wilde, P. J. Rosado, T. A. Mc Veigh, M. L. Rickard and
-
required 40 mA of H at a 12 % duty factor. When L. W. Mills for their technical assistance. This work was
operating with diligence the day to day operations show supported by Los Alamos National Laboratory and the
well reproducible results. The most significant problem U.S. Department of Energy under Contract No. AC03-
with this source is getting a compromise between wall 76SF00098.
temperature and cesium injection. A low wall temperature
requires constant cesium injection. If the wall is too hot, REFERENCES
the cesium vapor pressure gets too high and the plasma is
-
dominated by cesium ions and the H output tapers off [1] R. R. Stevens Jr., R.L. York, R. Kendarian,
requiring higher arc power to attain the 40 mA output. Proceedings of the 1984 Linear Accelerator
However, the present source is not constructed to allow Conference.
for simple control of wall temperature; this issue will be [2] C.F.A. van Os, K. N. Leung, and W. B. Kunkel
addressed in the next design. Appl. Phys. Lett. 57 (9), 27 Aug. 1990.
An earlier version of the proposed source design [3] K. W. Ehlers and K. N. Leung, Rev. Sci. Instrum.
fabricated from existing components was tested at LBNL 51, 721 (1980).
and is now being tested on the LANSCE Test Stand. The [4] K. W. Ehlers and K. N. Leung, Rev. Sci. Instrum.
results obtained at both laboratories are similar. 53(6), 803 (1982).
LANSCE is planning to make emittance measurements
with the prototype source to compare with the present
LANSCE operation source.
At this time a new production source is under design
that will include features indicated by testing of the
prototype ion source. One of the main concerns is the
ability to adjust the wall temperature. The design is near
completion and fabrication is expected to take about two
months. Testing is expected to begin in early November.
519
HIGH POWER TEST RESULTS OF THE FIRST SRRC/ANL
HIGH CURRENT L-BAND RF GUN
C.H. Ho, S.Y. Ho, G.Y. Hsiung, J.Y. Hwang, T.T. Yang,
Synchrotron Radiation Research Center, No.1 R&D Road VI, Hsinchu 30077, Taiwan
M. Conde, W. Gai, R. Konecny, J. Power, P. Schoessow
Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 S. Cass Avenue, Argonne, Illinois 60439, USA
Abstract
A joint program is underway between the SRRC
(Synchrotron Radiation Research Center, Taiwan) and
ANL (Argonne National Laboratory, USA) for developing
a high current L-band photocathode rf guns. We have
constructed an L-Band (1.3 Ghz), single cell rf
photocathode gun and conducted low power tests at
SRRC. High power rf conditioning of the cavity has been
completed at ANL. In this paper we report on the
construction and high power test results. So far we have
been able to achieve > 120 MV/m axial electric field with
minimal dark current. This gun will be used to replace the
AWA (Argonne Wakefield Accelerator)[1] high current Figure 1: Assembly drawing of the gun cavity
gun.
The cavity was CNC machined several times to reach the
1 INTRODUCTION correct resonant frequency and critical coupling. The
cavity surface (mounted on a rotating stand) was then
The generation of high gradients (> 100 MV/m) in polished using 3M Imperial Lapping Films (60, 40, 30,
wakefield structures requires a short pulse, high intensity 15, 12, 9, 5, 3, and 1 micron) and then Buehler
electron drive beam. The goal of the AWA is to Micropolish II Alumina Suspensions (1, 0.3 and 0.05
demonstrate high gradients and sustained acceleration of micron).
charged particle beams using wakefield methods. The The cavity components were brazed together in a
main technological challenge of the AWA program is the vacuum furnace in several stages to allow the joining of
development of a photoinjector capable of fulfilling these various components. After brazing and applying Vac Seal
requirements. The laser photocathode source was to eminent possible small leaks around the joints between
designed to deliver 100 nC bunches at 2 MeV to the drive the WR-650 waveguide and the cavity, it was vacuum
linac. The photocathode gun is a single cell standing wave tested using a Helium leak detector (Balzers HLT 160)
cavity with designed peak field of 90 MV/m on the and found to be Helium leak tight to better than 10−10
cathode[2]. However, due to surface contamination and standard c.c./sec. However, it was found that the resonant
damage during the initial rf conditioning of the original frequency had been shifted down by 2.5 MHz and the
gun, the peak electric field on axis is only limited to 55 ~
65 MV/m rather than the designed field 92 MV/m due to
the severe dark current beam loading[3].
A collaboration between SRRC and ANL has been
established to construct a new L-band single cell
photocathode rf gun and associated test stand. The goals
of this collaborative research effort are to characterize the
beam produced by this gun, and to study high field
breakdown phenomena, dark current, and quantum
efficiencies of various photocathode materials.
2 FABRICATION AND COLD TESTING
The gun cavity structure is shown in Figure 1. The
cooling channel is built inside the cavity body instead of
just attaching it to the outer surface. The cavity is also Figure 2: Reflection coefficient of gun cavity measured
equipped with a tuner and a field strength monitor. using HP8510C network analyzer.
520
coupling coefficient shifted from 1 (critical coupling) to vacuum tested at SRRC and then shipped and installed at
around 1.5 (over coupled). The frequency shift is ANL in May, 1998. Two Molecular Drag pumps (16
corrected back to 1.3 GHz using the tuner. Figure 2 is the CFM) and two oil free magnetic suspension Turbo
measured plot in atmosphere and room temperature from Molecular Pumps (400 l/s) were used for roughing and
the HP 8510C network analyzer after the cavity was baking. Two sputtering ion pumps (60 l/s) and one Non-
installed and tuned at ANL. The measured unloaded Evaporable Getter (NEG) pump (500 l/s) were used to
quality factor is around 13000, while the URMEL reach a base pressure of around 1.6 nTorr and maintain
prediction for the unloaded quality factor is around the pressure at around 13 nTorr during conditioning of the
15000. cavity.
Figure 5: Layout of the L-band rf gun test stand.
Figure 3: Measured resonant frequency dependence of
tuner position. 4 HIGH POWER TEST RESULTS
RF conditioning of the gun proceeded smoothly. During
the conditioning, the vacuum was kept under 50 nTorr and
the occurrences of breakdown were kept to minimum.
The forward, reflected rf power and dark current were
also monitored continuously. Figure 6 shows the forward
power to the gun with peak power of 2 MW. Figure 7
gives the reflected rf power and it shows almost no
detuning of the gun due to the dark current.
In fact, because this gun was over coupled after brazing,
the loading from the dark current will move it toward
critical coupling to some extent. Since the field monitor
was not instrumented yet for this test, one can only
estimate the surface field using the rf reflection coefficient
Figure 4: Longitudinal E-field profile on axis.
and the dark current. For 2 MW forward power with no
reflection, we have estimated the surface field at the
Figure 3 shows the measured frequency response to the
cathode center to be 100 MV/m[2]. This is somewhat
tuner position (the tuning sensitivity is appear to be 1.8
larger than the designed value of 92 MV/m at 1.5 MW. At
MHz/cm in the linear region of the curve). Since the
100 MV/m, dark current is about 13 nC per rf pulse, in
frequency is very sensitive to the cathode slug position,
comparison with the original AWA gun which is 40 -60
we use the tuner to fine tune the frequency. The cathode is
nC at ~ 60 MV/m.
held flush with the cavity inner surface to avoid arcing
Further rf conditioning has been done to further reduce
due to the discontinuity.
the dark current and increase the axial electric field to 120
A ceramic bead of 2 mm diameter was used to perform
MV/m. With a few additional days of conditioning, we
the bead pull measurement. Figure 4 shows the
have increased the rf forward power to 3 MW, still with
longitudinal E-field profile along the central axis of the
no dark current induced rf reflection, with the equivalent
cavity from the bead pull measurement results and the
photocathode field of 117 MV/m. The peak electrical
URMEL prediction.
field on the nose cone is 152 MV/m. Measured dark
Bucking and focussing solenoids were also designed,
current is 25 nC /pulse. This is a 40% above the designed
constructed and measured at SRRC. The measured
field and should be able to provide improved performance
magnetic field profile is in close agreement with the
over the original AWA gun. Figure 8 shows the dark
POISSON calculation.
current transported out of the gun versus the forward rf
3 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP power (surface field). It clearly shows the exponential
dependence of the surface field. Below 70 MV/m, no
The layout of the L-band rf gun test stand is shown in significant dark current was observed. However, it goes up
Figure 5. The whole system was first assembled and quickly as the surface field increases.
521
20 40
0
Foward Power (mV)
-20
30
Q(nC)
-40
-60
20
-80
-100
10
-120
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
0
µs 0 1 2 3 4
Note: 100 mV = 100 MV/m on axis
P(MW)
Figure 6: Measured forward rf power to the gun. This is a Figure 8: Measured dark current at the down stream
scope trace that measures envelope of rf pulse with against the surface field (forward rf power). It shows the
calibrated diode detector. The peak voltage corresponds exponential dependence and the maximum dark current
to 2 MW peak rf power. observed was 30 nC at 120 MV/m (3 MW).
6 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
20
Gun Reverse Power (mV)
0 We would like to thank Mr. T.T. Wu from ITRI for
-20 operating the vacuum brazing furnace. We would also like
-40 to thank Mr. M.H. Huang and Mr. C.H. Chang of SRRC
-60
for helping the construction of the solenoid, and Mr. F.Y.
Lin and Dr. C.S. Hwang of SRRC for helping the
-80
measurement of the solenoid field profile. We would also
-100 like to thank the kind help from Mr. V. Svirtun, Mr. R.
-120 Nielson, and Dr. J. Noonan of ANL-APS, and Mr. R.
-140 Taylor of ANL-HEP during installation of the gun. This
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 work is supported in part by the National Science Council
µs (Taiwan) under contract No. NSC 87-2613-M-213-012, as
well as by the Department of Energy (USA), Division of
Figure 7: Reflected rf power from the gun. It shows that High Energy Physics, Contract No. W-31-109-ENG-38.
after the gun was filled, no reflection was observed.
7 REFERENCES
5 SUMMARY th
[1] W. Gai et. al., in AIP Conf. Proc. 398 for the 7
The first L-band rf gun cavity resulting from the joint Workshop on Advanced Accelerator Concepts Oct. 12-18,
collaboration between SRRC and ANL has been 1996, Lake Tahoe, California, p.116.
constructed, installed and conditioned. The high power [2] C.H. Ho, PhD Thesis, UCLA, 1992.
test results are very encouraging. Input rf power was [3] M. Conde et. al., to be appeared in Physical Review
applied to rf cavity and increased from 100 kW level to 2 Special Topics- Accelerators and Beams, 1998.
MW level within two days. Further conditioning
increased the accelerating gradient in excess of 120
MV/m at the photocathode. The dark current
measurement results show little effect of beam loading at
this power level. We will replace the current AWA drive
gun with this new gun, which should enable us to obtain
shorter electron beams, and thus improve the gradients
obtained in wakefield acceleration experiments.
522
EXTRACTION AND LOW ENERGY TRANSPORT OF NEGATIVE IONS*
A. Lakatos, J. Pozimski, A. Jakob, H. Klein,
Institut für Angewandte Physik, Universität Frankfurt, 60054 Frankfurt, Germany
extractor together with the high cross section for stripping
Abstract
will influence the transmission as well as space charge
High perveance negative ion beams with low emittance compensation.
are essential for several next generation particle LEBT of high perveance ion beams suffers from high
accelerators (i. g. spallation sources like ESS [1] and SNS space charge forces. Generally two systems are used:
[2]). The extraction and transport of these beams have electrostatic or magnetic lenses. The use of electrostatic
intrinsic difficulties different from positive ion beams. lens systems has to deal with the full space charge and
Limitation of beam current and emittance growth have to therefore has limited current transport capabilities. They
be avoided. To fulfill the requirements of those projects a suffer from high space charge forces causing in
detailed knowledge of the physics of beam formation the conjunction with field aberrations serious emittance
-
interaction of the H with the residual gas and transport is growth. Magnetic lens systems can use space charge
-
substantial. A compact cesium free H volume source compensation to reduce the necessary focusing force and
delivering a low energy high perveance beam (6.5 keV, the radius of the beam in the lenses. Hence the emittance
2.3 mA, perveance K= 0.0034) has been built to study the growth due to lens aberrations and self fields is reduced.
fundamental physics of beam transport and will be In Frankfurt an experiment is under construction to
integrated into the existing LEBT section in the near investigate the influence of various parameters on beam
future. First measurements of the interaction between the formation and transport under space charge compensated
-
ion beam and the residual gas will be presented together and decompensated conditions. On behalf a H source has
with the experimental set up and preliminary results. already been built. After the essential operation
conditions for the source are studied the source will be
1 INTRODUCTION incorporated into the existing Low Energy Beam
Transport (LEBT) line.
The production and transport of high current negative
The details of the beamline layout are shown in Fig. 1.
ion beams is a key issue for future high current
-
accelerators. For ESS, as an example, an H beam with 70
mA at 55 keV (K=0.0035) and εn = 0.1 πmmmrad is
required using non Liouvillian stacking schemes for the
accumulation rings. An ion source has been developed in
-
Frankfurt, which is now able to deliver an H current even
higher than necessary [3]. To reduce particle losses at
high beam energy (above the coulomb barrier) and to
maximise the available current the beam has to be treated
carefully between the plasmaelectrode and the first RFQ.
External and internal fields can induce emittance growth,
space charge forces and interactions of the beam with the
residual gas can limit the transportable current.
Different extraction and ion beam transporting
schemes are under discussion [4,5], each have various Figure 1: Schematic drawing of the experimental set up of
- -
positive and negative aspects. To improve the H to e the Frankfurt LEBT line.
ratio magnetic filterfields (i. g. dipoles) are used. In our
case these filterfields are in conjunction with dipole fields An existing double solenoid (max. field 0.73 T) LEBT
for electron dumping. The quality of beam extraction capable with the ESS scenario will be used for our
simulations suffers from these additional magnetic fields investigations of high-current beam transport of negative
in the low energy part of the extractor. The destruction of ions. Therefore different beam diagnostic elements have
the rotational symmetry together with the space charge been installed. Emittance measurement device and
forces causes emittance growth and particle losses within residual gas ion energy spectrometer and Faradaycups are
the extraction system. High residual gas pressure near the available along the beampath. The degree of
*
Work supported by BMBF under contract No. 06 OF 841
523
compensation can be regulated by decompensating ring extraction of 3 mm diameter. For the matched case a
electrodes as well as by varying the residual gas pressure beam emittance of εn,RMS = 0.001 πmmmrad (4kV) is
2
in the LEBT. The measured beam properties, e. g. calculated. For a current density of app. 25 mA/cm
-
transverse emittance, degree of space charge delivered by the plasma generator a 4 keV H beam with
compensation support the design of the future LEBT for 1.77 mA beam current is delivered. This will correspond
negative ions. to a beam perveance of K=0.0045 which is app. 30 %
higher than proposed for the ESS project [6].
2 ION SOURCE
An schematic drawing of the ion source for our 3 EXPERIMENTAL SET UP
experiment is shown in Fig. 2. To study the fundamental behavior of the ion source
for different parameters of the plasma generator a test
Copper Plasma- Plasma- Screening e--Dumping-
chamber electrode electrode system
bench was installed. The details of the test bench layout
Magnets are shown in Fig. 3.
Insulator
Water Window for optical measurements
H----Source
RGI . 90°-Sectormagnet
By By Grid
Cathode
flange
Solenoid Filter Bending Solenoid Faradaycups
5 cm
magnet magnet Figure 3: : Schematic drawing of the experimental set up
-
of the test bench for the H -source.
Figure 2: schematic drawing of the ion source.
Multiple beam diagnostic elements like a magnetic
The ion source [6], is of the volume type using a gas spectrometer, a residual gas ion (RGI) energy
discharge driven by a hot cathode to atomize the H2 spectrometer and Faradaycups have been installed. A
molecules. The electrons are radially enclosed by a window gives the opportunity to analyse the radial
solenoidal field. A magnetic dipole filter field (electrical density profile of the extracted beam by using the incident
exited) near the extraction area is used to separate slow light emitted by collisions of the beam ions with the
-
and fast electrons and therefore enhance the H production residual gas atoms. Additionally the residual gas pressure
[7]. To inhibit influence on the diagnostic devices the can be varied in the test bench.
source will be operated cesium free. This will limit the
plasma density and therefore the ion current. The design 4 MEASUREMENTS
value for the current density delivered by the plasma was -
After the design parameters of our H -source have been
2
chosen to be 20 mA/cm a commonly reached value for reached, the mass spectra of the emerging particle beams
- -
cesium free H sources [8]. The H to e ratio has to be have been investigated by the use of the 90°
above 0.02 due to current restrictions by the high voltage -
sectormagnet, to prove that H has been measured in the
power supply. Faraday cup.
For the ion beam formation a single aperture accel - -
Fig. 4 shows two spectra measured using a H -beam of
decel system is used. Various numerical simulations of appr. 2 mA at a beam energy of 6.5 kV. The gas pressure
the beam extraction using the IGUN [9] code have been inside the ion source has been 0.133 hPa and 5*10 hPa
-6
performed for different extraction geometries. The goal in the diagnostics chamber (mostly H2 due to the gasflow
was to build a compact triode extraction system from the source). The lower curve (for the negative
insensitive to plasma density variations delivering a high charged particles) show peaks according to the extracted
perveance ion beam with minimised emittance. -
electrons and H -ions (due to the electron dumping the
The simulations have been performed for different ion - -
spectrum does not indicate the extracted H /e ratio).
2
current densities (0-50 mA/cm ), different extraction By changing the polarity of the magnetic dipole field
voltages (4,5 and 6 kV) and aspect ratios between 0.2 and we observed also positive ions. The mass of the ions have
1.2. The simulations showed that the boundary conditions been calculated under assumption of an ion energy of
are fulfilled for an aspect ratio of S = 0.375 and an 6.5kV as well.
524
Figure 4: mass spectra of an extracted beam. Figure 6: spectra gained for different extraction voltages.
The ion energy of the positive ions which possibly are if their energy is determined by the momentum
-
produced by interaction of H and electrons with residual exchange at interaction, but only minor changes of the
gas atoms in the extraction area (at highest gas pressure) measured positive spectra can be observed. Therefore an
cannot be determined without additional investigations additional process determining the energy of the positive
due to the fact that neither the ion mass (possible ions have to be assumed. Further work to understand
+ + + + + +
candidates are H , H2 , H3 , N , N2 , H20 ) nor the energy is these results in more detail are planed.
known. To exclude most of the possibilities two
additional experiments already have been performed. 5 OUTLOOK
After the source tests on the separate test bench the
source will be incorporated into the existing LEBT. The
experiments will start with a DC beam to study the
influence of the external parameters (filter fields,
solenoids, residual gas pressure, voltage on
decompensation electrodes, source noise) on emittance
and transmission. For a next step the set up is already
prepared for pulsed mode operation.
REFERENCES
[1] H. Klein et. al., "The ESS Technical Study", ESS-96-
53-M, November 1996
[2] B.R. Appleton, J.B. Ball and J.R. Alonso , “The
Figure 5: mass spectrum with decelerate potential of 1.2 National Spallation Neutron Source”, EPAC’96,
kV and reference spectrum. Sitges, June 1996. p. 575 -
[3] K. Volk, A. Maaser, H. Klein,“ The Frankfurt H -
Fig. 5 shows the results of an experiment were the source for the E.S.S.“, LINAC’98
[4] J. W. Staples et al. , “All Electrostatic Split LEBT Test
polarity of the secondary electron suppression electrode Results”, LINAC’96, Geneva, August 1996. p. 157
in front of the Faradaycup of the sector magnet has been [5] J. Pozimski, P.Groß, R. Dölling, K. Reidelbach and
changed from negative to positive (compared to ground H.Klein, "LEBT-Design Studies for ESS" , Proc. of
potential). The electrode was biased up to +1200V ESS-PM4, October 1995, Weinfelden, PSI-Proc. 95-
(limited by constructional reasons). It is supposed that all 02
[6] A. Lakatos, J. Pozimski, A. Jakob, K. Klein, Proc. of
positive ions with a kinetic energy below 1200 eV will be EPAC 98, June 22-26, 1998, Stockholm, in print
suppressed and therefore not detected. As shown in Fig. 4 [7] Ehlers, K. N. Leung et. al., "Increasing the efficiency
the detected current is higher (due to the secondary of a multicusp ion source", Rev. Sci. Instr. 53(2),
electrons) than for the reference spectra and therefore it is 1982, p. 1429
likely that most of the positive ions have energies above [8] Ehlers, K. N. Leung et. al., "Effect of a magnetic filter
on hydrogen ion species in a multicusp ion source",
1200 eV. This indicates that their origin is not from Rev. Sci. Instr. 52(2), 1981, p. 1452
- -
inelastic collisions of H and e with heavy atoms (like [9] R. Becker, W. B.Herrmansfeldt, Proc. of the 4th
N2,H20). Fig. 6 shows spectra measured at different International Conference on Ion Source, Bensheim,
extraction voltages (4.5-6.5 kV). We expected a change Germany (1991)
of the energy of the positive ions.
525
STABLE AMPERE LEVEL EMISSION OF ENERGETIC ELECTRONS BY
ELECTRICALLY EXCITED FERROELECTRIC CERAMICS
I. Boscolo, A. Scurati
University of Milano and INFN, Dipartimento di Fisica via Celoria 16, 20133 Milano, Italy
Abstract roelectric material with fast transition under the action of
an electric field. The material used in the emission experi-
Stable emission of energetic electrons from ferroelectric
ments was lead lanthanum zirconate titanate, called PLZT,
ceramic of PLZT type, i.e. lead zirconate titanate lan-
with components proportion 4/95/5 and 8/65/35, where the
thanum doped, in form of thin disks have been obtained
numbers refer respectively to lanthanum, zirconium and ti-
with a proper design of the front electrode. The current is
tanium atom percentage. PLZT 4/95/5 material is in anti-
about 1 A square centimeter and the energy is a couple of
ferroelectric (AFE) phase at the working room temperature,
keV. High density, more than 50 A square centimeter, is
and it makes the transition to FE phase under the action of
obtained in the plasma assisted configuration. The electron
an electric field higher than 15 kV/cm, while PLZT 8/65/35
expulsion from the surface is due to the spontaneous polar-
is in FE phase [4]. The emission observed [4, 5] with ce-
ization switching induced by a high voltage pulse applied
ramic disks having the usual grating interconnected by a
to proper metallic electrodes deposited as thin film on the
metallic ring, see fig.1, as front electrode had stable behav-
two surfaces of the disk. In passing from the usual front
ior neither with the number of shots in a single sample, nor
electrode having the structure of an interconnected grating,
in the level of emission (many times the emission was zero)
to an electrode being a pattern of disconnected patches con-
for samples equal in composition, preparation and electrod-
tained within a ring, the electron emission passes from er-
ing. Instead, the emission obtained with an ensamble of
ratic with samples and decaying with the number of shots
to stable in both cases. This change in the behavior is ex-
plained by the fact that the sandwich of the continuous elec-
trode and the grating constrains the domain switching and
the relevant charge carriers motion within the part of ma- a)
b)
terial covered by metal, whilst a quasi-free surface allows
the domain switching all over the whole area with the con-
Figure 1: Sketch of the two electroding types of the front
sequent flux of electrons in and out of the sample surface. surface: the stripes are 200 m with an interdistance of the
In the plasma assisted emission, the front electrode must
same width.
be the normal grating because the plasma in this electrode
configuration is homogeneous. metal islands surrounded by a metal ring was quite stable.
The application of an electric field higher than 10 kV/cm
1 INTRODUCTION through the samples, induces not only the spontaneous po-
larization switching within the crystal, but also the plasma
Electrons emitted from a ferroelectric cathode [1] come formation on the cathode surface [4]. Both processes gen-
from ground to the crystal surface and then they are acted erate electrons, but the former process generates a group of
upon by the spontaneous polarization. This vector can be electrons that are energetic, whilst the latter generates only
set in either direction with respect to the front (emitting) non-energetic electrons.
surface, depending on the sign of the voltage pulse ap- We call the emission due to the switching of the sponta-
plied at the rear electrode. With positive excitation (neg- neous polarization, ferroelectric emission (FE).
ative voltage), surface domains switch with the positive
side pointing towards the front surface and then relax back. 2 DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS WITH
Therefore, in the first stage they attract screening electrons,
THE GRATING AS ELECTRODE
then they push them out. With negative excitation, the neg-
ative side of the spontaneous polarization sweeps out the The set-up is described in ref [5]. A virgin emitting sam-
electrons loosely bound at the surface defects. ple typically starts to emit FE electrons, then the emis-
The process of excitation and relaxation must be of non- sion slows down and finally stops after about one hundred
equilibrium type in order to have strong emission, so that shots. This cycle repeats after the rejuvenation of the sam-
the surface electron diffusion in the evolution towards an ple. PLZT 4/95/5 samples show always switching peaks,
equilibrium state occurs through the material-vacuum in- because of the antiferro-ferroelectric transition, while non-
terface [2]. Hence, the ceramics suitable for electron emis- emitting PLZT 8/65/35 samples show no sign of switch-
sion are the so-called ferroelectric relaxors [3] and antifer- ing current after a certain number of shots. We have ob-
526
served that the ferroelectric emission is recovered, at least
partially, after the reversion of the electrical pulse and after
a long rest of the sample, one-two days.
I = 40 mA/div
The fact that switching and emission currents go to die
in pair, lead to think that there is a mechanism which pro- PLZT 4/95/5
gressively blocks the domain switching of the uncovered Neg RE
stripes and/or confines the electric field under the metal
stripes. This blocking mechanism could be due whether
HV = 1 KV/div
to a domain screening process, or to the formation of
macrodomains so the spontaneous polarization does not re-
laxes back, as it occurs in normal ferroelectrics. The fact
that many times there is no emission even if a well pro-
nunced switching current is present (as is the case with
PLZT 4/95/5) leads to say that either the switching occurs 100 Shots t = 100 ns/div
only inside the zones covered by metal, that is it does not
propagate laterally, or the surface becomes passivated for Figure 2: The superposition of 100 current signals, upper
screening and surface mutation due impurities, gas desorp- trace, and voltage signals, lower trace, is reported. The
tion, electron reduction, etc., or finally, the switching mech- voltage pulse is applied to the rear electrode (RE), and the
anism is not enough fast to prevent an evolution of the crys- sample was a PLZT 4/95/5, as written in the frame, of 0.7
tal configuration after the excitation through a complete in- mm thickness.
ternal migration of the charge carriers after multishots op-
eration. The possibility of the confinement of the electric
field under the metal area is supported by the growth of
oxygen-deficient dendrite tips under the metal [6] which
I = 100 mA/div
cause the increasing of the local field and the decreasing of PLZT 8/65/35
the switching time. Neg RE
3 RESULTS WITH A PATTERN OF
METALLIC ISLANDS AS ELECTRODE
HV = 1 KV/div
Different pattern of metallic islands have been tested: a) a
pattern obtained by deposition of a uniform 100 Ågold film
(this deposition auto-arranges itself in separate patches), b)
a very thin silver paste film, which auto-arranges as a patch- t = 100 ns/div
100 Shots
work; c) a uniform filling of the surface holes (we remem-
ber that the material is porous) by a carbon paste and d)
an Au evaporation with a mask of 50 m diameter islands Figure 3: Ibidem as previous figure, but here the sample
with an interdistance of 50 m. A sketch of the pattern is was a PLZT 8/65/35 of 1 mm thickness.
shown in fig. 1.
The samples without the metal islands (with the external
metal ring only) did not work. observed also with the grating, but here the second pulse
We have observed that the samples emit always with the in 4/95/5 material is substantially stable in time. For all
new type of electrode, but the nearer the interdistance be- the comparisons the reader is referred to the signals pub-
tween the islands the more stable the emission resulted. lished in references [4, 5, 7]. The almost linear increasing
The results obtained by holes filling are reported. of the 8/65/35 signal is explained by the continuous sponta-
No accelerating voltage has been set through the diode neous polarization switching all along the excitation pulse.
gap by purpose, because we wanted to catch at the anode We notice that the very narrow pulses superimposed on the
Faraday cup only the energetic ferroelectric electrons. An signals resemble the well known Barkausen pulses.
accelerating voltage would have mixed the relatively few The first pulse is due to the building up of the sponta-
FE electrons within the huge amount of electrons extracted neous polarization oriented towards the rear electrode [5],
from the plasma sheet. while the second peak is due to the relaxation of the spon-
a) Negative pulse at the rear electrode taneous polarization. The relaxation process of the sponta-
The signals of the emitted current reported in figs. 2,3 neous polarization is longer than its building up because in
show a good stability. With PLZT 4/95/5 there are two this latter case it is driven by the fast voltage pulse, and in
current peaks, while there is only one for PLZT 8/65/35 the former case the ferroelectric state is metastable.
and in this second case the signal amplitude is 2-3 times b) Positive pulse at the rear electrode
higher and longer than the first. These characteristics were The signals of the emission are shown in fig.4 and 5.
527
of the electric field and so of the polarization switching un-
der the covered zones. Our phenomenological view of op-
eration is that the front of the voltage pulse propagates as
HV = 1 KV/div I = 100 mA/div
a wave to the front surface, so inducing the co-propagation
PLZT 4/95/5 of polarization switching. As a consequence the surface
Pos RE switches into a substantial conduction state: in fact, the
dP/dt current signal results in this configuration as high as
with a completely electroded surface, further, in ref. [8] it
was measured a high mobility of the charge carriers within
the stressed region.
When the voltage excitation pulse is over, the surface
goes to equilibrium by diffusion of the charge carriers
through the surface towards the external ring or through the
100 Shots t = 100 ns/div bulk. The paths of the electrons through the surface are not
fixed because the surface state of a ferroelectric ceramic is
Figure 4: As in fig. 2 but with positive pulse to the rear dynamical and the surface is like a patchwork of peaces,
electrode of a PLZT 4/95/5 sample. whose properties [9] range from metallic to insulating.
We notice that in the grating case the plasma starts along
all the rims of the stripes and covers the 200 m in few hun-
dreds of nanoseconds, in the other case that time is much
longer because the plasma starts from the rim of the outside
HV = 1 KV/div I = 200 mA/div
metal ring (it is connected to the pulser) and has to cover
some millimeters of surface space.
It must be recognized that we are not able to give a clear
PLZT 8/65/35 phenomenological model explaining both the substantial
Pos RE unreliable operation with the first electroding and the re-
liable operation with this second electroding.
5 CONCLUSIONS
A stable copious emission of energetic ferroelectric elec-
100 Shots t = 200 ns/div trons from a ferroelectric ceramic disk, under the applica-
tion of a fast high voltage pulse, has been obtained when
the electrode of the emitting surface was made as a uniform
Figure 5: As fig.4 but for PLZT 8/65/35.
pattern of un-connected metal patches contained within a
metallic ring.
In this case the emission occurs at the relaxation of the
spontaneous polarization Ps . 6 REFERENCES
For the samples electroded with 100 Åfilm, the emis- [1] H. Gundel, J. Handerek, H. Riege, E.J.N. Wilson and K.
sion stopped after a certain number of shots because of the Zioutas, Ferroelectrics 100,1,1989.
sweeping out of the metal islands.
[2] H. Glaefeke, Topics in Applied Physics, vol 37, 225-273, ed.
P. Brorintich, New York, 1979.
4 DISCUSSION [3] D. Viehland, S. J. Jang, L. Eric Cross, J. Appl. Phys. 68,
2916, 1990
The observations on samples with the grating lead to claim
that a fast aging process is present for the application of [4] G. Benedek, I. Boscolo, J. Handerek, H. Riege J. Appl.
a sequence of unipolar pulses. The neat separation of Physics, 81/1396/ 1997
the cathode material in two parts, one under the metal [5] G. Benedek, I. Boscolo, J. Handerek, A. Moscatelli, A. Scu-
stripes and the other one outside should induce a process rati, J. Appl. Phys, 83,2776,1998.
of switching limitation within the covered zones and passi- [6] J. F. Scott, C. A. Araujo, B. M. Melnick, L. D. McMillan,
vation of the uncovered surface. R. Zuleeg, J. Appl. Phys. 70,382,1991.
The plasma which forms on the surface, owing to the [7] G. Benedek et al. NIM Phys. Res.A, 393,469-473, 1997.
high voltage of the excitation pulse, pushes further towards
[8] W. Mock, Jr. and W. H. Holt J. Appl. Phys. 50, 2740, 1979.
the surface passivation.
The screening and passivation processes do not occur for [9] K. Szot, W. Speier and W. Eberhardt, Appl. Phys. Lett. 60
(10), 1190-1192, 1992.
samples having disconnected metal patches as electrode.
The disconnected electrode avoids the possible segregation
528
TIME-RESOLVED IMAGING FOR THE APS LINAC BEAMS*
A. H. Lumpkin, W. J. Berg, B. X. Yang, M. White
Advanced Photon Source
Accelerator Systems Division
Argonne National Laboratory
Argonne, IL 60439 USA
Abstract band micropulses and to allow streak camera measure-
ments of the micropulse averaged bunch length and longi-
The particle-beam imaging diagnostics for the Advanced tudinal profile. At low currents the YAG:Ce provides good
Photon Source (APS) injector linac have been enhanced spatial resolution like OTR, but we report an apparent
by the installation of optical transition radiation (OTR) “size-blurring” effect for the YAG:Ce converter as current
screens and the use of Ce-doped YAG crystals as beam is increased that may limit its usefulness. Many tests have
profile monitors. Both converters have improved spatial been performed at 400 to 625 MeV using the gated DC
resolution and time responses compared to the standard thermionic gun source to commission the diagnostics, and
Chromox (Al2O3:Cr) screens used elsewhere in the linac. the first results with the rf thermionic gun were obtained in
the summer of 1998.
These enhancements allow us to address the smaller beam
sizes (< 100 µm) and the critical micropulse bunch length
of higher brightness gun sources. For the linac macropulse 2 EXPERIMENTAL BACKGROUND
of 30-ns duration composed of 86 micropulses at S-band
frequency intervals, only the OTR mechanism is prompt The APS facility’s injector system uses a 250-MeV S-band
enough to separate individual micropulses and to allow electron linac and an in-line 450-MeV S-band positron
streak camera measurements of the micropulse averaged linac. The primary electron gun is a conventional gated DC
bunch length. Tests have been performed at 400 to 625 thermionic gun. For one alternate configuration an rf ther-
MeV using the gated DC thermionic gun source. Beam mionic gun, designed to generate low-emittance beams (<
sizes less than σx=30 µm have been observed with a 5 π mm mrad) and configured with an α magnet, injects
beam just after the first linac accelerating section [3,4].
micropulse bunch length of σt= 2-3 ps using OTR. First
Then both in-line linacs can be phased to produce 100- to
results on the lower-emittance rf thermionic gun are 650-MeV electron beams when the positron converter tar-
briefly discussed. get is retracted.
The rf gun’s predicted, normalized emittance at higher
1 INTRODUCTION peak current is lower than that expected of the DC gun,
and correspondingly smaller beam spot sizes (< 100 µm)
The imaging of particle beams on linacs via intercepting should result. In an early test we used a Ti OTR foil to
screens and video cameras is a well-established practice. cover half of a standard intercepting screen based on Chro-
However, the time-resolving of individual micropulses in mox of 0.25 mm thickness (rotated 45° to the beam). The
an rf linac macropulse and the measuring of micropulse 45° angle also directed the OTR light out the same 90°
bunch length requires a radiation conversion mechanism port as the Chromox radiation. Previous experiences on
that is prompt compared to the time scale of interest [1]. In the Los Alamos linac-driven FEL with a low-emittance
the case of the Advanced Photon Source (APS) injector photoelectric injector (PEI) showed the OTR screens
linac, the addition of a lower emittance gun and the critical could be used for profiling small beams [5]. This assembly
need for high peak currents in the developing self-ampli- allowed us to steer the e-beam from one converter to the
fied spontaneous emission (SASE) free-electron laser other to compare observed beam spot sizes for spatial res-
(FEL) application have motivated our enhancement of olution tests and assess response time. Because the Chro-
these diagnostics [2]. Optical transition radiation (OTR) mox decay was so slow, we used a Spiricon video digitizer
screens and Ce-doped YAG crystals have been installed in that could digitize and save images to disk at a 15-Hz rate.
selected places in the beamline. Both converters have This proved more than adequate to track the Chromox
improved spatial resolution and time responses compared decay time.
to the standard Chromox (Al2O3:Cr) screens used else- In addition, we subsequently installed a Ce-doped YAG
where in the linac. Of the three converters only the OTR single crystal of 0.5 mm thickness (obtained from Startec)
screens provide the response required to separate the S- normal to the beam direction with a polished metal mirror
______________________________ at 45° to the beam just behind it. A separate actuator was
*Work supported by U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Basic used to insert the OTR screen (Molybdenum mirror from
Energy Sciences, under Contract No. W-31-109-ENG-38. Melles Griot) so that its surface was at 45° to the beam.
529
The light was transported out of the linac tunnel to an
optics table via two 150-mm-diameter achromat lenses.
The Chromox, OTR, or YAG:Ce light could be viewed by
a Vicon charge-coupled device (CCD) camera; a charge-
injection device (CID) camera; a Stanford Computer
Optics Quik-05 gated, intensified camera; and/or a
Hamamatsu C5680 dual-sweep streak camera. The syn-
chroscan unit was phase-locked to 119.0 MHz, the 24th
subharmonic of the 2856-MHz linac frequency. A low jit-
ter countdown circuit has been built using Motorola
ECLIN PS logic to generate the 24th subharmonic with
sub-ps jitter [6].
3 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS (s)
3.1 Radiation Converter Comparison Figure 1: “X” Data with background subtracted are fitted
to an exponential. The 1/e time is about 300 ms.
As mentioned in the previous section, comparisons were
made for Chromox versus OTR and YAG:Ce crystals ver-
the YAG surface and OTR mirror surface location differ-
sus OTR in the past year. In the first series, the beam was
ence. These low-current data basically normalize and vali-
initially steered into the high efficiency Chromox. The
date the screen comparison in terms of calibration factors,
electron beam optics were then adjusted to give the “best
source strength compensation, camera saturation, and
focus” on the OTR screen. The size was recorded, and then
bremsstrahlung effects in the YAG:Ce. As shown in Fig. 2,
the beam was steered back to the Chromox. For beam sizes
at 100 mA and higher the YAG:Ce images are observed to
in the 150-µm regime as measured by OTR, we observed a
be increasingly larger with current than the OTR images.
larger size in the Chromox. We then estimated the Chro-
There is a slight increase in the OTR image with current.
mox-limiting resolution by subtracting the OTR image
The threshold for this “size-blurring” effect for this partic-
size from the total observed Chromox image size in
ular crystal/mirror and these conditions is 1.1 to 1.6 pC/
quadrature. This resulted in a limiting value of σres ~ 200
µm2 using the FWHM size. If the one-sigma beam sizes
µm as reported previously [7].
are estimated using a Gaussian shape assumption, the
The response time of the Chromox was determined by
triggering a single macropulse from the DC gun at 1 Hz threshold is (2.35)2 times smaller or 0.2 to 0.3 pC/µm2.
and recording the succession of video images on the Spiri-
con hard disk. The digital images were then analyzed and
0($685(' %($0 6,=( $5% 81,76
intensities plotted as a function of elapsed time from the
trigger. The 30-ns-long macropulse was like a delta-func-
tion in time compared to the Chromox decay time. In Fig. YAG:Ce
1 this decay of image intensity is shown, and the 1/e value
was determined as 300 ms. Using the OTR screen, only
one frame had an image since OTR is indeed prompt ver-
sus video rates. The Chromox decay time is even long
compared to macropulse separations of 30 ms at the 30-Hz OTR
rate.
In the YAG:Ce and OTR comparison, the tests were
performed in a similar manner. Over the course of brief
tests at 100-mA average beam current (about 3 nC in a
macropulse), we repeatedly observed a larger beam size
with YAG:Ce than with OTR. In the June 12, 1998 experi- %($0 &855(17 P$
ments we first established our beam size comparisons at
low currents of 30 and 60 mA. We used an elongated verti- Figure 2: Comparison of observed beam image sizes
cal focus (aspect ratio H/V of 1/10) because this seemed to using OTR (dashed line) and the YAG:Ce converter
result in the smallest sizes we could make: 70 µm screens. Noticeable YAG:Ce (solid line) image size
(FWHM) or 30 µm (σ). This value is close to the calcu- growth is observed beginning at ≤ 100mA and with spot
lated resolution of the transport line. The neutral density size of about 40 × 400 µm2 (σx × σy).
filter difference of 2.0 was used at this reference point, and
the camera position in Z was adjusted to compensate for
530
Simplistically speaking, there may be a saturation-like gave a σt = 3 to 6 ps result even though no optimization of
phenomenon in the peak-intensity regime that results in the rf gun had yet been done.
the half-maximum intensity points growing relative to the
peak. How the very large number of Ce-related impurity 4 SUMMARY
levels could be exhausted is unclear. Alternatively, mecha-
nisms involving radiation trapping or photoionization may In summary, the time scales for time-resolved imaging on
be involved [8]. The very small beam spots from a PEI the APS linac have been significantly enhanced. The tar-
that involve several hundred pC could easily approach this geted beam spot sizes of 100 µm (σ) can be addressed by
threshold observed in these 625-MeV tests. These charges YAG:Ce at low current (areal charge density) and OTR at
and beam energies are higher than used in the single higher currents. Micropulse bunch lengths at the ps-regime
micropulse experiments previously [9]. Further tests and a can also be addressed now. Optimization of the acceler-
search for alternative explanations are planned. ated rf gun beam will be facilitated by these enhanced
The reported response time for this YAG:Ce is 80 ns techniques.
(FWHM) [9] so it averages the micropulses in a 30-ns
macropulse. A measure of this was shown by comparing
5 REFERENCES
the micropulse bunch length seen with OTR to the
YAG:Ce result. The OTR result was 4 ps (FWHM) while
[1] Alex H. Lumpkin, “Advanced Time-Resolved Imag-
the YAG:Ce decay filled the 150-ps field of view and com-
ing Techniques for Electron-Beam Characterization,”
pletely obscured the micropulse structure and a fortiori,
1990 Accelerator Inst. Workshop, AIP #229, 151-
the bunch length. The OTR result is very similar to that
179 (1991).
obtained previously by an rf phasing technique [10].
[2] Stephen V. Milton et al., “Status of the APS Low-
Table 1 summarizes these comparisons of the radiation
Energy Undulator Test Line,” Nucl. Inst. and Meth.
converter spatial resolution, temporal response, and con-
A407, 210-214 (1998).
version efficiency. The limiting resolution number for
[3] M. Borland, “An Improved Thermionic Microwave
APS-installed screens of Chromox and YAG:Ce are given
Gun and Emittance Preserving Transport Line,”
and the OTR number estimated. The OTR response time is
Proc. of the 1993 Particle Accelerator Conference,
only an estimate, but this surface phenomena should be in
Washington, DC, May 17-20, 1993, 3015-3017
the regime of the skin depth for visible light in a metal
(1993).
[11]. [4] J. Lewellen et al., “Operation of the APS RF Gun,”
Proc. of the LINAC’98, Chicago, Illinois, August 24-
Table 1: Comparison of the Chromox, YAG:Ce, and OTR
29, 1998 (to be published).
Converter Screens for Particle Beam Imaging at 600 MeV
[5] A. H. Lumpkin et al., Nucl. Inst. and Meth. A296,
at APS
769-775 (1990).
[6] R. Laird and F. Lenkszus, Argonne National Labora-
Spatial
Temporal Intensity tory, private communication, April 1997.
Screen Resolution
Response Arb. Units [7] A. H. Lumpkin, W. Berg, B. Yang, and M. White,
σ (µm)
“Preliminary Tests of the Optical Diagnostics for the
Chromox 200 300 ms 1 APS LEUTL Particle Beam,” Proc. of the FEL’97,
(0.25 mm) Beijing China, August 18-22, 1997 (to be published).
[8] M. Shinn, Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator
YAG <30 low 80 ns 1 Laboratory, private communication, August 1998.
(0.5 mm) current [9] W. S. Graves, R. D. Johnson, and P. G. O’Shea, “A
<100 200 High Resolution Electron Beam Profile Monitor,”
mA Proc. of the 1997 Particle Accelerator Conference,
Vancouver, B.C., May 12-16, 1997 (to be published).
OTR <10 ~ 10 fs ~ 2 × 10 -3 [10] N. Sereno et al., “Bunch Length Measurements at the
Advanced Photon Source (APS) Linear Accelerator,”
3.2 RF-Gun Accelerated Beam Proc. of the 1995 Particle Accelerator Conference,
Vol. 2, 1070-1072 (1996).
On August 12, 1998 our first images of the rf-gun beam at [11] D. Rule, Naval Surface Warfare Center, private com-
400 MeV were obtained at this station at the end of the munication, June 1996.
linac. Both OTR and YAG:Ce images were obtained with
the YAG:Ce size again being larger than the OTR size for
~160-mA average current and an approximate 130 × 130
µm2 spot size. A preliminary synchroscan streak image
531
LEDA & APT BEAM POSITION MEASUREMENT SYSTEM: DESIGN
AND INITIAL TESTS*
J. D. Gilpatrick, J. F. Power, R. B. Shurter, M. Stettler
Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM, 87545, USA
J. F. O'Hara
AlliedSignal Inc., Albuquerque, NM, 87196, USA
D. Martinez
General Atomics, San Diego, CA, 92186, USA
Abstract FODO lattice period is 78 degrees, two BPMs are
installed in two focusing quadrupole magnets separated by
Beam position measurements are being designed and a defocusing quadrupole magnet.
fabricated for the Low Energy Demonstration Accelerator
(LEDA), a 20-MeV, 100-mA-cw proton-accelerator, 1.2 APT Steering Schemes
presently under construction at Los Alamos [1]. Similar The CCDTL BPM placement scheme repeats every 5.5-
position measurements will provide position information lattice periods, allowing operators to correct for various
for a steering scheme within the Accelerator Production of static random errors. This scheme was simulated using
Tritium (APT) linac magnetic lattice. The steering budgeted beam-position-measurement errors similar to
scheme, which centers the beam in the magnetic lattice, those shown in Table 1 and multiple quadrupole magnet
uses two position measurements and two translatable misalignments, field amplitude errors, and other errors.
quadrupole magnets every 5.5-FODO-lattice periods. For a 25-mm radius BPM, the total budgeted position-
What makes these beam position measurements unique is measurement precision and accuracy is 0.06- and 0.21-
how they will attain, maintain and verify the required mm, respectively. Typical accuracy errors include BPM
accuracy. The position measurement systems consist of alignment errors and precision errors include RF cable
micro-stripline beam position monitors (BPMs) and RF isolation and BPM vibration.
coaxial cables, log-ratio processors, on-line error
correction sub-systems, and a control system interface Table 1: Beam-position measurement-error budget table
including associated algorithms and computer software. using a 25-mm radius BPM.
This paper discusses the mapping of the BPM probe Measurement Components Precision Accuracy
response, the algorithm used to calculate low beam- (mm) (mm)
velocity response, and the expected log-ratio processor BPM 0.01 0.12
performance. RF Cable Plant 0.0003 0.02
On-line Calibrator 0.03 0.16
1 INTRODUCTION Log-Ratio Processor 0.04 0.04
TOTAL 0.05 0.21
1.1 Beam Position Measurement Purpose
APT beam steering is accomplished by translating a
During the commissioning and operation of the LEDA
quadrupole magnets pair for each BPM pair with the last
radio frequency quadrupole (RFQ), beam position
steerer residing in the same focusing quadrupole magnet as
measurements serve two purposes. They provide sufficient
the first BPM [2]. The additional half FODO lattice in
beam position information for centering the 6.7-MeV
the steerer/BPM-pair placement period allows a single
beam both in the high energy beam transport (HEBT)
axis of the beam's central trajectory to be corrected every
magnetic lattice and on the high power beamstop, and
11-lattice periods.
they verify that the quadrupole magnetic field settings are
properly set.
2 MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
For APT, position measurements provide sufficient
information for centering the beam in the magnetic lattice
2.1 System Description and BPM Design
throughout the linac and HEBT. By placing BPM pairs
within quadrupole magnet bores separated by ~90 degrees The position measurement system consists of four
of phase advance, both beam position and trajectory angle components; the BPM and its associated set of RF cables,
are acquired. For example, early in the coupled cavity an electronics processor, on-line error correction circuitry,
drift tube linac (CCDTL), where the phase advance per
*
Work supported by the US Department of Energy
532
and an Experimental & Physics Industrial Control System operate at frequencies near 900-MHz with a reduced
(EPICS) interface [3,4,5]. dynamic range.
The BPMs are a four-electrode micro-stripline design As with previous versions, the logarithmic
with electrode characteristic impedances of 50-Ω. Each function is created by a series of amplifier stages that
BPM has a physical feature that provides alignment successively detect the RF signals and approximate the
verification with respect to the facility alignment logarithm function in a piecewise linear fashion. Due to
the detection technique, this type of logarithmic amplifier
references and ultimately with respect to the linac
systematically deviates from the ideal logarithmic
magnetic lattice. These alignment features also serve as a function. Fig. 2 shows how these deviations will effect
method to mate the BPM to its mapping fixture so that the operation of the log-ratio processor. These data were
it's mapped electrical characteristics are directly related to acquired from a single AD8307 amplifier detecting a 350-
the measured beam position. For the pictured LEDA MHz RF signal. The output signal mean and rms noise
HEBT BPM shown in Fig. 1, four optical-alignment- were acquired for each 1-dBm step of input signal power.
monument mounts are welded on the downstream vacuum The mean data were fitted to a logarithmic function and
flange. Those APT BPMs that are mounted within the residuals were plotted to show function-deviation
quadrupole magnets have additional constraints. For these information versus input beam current, where input beam
BPMs, construction processes and materials are used to current is derived from input signal power. Note that the
minimize the BPM's permeability and to ensure that the logarithmic function deviation is approximately ±0.7-mm
quadrupole magnetic fields are undistorted. for a 50-mm aperture BPM over four decades of beam
current. This deviation represents a worst case condition.
In previous log-ratio processors, these amplifiers
exhibited very similar logarithmic-function systematic
errors. When used in pairs, the log-ratio detection method
has a lower sysetmatic error behavior [5].
Deviation (mm)
1 0.12
Noise, rms (mm)
Deviation
0.5 0.08
0 Noise 0.04
-0.5 0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Beam Current (mA)
Figure 2: The above data show expected 350-MHz log-
ratio position-detector performance using an AD8307
integrated circuit.
Figure 1: This LEDA 5-cm-aperture micro-stripline BPM
has a 45 degree subtended angle and a 5-cm-length Fig. 2 also displays the rms noise characteristics of the
electrode. AD8307 amplifiers. Because these logarithmic amplifiers
contain many stages of detection and amplification, their
2.2 Log-Ratio Electronics Processor noise figures are typically much larger than other beam
The electronics processor uses a log-ratio technique for position processing techniques. However, the AD8307
analyzing the beam's position by demodulating and noise characteristics are sufficiently low to easily meet the
converting each BPM-electrode 350-MHz-signal current APT and LEDA position measurement precision
into a logarithmic signal voltage [6]. Each logarithmic requirements. Note that these amplifiers are expected to
lower-bandwidth analog voltage is digitized. The opposite- provide beam position measurement precision of 0.04
electrode converted signals are then subtracted from each mm within a 50-mm aperture BPM.
other to produce a stream of digital words that represent 2.3 Error Correction and EPICS Interface
the detected log-ratio beam position.
Previously, demodulating logarithmic amplifiers were A unique feature of this particular measurement system
only available with limited input bandwidths. These is how the system's accuracy is maintained. During
limited bandwidth amplifiers forced the addition of a RF normal BPM operation, an RF relay connects a properly
down converter to translate the BPM-electrode's matched terminator to the downstream port of each BPM
fundamental RF signal to a frequency within these earlier electrode. Additionally, this relay may also be switched to
amplifier's operational range. However, low-cost very- inject a 350-MHz signal from a stable and well-
broad-bandwidth logarithmic amplifiers are now available characterized 4-way RF splitter into each BPM electrode
and allow the exclusion of down converter circuitry in for measurement-system error correction. This error
log-ratio processor designs. For example, the Analog correction method will allow accelerator operators and
Devices, Inc. AD8307 logarithmic amplifier has a 500- commissioners, from within the accelerator control room,
MHz bandwidth over a 92-dB dynamic range and can to verify and correct most measurement system errors.
Early implementations of the log-ratio processor have
533
Ratio (dB)
shown that systematic errors may be corrected to within a
factor of X2 of the precision error using signal injection
techniques [4,5].
Another unique feature is the method used to interface
the log-ratio circuitry to EPICS. The current design calls W ir
eP
for both the log-ratio processor and on-line correction os .
,Y )
module to be implemented as register-based VXI modules, (m m ., X (m m
) W ire Pos
and located in the same VXI crate. This module
organization allows direct control and rapid automatic Figure 3: Position-sensitivity map of a BPM showing an
opposing-electrode signal ratio for each wire location.
operation of both modules from the same control
computer, typically referred to as an input/output
4 SUMMARY
controller (IOC). Both modules will implement full
digital control and data acquisition via the VXI bus. This paper has discussed current LEDA and APT beam
position measurement developments. These
3 BPM CHARACTERIZATION developments include the APT and LEDA beam steering
scheme, changes to the log-ratio processor, the BPM
3.1 Mapping Characterization Process and Data characterization processes, and corrections to the BPM
sensitivity due to low beam-energy effects.
A mapping fixture was developed for LEDA and APT
to accurately characterize the BPM beam-position 5 REFERENCES
response [7]. As a thin wire with an injected 350-MHz
signal is accurately moved across a BPM aperture, the RF [1] J. D. Gilpatrick, et al., "LEDA and APT Beam
fields from the injected signal induce RF currents on the Diagnostics Instrumentation," PAC '97, Vancouver,
BPM electrodes. RF signal data from individual BC, Canada, June, 1997.
electrodes are acquired and the power ratios between [2] K. Crandall, private communication, TechSource
opposing electrodes are calculated for each wire location. Inc., Santa Fe, NM.
The resultant data maps are then fitted in a least squares [3] C. R. Rose, et al., "The LEDA Beam Position
sense to a 3rd-order 2-dimensional equation [8]. Measurement System," PAC '97, Vancouver, BC,
Fig. 3 shows a typical map of the 50-mm aperture Canada, June, 1997.
BPM planned for use in the LEDA HEBT with its fitted [4] C. R. Rose, et al., "Description and Operation of the
3rd-order surface fit. Typical mapped offsets and LEDA Beam Position /Intensity Measurement
sensitivity terms are 0.07 mm and 1.36 mm/dB, Module," PAC '97, Vancouver, BC, Canada, June,
respectively. The typical sensitivity terms are within a 1997.
few percent of the theoretical values of 1.39 dB/mm based [5] C. R. Rose, et al., "Test Results of the LEDA Beam-
on a analytic circular-BPM model [6,9]. Position/Intensity Measurement Module," BIW '98,
Stanford, CA, May 4-7, 1998.
3.2 Low Beam-Velocity Correction [6] J. D. Gilpatrick, "Comparison of Beam-Position-
Transfer Functions using Circular Beam-Position
Because the relative beam velocities are low for the
Monitors," PAC '97, Vancouver, BC, Canada, June,
LEDA and APT CCDTL and coupled cavity linac (CCL)
1997.
beams, the bunched beam fields deform such that the
[7] R. B. Shurter, et al., "An Automated BPM
BPM offset, sensitivity, and 3rd-order terms will be
Characterization System for LEDA," BIW '98,
slightly different from those acquired by the mapping
Stanford, CA, May 4-7, 1998.
fixture. A technique has been developed to correct these
[8] J. D. Gilpatrick and T. Hardek, "Known Problems
terms for low velocity beams and has been verified with
and Solutions for the RI Beam Position Measurement
beam experiments [9]. The technique consists of the
Systems," AOT-1 Technical Note No. 95-98, May
following steps:
1. With β=1, adjust the electrode subtended angle and 10, 1995.
radius in the analytic model so that a new model- [9] J. D. Gilpatrick, et al., "Experience with the Ground
based map agrees with mapping fixture data. Test Accelerator Beam-Measurement
2. Decrease β in the analytic model to agree with the Instrumentation," AIP Conf. Proc. 319, Santa Fe,
expected beam velocity. NM, pp 154-169, May, 1993.
3. Produce new analytically-derived map.
4. Perform forward and inverse least-squares fits.
5. Change manufactured offsets in the initial mapped
data by using the new low-β BPM sensitivity.
This procedure has been performed on 50-mm aperture
LEDA BPMs and has shown sensitivities will increase to
1.76 dB/mm.
534
LASER DIAGNOSTIC FOR HIGH CURRENT H− BEAMS*
Robert E. Shafer
Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM 87545
Cross 5
1 INTRODUCTION section Broad & Reinhardt
-17 2 4
x10 cm
Laser systems have been in use at the Los Alamos Ajmera and Chung
LAMPF 800-MeV proton linac and on various low energy 3
H– beamlines since about 1980 to do research or
2
diagnostics on the accelerated H– beam. The basis for
these systems is that the threshold for photodetaching an 1
electron is about 0.75 eV, and the photodetachment cross
0
section rises to about 4 x 10-17 cm2 for photons of about 0 1 2 3 4 5
Photon energy (eV)
1.5 eV (800 nm).
A Q-switched laser, when triggered, fully discharges in
Figure 1. Photodetachment cross section of H– vs.
a few ns. Thus a small Q-switched laser with, say 50 mJ
pulse energy and 10 ns pulse length, has the instantaneous photon energy in the H– rest frame.
power of 5 MW. Furthermore, a 50 mJ pulse at 1064 nm
wavelength contains over 2 x 1017 photons. Because of the 2.2 Lorentz Transformation
large photodetachment cross section, a significant fraction Because H– beams can be accelerated to energies of 1
of the beam can be neutralized during the laser pulse. The GeV or more, there is a very sizable relativistic shift of the
Q-switched laser beam can either be focused to select a laser photon energy to higher energies in the H– rest
thin slice of the transverse beam profile, or defocused to frame, often referred to as a “Lorentz boost”. The photon
nearly uniformly illuminate the entire beam. energy ECM in the H rest frame is related to the laser
Because neither the laser photon nor the recoiling
photodetached electron transfer significant momentum to ECM = γ E L (1− β cosθ L )
the H0 atom, the neutralized beam maintains nearly the photon energy EL by the equation
original phase-space parameters of the H– beam from where β and γ are the Lorentz parameters of the H– beam,
which it was extracted.. Furthermore, because the and θL is the laboratory angle of the laser beam relative to
neutralized beam will not be deflected by either electric or the H– beam.
magnetic fields, the H– beam parameters can be deduced –
H beam
Laser beam
from measurements on the drifting neutral beam, even H 0 beam
–
H beam
after it is separated from the H– beam by magnetic fields. θ electrons
Measurements on the neutral beam are neither disruptive
to the primary beam, nor destructive to the beam
diagnostic.
Figure 2. Geometry for laser photodetachment
2 THEORY 2.3 Photodetachment Yield
For a Gaussian-profile laser beam with NL photons
2.1 Photodetachment Cross Section
intercepting a Gaussian-profile H– beam of current Ib at an
A plot of the photodetachment (stripping) cross angle θL, the yield Y1 (number of neutral hydrogen atoms
section vs. photon energy, in the rest frame of the H
–
produced per laser-H– beam crossing) is given
atom, is shown in Fig. 1 [1-3]. approximately by
The threshold is at about 0.75 eV and the peak cross I b N L 1 − β cosθ L σ N ( Ecm ) ∞ − x2 − x2
-17 2
section, 4 x 10 cm , is at about 1.5 eV. Because the Y1 =
eβ c sin θ L ∫ exp 2 exp 2 dx
2π σ σ L − ∞ 2σ b 2σ L
binding energy of the remaining 1s electron in the neutral
hydrogen atom is 13.6 eV, it will not be stripped by the Ib N L 1 − β cosθ L σ N ( Ecm )
b
=
laser.
2π eβ c sin θ L σ b2 + σ L2 (
1/ 2
)
________ where σb and σL are the transverse rms sizes of the H– and
*Work supported by the U.S. Dept. of Energy. laser beams normal to the plane of incidence, and σN(Ecm)
is the photodetachment cross section at photon energy Ecm
in the H– rest frame.
535
The yield of photodetached H atoms for a 50 mJ 1064 in hydrogen and nitrogen gas are about 1.2 and 8.9 x 10-19
nm Nd:YAG laser pulse on a 50 mA, 1-GeV H– beam, cm2/atom, and scale approximately as 1/β2. For a 1 x 10-7
using θL = 85º, Ecm = 2.22 eV (Lorentz-boosted photon torr (273 K) vacuum, these cross sections represent
energy in rest frame of H–), βc = 0.875 x 3 x 1010 cm/s stripping losses of about 0.08 and 0.6 ppm per meter
(beam velocity) NL = 2.68 x 1017 (photons per laser respectively.
pulse), σb = σL = 0.2 cm (rms width of laser and H–
beams), σN (E) = 3 x 10-17 cm2 (photodetachment cross 3 EXPERIMENTAL APPLICATIONS
section at energy Ecm), is Y1 = 1.25 x 108 H0 atoms per
laser pulse (single crossing). For a 10 ns laser pulse, this 3.1 Commercially Available Q-Switched Lasers.
is an instantaneous H0 ‘current” of 2 mA (4% of H–
current). Inexpensive shoe-box sized Q-switched Nd:YAG
This technique can also be used for low-energy (< 10 lasers can produce 10-ns long, 50 mJ, 1064-nm pulses (or
MeV) H– beams, because the detachment cross section harmonics) at 60 Hz. These units are totally enclosed, and
(Fig. 1) is 3.5 x 10-17 cm2 at 1.17 eV (1064 nm). Because can be installed directly on a beamline. The 1064-nm line
the yield is inversely proportional to β, the H0 yield is is nearly ideal for general diagnostics on H– beams,
larger for low energy beams. In the above example, if the because of its proximity to the peak in the
beam energy is lowered to 2.5 MeV, the yield increases to photodetachment cross section. The 10-ns pulse width is
1.6 x 109 atoms (51% of H– current). adequate for many applications where good temporal
response is required, and this can be improved if
2.4 Yield Enhancement necessary by using external polarizers and pockels cells.
Solid state laser diodes, with outputs of several watts,
A variety of mirror configurations for reflecting the laser
may be useful as a device for extracting very small
beam through the H– beam many times are possible. The
average currents from a H– beam, but they are probably
simplest configuration is two parallel front-surface
not suitable as a beam diagnostic. This is because the
mirrors. Another configuration is an internally-reflecting
solid state laser cannot achieve the very high peak power
cylindrical mirror with its axis aligned along the beam. To
available in a Q-switched laser, required to discriminate
take advantage of the temporal resolution of a very short
against the backgrounds.
Q-switched laser pulse, which is useful in maximizing
signal to noise, the effective photon lifetime in the mirror 3.2 Experimental Layouts and Measurements
should not exceed a few ns. An effective lifetime of 10 ns
corresponds to a photon path length of about 300 cm, A generic layout for a laser diagnostic is shown in
equivalent to about 30 reflections inside a 10-cm diameter Figure 3. In Fig. 3, the Q-switched laser beam intercepts
mirror assembly. Thus the optimum mirror assembly the H– beam at an angle θL. A mirror assembly produces
needs to reflect the laser beam through the H– beam only multiple passes of the laser beam. A dipole magnet
about 30 times, an easily achievable number even with separates the neutral beam from the H– beam. If a dipole
modest mirror reflectivities. magnet, such as in a bend, is not possible, then a weak
dipole field will deflect the detached electrons, which can
2.5 Backgrounds be detected. After the neutral beam emerges from the
dipole magnet, it may be foil-stripped to produce a proton
There are two sources of background uniquely
beam. A variety of beam diagnostics for characterizing
associated with H– beams. They are magnetic stripping
the resultant proton beam are possible. Because the
and residual gas stripping. If not controlled, these
proton beam is low power, the diagnostic may totally
stripping mechanisms can contaminate the signal obtained
intercept the protons.
by laser stripping. For high current, high energy H–
beams, these loss mechanisms can also contribute to a
significant amount of activation. A beam loss of a watt
per meter at 1 GeV can lead to activation levels in the
range of 10’s of mrad/hr.
A relativistic H– beam can be stripped by the Lorentz-
transformed magnetic field of a typical beamline magnet.
The theory of electric and magnetic field stripping of H–
beams is discussed by Sherk [4] and by Jason [5]. As an Figure 3. A generic arrangement for laser beam
example, the stripping loss rate of a 1-GeV H– beam in diagnostics.
magnetic fields of 0.3 T, 0.35 T, and 0.4 T is 0.12, 7.4,
and 164 ppm per meter respectively. A laser beam for transverse beam diagnostics can
A relativistic H– beam can also be stripped by inelastic either be a thin “laser wire”, neutralizing only a thin slice
collisions with residual gas atoms. The cross sections for of the incident H– beam, or intercept the entire beam [7-9].
this process have been evaluated by Gillespie [6]. As an The width of the laser wire can be of the order of 0.2 to
example, the cross sections for stripping a 1-GeV H– beam 0.4 mm. If used in a high dispersion region, it may be
536
possible to measure the H– energy spread. For measuring 5 REFERENCES
the proton yield, possible proton diagnostics include
phototube-scintillator assemblies, Faraday cups, [1] J. T. Broad and W. P. Reinhardt, “One and Two-
secondary-emission monitors, etc. Because the Electron Photoejection from H– Atoms”, Phys. Rev.
photodetachment yield is higher at low energies, lasers A14, page 2159-72 (1976). See Table IV.
may be a good substitute for intercepting wire scanners, [2] M. P. Ajmera and K. T. Chung, “Photodetachment
which are particularly hard to use in low energy, high of Negative Hydrogen Ions”, Phys. Rev. A12, pages
dE/dx H– beams. 475-79 (1975).
A very specific application in the proposed Spallation [3] M. Daskhan and A. S. Ghosh, “Photodetachment
Neutron Source project is to measure the beam current in Cross Section of the Negative Hydrogen Ion”, Phys.
a 1.18 MHz, 280-ns-wide, beam chopper gap, which must Rev. A28, pages 2767-69 (1983)..
be less than about 1 x 10-5 of the 28 mA H– beam (about [4] L. Scherk, “An Improved Value for the Electron
0.3 µA). The laser system with mirrors can extract a Affinity of the Negative Hydrogen Ion”, Can. J.
neutral current of about 0.10 µA from this gap for 10 ns, Phys. Vol. 57, 558 (1979).
equivalent to about 6200 particles. This can be measured [5] A. J. Jason, D. W. Hudgings, and O. B. VanDyck,
using either charge or scintillator pulse detection “Neutralization of H– Beams by Magnetic
techniques to determine the cleanliness of the gap. The Stripping”, IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., Vol. NS-28,
very high dynamic range and charge sensitivity required pages 2704-6 (1981).
for the beam-in-gap measurement is also useful for [6] G. H. Gillespie, “Electron-Loss Cross Sections for
exploring the halo region of the primary beam. This is a High Energy H– Collisions with Low and High Z
difficult measurement to make with normal beam profile atoms”, Phys. Rev. A15, pages 563-573 (1977), and
diagnostics. A16, pages 943-950 (1977).
When measurement of the photodetached H0 atom or [7] D. R. Swenson, E. P. MacKerrow, and H. C. Bryant,
proton is difficult, measurement of the photodetached ”Non-Invasive Diagnostics for H– Ion Beams using
electron is possible. The electron has about 1/1840th of Photodetachment by Focused Laser Beams”; Proc.
the proton rigidity, and is easily deflected into detectors 1993 Beam Instrumentation Workshop (Santa Fe),
by weak magnetic fields. This technique has been used in pages 343-52, A.I.P. Conf. Proceedings # 319
photodetachment experiments. The photodetached (1994).
electron is easily deflected by space charge forces in high [8] R. C. Connolly et al., “A Transverse Phase Space
current H– beams, however, so the electron signal cannot Measurement Technique for High Brightness H–
be analyzed for obtaining accurate H– beam emittance beams”, Nucl. Inst. and Meth. Vol. A312, pages
information. 415-419 (1992).
Resonances in the photodetachment total cross section [9] D. P. Sandoval, “Non-Interceptive Transverse
near the n=2 threshold (10.953 eV) have been used to Emittance Measurement Diagnostic for an 800-MeV
measure H– beam momentum and momentum spread [10]. H– Transport Beam”, 1994 Beam Instrumentation
In this experiment, a 50 mJ Q-switched Nd:YAG laser Workshop (Vancouver). A. I. P. Conference
operating at 266 and 355 nm was used. Both the Proceedings 333
[10] E. P. MacKerrow et al., “Laser Diagnostics For H–
Feshbach resonance (10.926 eV, width 30 µeV) and the
Beam Momentum And Momentum Spread,”
shape resonance (10.975 eV, width 25 meV) can be used
Reference 8, pages 226-35 (1994).
for this measurement, although the widths and strengths of
these resonances are not ideal.
4 CONCLUSION
Laser photodetachment can be used on high current, high
energy H– beams to carry out a wide variety of beam
diagnostic measurements parasitically during normal
operation, without having to operate the facility at either
reduced current or duty cycle. Suitable Q-switched laser
systems are small, inexpensive, and can be mounted on or
near the beamline. Most of the proposed laser-based
diagnostics techniques have already been demonstrated.
537
HORIZONTAL EMITTANCE MEASUREMENT IN ATF EXTRACTION LINE
T. Okugi, T. Hirose, Tokyo Metro. Univ., Tokyo, Japan,
H. Hayano, K. Kubo, N. Terunuma, J. Urakawa, KEK, Ibaraki, Japan
S. Kashiwagi, The Graduate University for Advanced Studies, Ibaraki, Japan
Wire scanner chamber
Abstract
Wire mount Guide Stage
The beam operation of the damping ring of the KEK ac-
Digital Position Gauge
celerator test facility (ATF) has been started since January ( MagneScale)
1997 for the development of the technologies to achieve
a low emittance beam, which is required in future linear
colliders. The ATF consists of a injector linac, the damp- 50µm
Tungsten Wire
ing ring and a beam extraction line for a beam diagnosis. Pulse Motor Stage
An operation of the extraction line has been started since Side View Front View
November 1997. However, the beam position at the extrac-
tion line was not stable for the reason why extraction kick- Figure 1: Schematic figure of wire scanner used in ATF.
ers did not work stable and the longitudinal beam oscilla-
tion is still remained in the damping ring at extraction tim- extraction line are read out in the single beam passage si-
ing and so on. Therefore, we established the method to cor- multaneously. Thereby, we can examine a correlation be-
rect measured beam size and evaluated the horizontal emit- tween all monitors in the ATF extraction line.
tance. In this paper, we report the performance of jitter sub-
traction method for the horizontal beam size. The amount 3 DISPERSION CORRECTION
of the evaluated horizontal emittance was nm. The magnet setting, especially steering magnets, is often
changed for various beam studies, because ATF damping
1 INTRODUCTION ring is a test accelerator. It changes dispersion in the damp-
ing ring and as consequence in the extraction line. Residual
It was reported that a small beam emittance was measured
horizontal dispersion at the beam diagnostic section pro-
by synchrotron radiation at several synchrotron radiation
duces an additional beam size and a longitudinal beam os-
storage rings. In ESRF, extremely small horizontal and ver-
cillation make additional horizontal position jitter as pro-
tical emittances, 3.5nm and 0.04nm, were evaluated with
portional to the dispersion. Thereby, we must make disper-
X-ray pinhole camera[1]. It is difficult to measure the hor-
sion correction every time at the beginning of beam diag-
izontal emittance with small systematic error by utilizing
nosis on the extraction line. The dispersion function at the
the synchrotron radiation in the ATF damping ring, because
extraction line is evaluated by measuring orbit difference
a fraction of horizontal beam size due to horizontal disper-
with different rf frequency in the damping ring (rf ramp
sion and energy spread was comparable or greater than that
method). At a beam injection timing, the damping ring rf
from horizontal emittance. However, ATF has a beam ex-
must be synchronized with a linac rf. However, the damp-
traction line, which contains a beam diagnosis section of
ing ring rf frequency can be changed between a beam in-
the extracted beam. Operation of the ATF extraction line
jection and the next beam injection in order to measure the
has been started since November 1997.
dispersion function.
Dispersion correction was carried out as following pro-
2 ATF EXTRACTION LINE cedures. At first, beam positions were measured by BPMs
In the ATF extraction line, there is a beam diagnostic sec- for five rf frequency offsets, +2kHz, +1kHz, 0kHz, -1kHz
tion, which is designed to be horizontal dispersion free and and -2kHz. Slopes were evaluated with lin-
the quadrupole magnets are designed to form FODO cells. ear fitting using MINUIT[3] software package and horizon-
There are an integrating current transformer (ICT) and tal dispersions were evaluated as
14 single path strip-line type beam position monitors
(BPMs) at the extraction line. And four wire scanners are (1)
located to measure a beam size and to evaluate a beam
emittance[2]. Wires of each wire scanner are mounted to for each BPM locations in the extraction line. Horizontal
wire mounts. And the wire mounts are rotated by to dispersions at locations of wire scanners were evaluated us-
horizontal plane as shown in Figure 1. The wire positions ing a fitting with two parameters of , at the entrance of
are read out by measuring the wire mount positions with extraction line on restricted condition of design momentum
digital position gauges. And scattered -rays by wire scan- compaction factor . Linear optics model for the extrac-
ners are detected by an air erenkov detector with photo- tion line was used for the fitting. Finally, a calculation of
multiplier (PMT). All of these beam monitors at the ATF magnet settings to suppress horizontal dispersion at beam
538
diagnostic section were carried out based on the dispersion can be expressed as
measurement. Consequently, strength of some quadrupole
magnets were changed to suppress horizontal dispersion.
(4)
4 JITTER SUBTRACTION with the wire scanner location, the beam position
Horizontal beam position of the extracted beam was not with respect to the wire and the digital position gauge
stable for the reason why one of extraction kickers[4] dis- readout on the wire scanner, which was divided by to
charged, which was located at the extraction line. An convert the horizontal position by its 45 tilt. A typical
amount of horizontal beam position fluctuation was 50- readout of PMT signals for wire scanner MW1X is shown
200 m at the beam diagnostic section and the beam fluc- in Figure 2(a) as a function of wire positions. It was found
tuation affected to horizontal beam size measurement, be- that PMT signals were scattered over wide range. On the
cause a typical horizontal beam size of 30-100 m at the other hand, Figure 2(b) shows PMT signals as a function of
beam diagnostic section was comparable to the beam fluc- the in Eq. (4) and horizontal position jitter was well
tuation. We applied a position jitter subtraction to a beam corrected.
size measurement.
Horizontal beam offset at arbitrary position is calcu-
lated from offsets at other two locations , as follows 5 EMITTANCE EVALUATION
Two different methods are used for horizontal emittance
evaluation. One is a waist scan method, and the other
(2)
is a four wire method. The waist scan method is the
method to evaluate a beam emittance by measuring a beam
at the dispersion free section. Where is a trans- size with single wire scanner while changing strength of a
fer matrix component from to . As more than two hor- quadrupole magnet located upstream of the wire scanner.
izontal positions are possible to be measured by BPMs, we The beam size square changes as quadratic as shown in
can estimate a horizontal beam offset at arbitrary position. Figure 3. We evaluated a horizontal emittance by the waist
An expected position resolutions for the position estima- scan method with MW1X, MW2X and MW3X. Waist scan
tion depends upon a BPM readout resolution as follows method with MW4X was not carried out, because a hor-
izontal beam size at MW4X was insensitive to a strength
change of quadrupole magnets located upstream of the
monitor. The results are listed in Table 2.
The four wire method is the method to evaluate a beam
(3)
emittance by measuring beam sizes with four wire scan-
with the BPM readout resolution. As any set of ners. In this method, Twiss parameters , and horizon-
BPM readout positions can be applied to , in Eq. (2), tal emittance are evaluated from a fitting for the beam sizes
the set of BPMs should be chosen to make the resolution at the four wire scanner locations, knowing the optics infor-
factor minimize for each noticeable locations mation between them. The result of the fitting are shown in
. Figure 3(d). The ellipse shows the evaluated beam distribu-
We applied the position estimation method to beam size tion in phase space at the entrance of the extraction
measurement using wire scanners. The set of BPMs used line. And four lines show the measured beam size bound-
for position estimation and corresponding resolution fac- aries converted to the same phase space. Result is also
tor are listed in Table 1. As mentioned above, listed in Table 2. All evaluated horizontal emittances with
horizontal beam positions at the wire scanners were fluctu- both of waist scan and four wire methods agreed within
ated pulse by pulse. However, we can expect a beam posi- 2 and the averaged horizontal emittance was obtained as
tion with respect to wires by using the position estimation
of Eq. (2). And the beam position with respect to a wire (a) Digital Gauge Raw Signal (b) Relative Beam Position
200 250
PMT Signals [a.u.]
PMT Signal [a.u.]
200
150
Wire Scanner Name BPM1 BPM2 150
100
MW1X ML11X ML10X 0.758 100
MW2X ML12X ML10X 0.432 50
50
MW3X ML12X ML9X 0.868 0 0
0 400 800 1200 1600 -400 0 400 800
MW4X ML10X ML11X 0.370 Digital Gauge Readout [µm] Relative Position [µm]
Table 1: The list of resolution factor for each monitors lo- Figure 2: Result of a position jitter subtraction to magnis-
cated at beam diagnostic section. BPM1, BPM2 are the set cale readout position of wire scanner. (a) PMT signals as
of BPMs for the minimum resolution factor. a function of wire readout position, (b) PMT signals as a
function of evaluated relative beam position to wire.
539
(a) MW1X Waist Scan (b) MW2X Waist Scan
4 3
8
σ x2 [ ×10-8 m2 ]
σx2 [ ×10-8 m2 ]
3
6
∆p/p [ ×10-4 ]
2
2
4
1
1
2
0 0
10 20 30 0 10 20 30 40
0
QD5X Current [A] QD7X Current [A] 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Bunch Population [ ×109 ]
(c) MW3X Waist Scan (d) 4 Wire Measurement
4
MW2X Figure 4: Result of momentum spread measurement. There
100
σ x2 [ ×10-8 m2 ]
3
x' [ µrad ]
MW1X was clearly intensity dependence.
2 0
MW4X
Figure 4. A horizontal emittance is expected to increase
1
-100 MW3X with the momentum spread as
0
10 20 30 -200 0 200
QF6X Current [A] x [ µm ]
Figure 3: Beam size measurement result. (a),(b),(c) are re-
sults of waist scan method for each monitors, and (d) shows (6)
a result of four wire method. where and are the damping partition number for hor-
izontal and longitudinal direction and the angular bracket
means average over the arc section. As momentum spread
nm.
was enhanced by about 8-12% at the bunch population of
The fitted Twiss parameters were compared for a veri-
3-5 in Figure 4, the horizontal emittance should be
fication of consistency of the horizontal emittance evalua-
1.31-1.41nm for the beam intensity. This horizontal emit-
tions. Factor is defined as
tance agreed with the evaluated horizontal emittance of
nm.
(5)
7 SUMMARY
The horizontal emittance was evaluated by the horizontal
for two different set of Twiss parameters , . The eval-
beam size measurement at the ATF extraction line with po-
uated ’s are also shown in Table 2. In the calcula-
sition jitter subtraction method. The horizontal emittance
tion of , each measurement was used as one set of
was nm and this was a little bit larger than the
Twiss parameter and an averaged Twiss parameter of the
design natural emittance. However, this difference can be
other three measurement weighted by their errors was used
explained by intensity dependence of the emittance. Mea-
as the other. It was found that all were close to
sured horizontal emittance well agreed with the designed
unity. Thereby, evaluated horizontal emittance had the con-
one.
sistency each other.
8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
6 CONSIDERATION We would like to express our thanks to Professors H. Sug-
The evaluated horizontal emittance was a little bit larger awara, Y. Kimura, M. Kihara and K. Takata for their en-
than design natural emittance of 1.12nm. A momentum couragement of this work. And we wish to thank to Drs.
spread was evaluated by measuring a beam size with screen S. Kamada, T. Naito, K. Oide, S. Takeda and N. Toge of
monitor at about 1.7m of huge horizontal dispersion region KEK and M. Takano of Toho Univ. and D. McCormick, M.
of the extraction line and the evaluated momentum spread Minty, M. Ross, M. Woodly and F. Zimmermann of SLAC
was increased with increasing a bunch current as shown in for various useful discussions. We also thank to the ATF
operation group for their support to the beam experiment.
Method Emittance [nm]
MW1X Waist Scan
9 REFERENCES
[1] P. Elleaume et al., Jour. of Synchr. Rad. 2 (1995) 209.
MW2X Waist Scan
MW3X Waist Scan [2] S. Kashiwagi et al., “DIAGNOSIS OF THE LOW EMIT-
Four Wire TANCE BEAM IN ATF DR EXTRACTION LINE”, Proc.
of the 6th EPAC, Stockholm (1998).
Average :3.83 :6.77
[3] MINUIT Reference Manual, edited by F. James, CERN Pro-
Table 2: The results of horizontal emittance. “Average” is gram Library Long Writeup D506.
an averaged data weighted by their errors. [4] H. Nakayama, KEK Proceedings 92-6 (1992) 326.
540
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE RF CONTROL OF THE VECTOR SUM
FOR SUPERCONDUCTING PROTON LINACS
M. Hüning, S.N. Simrock, DESY, Notkestr. 85, D-22603 Hamburg, Germany
T. Schilcher, PSI, CH-5232 Villigen, Switzerland
Abstract determine the impact of fluctuations of the accelerating
field on beam energy. For simplicity only the longitudinal
Superconducting accelerator technology has
dynamics of the bunch centroid are analyzed. Bunches
demonstrated its superior performance in large scale
with excessive energy deviations are considered as
machines such as CEBA at TJNAF and is increasingly
potential candidates for beam loss. An important result of
used for new accelerator designs. Until now this
this model is an upper limit for the microphonics noise
technology has found its main application in electron
levels permitted for accelerator operation.
accelerators. However nowadays proton accelerator
designs for the European Spallation Source (ESS) and the
Accelerator Driven Transmutation Technology (ADTT) 2 BEAM DYNAMICS MODEL
also study the feasibility of superconducting linacs. In The energy gain of the bunch centroid when passing a
contrast to the highly relativistic electron beams the single cavity can be described as
proton beam exhibits an increased susceptibility to voltage ∆V = V o ⋅ T ⋅ cos ( φ S ) ,
fluctuations in the acceleration system induced by
where V o is the cavity voltage, T is the transit time factor,
microphonics and dynamic Lorentz force detuning.
and φ S the phase angle between beam current and
Although low beam loss is an important criterion for linac
accelerating field. The transit time factor is a function of
design, studies of the longitudinal dynamics appear to be a
the bunch velocity β = v ⁄ c and the phase angle depends
good indicator for beam stability in presence of
also on β according to ∆φ = ( 2πfL ) ⁄ ( cβ ) , where f is the
fluctuations of the accelerating field. Control of the vector
operating frequency of the rf cavities, and L the drift space
sum of multiple cavities driven by one klystron is
between the center of two adjacent cavities. Thereby the
desirable for cost reasons but does not allow for control of
dynamics inside the cavities have been approximated by a
individual cavity fields. In this paper we study the
cavity with length zero and the surrounding drift space.
performance of such a system.
cav.# n-1 n n+1
1 INTRODUCTION ln ln+1
The technology of proton accelerators has progressed
considerably in the past three decades [1]. Several high Vn-1 En Vn En+1 Vn+1
intensity proton accelerators with high peak or average φs βn φs βn+1 φs
beam currents of the order of 100 mA are presently under Tn-1 ∆φn Tn ∆φn+1 Tn+1
study for applications such as: spallation neutron sources,
kaon factory, nuclear transmutation technology, energy Figure 1: Definition of parameters used for the beam
amplifier, and muon collider drivers. The implementation dynamics model.
of superconducting acceleration systems [2,3] appears to
be attractive since it could lead to substantial cost savings Changes in transit time factor due to finite cavity
in machine operation especially if multiple cavities are length are however considered. For a given linac
driven by one common high power klystron. configuration one can calculate the deviations of beam
An important design criterion for a high intensity energy, bunch velocity, and phase of the accelerating field
proton linac is beam loss control since the beam loss with respect to a reference particle.
should not exceed 1 nA/m to allow for hands-on
E n + 1 = E n + V n ⋅ cos ( ∆φ n + φ s ) ⋅ T n ( β n )
maintenance after a long operation period. Particle loss is
caused by a small number of particles outside the dense 2 4
m pc
beam core, called the beam halo. The origin and formation βn + 1 = 1 – --------------------
-
2
and dynamics of the halo have been studied intensively (En + 1)
and significant progress has been made in recent years. In 2πf l n 1
∆φ n + 1 = ∆φ n + -------------- ⋅ ----- – ----------
1
superconducting linacs where multiple cavities are driven c β n β ref
by a single klystron beam loss may be enhanced by
microphonics which are a result of mechanical vibration In the model the transit time factor of a m-cell cavity is
modulating the resonance frequency of the high Q derived from the transit time factor T1(β) of a single cell
cavities. In this paper we develop a simple model to cavity as:
543
Table 1: Sample Linac Parameters
cos ------------- ( x – α ) – cos ------------- ( x – α )
m–1 m+1
2 2
T ( β ) = T 1 ( β )2 ⋅ -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- LINAC 1 LINAC 2
m ⋅ ( 1 – cos ( x – α ) )
with Frequency [MHz] 700 700
sin ( x ⁄ 2 ) 2πL k Linac Energy [MeV] 1700 1300
T 1 = ---------------------- for E ( z ) = const. , x = ------------n , α = ---- π
( x ⁄ 2) βλ m Number of cavities 102 & 308 166
k=1...m depending on selected passband mode. Here Number of cells / cavity 5&5 5
k/m=1 i.e. α = π for a standing wave structure. Ln is the Injection energy [MeV] 211 & 470 70
length of the cavity.
Beta of cavity 0.64 & 0.82 0.37 .. 0.91
3 LINAC PARAMETERS Cav. centroid spacing [m] 2.0 & 2.1 0.5 .. 1.36
Synchronouse phase [deg] -35 & -30 -20
To determine the impact of fluctuations of the
Energy gain/cav. [MV] 2.5 & 4.0 3.9 .. 9.8
accelerating field on the longitudinal dynamics of the
bunch centroid the parameters of two recently proposed Cavity gradient [MV/m] 5.2 & 5.9 10
linac designs have been selected (see Table 1).
The deviation of the final linac energy from the
4 SIMULATION RESULTS reference energy can be used to determine the potential
for beam loss. The simulations show that small field
Based on the beam dynamics model and the sample fluctuations result in a moderate increase in energy spread
linac parameters the quantities of interest have been while larger errors - depending on the distribution along
determined for several cases: the linac - may result in basically zero energy gain in the
1. stochastic cavity amplitude and phase errors along the linac due to phase slippage. Particles which do not
linac with uniform distribution. The simulation has experience a net energy gain in the linac are likely to be
been performed with various sets of errors for injector lost due to the lack of rf focusing. Some of the results of
and linac. the simulations for the different case studies are shown in
2. stochastic cavity amplitude and phase errors along Table 2. The probability of beam loss is equivalent to linac
linac but the vector-sum of an ensemble of 2 or 4 cav- energy gain less than 90%.
ities perfectly regulated.
Table 2: Linac Energy Spread (Bunch-to-Bunch) and Particle Loss
Injector Error1 Linac cavity error1 probability of energy gain < 90% [10-5] 2 σE/E [10-4]
∆φ[°] ∆V [%] no control3 vector-sum (2)4 vector-sum (4)4 no control3 vector-sum (2)4 vector-sum (4)4
∆φ[°] ∆E [%]
Linac type: 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
1 1 1 1 12 - - - - - 18 11 18 8.7 18 9.1
1 1 3 3 24 - - - - - 22 25 18 9.4 19 12
1 1 5 5 270 13 - - - - 27 42 18 11 19 16
1 1 7 7 1580 30 - - - - 33 57 18 12 20 21
1 1 10 10 9500 610 - - 10 7.8 40 72 19 15 21 31
0 0 1 5 -5 -5 -5 -5 -5 -5 15 29 1.8 6.2 4.0 11
0 0 5 5 -5 -5 -5 -5 -5 -5 20 39 2.3 7.8 5.2 15
0 0 1 10 300 120 -5 -5 -5 -5 28 54 3.4 10 7.6 20
0.5 5 1 5 -5 -5 -5 -5 -5 -5 19 30 10 10 11 14
0.5 5 5 10 1600 1400 -5 -5 -5 -5 33 61 10 14 14 24
0 0 0.1 1 -5 -5 -5 -5 -5 -5 3.2 7 0.7 4 1.7 4.5
0.5 5 0.1 1 -5 -5 -5 -5 -5 -5 10 10 9.7 8.9 9.7 9.0
1 5 0.1 1 -5 -5 -5 -5 -5 -5 19 12 18 11 18 11
1 5 1 5 80 -5 -5 -5 -5 -5 23 31 18 12 19 15
5 5 0.1 0.1 80000 60000 80000 60000 80000 60000 27 41 25 41 26 41
1All errors assume a uniform distribution; 2total number of runs is 100000 3no rf feedack applied; 4vector-sum of 2 repectively 4 cavities is per-
fectly regulated; 5 number of runs only 12000;
544
The number of random error sets for most simulations 2.5
2.5
has been 100000 which means there is still a chance of the 22
amplitude variation
order of 10-5 that a bunch might get lost. The table shows 1.5
1.5
that for a reasonable phase and amplitude injection error
phase correction [deg.]
11
of 1 deg. and 1% respectively the linac can tolerate phase 0.5
0.5 phase variation
and amplitude perturbation levels of severals degrees and 00
percent. A summary of the results is shown in Figure 2. −0.5
−0.5
−1
−1
−3
x 10
Linac 1 −3
x 10
Linac 2
8 8 −1.5
−1.5
7 7 −2
−2
6 6 −2.5
−2.5
3.8
3.8 3.9
3.9 44 4.1
4.1 4.2
4.2 4.3
4.3 4.4
4.4 4.5
4.5 4.6
4.6
energy
energy gain
gain correction
correction [MV]
[MV] 66
5 5 xx 10
10
no ctrl
σ(E)/E
4 no ctrl
4 Figure 4: Energy gain and beam phase correction range
3 3
vs of 4
at the low energy end of Linac 1. The vector sum of 2
2
vs of 2
vs of 4
2 cavities is controlled and varied by ±3 deg. in phase
1 1 vs of 2 and ±10% in amplitude.
0 0
0 5 10 0 5 10
The principle of beam energy and beam phase control
is shown in Figure 3. A change in cavity phase or
−1 −1
10 10 amplitude will result in the arrival time at the following
cavity. With proper choice of vector sum amplitude and
probability of bunch loss
−2 −2
10 10 phase the energy and beam phase at the following cavity
no ctrl
can be controlled within the boundaries shown in Figure 4.
−3 −3
10 10 no ctrl
The control range is larger at the low energy end of the
linac.
−4 −4
10 vs of 4 10
vs of 4
vs of 2
vs of 2 6 CONCLUSION
−5 −5
10 10
0 5 10 0 5 10
field fluctuations (deg,%) field fluctuations (deg,%) The control of microphonics and Lorentz force
Figure 2: Energy spread and bunch loss as function of detuning in superconducting cavities for proton
amplitude and phase errors in the linacs. accelerators has been a major concern. This is especially
true if only vector sum of several cavities which are driven
by one common klystron is controlled. The simple model
5 CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE CON- presented for the analysis of the accelerating mode driven
TROL OF THE VECTOR SUM longitudinal dynamics of the bunch centroid has shown
that surprisingly large levels of microphonics are
The rf control for the vector sum of multiple cavities acceptable even in the case of vector sum control of 4
can be improved significantly if the energy gain and the cavities.
beam arrival time or beam phase at the entrance of the
following ensemble of multiple cavities can be controlled.
REFERENCES
This can be accomplished by control of the vector sum
amplitude and phase which provide linear independent [1] M. Pabst and K. Bongardt, Halo simulation in a
control of the beam energy gain and beam phase in the realistic proton linac design, PAC97, Vancouver,
vicinity of the synchronous phase. B.C., Canada, May 12-16, 1997, in print.
Vacc(2) [2] G.P.Lawrence and T.P. Wangler, Integrated Normal-
Vacc Vacc(1)
conducting/Superconducting High-Power Proton
Linac for the APT Project, PAC97, Vancouver, B.C.,
Canada, May 12-16, 1997, in print.
[3] B. Aminov, A. Gamp, E. Haebel, H. Heinrichs, H.
t Piel, J. Pouryamout, Th. Schilcher, D.L. Schrage,
phase change G.Schulz, S. Simrock, C.H. Rode and R. Röth, Con-
of vector sum ceptual Design of the Superconducting High Energy
Linear H--Accelerator for the Future European
Figure 3: Principle of beam energy and beam phase
Spallation Source (ESS), ESS 96-60-L, 1996.
control
545
TIME DELAY COMPENSATION FOR THE DIGITAL
RF CONTROL AT THE TESLA TEST FACILITY
H. Imsieke, A. Kholodnyi, S.N. Simrock, DESY
Notkestr. 85, D-22603 Hamburg, Germany
Abstract • 200 ns writing to next comm-port of C40
• 1000 ns for the feedback algorithm (subtract setpoint,
Time delays or dead times between inputs and outputs multiply with gain table, and add feedforward)
are an inherent characteristic of digital feedback systems.
• 200 ns to write to the DAC
The time delay limits the maximum allowable gain re-
• 200 ns delay in the klystron
quired for system stability. Modern control theory pro-
• 800 ns cable delay
vides a scheme called Smith predictor which has the
The sum of the delays is about 4 µs. The implementa-
potential to improve control performance significantly.
tion of the Smith-Predictor and Kalman filter might add up
The method is based on model internal control which
to 2 µs to the total delay. Time delay increases the phase
works well if the dynamics of the plant are slow compared
shift between input and output signals and thus limits the
to the time delay. In this paper we analyze the performance
maximum allowable gain. The system becomes unstable if
improvement that can be achieved in the TTF rf control
the loop gain exceeds unity gain while the phase exhibits
system where the time delay is dominated by computation-
180 deg. The phase shift due to delay is proportional to the
al delay. In this system the time delay of 4 microseconds
frequency and is 180 deg. at 125 kHz for a delay of 4 µs.
and sampling period of 1 microsecond are short compared
The phase margin of the rf system with a loop gain of 40
to the cavity time constant of 700 microseconds. Attention
dB, and the cavity pole (first order) at 200 Hz is approxi-
is paid to both theoretical and practical aspects.
mately 60 degrees at the unity gain frequency of 20 kHz.
1 INTRODUCTION 3 SMITH PREDICTOR STRUCTURE
The cavities in the TESLA Test Facility are operated in In 1957 O.J. Smith presented a control scheme to pre-
pulsed mode at gradients of up to 25 MV/m with each dict the reaction of a plant P to the output of a controller C
klystron driving multiple cavities. Significant Lorentz thereby providing the potential of improving the control
force detuning and control of the vector-sum are the main loops with delay (Figure 1).
issues for the low level rf controls. A digital feedback sys-
tem has been developed [1] to provide flexibility in the
r d ny
control algorithms, precise calibration of the vector-sum, C P
and extensive diagnostics and exception handling. The - -
main features are a sampling rate of 1 MHz for the individ-
P’ Delay P’
ual cavity signals, digital in-phase and quadrature detec-
tion, calculation of the vector-sum which includes gradient
calibration and the correction of phase offsets, and feed- Figure 1: Smith Predictor structure
back algorithm.
The presently implemented version of the feedback The total delay time in the feedback loop can be
employs a proportional controller and has demonstrated ascribed to the plant. P' is the model of the plant without
excellent performance [2] especially in combination with delay time, r is the setpoint, y the output, d disturbances in
the adaptive feed forward [3]. Due to the large time delay and before the cavity and n measurement noise. With
of 4 microseconds in the feedback loop the loop becomes exact model matching and no disturbances or noise, the
unstable at gains exceeding 40 dB. The need for a high gain controller would only get signals from the model and the
to maximize error suppression results in a small range of delay would be removed from the control loop as shown
usable gains. Therefore a compensation of the loop delay in Figure 2. The outer feedback loop in Figure 1 accounts
appears to be attractive since it could improve the robust- for uncertainties of the model and disturbances.
ness and possibly increase the performance of the feedback
loops. y
r
C P’ Delay
2 TIME DELAY -
The time delay in the feedback loop is given by: C⋅P
Transfer Fct. G ry = ----------------------
• 500 ns conversion time of the 14 bit, 2 MHz ADC 1 + C ⋅ P'
• 200 ns writing to the comm-port of the TMS320C40
• 1000 ns multiplication with rotation matrix for individ- Figure 2: Desired Feedback with SP.
ual field calibration and calculation of the vector-sum
546
4 IMPLEMENTATION the data to the DAC. The delay is measured with a test pro-
gram and then the program with correct DAC output time
The response of a single cavity to the beam current is written into the DSP. With model delay errors up to 0.1
and the generator current can be described by two coupled µs, there’s a decrease in maximum allowable gain off
first order differential equations for the envelope of the about 1% for every 0.01 µs mismatch.
cavity voltage:
5 PERFORMANCE
V ˙Re – ω 1/2 – ∆ ω ( t ) V Re R ⋅ ω 1/2 0 I Re
= + The performance of the rf system can be measured in
V˙Im ∆ω ( t ) – ω 1/2 V Im 0 R ⋅ ω 1/2 I Im
terms of achieved field stability or disturbance rejection,
the quality of setpoint tracking (important for fast varying
where V is the complex cavity voltage, I the complex cur- setpoints as needed for FEL operation), and feedback loop
rent (generator + beam), ω1/2 (=π*operating frequency of stability which should be tolerant (or robust) with respect
1.3 GHz/loaded quality factor ~3*106) the half width of to parameter variations.
resonance, ∆ω the cavity detuning, and R the cavity shunt
impedance. 5.1 Stability
A macropulse consists of cavity filling (500 µs), flat
The maximum gain for stable operation is limited to
top with beam injection (800 µs), and field decay. The
1400 (exactly two times the optimum gain, because over-
goal of the control system is to maintain a constant accel-
correction by more than 100% means instability) due to the
erating voltage during the flat top. The cavity is pre-
1 µs delay in the internal feedback loop.
detuned to minimize the power required to control the
While the bode plot without model uncertainties is eas-
dynamic detuning which is a result of the Lorentz force.
ily interpreted due to the separation of the delay time, its
The cavity detuning should be zero in the middle of flat
meaning for the SP with parameter uncertainties is not eas-
top. The cavity model used in the predictor should reflect
ily understood. However since a numerical model analysis
the dynamics of the time varying Lorentz force detuning
and the pole-zero map (obtained with a rational approxi-
but has been omitted for simplicity. The field error result-
mation of the closed loop SP transfer function) give similar
ing from such a simplification is comparable to the error
results near the ideal case, stability margins were obtained
caused by 1% quality factor or shunt impedance differ-
with these methods. They show that realistic model mis-
ence between model and plant (worst case: around
match of a few percent reduces the critical gain to ~1200.
0.01%). The error caused by detuning is slowly changing
If the klystron is operated close to saturation, its non-
and repetitive and can therefore be compensated by adap-
linearity limits the maximum gain, so that it could be nec-
tive feedforward.
essary to replace the actuator signal with the measured
With a peak detuning of one bandwidth (realistic for
incident wave to the cavity. This scheme would also in-
25 MV/m gradient) a step input on the real part of genera-
clude time varying phase errors in the klystron and the vec-
tor current would cause an error in the imaginary part of
tormodulator. The measured klystron output would
7×10-4 after 1us. This crosstalk corresponds to a loop provide the correct control signal, thereby increasing sta-
phase error of 0.04 deg. and can therefore be neglected. bility and reducing sensitivity to klystron power fluctua-
The cavity is thus represented by a decoupled discrete tions.
State Space model with complex input and output vectors.
The model parameters are calculated from the cavity 5.2 Setpoint Tracking
bandwidth, which itself is calculated from the voltage Figure 3 shows the response of the SP to a change of
decay time constant, and the cavity shunt impedance the setpoint. Operation with optimum gain will cause the
V t +1 = ( 1 – ( ω 1/2 ⋅ T ) ) ⋅ V t + R ⋅ ω 1/2 ⋅ T ⋅ I t cavity field to reach the desired setpoint in 1 µs time as-
suming availability of sufficient power from the klystron.
where V and I stand for either real or imaginary compo- If a beam current induces a voltage ∆V in steady state, the
nent at time t. T is the sampling time of 1µs. cavity field will change ∆V/700 in 1 µs. The optimal gain
The model for multiple cavities can be obtained by for reference tracking is therefore around 700 which is well
superposition and can be approximated by that of a single below critical gain.
cavity if the spread of the loaded quality factor is not too 5.3 Disturbance Rejection
high. The spread should not exceed 25% to keep the
model error below 3%. An improved model could consist The ability to suppress disturbances is not improved sig-
of two cavities with different bandwidths. The model nificantly by the smith predictor, as shown in Figure 4.
parameters are determined off-line. The slow response to a beam induced perturabtion is due
The delay time can be adjusted in 1 µs steps by storing to the presence of the cavity poles in the transfer function
the control signal in memory and even in finer steps of 0.02 from the disturbance to the output,
µs by selecting the time at which the 50 MHz DSP writes G dy = P ⋅ ( 1 – G ry ) .
547
1
1 6 FEEDFORWARD SCHEMES
.9 d
.8 b Because the digital control system can measure the
a c e beam current in real time it can compensate it with a delay
Amplitude (a.u.)
.7
.6
.6 of about 1-2 µs. This scheme can reduce the beam induced
.5 transients considerably.
.4
.4 Another approach is the calculation of a feed forward
.3 table which is added to the control signal sent to the plant.
.2 This accounts for the absence of the beam in the model and
.1
Time (µs)
microphonics influences. The feed forward table is repeat-
0
0
0
0 5 10 15
1.4 20 25 2.8
30 35 4.2
edly calculated from the difference between model and
plant, with the error decreasing each step. In this way it
Figure 3: Step response of the transfer Function Gry for a) also adapts itself to slowly changing system parameters. In
optimal SP b) SP with 20% lower cavity quality factor c) contrast to this adaptive feed forward, a feed forward table
SP with 50% gain decrease due to klystron nonlinearity needed to trace the setpoint optimally in the ideal case is
d) normal feedback with gain of 70 e) SP with gain of 70. calculated with model parameters and proportional gain
and is added to both model and plant. This has to be updat-
ed only when these parameters are changed. Without
The first term in the bracket is independent of the feed-
Smith Predictor, there would be only one (adaptive) feed
back gain. This means that the time constant of the error
forward for all repetitive errors.
correction is not a function of the gain. It is however pos-
sible to modify the model and the controller so that the pole
cancels with a zero of the transfer function [4] or to add the 7 CONCLUSION
difference between cavity and model to the input of the The main advantage of the Smith Predictor is faster set-
model in order to adapt it to the disturbed cavity (a scheme point tracking. With the existing feed forward, this work-
called observer). Pole cancellation reduces the maximum load is removed from the feedback with the exception of
allowable gain, is sensitive to parameter uncertainties, and stochastic errors. These errors act almost exclusively in or
slower than the latter method. before the plant, so the SP offers only little improvement.
A major drawback is the amplification of measurement
.4
6 noise with higher gains, which has to be suppressed signif-
4 icantly. For this purpose a Kalman filter, which estimates
Field error (%)
2
0 the state of the plant in presence of klystron and measure-
decay during
0 b ment noise, is currently under development. The measure-
5 µs delay
−2
.4 ment is also disturbed by an offset in the rf mixer output
a
−4 which varies over the macropulse. This has to be cancelled
−6
.8 c out too to allow better performance than present feedback.
−8 beam time The klystron nonlinearity restricts the SP performance.
−10 Time (µs) The power margin could be too little for the desired high
−12
500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300
gains, and with equal gain, a standard feedback controller
would outperform the SP. To assure stability the nonlinear-
Figure 4: Reaction of the cavity field to a beam induced ity has to be known for the model calculations.
transient, a) optimal SP b) SP with Observer c) normal
feedback. REFERENCES
[1] S.N. Simrock, I. Altmann, K. Rehlich, T. Schilcher,
Even with faster disturbance correction, the beam still Design of the Digital RF Control System for the TES-
causes a drop in the cavity field of 1/700 ~ 0.14 % per µs LA Test Facility, EPAC 96, Sitges (Barcelona), Spain,
delay time in the feedback loop after injection. This can June 10-14, 1996, p. 349
only be prevented by the use of feedforward. For the [2] A. Gamp et al., Experience with the Control of the
klystron noise, a faster disturbance rejection would have Vector Sum in the TESLA Test Facility, EPAC98,
no influence. Errors caused by detuning would be reduced Stockholm, Sweden, June 22-26, in print
approximately by 50% on flat top with a gain of 700, but [3] M. Liepe, S.N. Simrock, Adaptive Feed Forward for
much better with an additional observer. The observer is Digital RF Control System for the TESLA Test Facili-
useful against stochastical detuning by microphonics ty, Stockholm, Sweden, June 22-26, in print
which cannot be suppressed by feedforward. [4] William S.Levine editor, The Control Handbook,
A controller with an integrator does not perform signif- CRC Press 1996, p. 231
icantly better, and decreases stability margins due to phase
advance.
548
RF CONTROL STUDIES FOR MODERATE BEAMLINE COUPLING
BETWEEN SRF CAVITIES
Lawrence R. Doolittle and D. X. Wang
Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility, Newport News, Virginia 23606 USA
Abstract ! exp(,kb), where k2 = k02 , (2:405=a)2, and the pro-
portionality constant ! represents the coupling between
When an SRF accelerator is designed, there is motivation
the resonant fields in the end cell and the evanescent TM01
to move the cavities close together on the beamline. As-
fields in the beam pipe.
suming the beamline apertures are not shrunk as well, this
Increasing will normally involve decreasing b, at which
compaction (which will increase the overall accelerating
point the coupling d! has the potential to rise enormously.
gradient and/or lower the dynamic cryogenic heat load) in-
Accelerators to date have kept d! much smaller than the
creases the inter-cavity coupling. Within certain limits, the
cavity bandwidth, to avoid potential problems that could
control system can compensate for this coupling by retun-
arise from stronger coupling. The rest of this paper will
ing each of the cavities. This paper describes constraints on
discuss those problems in detail, and how they could be
the RF system, tuners, couplers, and control systems that
worked around.
are required to provide stable operation of cavities in the
presence of inter-cavity coupling that exceeds the loaded
bandwidth of an individual cavity. 2 DEFINING EQUATIONS
In the most general form, ignoring wall losses in the cavity
1 INTRODUCTION ( 1), in the rotated coordinate (phasor) sense where
the instantaneous gradient E (t) in a cavity is given by
Many cost optimizations have discussed the tradeoff be- RefEej!0 t g,
tween accelerator capital and operating costs, acceleration
dE
= ,(!f , j!d) E , jd!, E, , jd!+ E+
gradient, cryogenic capacity, and RF Power. One contribut-
ing term in those equations is , the ratio of the active ac- dt
celerating cavity length to the overall accelerator length,
sometimes called the “filling factor” or “packing fraction.”
p
+2!f Rc K , !f Rc Ib
While the effect of packing fraction on a new machine is
For cavities at the end of a string, this formula involves
debatable (since the relative cost of cavity meters and other
phantom cavities, which should be treated as if they had
meters can be hard to identify), when upgrading an exist-
zero gradient.
ing machine with fixed total length, has a clear effect,
particularly on the cryogenic load. A cavity cell and the
manufacturing technology will set the familiar cavity pa- Table 1: notation
rameters ! , Q0 , and the shunt impedance per unit length
!f bandwidth, !0 =2QL
(r=Q). For a given acceleration voltage V and active ac- !d frequency offset from !0
celerator cavity length L, the cryogenic power dissipation E, gradient of upstream cavity
is
2 E+ gradient of downstream cavity
Power = LQV(r=Q) : d!, coupling to upstream cavity
0 d!+ coupling to downstream cavity
Thus, is the only parameter under the designers’ control K specific drive amplitude
that can change the relationship between voltage gain and Rc coupling impedance per length, QL (r=Q)
dynamic cryogenic load. Ib beam current
Historic values of are in the 0.3 to 0.6 range. The exist-
ing CEBAF accelerator linac has = 0:42, and the base- pTypical self-consistent units of K and Rc are
Watts=m and
=m. The quantities E , K , and Ib are
line design of our Energy Upgrade studies calls for rais-
ing to 0.58, by increasing the number of cells per cavity complex numbers; the rest of the parameters are real. The
from 5 to 7[1]. definitions of E , K , Rc , and I make physical and numeri-
Between cavities is a beam pipe of length b, whose ra- cal sense on a macroscopic scale. Over a length l, a beam
dius a is normally set by beam impedance or beam aperture of current I gains El energy using KK l power, when the
needs. The coupling d! between two cavities is given by matching condition E = IRc holds.
The per-cavity !0 component of the beam current de-
Work supported by the U.S. DOE Contract # DE-AC05-84ER40150 pends on the string beam current Ibs according to Ib =
549
Ibs ej , where is the phase-of-flight along the beamline 2
Normalized forward wave
to cavity of interest.
If we restrict ourselves to the steady-state where
dE=dt = 0, and additionally set E, = v, Ee,j, , 1.5
E+ = v+ Eej+ , and Ib = ib Eej ,
K = 1 pR i ej + p 1 ,jd! v e,j, + 1
E 2 cb 2 Rc !f , ,
0.5
!f , j!d + jd!+ v+ e j+
0
When the right hand side is separated into its real and 0 100 200 300
imaginary components, the quantity !d (controlled by the
Phase of forward wave (degree)
tuners) only appears in the imaginary part. Moving the
tuners to minimize the power therefore results in the ze-
20
roing of that imaginary part, which happens when
!d = i R sin + v d!, cos + v d!+ cos 0
!f b c , ! , + ! +
f f
−20
Indeed, the tuner operation is equally sensitive to tuning
with no inter-cavity coupling, when all cavity voltages are
held fixed. The remaining real part gives the power at opti- −40
mum cavity tune,
Power = 14 Rc E 2 ib cos +
0 100 200 300
6
1 (v d! sin + ! , v d! sin ) 2
Forward power (kW)
!R , , , f + + +
f c
4
If sin , 6= 0 and sin + 6= 0, only small amounts of cou-
pling can be tolerated without requiring excessive Klystron
power. The bad cases are one end of the string (which
end depends on the sign of sin ), and any case where
2
v, d!, sin , does not exactly cancel v+ d!+ sin + . Or-
dinarily one wants the ability to adjust each cavity gradi-
ent independently based on its performance capabilities. 0
This independence can be recovered by setting sin + =
0 100 200 300
sin , = 0, at which point the coupling terms all but dis- Right cavity phase (degree)
appear from the Power equation.
Figure 1: Drive required vs. neighboring cavity phase for
10 Hz coupling (solid) and 1 kHz coupling (dash-dot). A
3 DISCUSSION reference line (dashed) is given for the power required with
The coupling between the cavities can provide an opportu- beam.
nity to measure the relative phases of the cavities. Without
this measurement, the cavities’ phase relative to the beam cavity, so that 2!f Rc K = A(s) (Es , E ), where
p
must be individually measured. Of course, with strong cou- A(s) is the (diagonal matrix) gain and Es represents the
pling, the relative phases must be set properly or the lim- setpoints. The undesirable alternative is some hopelessly
ited klystron power will not allow operation at full gradi- complex centralized control that understands the n n in-
ent. Figure 1 shows this phenomenon—curves show the verse of the coupling matrix. The equation of motion of the
input drive required as a function of phase for 10 Hz and simpler system is
1 kHz coupling, under no-beam conditions. The flat refer-
ence line shows the power needed for 400 A beam cur- M E = A(s)Es
rent. Other parameter values assumed for this example are
!f = 235s,1, Rc = 1:34 1010
=m, E = 12MV=m, where if we make the simplifying assumption that all cav-
l = 0:7m, and v, = v+ = 1. ities and coupling terms are identical, Mi;i = s + !f +
One would certainly hope to operate a cavity string by j!d + A(s) = p and Mi;i+1 = Mi+1;i = jd!. The stabil-
attaching single-cavity control systems to each individual ity criteria are based on the zeros of det(M ); to first order
550
in d! , turn off the weak cavity.
M ) = pn,2 (p2i + (n , 1)d!2 );
When a cavity is turned off, it must also be detuned.
det(
Normally this is done to keep the cavity fields low in the
where n is the number of cavities in the string. One can presence of exitation from the beam. In a coupled-cavity
clearly see that there are n , 2 unperturbed stability criteria system, excitation will also come from neighboring cav-
based on zeros of s + !f + j!d + A(s). There are also two ities. The neighbors of a detuned cavity must have their
more cases involving global p string modes, based on zeros tuning corrected to reflect the changed pattern of voltage
of s + !f + j!d + A(s) j n , 1d! . setpoints.
Strong inter-cavity coupling makes a string more diffi-
cult to turn on. One sensible approach is to turn them all 4 CONCLUSIONS
on slowly and proportionally, so that v, and v+ are con-
With the right phase relationship between cavities, cou-
stant. The tuners can center the system for minimum RF
pling equal to or greater than the bandwidth of the cavity
power under low gradient conditions, when there is plenty
appears technically feasible. Tuning individual cavities can
of available RF power. The only phenomenon the tuners
cancel all the reactive elements of the system. For any par-
have to compensate for during the ramp to full gradient is
ticular gradient pattern, proper tuning will result in drive
the ponderomotive frequency shift with gradient.
requirements unchanged from the no-coupling case. The
If a cavity trips, it’s probably best to immediately turn
dynamic stability of the string is perturbed, and some re-
RF off to the whole string and let it coast to a stop. Even
duction in feedback performance should be expected. The
if the adjacent cavities’ RF systems could maintain their
control system needs to be agile enough to measure the
fields (a job made easier since the beam is probably turned
coupling and implement turn-on scenarios that involve co-
off by the first cavity trip), some of their power would flow
ordination between the cavities.
to the tripped cavity, which is not desirable.
Longitudinal alignment sensitivity can be significant.
Historical assembly patterns at CEBAF, where that axis of 5 REFERENCES
alignment was not relevant, showed fluctuations of 6 mm. [1] J. R. Delayen, “Development of an Upgrade of the CEBAF
Between thermal contraction, manufacturing and assembly Acceleration System,” these proceedings.
errors, and coarse tuning, 2-4 mm is a reasonable target for
our 0.5 to 0.7 m long, =20 cm, cavities. Still, that implies
uncontrolled phase differences between cavities of =0.1
radians. This error can be accommodated in two ways: If
sin = 0, power does not flow between cavities. RF char-
acteristics without beam are ideal, but individual cavities
are miscrested with respect to the beam. The total crest
for the module can still be zeroed, but the overall voltage
gain has slipped some. If sin = 0, individual cavities
are crested properly, but large amounts of RF power move
from cavity to cavity. For a given (measured) set of cavity
gradient and Klystron power capabilities, inter-cavity and
external coupling bandwidths, and longitudinal cavity posi-
tions, numerical optimization can construct a set of phases
that optimizes the total voltage delivered to the beam.
As discussed above, the sensitivity of a coupled cav-
ity string to tuner motion is unchanged from the uncou-
pled case. That is, the curvature of the Power vs. tuner
position relationship is not affected by the coupling. On
the other hand, the position of that curve’s minimum be-
comes sensitive to the voltage ratio between adjacent cav-
ities (v, and v+ ). This sensitivity is one more reason to
demand a tuner subsystem capable of short response times
and no backlash. If a coarse tuner/fine tuner pair is used,
the required range of the fine tuner is the sum of all ef-
fects that must be corrected. To the traditional list of pres-
sure and ponderomotive compensation, inter-cavity cou-
pling adds another term: the estimated maximum value of
v, d!, cos , + v+ d!+ cos + . A reasonable choice for
the maximum voltage ratio is in the 2 to 3 range, when cav-
ities are more mismatched than that one would probably
551
THE RF SYSTEM FOR THE CEBAF POLARIZED PHOTOINJECTOR∗
Mark Crofford, Curt Hovater, George Lahti, Chip Piller and Matt Poelker
Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility
12000 Jefferson Ave., Newport News, VA 23606
Abstract
optically combined to form a 1497 MHz pulse train. The
Jefferson Lab’s CEBAF electron accelerator has light then illuminates a GaAs photocathode, producing
recently begun delivering spin-polarized electrons for polarized electrons. Precise phase control between the
nuclear experiments. Spin-polarized electrons are emitted lasers is essential for proper acceleration. The 499 MHz
from a GaAs photocathode that is illuminated with pulsed laser pulses must be 120o apart to construct the 1497 MHz
laser light from a diode laser synchronized to the 3rd signal. Amplitude control is also important since each
subharmonic (499 MHz) of the accelerating cavity laser’s pulse length is determined both by the dc bias and
frequency (1497 MHz). Up to three experimental halls (A, the RF bias. The laser’s pulse length determines the
B and C) are served by the photoinjector each with their electron bunchlength leaving the photocathode. The RF
own beam requirements. To accomplish this, three system also includes a bunching cavity to help reduce
independent diode lasers are synchronized and combined space charge effects over the wide current range (100’s
to illuminate the GaAs photocathode emitting a 1497 pA to 180 µA) demanded by the users.
MHz pulse train of electrons. In addition an RF bunching
cavity approximately 2 m down stream from the Previously a CEBAF RF control module had
photocathode is used to compensate for space charge controlled the laser for the photocathode (single laser) [3].
effects at the higher beam currents. The RF system that This system is based around a CAMAC interface and is
controls these elements is a modified VME based system. designed to control a superconducting accelerating cavity.
Custom RF VME modules control phase and amplitude While this control system has been excellent for
for each laser diode and the bunching cavity. Power superconducting accelerating cavities, it has only been
requirements were satisfied with commercial RF marginal for controlling RF systems like laser diodes and
amplifiers, 5 W for the diode lasers and 10 W for the normal conducting cavities. Therefore it was decided to
bunching cavity. Simple software algorithms using the design a system that better met the needs of the laser
EPICS control system correct phase and amplitude drifts. diodes and was compatible with the EPICS/VME
The RF system is compact, simple and allows for easy interface.
hardware or software modifications.
2 LASER RF SYSTEM
1 INTRODUCTION
The laser RF controls are a VME based system using
The 5.5 GeV CEBAF accelerator at Thomas Jefferson the EPICS control system [4]. Drifts associated with these
National Accelerator Facility (Jefferson Lab) is arranged RF systems are mostly thermal; thus we chose a rather
in a five pass racetrack configuration, with two slow (10 Hz) feedback system. A dedicated EPICS IOC
superconducting radio-frequency (SRF) linacs joined by (Motorola MV 167) is used to control the phase and
independent magnetic 180o transport arcs. The continuous amplitude of the three laser diodes and the bunching
electron beam is composed of three interlaced variable cavity. The update rate of the EPICS control system met
intensity beams that can be independently directed from our need. Should faster update rates be necessary, speeds
any of the five passes to any of the three experimental up to 1 kHz are possible by putting the software into
halls. This allows three simultaneous experiments at the VxWorks directly on the IOC. Choosing the VME bus
same or different energies and currents. Electrons are allowed us to use economical and readily available VME
emitted through a polarized photocathode [1]. All of the cards. In addition the EPICS collaboration already had the
experimental halls (A, B and C) are fully operational. drivers available for the ADC/DAC (VMIVME 4514A)
and I/O (VMIVME 2532A) cards and only slight
Recently a new laser system for the polarized source modifications were necessary. The VME crate is a custom
has begun operation that allows each of the experimental crate with a modified P2 backplane to handle the control
halls to independently choose current and operational duty signals. RF signals are hard wired to the back of the crate.
factor [2]. Three diode lasers are biased with an RF Blindmate™ connectors allow for easy VME module
frequency of 499 MHz. The light from the lasers is then removal.
∗
Work supported by the Department of Energy, contract DE-AC05-84ER40150.
552
Hall C Laser Controls
180 degree PIN 5 W
RF Quadrature Phase Shifter Attenuator Amplifier Coupler DC Bias
Modulator Coupler Splitter
Switch
499 MHz
Laser Diode
DAC DAC hν
DAC DAC
To Photo-
Digital cathode
I/O Temperature
Sensor Hall B Laser
Controls
T
ADC Hall C Laser
Controls
RF
Switch
Quadrature Detector Coupler
ADC ADC Digital I/O
Amplitude Oscillator
Detector 499.1 MHz
Mixer
ADC
Figure 1 Block diagram of the laser diode RF system.
Figure 1 shows a block diagram of the RF system. The signals are muxed through an RF switch into a 360o phase
specifications for phase and amplitude control are 1o and detector (quadrature detector) and amplitude detector. The
1% respectively. Considering the relaxed control EPICS control software continuously switches among the
specifications it was decided to do the entire signal three RF signals. The error signals are then fed through
processing at the operating frequency of 499 MHz. This the VME back plane to the ADC. The amplitude detector
also allowed the system to use one of the pre-existing 499 is an Analog Devices RMS to DC converter operating at
MHz chopping cavities as a reference; the cavity is an IF of 100 kHz. This was chosen over a typical Shottky
located less than 3 m away. The controls are divided into diode because it is less susceptible to temperature drifts.
three VME modules: Reference Drive, Phase Shifter
Module, and Detector Module. The reference module Key to the design process was minimization of thermal
consists of a 360o (I/Q) phase shifter for global phase drifts. All RF electronics is next to the laser diodes in the
adjustments and a 3-way splitter to supply the RF to the tunnel (previously the RF electronics had been located up
individual laser diodes. In addition it provides a coupled in the klystron gallery, 10 m above the tunnel).
signal to the detector module. The phase shifter module Temperature sensors on the VME cards are continuously
consists of three 180o varactor capacitor phase shifters monitored for any abnormalities. All the RF components
(Synergy Microwave) used to align the phase between the on the VME cards and components were thoroughly
three laser diodes. The phase between the lasers is characterized in an environmental chamber. It was
coarsely (+/- 5o) set using hard-line. The varactor phase intended to use the temperature sensors to provide a
shifters were chosen over I/Q phase shifters for cost mechanism to remove thermal drifts using the component
reasons and since it was not necessary to have 360o of characterizations. This was deemed unnecessary after
phase shift capability. The phase shifters are controlled by measurements in the CEBAF tunnel showed that
12 bit DACs. 5 W solid state amplifiers (Microwave temperatures vary less than 2o C over long periods of time
Power Equipment) are used to RF bias the laser diodes. (weeks).
Inside each amplifier a voltage controlled PIN attenuator
is used to control the RF bias on the laser diode. The feedback for the system presently only includes
Approximately 1 W of RF power is needed for the laser the cables to the laser diodes. Drifts across the laser
diode RF bias. The detector module detects drifts due to diodes and optics are assumed to be minimal (< 0.5o). If
cable or components (most notably the amplifiers). An RF tighter tolerances are needed in the future, a laser diode
signal is coupled back from each laser diode to the detector can be incorporated in the optical path and the
detector module. To economize on RF parts the three RF signal fed back into the controls.
553
3 BUNCHER RF SYSTEM handled by these loops using a 1 Hz scan rate. However,
for the buncher beam loading effect, a 10 Hz rate was
The buncher cavity is a pillbox design with reentrant needed. If a higher rate is desired, then part of the EPICS
nosecones that is operated in the TM010 mode at 1497 database will need to be converted into ".c" code to be run
MHz. The cavity is constructed from stainless steel with as a VxWorks task.
copper plating on the RF surfaces, a process with which
we have had good success at Jefferson Lab [5]. Three The software incorporates alarms and addresses
equally spaced ports located around the circumference of trouble shooting. The feedback loop parameters can be
the pillbox cylinder are used to interact with the magnetic altered for diagnostics (e.g. variable scan rates, free
field of the TM010 mode. Manual adjustment of the running or manual trigger modes, and hardware
resonant frequency is achieved via a micrometer simulation). The user's interface to the alarms and
controlled plunger mechanism, which is attached to the troubleshooting begins with a basic set of good-bad
first port. RF power is delivered to the cavity via a indicators. The top indicator is for the combined status of
critically coupled inductive coaxial loop probe located at both subsystems (three laser and buncher). If it shows
the second port. A small undercoupled loop probe good, then there is no need to look further. The rest of the
mounted on the third port samples the field for feedback basic indicators show more specific status. If an indicator
and control. The cavity loaded Q is approximately 2500 shows bad (warning or fault), then the user can bring up
and the R/Q is 125. various screens that show the specific problems (e.g.
analog value out of range, loss of communication). The
The cavity is designed to operated between 1 kV/m built-in troubleshooting screens provide condensed
and 35 kV/m. Since power requirements are small, less information of what needs to be done and by whom and in
than 5 Watts, heating from conductive losses is not a what order, and gives reference to the full troubleshooting
concern and so no internal cooling is necessary. guide document.
Temperature stabilization is realized through the use of an
external water jacket and insulating blanket. The RF 5 SUMMARY
phase and amplitude regulation requirement for the cavity
control system is 1o and 1%. As with the laser diodes the The system has been operational since March of 1998
feedback takes place through EPICS. Phase control is and has had no major problems. During commissioning of
provided by an I/Q phase shifter (IF Engineering) the system, a bug in the phase feedback algorithm caused
operating at 1497 MHz and, similarly, phase detection is the systems to run off crest, but this was quickly
performed using an I/Q phase detector. Amplitude discovered and fixed. The decision to go with the VME
control is accomplished using a pin attenuator (Anaren) platform over existing CEBAF RF controls has made the
and diode detector in a similar fashion as with the diode system much easier to upgrade and maintain, especially
laser controls. The reference frequency (1497 MHz) is considering the compatibility with the EPICS control
provided from a pre-existing bunching cavity located system.
further downstream. A single VME card controls the
buncher cavity and it is housed along side the other cards REFERENCES
for the diode laser controls.
1. B. M. Dunham, “Investigations of the Physical
4 SOFTWARE Properties of Photoemission Electron Sources for
Accelerator Applications”, Ph.D. Dissertation
The software is a low-level application built on the (physics), 1993, University of Illinois.
EPICS control system. The interface to the VME 2. M. Poelker, et al., to be published in Nuclear
hardware is via specifically written EPICS device support Instrumentation and Methods.
that communicates with the commercially available 3. S. Simrock, “RF Control System for CEBAF,” 1991
boards. This is mostly a straightforward EPICS database IEEE Particle Accelerator Conference, Conference
application, using standard records. It uses 12 Capfast Record.
database schematics with about 270 records, 26 ".c" 4. L. R. Dalesio, et al., “The Experimental Physics and
subroutine files, and 2 ".st" sequencers. Most of the Industrial Control System Architecture: Past, Present
database records scan at 1 Hz, with the feedback loops and Future”, International Conference on Accelerator
running at 10 Hz. and Large Experimental Physics Control Systems,
Oct. 1993.
The feedback loops are implemented in software, 5. C. Hovater et al., “The CEBAF RF Separator
using the standard feedback control model (i.e. compare System”, 1996 Linear Accelerator Conference,
the measured hardware value to the user requested value, Conference Proceedings, August 1996.
and vary the hardware set point to drive this comparison
toward zero). Each of the three seed lasers and the
buncher has independent feedback loops, a phase loop and
gradient loop for each. Temperature regulation can be
554
WAVEGUIDE HARMONIC DAMPER FOR KLYSTRON AMPLIFIER*
Yoon Kang, Ali Nassiri
Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, Illinois 60439 USA
Abstract
2 HARMONIC DAMPER
A waveguide harmonic damper was designed for
In the waveguide transmission line, during normal
removing the harmonic frequency power from the
operations, the fundamental frequency propagates as a
klystron amplifiers of the APS linac. Straight coaxial
travelling wave to the load cavity structure that works as
probe antennas are used in a rectangular waveguide to
a matched load. However, since the accelerating cavity
form a damper. A linear array of the probe antennas is
structure is a narrowband load, the harmonic frequency
used on a narrow wall of the rectangular waveguide for
spectrum may form standing wave resonances in the
damping klystron harmonics while decoupling the
waveguide between the klystron output cavity and the
fundamental frequency in dominent TE01 mode. The
cavity structure.
klystron harmonics can exist in the waveguide as
waveguide higher-order modes above cutoff. Computer
simulations are made to investigate the waveguide
harmonic damping characteristics of the damper.
1 INTRODUCTION
In the APS linac klystron amplifiers, the connectors
for the high-voltage connection to the ion pump were
burned by the klystron harmonics power. The metallic
tube connected to the ion pump passes the higher
frequency harmonics power, and the metal screen used to
decouple the harmonics was not very effective. Even
though more effective rf shielding may be possible, it was
not desirable for quality vacuum pumping. The tube to
the pump has a cutoff frequency higher than the
fundamental klystron frequency, but the harmonic
spectrum power, shown in Figure 1, is not attenuated Figure 1. Harmonic spectrum of 2.856-GHz klystron
sufficiently. In the APS, five klystrons are used. Each amplifier output.
klystron normally delivers 5-microsecond 35-MW peak
power pulses to the accelerating structures. The average Figure 2 shows the waveguide harmonic damper
power of harmonic spectrum in the waveguide is design employing coaxial probe antennas. A linear array
estimated as several tens of watts. In order to eliminate of five probe antennas is used on a narrow wall of the
the heating due to the harmonic power, a damping circuit rectangular waveguide for damping klystron harmonics
is needed in the waveguide. The harmonic frequency while decoupling the dominent TE01 mode. The rf power
power in the output cavity of the klystron amplifier may for the accelerating structure from the klystron is
couple to the waveguide in the form of waveguide transmitted in the dominant TE01 mode. The harmonic
higher-order modes as well as the dominant mode. The frequencies from the klystron amplifier not only exist in
klystron harmonic frequency power caused some problem the TE01 mode but also in higher-order waveguide modes.
in the APS storage ring, so the harmonics were damped Higher order TEmn and TMmn modes couple to the
by multiple probe antennas mounted on the narrow wall antennas if m=odd and do not couple to the antennas if
of the waveguide. A damper design of similar function is m=even. The index n must be nonzero for both TE and
needed in the 2.856-GHz linac system. For this reason, TM modes.
the waveguide harmonic damper designs were studied For the fundamental frequency, the antennas may
using computer simulation. reflect some power without delivering power to the
________________ matched load of the coaxial probes. The input matching
* Work supported by U.S. Department of Energy, Office of the damper section is important for power transmission
of Basic Sciences under Contract No. W-31-109-ENG- of the fundamental frequency. Ideally, the probe antennas
38. do not disturb the TE01 mode at the fundamental
frequency. However, actual antennas can cause some
555
mismatch for the frequency. Therefore, it is important to of the four modes in the waveguide damper. Only four
find the optimum antenna spacing for minimum reflection modes are shown in the plots for convenience. The
at the input. fundamental frequency propagates in the dominant TE01
The waveguide with uniformly spaced antennas is mode and the S11 is lower at the frequencies around
considered a periodic loaded transmission-line structure 3GHz. These results of simulations show the properties of
with a matched load at the output. From [1] it can be reflection, mode excitation and conversion, and damping
shown that minimum reflection occurs if the spacing characteristics of the waveguide modes due to the probe
between antennas is a quarter wavelength. In Figure 2 the antennas. Probe antennas used in the calculation were
antennas are spaced by a quarter wavelength so that the 1.2” long and 0.121” in diameter.
combined reflection from all antennas is minimized at the
input. However, since mutual coupling between the
antennas and the higher-order mode excitation exist due
to finite antenna dimensions, it may be necessary to check
the optimum spacing of the antennas for minimum
reflection at the input.
Figure 3. Damper structure with coaxial probe antennas.
Figure 2. Waveguide harmonic damper with coaxial
probe antennas.
3 SIMULATION
The damper structure has been simulated using the
High Frequency Structure Simulator (HFSS) code [2]. In
the simulations, eight modes were used to predict the
input matching and harmonic damping with the structure.
The simulations showed that the antennas convert the
fundamental TE01 mode to some higher-order modes, and
these modes do not couple to the antenna terminations if
a mode is below cutoff. Since a uniform rectangular
waveguide works as a high-pass filter for each mode, the
harmonic frequencies, nfo (n=2,3,4,5,…), can couple to Figure 4. Calculated input reflection of the waveguide
antennas as higher-order waveguide modes. modes of the damper.
The distance between the antennas is no longer a
Since the simulation did not include the klystron
quarter wavelength at the higher harmonic frequencies
amplifier and the accelerating structure as the load, the
that exist as higher-order waveguide modes. Note that the
calculated damping characteristics did not directly
higher-order modes have pass-bands only above the
describe the actual damping performance. The spacing
cutoff frequencies of corresponding higher-order modes.
between the antennas was varied to see the optimum
Figure 3 shows the structure used in the simulation.
antenna separation. The length of the antennas was also
Figures 4 and 5 show the calculated generalized
varied. The propagation loss characteristics shown in
scattering parameters, S1_n,1_n and S2_n,1_n, respectively, for
Figure 6 for the first four modes show that the waveguide
the first four modes. Figure 6 shows the propagation loss
higher-order modes can be damped effectively.
556
used in each antenna. Measurement of scattering
parameters of the damper at 2.856GHz with a network
analyzer confirmed good impedance matching with low
insertion loss. At the fundamental frequency, the input
return loss and the insertion loss were <–23dB and <0.02
dB, respectively.
The damper was to be inserted in the waveguide
between the klystron and the accelerating structure. At
the time the prototype was tested, the APS linac system
was delivering beam to the users and, unfortunately, the
damper could not be used with the actual accelerating
structures. Preliminary testing of the damper between a
klystron amplifier and a matched load has been planned.
Since the accelerating cavity structure is a narrowband
load to the klystron, measurement with a broadband
resistive load may not show the characteristics of the
damper. Testing with an actual accelerating structure is
needed and will be performed in the near future.
5 CONCLUSION
Figure 5. Transfer characteristics of waveguide modes The klystron harmonic waveguide damper employing
through the harmonic damper. five coaxial antennas in the narrow wall of a rectangular
waveguide was simulated, fabricated, and low-power
The input matching and the insertion loss are good
tested for the S-band linac application. The design is
only at around 2.5-4GHz for the fundamental mode. Note
applicable to any system using a high-power transmitter
that the generalized S-parameters are shown in the
figures, so that the propagation loss in Figure 6 includes with high harmonics content in the spectrum. The
the waveguide cutoff loss for each mode. damping obtained in the design is considered adequate to
protect the high-voltage connectors of the ion pumps. The
design may also be useful for damping the cavity higher-
order modes coupled to the waveguide.
6 REFERENCES
[1] R. E. Collin, “Field Theory of Guided Waves,”
Second Edition, IEEE Press, New York, 1991.
[2] HP 85180A, High-Frequency Structure Simulator,
Hewlett Packard.
Figure 6. Propagation loss of first four waveguide modes
in the waveguide harmonic damper.
4 FABRICATION AND MEASUREMENT
A prototype waveguide damper with coaxial probes
has been fabricated and a low-power measurement was
made. Five Ceramaseal CDP-20001 coaxial feedthroughs
have been used as the probe antennas in the WR-284
waveguide. The antenna feedthroughs are welded to the
copper waveguide. The fabricated damper was shown in
Figure 2. The coaxial section of the antenna has a 50Ω
characteristic impedance and a 50Ω coaxial termination is
557
DEVELOPMENT OF A 114.24MHz SUB-HARMONIC BUNCHER FOR
THE KEKB INJECTOR LINAC
S. Yamaguchi, S. Ohsawa, M. Ikeda, A. Enomoto and Y. Igarashi*
High Energy Accelerator Research Organization (KEK), Oho, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0801 JAPAN
* Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd., Nagoya Aerospace Systems,
Oye, Minato, Nagoya, Aichi 455-8515 JAPAN
Abstract 1.5
1.4 Equivalent
1.5
1.4 Equivalent
circuit circuit
1.3 SUPERFISH 1.3
A 114.24-MHz sub-harmonic buncher cavity was newly 1.2
SUPERFISH
old cavity 1.2 old cavity
developed to improve the single-bunch purity of the 1.1 1.1
R [MOhm]
R [MOhm]
KEKB injector linac. The cavity was designed so as to 1 1
have a high shunt impedance and a low maximum surface 0.9 (a) 0.9 (b)
0.8 0.8
field at the acceleration gap. To reduce the probability of 0.7 b=75.5mm 0.7 a=32.5mm
rf breakdown, the inner wall of the cavity was electrolytic- 0.6 0.6
0.5
polished and a vacuum pump-out was put at the end wall 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
0.5
60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95
of the cavity. Copper was selected as the structural a [mm] b [mm]
material (it was copper-plated stainless steel for the old
cavity) in order to improve the water-cooling capability
Figure 1: Dependence of shunt impedance on cavity
and to reduce the resonant frequency shift by the gap- dimensions; (a) inner radius, a ; (b) outer radius, b.
distance change when the input power increases. A cold
test showed a shunt impedance of 1.2 MOhm, which is Figure 1 shows the dependence of the shunt impedance
twice as large as that for the old cavity. The design, (R) on the inner radius (a) and the outer radius (b) of the
fabrication and results of low- and high-power tests and a cavity calculated by SUPERFISH and an equivalent-
beam-acceleration test are described. circuit model (quarter-wavelength-long short-circuited
antiresonant transmission line). This figure shows that
the required shunt impedance can be obtained when the
1 INTRODUCTION values of a and b are selected as 30mm and 90 mm,
The upgraded KEKB injector linac (8.0-GeV e- / 3.5- respectively; these values were 32.5mm and 75.5 mm,
GeV e+) is now at the stage of initial commissioning [1, respectively, for the old cavity.
2]. The pre-injector of this linac has to provide single- 200
15MV/m
bunch beams of 10nC in 10ps to produce intense positron
180 14MV/m
beams. To satisfy this requirement, in this pre-injector, 21kW 25kW 32kW 39kW 49kW
60kW
two sub-harmonic bunchers (SHB), i.e., SHB1 160 16kW
Energy gain [keV]
13kW 11MV/m
12MV/m
(114.24MHz) and SHB2 (571.2MHz) were introduced 14kW
22kW 27kW 34kW
[3,4]. However, the bunch purity had not been 140 11MV/m
11kW 42kW
17kW
9.5MV/m
sufficiently good; the percentage of the main-bunch 120
9kW
9.5MV/m 8.3MV/m 8.7MV/m
current to the total current was only 80%. For this reason, 7.6MV/m 7.6MV/m
100 Pin=10kW
we have developed a new SHB1 cavity having a large
Pin=20kW 6.7MV/m
shunt impedance. Another problem of the old SHB1 Emax=10MV/m 6.1MV/m
6.9MV/m
80
cavity is low stability of the resonant frequency because Emax=12MV/m 5.4MV/m
4.9MV/m
of the gap-distance shift, due to poor cooling performance. 60
Redesigns of the structural material and cooling-pipe 10 20 30 40 50 60
a [mm]
configuration have been made.
Figure 2: Relation between the energy gain and the inner
2 DESIGN radius (a). The numbers beside each mark show the
maximum electric field for Pin = constant or the required
According to the PARMELA simulation, it is possible source power for Emax = constant.
to reduce the amount of the satellite bunch to less than
1% if the shunt impedance of the SHB cavity is increased Figure 2 shows the relation between the energy gain of
by 1.7 times[4]. The dimensions of the new cavity was SHB1 and the inner radius (a). When the input power is
determined for this goal on the condition that the cavity constant, the smaller is a, the larger is the energy gain.
can be install in the existing focusing coils (φ200mm). However, when the maximum surface field is constant,
558
the energy gain is maximum at a = 40mm. Finally we set parts of the cavity were electrolytic-polished (20µm).
the value of a at 30mm because the power source
available at present is limited to 10kW and beam handling 3 LOW POWER TEST
would be difficult if the value of a is too small. The resonant frequency was tuned by adjusting the
The distance of the acceleration gap was determined as length of the short nose (d L ). The sensitivity of the
being 40 mm (it was 18mm for the old cavity) because dimensions on the resonant frequency is given in Table 1.
the longer is the gap distance, the lower is the maximum
surface field. Though the shunt impedance also decreases Table 1: Sensitivity of the dimensions on the resonant
for a wider gap distance, it is only a few percent (see frequency. Units of kHz/mm.
Figure 3). ∂f/∂LR ∂f/∂LL ∂f/∂dR ∂f/∂dR
SUPERFISH 174.18 0 210.73 36.95
1.6 18 Measurement - - 200.0 36.3
1.5 17
1.4 16 The results of a low-power test are given in Table 2. The
Emax [MV/m]
15 ratio of the measured Q 0 to the calculated Q 0 (Q 0m/Q 0c )
R [MOhm]
1.3
R 14
1.2 has increased from 0.75 for the old cavity to 0.93. This
13 may be due to an improvement in the electrical contact
1.1 Emax
12 because end-plates were connected using bolts and nuts in
1 11 the old cavity but are connected by electron-beam welding
0.9 10 in the new cavity.
0.8 9
Table 2: Results of low-power tests.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 SUPERFISH
gap distance [mm] measurement
Q0 Q0 Qc QL β Q0m/Q0c
Figure 3: Shunt impedance, maximum electric field vs 7523 6989 6741 3433 1.04 0.93
gap distance.
The shunt impedance was obtained from R/Q values
As the structural material, copper-plated stainless steel measured by Slater's bead perturbation method [5]. Figure
has been used for the old cavity. Also, only the outer 5 shows the electric-field distribution on the beam axis
conductor has been water-cooled. Consequently, the near to the acceleration gap.
cooling performance is not good, which causes a change
1.1
in the resonant frequency when the input power is 4mm
1
changed. In the new cavity, copper (oxygen free copper) 6mm
0.9
is selected as the structural material, and the inner 8mm
0.8 SUPERFISH
conductor and both end plates are water-cooled.
The calculated value of the shunt impedance for the 0.7
Ez [a. u.]
final dimensions (see Figure 4) is 1.28MΩ, which is 1.7- 0.6
times that for the old cavity (0.77MΩ). 0.5
As an rf input coupler, a loop antenna of coaxial 0.4
waveguide (20D) has been selected instead of that of 0.3
coaxial line, which is used in the old cavity, because it 0.2 gap
has a high possibility of rf breakdown. A copper rod 0.1
(φ24mm) is used as the tuner. According to a MAFIA 0
calculation, a frequency change of 200kHz can be obtained 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
z [mm]
by a stroke of 40mm. The tuner is remote-controlled
using an ultrasonic motor Figure 5: Distribution of the axial electric field measured
An ion pump (10l/s) is put at the end plate (see Figure by the bead-perturbation method.
4) to improve the vacuum level of the cavity. All inner
EBW EBW vacuum port coupler
coupler
φ198 φ180 φ26
φ60 φ40
d =42.5 tuner
L=706.84 tuner
monitor
Figure 4: Cross-sectional view of the new Sub-harmonic buncher cavity.
559
Aluminum spheres of diameter 4, 6, and 8mm were used
as perturbaters. When these values are extrapolated to the
limit of zero volume, the value of shunt impedance of
1.15MOhm was obtained (see Figure 6).
1.9
1.7 (a)
1.5
R [MOhm]
1.3
1.1 y = 0.0024x + 1.1509
0.9
0.7
0.5
0 100 200 300 (b)
V [m3] (10-9) Figure 8: Shape of 12nC single bunch. (a) old SHB; (b)
Figure 6: Relation between volume of bead and shunt new SHB.
impedance.
6 SUMMARY
4 HIGH POWER TEST In order to improve the bunch purity of the KEKB
Electric discharges by multipactoring have been injector linac, a new 114.24MHz SHB cavity was
observed during the initial stage of rf conditioning; it took designed, fabricated and tested. As a result, the shunt
ten days to reach an input power of 10kW without impedance was increased twice as large as that for the old
focusing coils and two days after the addition of coils. cavity (70% came from the geometry and 20% from an
During rf conditioning, no change in the resonant increase of Q 0(measured)/Q 0(theoretical), and a bunch
frequency was observed. The pulse shapes for an input purity of almost 100% was obtained for a 12nC single-
power of 10kW are shown in Figure 7. The time constant bunch beam. Good stability of the resonant frequency was
calculated from this pulse shape is about 10µ s. The obtained by improving the cooling performance.
theoretical value is 9.6µs ( = 2QL/ω).
7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank H. Hayano for his valuable
comments on the design of the SHB cavity. They
acknowledge Y. Morozumi for his help in fabricating the
input coupler.
8 REFERENCES
[1] A. Enomoto et al., “Construction of the 8-Gev e- /
3.5-GeV e+ Injector Linac for KEKB,” these
Proceedings.
[2] Y. Ogawa, “Commissioning of the KEKB linac,”
these Proceedings.
[3] J-Y Choi et al., “Bunching system of the KEKB
Linac," Proceedings of LINAC96, CERN, August
26-30, 1996, 340-342 (1996).
Figure 7: Photograph of rf pulses. Top trace, Reflection; [4] S. Ohsawa et al., “Pre-injector of the KEKB 8-GeV
Middle trace, Input; Bottom trace, Transmission. Input
Linac," these Proceedings.
power, 10kW; 10µs per division.
[5] J. C. Slater, “Microwave Electronics," D.Van
5 BEAM ACCELERATION TEST Nostrand Company, Princeton, 1950.
[6] Y. Ogawa et al., “New Streak-Camera System for the
After installation of the SHB cavity on the beam line, a KEKB Linac," Proceedings of APAC 98, KEK,
beam-acceleration test was performed. The beam charge March 23-27, 1998, to be published.
was 12nC at the gun output. Figure 8 shows the bunch
shape observed by a streak camera [6]. The bunch purity
was improved from 80% to almost 100%.
560
DESIGN, OPERATION, AND TEST RESULTS OF 350 MHZ LEDA RF
SYSTEM
D. Rees, J. Bradley III, K. Cummings, A. Regan, T. Rohlev, W. Roybal, Y.M. Wang
Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico USA
Abstract LEDA. Only two of the three RF systems connected to
the RFQ are required for operation of the RFQ. The RFQ
The Low Energy Demonstration Accelerator serves as the power combiner. Should any component of
(LEDA) being constructed at Los Alamos National any one of the RFQ RF systems fail, a waveguide switch
Laboratory will serve as the prototype for the low energy is used to isolate the failed system from the RFQ. The
section of Acceleration Production of Tritium (APT) waveguide switch also reflects a short circuit at the
accelerator. The APT accelerator requires over 244 RF appropriate phase to the RFQ irises associated with the
systems each with a continuous wave output power of 1 failed system allowing the RFQ to continue to operate
MW. The reliability and availability of these RF systems with the two remaining systems.
is critical to the successful operation of APT plant and This approach results in some additional requirements
prototypes of these systems are being developed and on the RF system. With the RFQ serving as the power
demonstrated on LEDA. The first completed LEDA RF combiner, it is necessary to balance the output power and
systems are three, 1.2 MW, 350 MHz, continuous wave, phase of the two or three RF systems connected to the
klystrons driving a radio frequency quadrapole (RFQ). RFQ or unwanted reflected power will result. To
This paper present the design and test results for these RF accomplish this, local phase control loops are
systems including the klystrons, cathode power supply, implemented around each klystron and the group of
circulators, RF vacuum windows, and RF components. klystrons is treated as if it were a single RF source by the
The three RF systems driving the RFQ use the low level control system, which modulates the amplitude
accelerating structure as a power combiner and this places and phase of the klystron drive to control the RFQ field
some unique requirements on the RF systems. These amplitude and phase. Also, an RF arc in a window or
requirements and corresponding operational implications circulator requires that all RFQ RF systems be disabled,
will be discussed. not just the system associated with the arc, to prevent the
other RFQ systems from continuing to drive the arc
1 LEDA RF SYSTEM DESIGN through the RFQ. This logic also holds true for a
The LEDA RF system provides RF power to an RFQ crowbar or interlock trip in any one of the RF systems.
which accelerates a proton beam to a final energy of 6.7 The other RFQ RF systems must be disabled to prevent
MeV. To accomplish this acceleration the RFQ requires the disabled system from being driven through the cavity
structure and beam power of 1900 kW. The power to the by the remaining RF systems.
RFQ is provided by three 1.2 MW klystron amplifiers The low-level RF control (LLRF) system performs
with the structure serving as the power combiner. various functions. Foremost is feedback control of the
The LEDA RF systems utilize modulating-anode accelerating fields within the cavity in order to maintain
klystrons with individual power supplies to maximize field stability within ±1% amplitude and 1° phase. Other
operating flexibility and efficiency. Each klystron has an functions of the LLRF control system are implementation
individual power supply, and the modulating anode of the local phase control loops of each klystron and RFQ
voltage is derived from the cathode voltage using a resonance condition monitoring. The resonance of the
regulator tube. The high-efficiency klystrons are protected RFQ is controlled by varying cooling water temperature.
from reflected power by circulators. The power from a Because the RFQ will rapidly cool when RF is shut
klystron is divided into four equal parts using 3 dB hybrids down, drive frequency agility in the main feedback control
to reduce the power passed through the accelerating subsystem is incorporated to quickly restore the cavity to
structure vacuum windows. For the RFQ waveguide runs, resonance with RF heating.
the power from the three klystrons is carried in three full
height WR2300 through a waveguide switch to hybrid 2 RF COMPONENT DESCRIPTIONS
splitters. The hybrid splitters divide the power into
twelve waveguide feeds that transition to half-height 2.1 Klystrons
WR2300 and deliver the power to the RFQ through The LEDA RFQ RF systems utilize 1.2 MW CW
coaxial vacuum windows. klystrons at 350 MHz. The klystron is based on the
Because the LEDA systems are, in part, meant to serve CERN klystron with one major design modification. The
as prototypes for the APT plant, the approach to LEDA 350 MHz klystrons are designed to dissipate the
achieving high availability is also being prototyped on
564
full beam power (1.85 MW) in the klystron collector in 1500 V
the steady state. This design requirement is driven by the 3 Ø AC
size of the APT plant and the impact that turning off all
klystrons would have on the local power grid.
The design requirements and measured performance for 1500 V
3 Ø AC Klystron Gallery
the 350 MHz klystron are summarized in Table 1. The 30˚ Shifted
350 MHz klystrons have demonstrated all design Crowbar/
requirements in the acceptance tests and have Transformer/Rectifier Tank Filter
approximately 300 hours of operation in test stands at Los Cabinet
Trigger
Alamos. A picture of the klystron is shown below in Transformer
95 kV
Figure 1. Building DC
Exterior
Table 1: Klystron Requirements SCR Controller Cabinet Wall
Requirement Specified Measured
Figure 2: SCR bridges are in the center of the primaries.
Voltage (Max) 95 kV 94 kV
Current (Max) 21 A 19.6 A
The IGBT power supplies utilize 96 separate rectifying
Output Power (Min) 1.2 MW 1.2 MW
modules stacked in series. Each module is fed from an
Efficiency (Min) 65 % 65 %
isolated secondary winding on one of four transformers.
Gain (Min) 40 dB 41 dB
The primary windings of each transformer are phased for
Operating VSWR (Max) 1.2:1 1.2:1
24 pulse rectification at the series output. Each module
1 dB Bandwidth .7 MHz >.7 MHz
uses an IGBT for current control, eliminating the need for
a crowbar. Failed modules are bypassed by the control
system to provide graceful degradation of operation. These
power supplies must have an efficiency of ≥97%, a power
factor of ≥0.98 and meet IEEE Std 519-1992
requirements. Three of these power supplies are on order
from Continental Electronics and the prototype power
supply has passed all acceptance tests. A picture one of
the power columns containing half (48) of the 96
rectifying modules is included below in Fig. 3.
Figure 1: Picture of EEV 350 MHz klystron. 2.3 RF Vacuum Windows
2.2 Power Supplies The window design we have selected is a coaxial
geometry. The 350 MHz window is illustrated in Figure
LEDA is prototyping two power supply topologies that 4. The air side is a half-height WR2300 waveguide. A T-
are under consideration for the APT plant: a Silicon bar is used to transition to a coaxial line. A high-purity
Controlled Rectifier (SCR) center point controlled power alumina coaxial window separates the air and vacuum side
supply and a solid state modulator power supply using of the window assembly. Another T-bar is used to
Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs). Both transition back to half-height WR2300 which is then
topologies provide a klystron beam voltage of up to 95 connected to ridge loaded waveguide to drive the iris
kV and a maximum beam current of 21 A and protect the coupled RFQ. Each RFQ window has been tested under
klystron from excessive energy deposition in the event of vacuum in a back-to-back configuration to 1.0 MW of
a tube arc. CW RF power for a minimum of four hours. In the RFQ
The SCR power supplies utilize two SCR bridges with the windows are utilized at a maximum nominal power of
filter inductors at the center tapped transformer primaries 300 kW. Prior to the 1.0 MW acceptance test, the
to produce 12 pulse rectification as shown in Fig 2. In the windows must be conditioned to this power level. The
event of a klystron arc, the crowbar circuit protects the conditioning time for each of the RFQ windows and
klystron from the filter capacitor stored energy. These spares is indicated in Figure 5. The average time was
power supplies must have an efficiency of ≥95%, a power 18.5 hours.
factor of ≥0.93 at full power and the harmonic distortion
at the input must meet IEEE Std 519-1992 requirements. 2.4 Cavity Field Control
Three of these power supplies have been delivered by The cavity field control system controls the in-phase
Maxwell Labs and have met all performance requirements. and quadrature (I/Q) errors of the cavity field. It consists
of three VXIbus modules. The Clock Distribution
Module receives a phase-stable 10 MHz reference and
produces coherent frequencies needed for field signal
565
downconversion and I/Q sampling. The Field Control
Module (FCM) houses all of the digital and analog
electronics, which perform the high-precision I/Q
detection and control. The Amplifier Control Module
serves as an interface between the control system and the AIR SIDE
multiple klystrons driving the cavity. It takes the control
signal from the FCM, splits it, and then individually
ALUMINA WINDOW
modifies each output leg to compensate for the aberrations
of each particular klystron. The closed-loop bandwidth of
the field control system is approximately 200 kHz. A
block diagram of the entire LLRF system is shown in
Figure 6.
VACUUM SIDE
Figure 4: RFQ coaxial window.
40
35
30
25
Time (Hr)
20
15
10
0
Figure 3: Power Column For IGBT Power Supply 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
2.5 Resonance Control Window Number
The resonance condition of the RFQ will be determined Figure 5: RFQ vacuum window conditioning time.
Beam
by monitoring a sample of its forward, reflected, and Current
signal
transmitted signals. The signals will be run through a
Fast
simple algorithm in a digital signal processor on board the Analog
RF
Reference
Resonance Control VXIbus Module to calculate the signal Σ PID Controllers Σ Klystron Cavity
RFQ's resonant frequency. Should the resonance Precision
Digital
frequency differ from the fundamental, an error signal will Amplifier
Regulation
be sent to the RFQ's water-cooling system indicative of
Σ Σ
the need to increase or decrease the cooling water
temperature. This module also implements the frequency Resonance
Control
agile function, based on direct digital synthesis mentioned Cooling
Water
earlier. This frequency agility will be utilized only when system
the cavity is far from nominal resonance, not during Figure 6: LLRF control system.
normal operation.
2.6 RF Protection 3 CONCLUSIONS
The RF systems for the LEDA accelerator have been
A flexible RF Protection function has also been built
installed at Los Alamos and are ready to provide RF power
into the LLRF VXIbus Control system. The RF Protect
to the RFQ in early October. These systems have been
Module monitors the HPRF transmission system and
designed as prototype equipment for the APT plant and
turns off the drive to the klystrons should a fault occur
will be used to demonstrate not only the reliability of RF
anywhere within the system. The RF Protect function
equipment, but also the redundancy concepts for the APT
protects against arcs in the waveguide, klystron, or RFQ;
plant that will allow for very high RF system
high reflected power at the RFQ ports, loads on the
availability. The individual RF system have demonstrated
circulator, and waveguide splitters; crowbars; and bad
that each system meets the design requirements. The
VSWR at the klystron output.
integrated testing with the RFQ in October is the next
step in the validation of the APT RF system design.
566
THE RF POWER SYSTEM FOR THE SNS LINAC*
Paul J. Tallerico and William A. Reass
Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM 87545 USA
Abstract supply drives eight klystrons, so each power supply is
rated at 130 kV and 3.25 MW. The current pulses are
The initial goal of the SNS project is to produce a 1
drawn from a capacitor bank. For 5 kV maximum voltage
MW average beam of protons with short pulse lengths
droop during the pulse, the capacitor bank must be at
onto a neutron-producing target. The objective of the SNS
RF system is to generate 117 MW peak of pulsed 805 least 90 µF, and the bank energy is 760 kJ. A fast acting
MHz microwave power with an accelerated beam pulse crowbar switch is used to protect the klystrons from this
length of 1.04 ms at a 60 Hz repetition rate. The power energy when they arc, since as little as 20 J in an arc may
system must be upgradeable in peak power to deliver 2 damage a klystron. Figure 1 illustrates the major parts of
MW average power to the neutron target. The RF system this power system.
also requires about 3 MW peak of RF power at 402.5
MHz, but that system is not discussed here. The design
challenge is to produce an RF system at minimum cost, Accelerator Module Accelerator Module
that is very reliable and economical to operate. The
combination of long pulses and high repetition rates make
conventional solutions, such as the pulse transformer and Klystrons Waveguide
transmission line method, very expensive. The klystron, To three
with a modulating anode, and 2.5 MW of peak output L1 more
R1 R2 modulators
power is the baseline RF amplifier, an 56 are required in
Modulator
the baseline design. We discuss four power system
configurations that are the candidates for the design. The R3
DC
baseline design is a floating-deck modulating anode Power C1
system. A second power system being investigated is the Supply 90 µF Crowbar
fast-pulsed power supply, that can be turned on and off Capacitor Room
with a rise time of under 0.1 ms. This could eliminate the
need for a modulator, and drastically reduce the energy
Fig 1. Block diagram of the floating deck modulator
storage requirements. A third idea is to use a pulse
system.
transformer with a series IGBT switch and a bouncer
circuit on the primary side, as was done for the TESLA
With the single switch tube, rise times of 80 µs and fall
modulator. A fourth method is to use a series IGBT switch
at high voltage, and not use a pulse transformer. We times of 120 µs are typical with 100 kΩ as the sum of R1
discuss the advantages and problems of these four types and R2 in Fig. 1 in series with the switch tube. The
of power systems, but we emphasize the first two. efficiency of this modulator is high, since only 1.2 A
flows through the modulator resistors, compared to the
75.8 A in the two klystrons. The power losses are 51.7
1 THE FLOATING DECK MODULATOR kW in the resistors (at 6 Ω per resistor) in the capacitor
SYSTEM room, 43.2 kW in the modulator resistors, and only 0.6
kW in the 800 pF stray capacity in the modulators. The
The floating-deck modulator is an old technology that is total energy efficiency is then 93.5% in the pulsed power
well suited to pulse lengths above 0.5 ms, and pulse rates part of the circuit, including the rise-time losses.
below 1 kHz. The RF duty factor, is 6.84%, since some Many variations of the circuit are possible to reduce the
scores of µs must be added for cavity fill time, and control capacitor bank droop, and Fig. 1 shows a passive
loop settling time. The pulsed power duty factor is 7.5%, compensation method. Active compensation methods are
since the 0.1 ms rise and fall time must be added to the RF more effective, but require a higher parts count, so they
pulse length. Each 805 MHz klystron can deliver 2.5 MW usually have a reliability penalty. At voltages below 100
of peak power into its load, and each klystron requires 120 kV the floating-deck modulator and its klystron can be
kV and 40 A, peak. The average power into each klystron very reliable, and a Mean Time Between Failure (MTBF)
is thus 328.3 kW. We add 20% to allow for losses in the of 25,000 hours for the combination of the klystron and
modulator, and capacitor bank slump, and arrive at 394 the modulator is our estimate for those at LANSCE.
kW per klystron. In this floating-deck system, each power However, there is dc voltage stress on the electron gun,
____________ and the MTBF decreases rapidly with voltage. The
* Work supported by the U.S. Department of Energy.
567
reduction in MTBF may be as high as a factor of 2 for 120 Preliminary calculations are quite encouraging, and
kV operation, so we look for alternative modulators. indicate that significantly less energy must be stored for
Another serious problem with this circuit is that the energy this circuit than for the floating-deck modulator. Rise and
storage in the capacitor bank must be 10 times the energy fall times of 50 µs have also been calculated with a fairly
in the klystron pulse to limit the droop to 5% in the detailed computer model. Another difficult component in
klystron’s voltage, and even more energy must be stored this design is a multiphase, very tightly coupled,
to reduce the droop below 5%. This energy must also be transformer. Measurements on a scale model of the
stored at high voltage, above 125 kV in the SNS case, and transformer have shown that it should be possible to
we have to deal with difficult corona control and serious achieve both the high turns ratio and very low leakage
safety issues. inductance that we require.
2 THE FAST CONVERTER MODULATOR 3 THE BOUNCER-COMPENSATED
It is possible to make dc-to-dc converters that raise a PULSE TRANSFORMER MODULATOR
voltage to a much higher value, and many consumer Perhaps the first method of utilizing modern
products do this. A newer concept is to design a dc-to- semiconductor switches to drive a long-pulse, multi-
pulsed power supply that takes power at a moderate dc megawatt klystron was the bouncer-compensated pulse
voltage, and produces the 1 ms, 120 kV pulses at a 60 Hz transformer circuit that was developed by Pfeffer et al. [2]
repetition rate for the klystron. The concept is shown as a at Fermi National Laboratory. A simplified second version
block diagram in Figure 2. The dc-to-dc converter is a of this circuit, using IBGT’s as the main switch elements,
multiphase chopper, operating between 10 and 20 kHz, is shown in Fig. 3 below. Here the main capacitors, (C1 in
making the high-voltage transformer very compact Fig. 3) store only slightly more than the energy required
compared to that required for 60 Hz operation. Most of for each klystron pulse. Normally, the voltage droop
the problems with this type of circuit have been solved in during a 1 ms pulse would be intolerable with a simple
the past few years by the gradual perfection of the pulse discharge circuit, but the LC circuit (the bouncer) in
insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT), that are massed the return leg of the pulse transformer is charged by each
produced for high-power applications, especially in motor pulse, and the bouncer starts to oscillate before each main
control. The IGBT may be considered a combination of a pulse. By appropriate design, the bouncer voltage can add
voltage driven MOSFET coupled to a bipolar transistor. to the discharging capacitor voltage to produce an output
The energy left in the leakage inductance of the pulse that only has a few percent variation over the pulse.
transformer after each pulse must be dissipated in snubber Earlier versions of this circuit were developed using GTO
circuits, and we expect an efficiency of somewhat above switches [3].
80% with this circuit.
However, it looks feasible to build such a converter that Accelerator Module
can deliver almost 10 MW pulses for 1 ms to a pair of
klystrons. The dc power is provided by an inexpensive,
unregulated, full wave rectifier that operates directly from
a 3-phase, 4160 V source. More details on this circuit are Waveguide
available in [1]. Energy must be stored for the pulses, so Klystron
there is a 10 kV capacitor bank on the output of the power Pulse Transformer
supply. Bouncer
Modulator
4160 V 10 kV Unregulated Multiphase, 20 kHz DC Capacitor IGBT
3-Phase Pulse Width Modulator
Crowbar
Power Supply Power Bank Switches
Input with Series of
IGBT Switches Supply in Series
Accelerator Module
Oil Tank with
Multiphase Fig. 3. Block diagram of the pulse-transformer, bouncer
Transformer,
Accelerator Module Rectifier, and
corrected modulator.
Filter
Klystrons 4 THE SERIES SWITCH MODULATOR
Rather than drive a step-up transformer, in some cases it
is more economical to directly switch the high voltage
Fig. 2. Block diagram of the fast converter modulator. between the power supply and the klystron load. Older
versions of this circuit were used at the Bates linac, and in
568
the some Free-Electron Lasers, using electron tube ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
technology. Solid-state versions are also possible, using
IGBT switches, for example. The engineering issues are The assistance and encouragement of the SNS project
rather significant with this solution, since the switches management, both at Oak Ridge and at Los Alamos, has
must operate at high voltages, so isolation becomes a been essential in performing this work. The assistance of
problem. A simplified block diagram of the series switch J. Daniel Doss of Los Alamos in performing the circuit
modulator is shown in Fig. 4. In this system, two separate analyses is also gratefully acknowledged.
switches is series, as well as many series IGBT’s in each
switch, are sometimes required: one chain pulses the REFERENCES
klystron, and another provides regulation. This system has
[1] W.A. Reass, P.J. Tallerico, “An Alternative Approach
the disadvantage of storing the pulse energy at high
for an Advanced Power Conditioning Modulator for
voltage, so there are corona and safety issues associated
the Oak Ridge SNS Linac RF System,” Los Alamos
with this energy storage.
SNS Tech Note, to be published, (1998).
[2] H. Pfeffer, et al., “A Second Long Pulse Modulator
Accelerator Module
for TESLA Using IGBT’s,” Fifth European Particle
Accelerator Conference, June 10-14, 1996, 1285-
1287, (1996).
Waveguide [3] H. Pfeffer, et al., “A Long Pulse Modulator for
Klystron Reduced Size and Cost,” Proceedings of the 1994
DC Capacitor Modulator Conference, June 27-30, 1994, 48-52,
Power Bank of (1994).
Supply 10 kV
IGBT Switches
in Series
Drivers
Fig 4. Block diagram of the series high voltage modulator.
5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Cathode pulsing is the best method for high-power, long
pulse systems. The baseline RF system for the SNS is
moving towards the converter-modulator option. Since all
the cathode-pulsed systems do not require modulation
anodes in the klystrons, the klystrons should be more
reliable, and their cost should be reduced by at least a few
percent. Another advantage of the converter modulator
and the other new systems discussed here is that most of
the electronics is out of the oil tank in these circuits, so
maintenance is easier, and the environmental impact is
more benign with the smaller oil tanks.
The semiconductor implementations of the power
system can save capital costs by reducing the amount of
energy that must be stored for the pulsed system, and
some expensive or troublesome components, such as the
crowbar and high-voltage capacitors, can often be
eliminated.
569
*
HIGH POWER RF COMPONENT TESTING FOR THE NLC
A.E. Vlieks, W.R. Fowkes, R.J. Loewen, S.G. Tantawi
Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94309, USA
Abstract common signal generator. The power from these
klystrons combine through a Magic Tee 3-dB hybrid and
In the Next Linear Collider (NLC), the high power rf feed the input to the SLED-II system. The combiner was
components must be capable of handling peak rf power previously conditioned to full klystron power by being
levels in excess of 600 MW. In the current view of the connected to the load assembly.
NLC, even the rectangular waveguide components must
transmit at least 300 MW rf power. At this power level,
peak rf fields can greatly exceed 100 MV/m. We present
recent results of high power tests performed at the
Accelerator Structure Test Area (ASTA) at SLAC. These
tests are designed to investigate the rf breakdown limits of
several new components potentially useful for the NLC.
In particular, we tested a new TE01–TE10 circular to
rectangular ‘wrap-around’ mode converter, a modified
(internal fin) Magic Tee hybrid, and an upgraded ‘flower
petal’ mode converter.
1 INTRODUCTION
In SLAC’s version of the NLC, sources, such as
klystrons, transport rf power to accelerator structures
primarily in circular overmoded waveguide. Various rf
components—such as mode converters, 90° bends, and 3- Figure 1. Schematic of the initial experimental setup.
dB hybrids (each consisting in part of single-moded
rectangular waveguide)—route rf power from one The SLED-II pulse compression system operates with a
circular guide to another. compression ratio of 7 and a peak power gain of ≈4.
In order to verify that these components can handle the Hence, this configuration can potentially yield up to 400
required power levels of up to 300 MW, we conducted a MW of peak power with a flat top of 150 ns. The
series of tests to establish breakdown limits and to primary components under test are the 3-dB hybrid, the
investigate mechanisms of breakdown. We present the two delay line mode converters, and the output mode
results of experiments, which led to the identification of converters.
components capable of operating reliably at rf power The load assembly consists of four choked, stainless
steel ‘dry’ loads [3] arranged in parallel. (A Magic Tee
levels in excess of 300 MW. In earlier tests [1], two key
(circ.) (rect.) first splits the incoming power and then two additional
components of SLED-II—a TE01 –TE10 flower petal Magic Tees divide each of the split power levels again.)
mode converter and the Magic Tee hybrid—failed at a In earlier tests, an individual load of this type was
power level of 220–250 MW [2]. These components successfully tested to ≥100 MW at a pulse width of 150
were modified and subsequently retested along with the ns.
newly designed wrap-around mode converter.
2.2 Preparation
2 EXPERIMENT During all phases of the experiment, the vacuum system
is baked out to approximately 150°C for at least 24 hours
2.1 General Layout (plus a ramp-up/cool-down of 24 hours each). At the end
of this cycle, the vacuum in the system is ≤ 1×10 Torr.
-9
The general setup is shown in Figure 1. The experimental
setup consists of an rf source, a SLED-II pulse In addition, any new components added to the system
during the course of the experiment are first high
compressor, and a high power load assembly. Two 50
temperature baked to 400°C before installation in order to
MW klystrons operating at 11.424 GHz supply the rf
remove residual hydrogen and other contaminants.
power. The pulse width of each klystron is 1.05 µs
running at a repetition rate of 60 Hz. Each klystron is
driven by its own TWT driver which in turn is driven by a
*
Work supported by Department of Energy contract DE-AC03-76SF00515
570
though the peak power levels are approximately the same.
2.3 Initial Experiment It appears that the standing wave set up between the delay
In the first phase of the experiment, two modified flower line iris and the SLED-II Magic Tee enhances the peak
petal mode converters were installed in the SLED-II delay fields. Simulation verifies that the increased fields from
lines. As described in [1], these components are modified this standing wave pattern can greatly enhance the peak
from an earlier design to alleviate the rf erosion at the fields in critical regions of the Magic Tee. It also became
bifurcation in the rectangular waveguide section. The 3- clear that reversing the input and output ports of this
dB hybrid is a modified Magic Tee configured with the Magic Tee would significantly reduce these peak fields.
H-arm as input and the E-arm as output. The
modification consists of replacing the matching post in 2.4 Phase Two
the throat of the Tee by a broad fin with fully rounded At the conclusion of the initial experiment, the SLED-II
corners and rounding the edges at the E-arm throat. (This and load entrance Magic Tees were removed and cold
was motivated from witnessing significant erosion of the tested. Their RF properties were found to be unchanged
post during previous testing). A newly designed wrap- from their pre-test values although some erosion was
around mode converter was placed at the output of observed in the SLED-II Magic Tee along the fin. The
SLED-II.[4] West delay line mode converter was also checked and
Results of the initial phase of the experiment show that found unchanged. It was decided that the positions of the
all components work well up to ≈240 MW. Above this two Magic Tees would be exchanged and that the new
power level, there were significant rf breakdown events at SLED-II Magic Tee would be installed with the roles of
the SLED-II Magic Tee as well as enhanced, steady state the input and output ports interchanged, i.e. now the E-
X-ray emission. One of the two delay line mode arm is input and the H-arm is output. It was also decided
converters—labeled the ‘West’ mode converter—also to coat the problematic West flower petal mode converter
exhibited enhanced X-ray emission albeit far less than the with Titanium Nitride to try to reduce the X-ray radiation
Magic Tee. The wrap-around mode converter was by decreasing the electron secondary emission yield.
essentially breakdown-free and radiation levels at this The interchange of input and output ports of the SLED-
mode converter were about the same level as the nearby II Magic Tee had a marked improvement on system
rectangular WR90 waveguide. performance. The steady state radiation level at the
Magic Tee was reduced by a factor of 18. Unfortunately,
Figure 2 shows typical radiation levels measured at the
the radiation levels at the West delay line mode converter
waveguide surface of the Magic Tee by an X-ray survey remained the same with no effect due to the TiN coating.
meter. One curve shows a typical dose rate when the As the peak power levels approached 270 MW, it became
system is well conditioned. The other curve shows the clear that the limiting component was this mode
effects of conditioning. Initially, at low power levels, the converter. Figure 3 compares the radiation levels from the
dose rate is anomalously high. Then, after an rf East and West mode converters and Magic Tee. It is
breakdown event occurs and testing is resumed, the remarkable that the radiation levels of the East mode
radiation levels reduce to the typical values. These typical converter are 150 times smaller than the West even
values did not improve or deteriorate with time. though the system is apparently symmetric.
60
Magic Tee radiation (mR/H)
300
East Flower Petal (mR/H)
Prebreakdown 50 West Flower Petal (mR/H)
postbreakdown
250 typical
40
200
30
150
20
100 10
50 0
100 150 200 250 300
RF Power (MW) aev-5/27/98
0
100 150 200 250 300
Power (MW) aev-8/4/98
Figure 3. SLED-II Radiation levels.
Figure 2. Radiation Intensity at the SLED-II Magic Tee. To further pinpoint the location of this radiation,
measurements were made through a 0.64-cm aperture of a
lead-shielded survey meter in 1-cm intervals along the
An interesting result from radiation measurements is centerline of the mode converter (see Figure 4). The
that the Magic Tee at the entrance of the load had much results, as shown in Figure 5, indicate that the radiation is
lower radiation levels than the SLED-II Magic Tee even
571
emanating at or behind the coupling irises (or ‘flower evidence of excessive radiation (i.e. no greater than
petals’). WR90 waveguide).
Table 1. Comparison of measured attenuation
coefficient with tabulated values near 150 KV.
Absorber Measured Tabulated
attenuation attenuation[5]
(cm2/g)
Copper 0.136 0.134@ 150KV
Aluminum 0.191 0.203@ 150KV
0.148@ 200KV
Figure 4. Location of measurement points along the
rectangular portion of the mode converter. Additional 3 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
measurement points are located out of the paper along
the circular portion of the converter. A series of experiments were performed to determine the
peak power performance of various rf components. The
To estimate the energy of these X-rays, aluminum and mode converters of the modified flower petal type are
copper absorbers of various thicknesses were used to adequate up to peak power levels of approximately 225
measure the X-ray attenuation coefficient at a power level MW. Wrap-around mode converters perform well at least
of 200 MW. Since the slope of the attenuation is quite up to 320 MW and in all likelihood much higher. The
linear (on a semi-log plot) with absorber thickness, we modified Magic Tee 3-dB hybrid transmits 320 MW
may assume that the walls of the mode converter without difficulty but when used in applications where
selectively removed the low energy portion of the X-ray standing waves can enhance peak fields (such as SLED-
II), the details of the installation becomes important.
spectrum leaving only X-rays with the highest energies.
At the moment, the exact reason for the heightened X-
Under these assumptions, we find the peak X-ray energy
ray emission in the West mode converter is unclear.
to be near 150 KV as shown in Table 1. For electrons
However, the measured energy of the X-rays corresponds
accelerated from rest across the petal gap, this
to the expected peak field levels based on simulation.
corresponds to a peak gradient of 510 KV/cm. This value
is in excellent agreement with earlier computer
simulations of 523 KV/cm at 200MW [6]. 4 REFERENCES
[1] A.E.Vlieks, W.R. Fowkes, R.J. Loewen, and S.G. Tantawi,
15
“Upgrade of the SLAC SLED-II Pulse Compression System
Based On Recent High Power Tests”, PAC 97, Vancouver,
12 Canada, May 1997.
9
[2] S.G. Tantawi, A.E.Vlieks, K. Fant, T. Lavine, R.J. Loewen,
C. Pearson, R. Pope, J. Rifkin, and R.D. Ruth, “The Next Linear
Collider Test Accelerator’s RF Pulse Compression and
6
Transmission Systems”, Advance Accel. Concepts (1997),
p805.
3
[3] Sami G. Tantawi and A. E. Vlieks, “Compact X-band High
Power Load Using Magnetic Stainless Steel”, PAC 95, Dallas
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Texas, May 1995, and SLAC-PUB-95-6826.
Relative Position aev-5/18/98
[4] S. Tantawi, “The Wrap-around Mode converter: A Compact
TE10-TE01 Mode Transducer”, To be published.
Figure 5 . X-ray radiation intensity at the West flower
petal mode converter at 130 MW power. [5] NSRDS-NBS 29 (1969)
2.5 Phase Three [6] S. Tantawi, K. Ko, and N. Kroll, “Numerical Design and
Analysis of a Compact TE10 to TE01 Mode Transducer”. CAP93
At the conclusion of the second phase of this Pleasanton, CA Feb. 1993, and SLAC-PUB 6085 (April, 1993)
experiment, both delay line mode converters were
replaced with wrap-around mode converters and testing
resumed.
This time we were able to drive the SLED-II system
to a power level of 320 MW with no evidence that a
power limit had been reached. The X-ray intensity at
the Magic Tee was similar to previous measurements,
and the wrap-around mode converters showed no
572
LINEAR INDUCTIVE VOLTAGE ADDERS (IVA) FOR ADVANCED
HYDRODYNAMIC RADIOGRAPHY*
M. G. Mazarakis, J. D. Boyes, D. L. Johnson, J. S. Lash, J. E. Maenchen,
P. R. Menge, C. L. Olson, S. E. Rosenthal, D. C. Rovang
Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM 87185 USA
B. V. Oliver, D. R. Welch
Mission Research Corporation, Albuquerque, NM 87106
V. L. Bailey and I. D. Smith
Pulse Sciences Incorporated, San Leandro, CA 94577
Abstract x-rays an electron accelerator is being used. The electron
beam strikes a tantalum x-ray converter plate. The
The electron beam which drifts through the multiple forward x-ray beam illuminates the surrogate primary and
cavities of conventional induction linacs (LIA) is replaced produces a photograph on a package of films or imaging
in an IVA by a cylindrical metal conductor which extends detectors located on axis downstream from the
along the entire length of the device and effectuates the radiographed object, similar to medical or industrial
addition of the accelerator cavity voltages. In our radiography.
approach to radiography, the linear inductive voltage Presently, two types of accelerators are being utilized
adder drives a magnetically immersed electron diode with for x-ray radiography: first, linear RF (PHERMEX) or
a millimeter diameter cathode electrode and a planar induction accelerator (FXR); and second, single gap
anode/bremmstrahlung converter. Both anode and cathode pulsed power devices using a high-voltage Blumlein pulse
electrodes are immersed in a strong (15-50 T) solenoidal forming line (AWE). The first can produce high-energy,
magnetic field. The electron beam cross section is small-diameter (2-3 mm) electron beams relatively easily,
approximately of the same size as the cathode needle and but the current is limited to 1-2 kA yielding low photon
generates a similar size, very intense x-ray beam when it fluences. The Blumlein pulsed power devices can produce
strikes the anode converter. An IVA driven diode can much higher beam currents (50-100 kA), but the beam
produce electron beams of equal size and energy as a LIA spot diameter is relatively large (~ 6 mm) and the beam
but with much higher currents (40-50 kA versus 4-5 kA), energy is limited to 8-10 MV.
simpler hardware and thus lower cost. We present here Our linear inductive voltage adder accelerator (IVA)
first experimental validations of our technology utilizing coupled to a magnetically immersed foilless diode can
HERMES III and SABRE IVA accelerators. The electron successfully bridge the gap between the two devices. It
beam voltage and current were respectively of the order can produce small spots (~ 1 mm), high voltages (15-20
of 10 MV and 40 kA. X-ray doses of up to 1 kR @ 1 m MV), and high currents (40-50 kA) at a fraction of their
and spot sizes as small as 1.7 mm (at 200 R doses) were cost.
measured. In the next sections, we present first experimental
validations of our technology utilizing available Sandia
1 INTRODUCTION National Laboratories IVA accelerators.
Up to the cessation of the nuclear tests, radiography 2 SABRE EXPERIMENTS
of an imploding primary (with surrogate material) was
utilized to supplement the information gathered from For these experiments, SABRE was modified to
these tests. However, this is now the only means available increase the output voltage and proportionally reduce the
to probe and characterize such a device. current, delivering the same energy. It was, therefore,
To radiograph very thick objects, a high-energy, operated at 9-12 MV and 100-120 kA. The design of the
high-flux, and very small spot x-ray source is required. MITL voltage adder and the foilless diode (Fig. 1) were
The small spot (~ 1 mm in diameter) will provide the validated with a large number of particle-in-cell
necessary spatial resolution while the high-energy photon simulations.
flux is required to penetrate the thick object and produce a
clear image of its interior. To generate those penetrating
*
Sandia is a multiprogram laboratory operated by Sandia Corporation, a Lockheed Martin Company, for the United
States Department of Energy under Contract DE-ACO4-94AL85000.
573
BEAM
PREPULSE SWITCH
I d0° TARGET The outer cylinder of the extension MITL has conical
I d ctr. sections to reduce the radius down to SABRE size. Thus,
ANODE Ia15
MITL CATHODE Ic15
the same magnetically immersed diode (Fig. 1) assemblies
PCD are utilized with HERMES III. In addition, a smaller, 50-
-
H
Tesla, cryogenic diode was designed and constructed (Fig.
28 T 3) for these experiments.
I d180° SOLENOID
FILTERED CR-39
PEAK VOLTAGE MONITOR
Cathode Tip and Needle
Figure 1 Schematic diagram of diode design utilized in ANODE
VACUUM
both SABRE and HERMES-III experiments.
CATHODE
LN2
The intense electron beam produced by the SABRE
foilless diode quickly produces an ion-emitting anode 0 5 10 15
plasma. The ions are accelerated toward the cathode. The SCALE
cm
electrostatic attraction between the two beams is
considerable and an ion-hose two-stream instability is
excited. If left uncontrolled, this instability can cause Figure 3. The 50-Tesla cryogenic diode design utilized
large deflections and heating of the beam which would only with HERMES-III.
substantially increase the beam spot size. A strong axial
magnetic field (Bz ) controls this behavior. The beam During SABRE experimentation we observed a
offset (ε) grows until it reaches the gyrodius value. A severe decrease in the diode impedance near the peak of
simple model matches the simulations: the voltage pulse. It was attributed to a 100-kV prepulse
arriving 200 ns before the main pulse. A flashover
ε = (2γ I 17 kA)1 2 × (0.17 Tesla Bz ) cm prepulse suppression switch solved the problem. The
impedance remained constant during the entire duration of
rb ( FWHM ) = 0.83 ε 2 + rk2 ,
the voltage pulse (30-ns FWHM). In HERMES III, we
installed two flashover switches in series and we made
sure that no appreciable prepulse was making it into the
where I is the beam current and rb and rk are respectively diode. In addition, special care was taken to improve the
the beam and cathode needle radius. According to this diode vacuum to 1-3 10-7 torr levels. Despite all this the
model and IPROP simulations, a 30-T magnetic field diode impedance still exhibited a collapse at about 10-30
should control the ion-hose instability and produce a 0.75- ns into the voltage pulse (Fig. 4). The onset of this
mm radius beam. The experimental results (Fig. 2) are in abnormal impedance decrease was delayed by opening the
very good agreement with theory and simulations [1]. AK gap (Fig 5). While the diode impedance remained
normal (~ 300 Ω) the beam spot size was small and in
good agreement with numerical simulations (Fig. 6). As
soon as the impedance started plummeting, the beam spot
size increased and the x-ray intensity decreased. All the
above are characteristic of diode shorting.
Figure 4 shows typical behavior of the diode current.
At the beginning it is consistent with a monopolar flow of
electrons from the cathode to the anode. About 20 ns into
the pulse the expected bipolar flow sets up with a 30%
increase of the total current. Finally ~ 33 ns later the
current breaks away from the voltage trace and keeps
Figure 2. Time integrated x-ray image of the beam for
increasing to 150-180 kA until the end of the voltage
B z = 29 T, SABRE results. Beam size agrees
pulse. Analytical calculations and numerical simulation
with theory and simulations.
[2,3] explain the late time current behavior as due to
counterstreaming heavy ions emitted from the cylindrical
3 HERMES-III EXPERIMENTS anode walls and the converter target. Very high-intensity
HERMES III is larger than SABRE, having twenty 1- heavy-ion (carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, etc.) beams, while in
MV inductively insulated cavities. It routinely produces transit toward the cathode, suffer many electron stripping
18-20 MV, 700-kA electron beam in normal operation, ion-ion collisions and increase their charge. When this
but in the present experiments, we operate it at lower increased ion charge density reaches the cathode, it
voltage (12 MV), reduced current (150 kA), and longer bootstraps currents into an abnormal impedance collapse.
pulse (~ 70 ns FWHM). Forty-five degree slant targets and larger anode cylindrical
574
walls appear to delay impedance collapse for the same
AK gap (Fig. 5).
A number of impedance collapse mitigation methods
have been extensively studied [4] and will be
implemented in future experiments. Among them, an
increase in magnetic insulation will prevent ions from the
diode cylindrical walls reaching the axis. The ions emitted
from the target can be reduced by utilizing a small 1-mm
diameter target. Finally, the counterstreaming ions
following the magnetic field lines can be prevented from
striking the needle if a less-immersed cathode tip is
utilized. A new 60-T diode is being designed that will
offer those capabilities which, we believe, will enable us
to achieve the advanced hydrodynamic radiography goals
of 0.6-mm (FWHM) x-ray spot, 1-kRad dose @ 1 meter
from a 12-14 MeV electron beam. Figure 6. Measured beam offsets (ε) in SABRE and
HERMES III are in very good agreement with
theory and numerical simulation.
4 SUMMARY
SABRE and HERMES III experiments demonstrated
that IVA/immersed diode technology can produce
onset of millimeter size x-ray sources capable of penetrating very
bipolar dense objects. The observed ion hose instabilities can be
monopolar
impedance controlled to acceptable levels with 50-60-T confining
magnetic fields. The abnormal diode impedance behavior
is well understood and mitigating diode designs are under
construction for future IVA experiments. SABRE and
HERMES-III results (normal diode operation) are in full
normal abnormal agreement with theory and numerical simulations.
5 REFERENCES
[1] M. G. Mazarakis, et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 70, 832,
Figure 4. HERMES-III immersed diode current and 1997.
voltage time behavior for a 22-cm AK gap. [2] C. L. Olson, et al., “Physical Picture of Immersed
Diode Experiments on HERMES-III and SABRE,”
Proc. IEEE 25 th Int. Conf. On Plasma Science,
Raleigh, NC, p. 211 (1998).
[3] B. V. Oliver, et al., “2-D Electron Dynamics in a
Magnetically Immersed Foilless Diode,” Proc. IEEE
25 th Int. Conf. On Plasma Science, Raleigh, NC, p.
256 (1998).
[4] D. R. Welch, “Impedance Reduction Mechanisms in
a Magnetically Immersed Electron Diode,” Proc.
IEEE 25th Int. Conf. On Plasma Science, Raleigh,
NC, p. 256 (1998).
Figure 5. The time duration of the normal diode
operation increases with the AK gap spacing
and orientation of the converter front surface.
575
HIGH PERFORMANCE PULSE MODULATOR FOR 80MW S-BAND
KLYSTRON IN SPring-8 LINAC
T.Hori, H.Yoshikawa, T.Kobayashi, T.Asaka, H.Sakaki, S.Nagasawa, and H.Yokomizo
Japan Synchrotron Radiation Research Institute
SPring-8,Mihara, Mikazuki-cho, Sayo-gun, Hyogo, 679-5198, Japan
Abstract
Table 1: Specifications of E3712 S-band Klystron
An 190MW compact pulse modulator is constructed
typical max.
to test spare 80MW S-band klystrons( E3712 TOSHIBA )
Peak RF output power 80 MW
and 2 different type thyratrons( F351 TRITON, CX1937A
Beam voltage 396 kV
EEV), as well as to provide R&D tool for the development Beam current 480 A
of high performance modulator. Typical specifications of Efficiency 44 %
the modulator are 190MW peak power, 390kV peak beam Gain 55 dB
voltage, 60pps pulse repetition rate, 2.2S flat-top pulse Microperviance 1.96
width with less than 0.15% of beam voltage. Compared Pulse width (beam) 6.2 µS
with conventional modulator, new technologies were used Pulse width (RF) 5.0 µS
in the several points such as a 40MHz inverter power sup- Drive power 300 500 W
Pulse repetition rate 60 pps
ply, a command charging, a remotely controlled tunable
Frequency 2856 MHz
slug of PFN coil to improve the stability of the output volt-
age, to prevent a thyratron prefire and to achieve an easy
adjustment of pulse flatness.
Table 2: Main specifications of the test modulator
1 INTRODUCTION
Peak output power 190 MW
The S-band injector linac of SPring-8 is 140m Average output power 78 kW
long, and maximum electron energy is 1.15GeV. The PFN charging voltage 50 kV
main high power RF components of linac are composed PFN impedance 2.85 Ω
of 13 units of E3712 S-band klystron tube and conven- Peak swiching current 8772 A
tional pulse modulator. Table 1 shows the specifications Pulse width (ESW) 5.5 µS
of E3712 klystron.The conventional pulse modulator for Pulse width (flat top) > 2µS
Pulse flatness ±0.15%
80MW klystron have been operated for 11,000hr in the
Pulse risetime <1.5µS
past two years. It is a line type pulser because of its well-
Pulse falltime < 3.0 µS
established technology and reliability. In order to make a Pulse repetition rate 60 pps
pulse modulator more efficient, the high performance mod- Pulse transformer turn ratio 1 : 17
ulator was designed since last years,aiming at easy mainte-
nance, compact size, low cost, high stability. A test mod-
ulator was constructed using three inverter type HV power
supplies in paralled for the charging power supply. This pa- and the peak current of more than 8160A. In order to ac-
per presents the circuit design, specifications and the per- celerate an electron beam with the pulse width of 1sec,
formance data. the flat-top of klystron beam voltage is required to be more
than 2sec. The long-term regulation and the pulse flat-
2 MODULATOR SPECIFICATION ness of the klystron beam voltage is decided to be less than
0.15% to prevent RF phase modulation and microwave
Table 2 shows the main specifications of test mod- power fluctuation.
ulator. As the 80MW klystron tube requires about 400
kV on its cathode voltage and the thyratron anode volt- 3 MODULATOR CIRCUITS
age should be less than 50kV, a pulse transformer with turn
ratio of 1:17 was selected.Therefore, the modulator gen- Fig.1 shows simplified circuit diagram of the test
erates pulses with the peak voltage of more than 23.5kV modulator. The features of this modulator are :
576
420V
3 Φ 60Hz
PFN 2 PARALLEL
U 10&LH 16 SECTION
V X
Y
W Z
G
THYRATRON
NFB
CONT
EEV CX1937
OR
KLYSTRON
TRITON F351 E3712
GRD X
Y
Z P.T
G
CONT
1:17
GROUND I SHUNT
X
SWITCH
Y
Z
G
CONT
KLY.BEAM
KLY.HEATER VOLT
G2 TRI THY.HEATER CORE BIAS
UNIT & RESERVOIR SUPPLY
SUPPLY
BIAS KEEP G1 TRI KLY.BEAM
ALIVE UNIT UNIT CURRENT
CHARGING UNIT DISCHARGING UNIT
Figure 1: The simplified circuit diagram of the test modulator
2. Counter circuit to detect thyratron misfire.
Table 3: Specifications of major parts in the test modulator
The modulator cabinet size ( involved power supplies rack)
Inverter power supply Model 303S A.L.E SYSTEMS, INC. is 2700(W) 2300(H) 1500(D), this is 57% of the
!!Output voltage 50kV current cabinet volume of the SPring-8 modulator. Table
current 1.5A 3 shows the specifications of major parts in test modula-
Charge rate average 30kJ/s
tor.The inverter power supplies are state of the art switch
peak 37.5kJ/s
Voltage regulation < 0.1% mode power supply,designed primarily for use in pulsed
Efficiency 90% power applications such as laser system and capacitor
charging.The voltage reversal which is cause by mismatch-
Thyratron shunt diode 45 (2.5kV,7.7A) in series
R 8 (15 Ω,500W) in series,parallel
ing a PFN characteristics impedance and klystron tube
impedance forces a large surge current to flow through the
Tail clipper diode 10 (5kV,4.5A) in series output rectifiers in the inverter power supply. Therefore,the
R 4 (10 Ω,500W) in series,parallel
protection circuit with series terminating resistors and free-
Serge dispiker C 0.0325µ F, 55kV DC wheeling diodes was carefully designed.
R 6 (25 Ω,500W) in series,parallel
PFN 2 parallel, 16section
C total 32 (0.0325µF, 55kV)
4 ACHIEVED PERFORMANCE
L total 32 (0.28µH, max.)
A preliminary test of new modulator was started in
Thyratron CX1937A EEV (75kV, 15,000A) April and initial data have been obtained. Fig.2 shows the
F351 TRITON (55kV, 10,000A) one cycle of charging voltage profile of PFN capacitors, as
Triaxial cable model# TRIAXIAL Isolation Design set a PFN voltage of 2035kV at 5kV step. The time added
Pulse transformer 1 : 17 ratio
charge time to dwell time is fixed 15ms, and the charge time
SI - 8164 Stangenes Industries, Inc. was varied linearly along with PFN charging voltage. In the
case of change a pulse repetition rate, only the dead time
is changed. Fig.3 shows the typical waveform of klystron
beam voltage and its flat-top(Beam voltage and current are
1. Direct constant current charging by three inverter
396kV,480A). In this case, the test modulator was oper-
power supplies.
ated at repetition rate of 30pps and a PFN charging voltage
2. Without De-Qing circuit. of 51.1kV. After carefully adjusting tunable slug of PFN
3. Command charging. coils, the flat-top pulse width of klystron beam voltage was
4. Improvement of maintenance due to reduction achieved the 2.2s with 0.15% which is designed values.
of several high voltage components,for example The long-term(30hr)operational characteristics of klystron
IVR,charging choke,hold-off diodes,etc. beam voltage was investigated in condition at repetition
In addition to these points , we designed as follows : rate of 30pps, a PFN charging voltage of 40kV, two inverter
power supplies. As a result, test modulator has achieved the
1. Remote control for tunable slug of PFN coils.
577
output voltage fluctuation of less than 0.15%. 1. The deficiency of cooling water capacity supplied for
inverter power supply
The high voltage parts of inverter power supply is
mounted in Freon liquid, and the cooling method
which is condensed evaporated Freon by cooling wa-
ter was adopted. In case of repetition rate of 60pps
and a PFN voltage of 50kV, inverter power supply
was stopped by internal temperature interlock after 40
minutes operation.Our cooling water system is able
to supply at a rate of 8`/min. and 3234C water
through three inverter power supplies. Even thought
these values are within the upper limit of required
cooling water specifications, the cooling water defi-
Vertical :10kV/div ciency may be a main reason to stop long-term opera-
Horizontal :2.5mS/div
tion.
Figure 2: Charging Voltage Waveform of PFN 2. The power factor of inverter power supply
It is described that the power factor of inverter power
supply is 0.9 in instruction manual. But in present, the
power factor was measured to be about 0.67 in case of
repetition rate of 40pps and a PFN charging voltage
of 50kV. It is necessary to improve the power factor of
inverter power supply by way of reconsidering both
the choke coil inductance in smoothing circuits and
the charging time of PFN.
6 CONCLUSION
High performance modulator for 80MW klystron
Vertical :80kV/div
Horizontal :2S/div was designed and fabricated,good performance which the
flat-top width of klystron beam voltage with 0.15%
Figure 3: Klystron Beam voltage waveform flatness was 2.2s and voltage regulation was less than
0.15% for long-term operation has achieved. To oper-
ate continuously the test modulator for full operation, the
deficiency of cooling water capacity and the power factor
of inverter power supply should be improved.
7 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to express their thanks to
Messrs. H.Misawa, K.Nishio and H.Kouzu of TOSHIBA
Co. for the fabrication and adjustment of the test modula-
tor and to operators of SPring-8 service corporation for the
useful support.
Vertical :2kV/div
Horizontal :400nS/div
8 REFERENCES
Figure 4: Flat-top of klystron beam voltage
[1] H.Yonezawa et al.,”Development of a 100MW S-band Pulse
Klystron”,Particle Accelerators,1990,Vol.30,pp.219-224.
[2] J.S.Oh et al.,”Efficiency Issue in C-band Klystron-Modulator
5 DISCUSSION System for Linear Collider”,PAC97,KEK Preprint 97-51,June
1997A.
We have fabricated a test modulator and tested its
performance. This modulator have not yet satisfied with [3] T.Shintake et al.,”C-band Klystron &RF-System Develop-
full operation, which is to be used three inverter power sup- ment”, The 11th Symposium on Accelerator Science and Tech-
nology,October 21-23 1997,pp.335-337.
plies, a repetition rate of 60pps and a PFN voltage of 50kV.
Speculated causes of the problem are as follows,
578
THE BRIDGE COUPLING CAVITIES IN THE SEPARATED
DRIFT TUBE LINAC STRUCTURE
V.V. Paramonov, L.V. Kravchuk, A.S. Levchenko
Institute for Nuclear Research, 117312, Moscow, Russia
T. Kato, F. Naito, Y. Yamazaki,
KEK, National Laboratory for High Energy Physics, Oho 1-1, Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki-ken, 305, Japan
Abstract to modified accelerating cell which is displaced from beam
axis. In order to reduce the rf losses in the bridge cavity one
The Separated Drift Tube Linac (SDTL) structure was pro-
should provide asymmetrical coupling in intermediate cell
posed for medium energy range of proton linacs. The ac-
celerating cavity consists of several SDTL units with fo-
1
k2 > k1 . If total tank has M SDTL sections, M , bridges
cusing lenses between sections. To drive several SDTL
sections from single RF source, application of both RF
power dividers and coupling bridge cavities seems feasible.
Through bridge couplers, the field distribution, in both am-
plitude and phase, is automatically stabilised among con-
nected sections in the lowest order. Additional rf power
dissipation of an order of several percents is inevitable in
the bridge coupler because of its standing-wave operation.
In this paper particularities and limitations for coupling
bridges in the SDTL tanks are considered. Well known
cylindrical bridge cavities (CBC) may be used. To main-
tain features of the SDTL structure as the easy-to-do low-
cost one, Rectangular Directly Coupled Bridges (RDCB)
look more preferable. Developed and realised in Moscow
Meson Facility linac, RDCB operates in T E10N mode and Figure 1: A sketch of the tanks coupled by CBC (a) and
originally has no mode mixing problem. To simplify man- RDCB (b).
ufacturing procedure, RDCB design is based on parts of
standard waveguide. The philosophy of SDTL-RDCB tank 2( 1) 4
and M , coupling cells, there will be M , modes 3
and results of preliminary consideration are presented. in the T M010 -like passband. Central operating mode is the
2
= mode, position of nearest modes mainly depends on k1
1 INTRODUCTION value, the bandwidth of the passband - on k2 value. Addi-
%
tional rf losses for such option were estimated as 3.3 for
Attractive features of the bridge coupled system are well
known and have been proved experimentally for Coupled
k2 =k 1=4 %
, k2 =1.8 [2]. As the result of comparison of
different CBC types, the multy-cell bridge cavity [5] looks
Cells accelerating Structures (CCS) at high frequencies as a preferable CBC solution.
1000 MHz in several laboratories. The bridge coupling
cavities can also be applied for SDTL structure [1], tak- 2.2 Direct coupling
ing into account SDTL particularities. The consideration
Another concept of coupling bridge cavities is possible
of bridge coupler in SDTL structure has been performed
[6]. To illustrate the philosophy of RDCB, let consider
[2] as one option possible for 200 MeV linac accelerating
bi-periodic chain of coupled cavities (Fig.1a) . First type
structure. Two concepts of coupling bridges are possible.
of cavities are cylindrical ones, exited in T M010 mode.
Both CBC and RDCB have been considered. Below we
The second type of cavities are rectangular ones, exited
summarise results of consideration [2] and results of fur-
in T E10n mode. To simplify manufacturing procedure for
ther investigations for SDTL-RDCB tank.
rectangular cavity, let chose transversal dimensions equal
to dimensions of standard waveguide recommended at op-
2 CONCEPTS OF COUPLING erating frequency. With such choice we automatically
solve mode-mixing problem for RDCB, because dimen-
2.1 Coupling with intermediate coupling cell
sions of waveguide are defined for single mode operation of
Application of CBC for high frequency (700 MHz) SDTL T E10 wave. Both types of cavities are coupled trough cou-
was considered in [3]. Following the well known concept pling slots, forming the chain of coupled cavities, in which
[4], a CBC is attached to the SDTL section through in- cylindrical cavities are equivalent to accelerating cells, and
termediate coupling cell (Fig.1a). In the chain of coupled rectangular cavities - for coupling ones. The coupling slots
cells, which describes total tank, bridge cavity is equivalent are placed to couple H component in cylindrical cavity
582
with Hx in rectangular one. Let define the mode in the rect- period SDTL sections with operating frequency f0 324 =
angular cavity, for example T E10N , and choose the length =
MHz [2] T M011 mode is far enough for 0.3, F 17 =
of the cavity to have the frequency of this mode equal to = =
MHz, and closer, F 3.8 MHz, for 0.55. To reduce
operating frequency of accelerating cells. We get usual T M011 mode passband influence, one should restrict the
chain of coupled cavities which is well known from CCS value of coupling coefficient k to keep the bandwidth of the
description [4]. If one match frequencies of accelerating
T M010 passband several times less than F . The coupling
mode (operating mode of the tank, really it is the frequency with T M011 (and all odd T M01n modes too) mode can be
of SDTL sections taking into account effect of coupling avoided by the coupling of the bridge coupler in the middle
slots) and coupling mode (the frequency of rectangular cav- of the SDTL cavity [3]. This [2] case CBC should have the
ity also taking into account effect of coupling slots), one 7 =
length and for f0 324 MHz it is equal to 1940-3560
will have accelerating system, consisting from two types mm, 0.3 0.55. Practically we have to place in par-
of cells, with continuous dispersion curve. If we have M allel additional line of cylindrical cavities, comparable in
( 1)
SDTL sections in the tank and M , bridges, operating dimensions with SDTL sections. It leads to increasing of
2 1
passband will have M , modes. Central, operating mode the costs for accelerating system manufacturing.
2
is = mode, with strong field in accelerating (SDTL) sec- If 4, 6 or 8 sections are coupled with bridges, coupling at
tions and weak field in coupling cells (RDCB) and with all the ends of SDTL sections is possible, because coupling
properties of stabilisation. One should take into account with T M011 mode at one end compensates such coupling at
that for odd N mode T E10N has Hx component of differ- another end. If two SDTL sections are coupled with bridge
ent signs at the ends of the bridge. This case at operating couplers, coupling in the middle of the section looks rea-
2
= mode phase shift between SDTL sections is . For 2 sonable.
even N coupling coefficients kc at the ends of RDCB has Coupling slots decrease the frequency and we have local
the same sign and phase shift between SDTL sections is . detuning of order 2 4 MHz in one SDTL period. This
The evident question to be answered - how can we match detuning is big enough and should be compensated by in-
such directly coupled bridges with the driving waveguide, creasing of the gap length to avoid deterioration of the field
if there are no field in the bridge cavity at operating mode? distribution inside SDTL section.
This statement is only the result of our analysis based on
single-mode approximation to describe RDCB. In the study 4 THE EXAMPLE OF SDTL-RDCB TANK
of multy-mode approximation for RDCB description, one
will find weak, but nonzero field in bridges at operating
mode, sufficient to match with driving waveguide. For odd
2
N the field in RDCB at operating = mode can be rep-
resented as the sum over T E10n modes with even n, for
even N - with odd n. RDCB were proposed for high en-
ergy accelerating structures, tested at high rf power level
with the Disk and Washer and Annular Coupled structures
[7] and long time successfully operate in the main part of
the Moscow Meson Facility linac.
3 PARTICULARITIES
If coupling bridges are attached to the ends of SDTL sec-
tions, they will couple both operating T M010 modes and all
high order T M01m modes, including nearest T M011 ones.
With increasing of kc bandwidths rise both for T M010
passband and for T M011 one too. If passbands will over-
lap, one will have mode mixing problem, leading to se- Figure 2: The sketch of SDTL-RDCB tank
rious problems with the field distribution at the operat-
ing mode and reduction of the stability. There will be
Let consider two SDTL sections coupled in the mid-
slope in the field distribution at operating frequency, related
with T M011 mode influence which is especially danger-
dle with RDCB (Fig.2). The inter-section length is 2
ous in the transient. The frequency difference F between
0
[2] and RDCB should provide phase shift between sec-
tions, so T E10N mode with odd N should be chosen. It
T M011 and T M010 modes can be estimated as:
means, that RDCB length along ’middle line’ L +2
H (see
F 8Nf20 2 (1)
2
Fig.2) should be close to N = L +2
H , where is
p wavelength of the T E10 wave in the waveguide. In addi-
tion to [2], below we consider RDCB produced from stan-
where Np is the number of periods in the SDTL section, dard waveguide WR2300 ( = 151.53 cm at f0 324.0=
is relative velocity of particles. For particular case 5 MHz). To combine requirements of distance between cou-
583
pling slots L = 7 and the total length of the bridge cou- ditional rf losses in the bridge. The dimensions of coupling
pler L +2H N =2, RDCB should be formed in -shape slot were optimized to reduce rf currents redistribution in
(Fig.2). For the beginning of the SDTL accelerating struc- SDTL walls. Results of SDTL-RDCB with usual coupling
ture =0.314 T E105 RDCB mode is suitable. With the in- slots also show [2]. tolerable decrease in Ze 0.5 7%
creasing of along the structure H decreases to maintain for coupling kc 0.4 3%. No significant distortions in
total length L +2H and when H becomes insufficient from the field distribution at operating mode in SDTL sections
technological requirements, T E105 RDCB mode have to be have been found (e 0.1%). With increasing of the at 1
changed to T E107 one. RDCB is equipped with two plug cm length of one RDCB tuner and decreasing for another
tuners (Fig.2). With simultaneous moving of RDCB tuners the ratio of average electric field between SDTL sections
we can change own frequency of RDCB, tuning position changes at 1.67%, operating frequency changes at 1.5 kHz.
of nearest modes practically without changing of operating With the removing of one SDTL end tuner (it corresponds
frequency of total cavity. With opposite moving of RDCB detuning of the end SDTL cell at 650 kHz) operating fre-
tuners one changes level of rf field between SDTL sections. quency of the tank changes at 70 kHz (in fine agreement
It is very useful also to have several tuners in SDTL section. with averaging of frequency errors) and the change in aver-
Two tuners near ends are intended to control operating fre- age field level between SDTL section is 0.05%. Inside de-
quency and field distribution inside SDTL section. It may tuned SDTL section field slope 2.9% exists in good agree-
be shown, that standard deviation of the electric field dis- ment with estimation (2).
tribution e in SDTL section (without post couplers) is re-
s4 X
lated with standard deviation of frequencies of SDTL cells 5 SUMMARY
f as:
4
fm
The multi-cell CBC may be used for coupling of the SDTL
e f sections. For the operating frequency 324 MHz bridge cav-
Np (f02 , fm2 )2 (2)
ity diameter is 650 mm, diameter of coupling cell is
420 mm. To avoid mode mixing in SDTL cavities, cou-
where fm are the frequencies of high T M01m modes and
pling coefficient should be small, leading to the reduction
TM011 one provides the biggest contribution into e . Two
in the passband width and closing of the nearest modes.
tuners near ends of the SDTL section allow to compensate
RDCB may be a good option for the coupling of SDTL sec-
T M011 mode contribution and release tolerances for SDTL
tions. In comparison with CBC with intermediate coupling
manufacturing in 3 times. Moreover, SDTL tuners in the
cells RDCB have:
first and last cells are useful to compensate detuning of
- better mode separation with smaller rf losses,
cells due to absence of a half of stems. Central SDTL tuner
- smaller transverse dimensions,
is intended to compensate detuning of the middle cell due
- flexible tuning of rf field between SDTL sections,
to coupling slot. If this compensation is done, the central
- simpler manufacturing and tuning procedure.
tuner is not necessary. Numerical simulation of rf param-
eters has been performed for the SDTL-RDCB tank cavity
for =0.314 by using 3D code MAFIA with total number 6 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
of mesh points near 1:5 106 . RDCB tuners are suggested The authors thank Dr. P.N. Ostroumov, Dr. V.G. Andreev
15 cm in diameter and 4 cm in length. SDTL tuners are and Prof. S.K. Esin for valuable discussion.
supposed 10 cm in diameter and 4 cm in length. At first,
reference values for SDTL section (without RDCB) have
been obtained for operating frequency. RDCB tunes by
7 REFERENCES
adjusting H parameter (see Fig.2). The coupling slot 24 [1] T. Kato, Proposal of a Separated Type Proton Drift Tube
cm x 27 cm reduces the frequency of middle SDTL cell Linac... , KEK Report, 92-10, (1992).
at 2.61 MHz and this reduction was compensated by in- [2] JHF Accelerator Design Study Report, KEK Report 97-16,
creasing of the gap length at 2.4 mm. After RDCB tun- JHF-97-10, Sec. 4.5.8 Bridge Coupler.
ing for T M010 mode passband were obtained - operating [3] R. Garnett et al. Design and Simulation of a Bridge-Coupled
frequency f0 =323.999 MHz, another T M010 -like modes DTL..., Proc. of the Linac92 Conference, v.2, p.824.
with frequencies f, =322.286 MHz and f+ =325.627
MHz. The kc value for this case is k = f+f,0f, = 1%.
[4] E.A. Knapp et al, Standing wave high energy accelerating
structures, Rev. of Sci. Instr. v. 39, p. 979, (1968)
For this SDTL-RDCB options numerical calculations show
[5] Y. Morozumi et al, Multy-Cavity Bridge Coupler, Proc. of the
no additional rf losses with respect to reference values
Linac90 conference, p.153.
for SDTL sections (reduction in shunt impedance Ze is
0.16%). There are two reasons for additional rf losses - [6] V.G. Andreev et al, Bridge Device for Cavities of a Proton
rf losses in the RDCB cavity and redistribution of rf cur- Linac..., RTI, Moscow, N20, p47, 1974 (in Russian).
rents at the SDTL walls due to coupling slot influence. The [7] V.G. Andreev et al, Results of the high power test, RTI,
own quality factor Q of RDCB cavity is high ( 48000) Moscow, N25, p123, 1976 (in Russian).
and comparable with Q-factor of SDTL sections (Q
53000). By choosing high Q RDCB cavity we decrease ad-
584
OPTIMIZATION ON WAKEFIELD DAMPING IN C-BAND
ACCELERATING STRUCTURE
N. Akasaka, T. Shintake and H. Matsumoto
KEK, High Energy Accelerator Research Organization, 1-1 Oho, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 3050801 Japan
Abstract deliberately arranged to realize fast smear out of the wake
field. In the latter scheme, on the other hand, the HOM’s
Multi-bunch acceleration in the future e+e- Linear are damped and the HOM spectrum becomes broad even
Collider projects requires sufficient suppression of for one cell.
transverse wakefield for high luminosity. The C-band In the C-band linear collider project [1,2], choke-mode
accelerating structure consists of the choke-mode cavity to cavity [3] is adopted for the accelerator structure in the
damp the wakefield. In order to achieve the maximum main linac. Figure 1 shows the C-band accelerating
damping, optimization of wakefield absorber was structure. The whole accelerating structure is constructed
necessary. After the optimization, the transverse wakefield by stacking axially-symmetric cells. The wakefield
is sufficiently damped below the desirable level. generated by a bunch goes out of the cell through the
radial line, whereas the accelerating field is confined by
1 INTRODUCTION the choke. The wakefield is absorbed by the SiC ring at
In the future e+e- linear colliders, multi-bunch operation the outside of the choke. The choke-mode cavity is
is necessary for high luminosity. In multi-bunch sometimes referred to as “heavily damped structure”
operation, long-range transverse wakefield, which is because of its high damping performance.
generated by the leading bunches passing the accelerating The C-band accelerating structure is now under
structure with an finite offset, deflects the orbit of the fabrication [4] to be tested at ASSET in SLAC, where the
following bunches. In order to prevent the degradation of long-range transverse wakefield will be measured using a
the luminosity due to the orbit deflection, the wakefield driving bunch and a witness bunch passing through the
must be sufficiently damped after the bunch spacing with accelerating structure with an offset.
practical alignment tolerance. In this paper, its design procedure relating to wakefield
Long-range ringing of the wakefield can be shortened damping is presented. First, the optimization of the
by broadening its spectrum. There are two promising wakefield absorber for a single cell is described in section
techniques to increase the spectrum width of the wakefield 2. Next, the transverse wakefield averaged over the
in an accelerating structure: detuning and damping. In the accelerating structure is calculated in section 3.
former scheme, the distribution of the higher order mode
(HOM) frequency in one or more accelerating structures is 2 OPTIMIZATION PROCEDURE OF
SINGLE-CELL DAMPING
MC-Multilam spring The frequency of HOM’s is not constant along the
accelerating structure since it is a semi-constant gradient
Wakefield Absorber Electro-platedCopper
SiC Ring
structure. The result of the optimization is different
depending on the dimensions of the cell.
2.1 Reflection of the Wakefield by the Choke
w
Choke Filter
λ/4 A part of the wakefield is reflected at the choke even
Trapped
rabs
Accelerating
Mode
1.0
148
15
44
BEAM
0.8
0.6
|S21|
0.4
0.2
0.0
5 6 7 8 9 10
19.7
Frequency [GHz]
Figure 1: C-band choke-mode structure. Figure 2: Dipole transmission of the choke.
588
lossy material Table 1: Parameters of the C-band accelerating structure.
The form n1 - n2 indicates n1 at upstream and n2 at
downstream.
r
Frequency 5712 GHz
Phase Shift per cell 3π/4
Field distribution semi C.G.
Figure 3: Dummy absorber for calculating optimum Number of cells 91
reflection coefficient. Iris aperture (2a) 17.4 - 12.54 mm
Cavity diameter (2b) 45.3 - 43.3 mm
though the radial line of the choke-mode structure Disk thickness (t) 3 mm
effectively extracts the wakefield. This can be a serious Group velocity 0.035 - 0.012 c
problem when the main frequency component of the Quality factor 10.7 - 10.3 103
wakefield is near the dipole stop frequency of the choke. Shunt impedance 53.0 - 67.3 MΩ/m
In our case, the main contribution to the transverse
wakefield comes from TM110, whose peak frequency
ranges from 7.4 to 8 MHz depending on the iris aperture 2.3 Determining the Absorber Dimensions
2a.
Figure 2 is the transmission coefficient of the choke As shown in Fig. 1, the wakefield absorber is an ring
for the lowest dipole mode calculated with MAFIA 2D of SiC ceramics with a rectangular cross-section. This
time-domain solver (T2). The peak frequency of TM110 is simple shape was adopted for three reasons: (i) it is easy
in the region between the two dashed lines, which to fabricate, (ii) the reflection coefficient at the TM110
indicates that only 1/3~1/2 of the energy of TM110 frequency can be easily changed by changing its width w,
wakefield is transmitted to the absorber. Because of this and (iii) the reflection coefficient above the TM110
effect, simple matched (no reflection) absorber at the frequency is relatively low. The width of the SiC ring is
outer end of the radial line does not provide sufficient determined to realize the amplitude of the optimum
damping. This problem was solved by deliberately reflection coefficient at the frequency of TM110.
introducing reflection to the absorber. Although the reflection coefficient is optimized only at
the frequency of TM110, absorbing all the field energy is
2.2 Optimum Reflection from the Absorber sufficient for smaller peaks at higher frequency as can be
seen in the next section.
Before designing a realistic absorber, a simple wedge-
The calculated transverse wakefield is shown in Fig. 4
shaped lossy material, which is shown in Fig. 3, was
for the most upstream cell (2a = 17.4) and the most
used in the calculation of the optimum reflection
downstream cell (2a = 12.54). In the figure, the thin
coefficient. The amplitude and phase of the reflection
lines are the wakefield with a matched absorber and the
coefficient can be changed by the imaginary part of the
thick lines are with the optimized absorber. With an
permittivity and the radial position of the lossy material,
optimized absorber, the damping time is 2 or 3 times
respectively. Then the transverse wakefield and impedance
shorter than with a matched absorber. The damping time
were calculated by MAFIA T2. The optimum reflection
of the upstream cell is longer than that of the downstream
coefficient was determined where the peak height of
cell since the frequency of TM110 is lower at the
TM110 becomes the lowest. Typical amplitude of the
upstream cell.
optimum reflection coefficient is 0.55.
10 upstream (a) 20 downstream (b)
W⊥ [V/pC/m/mm]
W⊥ [V/pC/m/mm]
5 10
0 0
-5 -10
-10 -20
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
s[m] s[m]
Figure 4: Dipole wakefield calculated by MAFIA T2 for (a) the most upstream cell (2a = 17.40) and (b) the most
downstream cell (2a = 12.54). The thin lines are the wakefield with the matched (no reflection) absorber and the thick
lines are with the optimized absorber.
589
15 1.5 10
(a) TM110 (b)
10 1.0
W⊥ [V/pC/m/mm]
scale magnified by 10
Z⊥ [kΩ/m/mm]
5 0.5 1
0 0.0
-5 -0.5 0.1
-10 -1.0
-15 -1.5 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 5 10 15 20
s [m] Frequency [GHz]
Figure 5: (a) The dipole wakefield averaged over the whole accelerating structure. (b) The impedance calculated from
the wakefield.
cell.
3 DAMPING OF THE WHOLE The result of the optimization is listed in Table 2. The
STRUCTURE width of the SiC ring is decided to be constant along the
The parameters of the C-band accelerating structure is accelerating structure since the optimized amplitude of the
summarized in Table 1. The iris aperture 2a changes reflection coefficient was almost the same for the four
linearly with the cell number from 17.4 to 12.54 and the regions.
cell diameter 2b also changes to keep the frequency of the 3.2 Total Wakefield
fundamental mode constant. This variation of the cell
structure introduces detuning of HOM’s and additional The wakefield of the whole accelerating structure is
spectrum broadening. All the choke dimensions including obtained approximately by averaging the wakefield
its radial position are the same for the whole structure. calculated at equally spaced 12 points. Figure 5 shows the
averaged transverse wakefield and impedance. The peak of
3.1 Absorber Dimensions TM110 is still the highest one even after the
For simplicity of the absorber design, the whole optimization.
structure is divided into four regions of equal length. In In the case of C-band main linac, the bunch separation
each region, the absorber dimensions are determined by is 2.8 nsec (0.84 m). The upper limit on the transverse
the optimization procedure descried above at the center wakefield corresponding to 30 µm alignment tolerance is
0.7 V/pC/m/mm at s = 0.84 m. From Fig. 5(a), the
averaged wakefield is below this upper limit.
Table 2: Optimized absorber dimensions. w and rabs are
defined in Fig. 1. 4 LOW-LEVEL MEASUREMENT
cell No. 2 - 22 23 - 45 46 - 68 69-90 The transmission of a single cell was measured with
w 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 two antenna-type probes on both sides of the cell. The
rabs 46.5 46.5 45.5 44.5 distance of the probes from the center axis of the cell is
5 mm and their azimuth is the same. An example of
measured spectrum with and without SiC absorber is
-10
TM010 plotted in Fig. 6. With SiC, sharp peaks are all damped.
-20 Further wake measurement for the whole accelerating
structure will be done at ASSET.
-30 TM110
|S21| [dB]
-40 REFERENCES
[1] T. Shintake et al., “C-band RF-system Development
-50
for e+e- Linear Collider,” APAC98, KEK, March 23-
-60 without SiC 27, 1998.
with SiC [2] http://c-band.kek.jp/.
-70
0 5 10 15 20
[3] T. Shintake, “The Choke Mode Cavity”, Jpn. J.
Frequency [GHz] Appl. Phys. 31, L1567-L1570 (1992).
[4] H. Matsumoto et al., “A Fabrication of the C-band
Figure 6: Measured transmission spectrum of the 44th (5712 MHz) Choke-Mode Type Damped Accelerator
cell. Structure,” in this conference.
590
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR MULTIPLE-BEAM RFQ STRUCTURES
V. Kapin, M. Inoue, Y. Iwashita and A. Noda
Accelerator Lab., Inst. Chem. Res., Kyoto University
Gokanosho, Uji, Kyoto 611, Japan
modes having simple field patterns. In the transmission
Abstract
line with N-conductors there are N normal TEM modes.
There are applications, which require MeV-range This technique has been applied to study 4-rod RFQ
multiple-beams consisting of a large number of identical using the four-conductor shielded transmission line
highly packed beamlets. The multiple-beam RFQ (MB- (4CSTL) [2]. In the case of N>4, the analytical
RFQ) arranged as a matrix array of longitudinal rod- definition of normal modes becomes difficult. To
electrodes is appropriate candidate. A configuration of facilitate the study, let us restrict a number of considered
MB-RFQ resonator should ensure identical quadrupole normal modes in the NCSTL. A 4-rod configuration with
fields in every accelerating channel. The MB-RFQ known normal modes is considered as a unit cell.
resonators based on TEM transmission lines are studied. Normal modes of the NCSTL are composed by a
The resonators are designed by a periodical periodical multiplication of a 4-rod unit cell in
multiplication of a 4-rod unit cell in transverse direction. transverse direction.
To understand fields of resonator the normal mode The normal modes in the 4CSTL can be observed in
technique is applied. The resonator field is expanded the resonator shown in Fig.1. All four electrodes are
into normal modes having simple field patterns. In grounded at the same longitudinal position, z=0 and have
general case of resonator with an arbitrary number of open ends at the another end of resonator, z=l.
rods and normal modes, analysis becomes difficult. To
simplify problem, only normal modes composed from y y
+h
four normal modes of a 4-rod unit cell are selected.
Similar to normal modes of a 4-rod unit cell (coaxial, U1 U2
x -h +h
quadrupole and two dipole modes), selected normal x
modes of multi-rod resonator have clear field patterns. U4 U3
Novel configurations of MB-RFQ resonators based on z=0 z=l z
-h
these normal modes are generated. The RF properties of Figure 1: 4-rod RFQ allowing an observation of normal
resonators are verified with computer simulations done modes.
with MAFIA code.
Coaxial mode Dipole (vertical) Dipole (horizontal) Quadrupole mode
1 INTRODUCTION -1 -1 +1 +1 -1 +1 +1 -1
Several multiple-beam RFQ (MB-RFQ) structures has
been proposed to accelerate a number of identical -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 +1 -1 +1
beamlets [1]. These structures consist of matrix array of
longitudinal electrodes. The problem is to define a
configuration of resonator, which ensures identical +1 +1 +1 +1 -1 +1 +1 -1
accelerating fields in every accelerating channel and
preserves high packing of beamlets. +1 +1 -1 -1 -1 +1 -1 +1
In this paper, MB-RFQ structures are treated as the
TEM transmission line resonator. The normal mode
Et = 0 Ht = 0
technique is applied to decompose a complicated field -1 -1 +1 -1 +1 -1
resonator into fields of normal modes.
+1 +1 +1 -1 -1 +1
2 MB-RFQ AS THE TEM RESONATOR
Let us consider MB-RFQ resonator with N quadrupole Figure 2: The E-line patterns of normal modes in the
electrodes as a resonator based on the N-conductor 4CSTL for three types of boundary conditions on shield.
shielded TEM transmission lines (NCSTL). The
propagation of TEM waves is described by the system of Figure 2 shows the E-line patterns of TEM normal
the telegraph equations. To facilitate solution of the modes in the 4CSTL calculated with MAFIA code.
telegraph equation the normal mode technique is usually Three different combinations of two boundary conditions
applied. The resonator field is expanded into normal (perfect conductor, Et=0 or infinitely permeable, Ht=0)
591
on the shield are presented. The first and second type has The quadrupole mode of the type 1 has correct-
four normal modes (coaxial, quadrupole and two dipole). balanced quadrupole potentials for all channels. The
The third type with Ht =0 on all four sides of the shield field of the quadrupole mode increases sinusoidally
has only three modes, because it corresponds to opened along z-direction. This MB-resonator can be used as an
transmission line. initial matching section.
The normal modes in the NCSTL can be observed by Figure 5 shows the MB resonator designed using an
the similar way. The MB resonator with 4x4-matrix extension of 4-rod RFQ in the transverse direction. All
array of electrodes is shown in Fig.3. All electrodes are electrodes are divided into two groups in a chess order.
grounded at the same longitudinal position, z=0 and have The electrodes of two groups are grounded in opposite
open ends at the another end of resonator, z=l. manner.
z=0 y +2h y z=l z=0 y +2h y z=l
U11 U12 U13 U14 -.44 -.20 +.44 +.20
x -2h U21 U22 U23 U24 x x -.44 -1.0 +.44 +1.0 x
U31 U32 U33 U34 -1.0 -.44 +1.0 +.44
+2h
U41 U42 U43 U44
z -.20 -.44 z +.20 +.44
-2h -2h
Figure 3: MB-RFQ resonator with a 4x4-matrix array of Figure 5: MB-RFQ resonator composing by an extension
electrodes allowing an observation of normal modes. of 4-rod RFQ.
Figure 4 shows the E-line patterns of normal TEM The field in this MB-resonator can be interpreted in
modes calculated by MAFIA code. Three types of terms of normal mode technique. The field of the
boundary conditions on the shield are presented. The original 4-rod resonator is described by combination of
values of conductor potentials are shown on the quadrupole and coaxial mode, which has been presented
conductor cross-sections. in [2]. In contrast to 4-rod resonator, the coaxial mode of
MB-RFQ (see Fig.4, Coaxial mode of type 1) has
Type 1 Type 2 Type 3 unequal potentials of electrodes. Therefore, the
+.17 +.41 +.41 +.17 +.41 +1.0 +1.0 +.41 combination of quarupole and coaxial modes in the MB
+.41 +1.0 +1.0 +.41 +.41 +1.0 +1.0 +.41
resonator does not provide a correct excitation of the
electrodes. The voltages on the electrodes surrounding
+.41 +1.0 +1.0 +.41 +.41 +1.0 +1.0 +.41 RFQ-channels deviate from quadrupole symmetry.
+.17 +.41 +.41 +.17 +.41 +1.0 +1.0 +.41
Et = 0 Ht = 0 Figure 6 shows the MB resonator designed using a
periodical multiplication of 4-rod unit cell in the
+1.0 +1.0 -1.0 -1.0 -1.0 -1.0 +1.0 +1.0 -1.0 +1.0 +1.0 -1.0 transverse direction. The field of the 4-rod unit cell of
the resonator is described by combination of the
+1.0 +1.0 -1.0 -1.0 +1.0 +1.0 -1.0 -1.0 +1.0 -1.0 -1.0 +1.0
quadrupole mode and the normal mode shown in the
-1.0 -1.0 +1.0 +1.0 +1.0 +1.0 -1.0 -1.0 +1.0 -1.0 -1.0 +1.0 second row of the first column of Fig.4. The voltages on
-1.0 -1.0 +1.0
electrodes provide a balanced excitation and every
+1.0 -1.0 -1.0 +1.0 +1.0 -1.0 +1.0 +1.0 -1.0
second RFQ-channel can be used for an acceleration of
beamlets.
+.37 -.45 +.33 -.41 +1.0 -1.0 +1.0 -1.0 -.42 +1.0 -1.0 +.42
+.97 -.89 +1.0 -.92 +1.0 -1.0 +1.0 -1.0 -.42 +1.0 -1.0 +.42
z=0 y +2h y z=l
+.92 -1.0 +.89 -.97 +1.0 -1.0 +1.0 -1.0 -.42 +1.0 -1.0 +.42 -1.0 +1.0 -1.0 +1.0
+.41 -.33 +.45 -.37 +1.0 -1.0 +1.0 -1.0 -.42 +1.0 -1.0 +.42 x -1.0 +1.0 -1.0 +1.0 x
+1.0 -1.0 +1.0 -1.0
-1.0 +1.0 -1.0 +1.0 -.41 +.41 -.41 +.41 +.17 -.42 +.42 -.17
+1.0 -1.0 z +1.0 -1.0
+1.0 -1.0 +1.0 -1.0 +1.0 -1.0 +1.0 -1.0 -.42 +1.0 -1.0 +.42 -2h
-1.0 +1.0 -1.0 +1.0 -1.0 +1.0 -1.0 +1.0 +.42 -1.0 +1.0 -.42
Figure 6: MB-RFQ resonator composing by a periodical
multiplication of 4-rod unit cell.
+1.0 -1.0 +1.0 -1.0 +.41 -.41 +.41 -.41 -.17 +.42 -.42 +.17
Recently, a new MB-RFQ structure has been proposed
Figure 4: The E-line patterns of normal modes in the
[1,3]. To preserve high packing of beamlets this
MB-RFQ resonator for three types of boundary
conditions on the shield. structure allows discrete connections of adjacent RFQ
electrodes. The beam dynamics in RFQ-channels is
modified. Beams perform "slalom" motions, utilizing
592
transverse oscillations. The Figure 7 shows the MB- rows is less than the length in the outer cells on the
resonator. value, d.
Fig. 9 shows the distributions of the quadrupole and
z=0 y +2h y z=l dipole voltages in separate channels calculated with
MAFIA code. The quadrupole voltage Vij in the ij-
d channel is calculated from the voltages of electrodes
x -2h x surrounding the channel by the relation
d
+2h Vi, j = (U i , j − U i , j +1 + U i +1, j +1 − U i +1, j ) / 2
z The voltages of horizontal and vertical dipole modes,
-2h
Dhij and Dvij are defined by the following formulas:
Figure 7: MB-RFQ resonator with 4x4-matrix array of
Dhi , j = (U i , j − U i , j +1 − U i +1, j +1 + U i +1, j ) / 2
electrodes.
The field of the MB-resonator with a "slalom" beam is Dvi , j = (U i , j + U i, j +1 − U i +1, j +1 − U i +1, j ) / 2
superposition of quadrupole mode and dipole mode,
For the case of d=0, the values of quadupole voltage,
which are summed at a λ/4 phase shift between each
Vij are different for the middle and outer channels. The
other. Figure 8 shows voltage distributions for this phase shift between quadrupole and dipole voltages
combination of quadrupole and dipole modes in the case
deviates from λ/4 for outer channels. For the optimal
of 4-rod unit cell. The result of summation is given on
value of d=1.8cm, curves of quadrupole voltages became
the right side of the Fig. 8.
very similar and the required phase shift of λ/4 is
restored.
Quadrupole mode
d=0
U2 1.0
V12
U1 z V22
Total TEM field V32
0 Dh12
U4 U2 Dh22
U3 U1
Dv22
Dipole (horizontal) -1.0
mode Dh32
U1 U2 d=1.8cm
z U4 1.0 11 12 13 14
U3 11 12 13
21 22 23 24
0 21 22 23
U4 U3
31 32 33 34
Figure 8: The superposition of quadrupole and dipole 31 32 33
41 42 43 44
modes shifted by λ/4 to each other. -1.0
-0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 z, m
Figure 9: The distributions of the quadrupole and dipole
For the case of MB-RFQ, this combination is extended voltages in separate channels calculated with MAFIA
to the superposition of quadrupole mode of type 1 and code.
dipole mode of type 2 (see Fig.4). For a real
configuration of MB-RFQ resonator, the boundary 3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
conditions on all tank walls must correspond to a perfect
conductor. The dipole mode of type 2 is replaced by the This study has been conducted under the Postdoctoral
dipole mode of type 1 (see Fig. 2). In contrast to the Fellowship Program for Foreign Researchers of Japanese
dipole mode of type 2, potentials of electrodes Science Promotion Society and supported in part by the
surrounding RFQ-channels for the dipole mode of type 1 Grant-in-Aid for JSPS Fellows from the Ministry of
deviate from a correct dipole field (see Fig.4). As the Education, Science, Sports and Culture of Japan.
result, a total field in the MB-resonator is distorted.
A difference between dipole modes of type 1 and type 4 REFERENCES
2 is appeared as different boundary conditions on the [1] V.Kapin, A.Noda, Y.Iwashita and M. Inoue, Proc.
shield for the upper and lower rows of 4-rod unit cells. XVIII Linear Accelerator Conference, CERN 96-07,
Free frequencies of the outer cells deviate from their 1996, pp. 722-724 and references therein.
values for cells in the middle rows of MB-resonator. The [2] V.Kapin, M.Inoue, Y.Iwashita and A.Noda, ICR
free frequencies of the outer cells should be tuned. The Annual report, Kyoto Univ., Vol.4, 1997, pp. 56-57
free frequency of a 4-rod unit cell depends on an and references therein.
electrical length of conductors. For the MB-resonator [3] V.Kapin, M.Inoue and A.Noda, to be published in
shown in Fig.7, the length of conductors in the middle Proc. EPAC'98.
593
PROTON BEAM STUDIES WITH A 1.25 MeV, CW RADIO
FREQUENCY QUADRUPOLE LINAC*
G.O. Bolme, T.W. Hardek, L.D. Hansborough, D.J. Hodgkins, D.R. Keffeler, J.D. Sherman,
H.V. Smith, R.R. Stevens, L.M. Young, T.J. Zaugg (LANL, Los Alamos, NM), P.P. Balleyguier
(CEA-Bruyeres le Chatel, France), A.H. Arvin, A.S. Bolt, M.C. Richards (SRS, Aiken, SC), and
J.H. Kamperschroer (GA, San Diego, CA)
Abstract The functionality of an injector is best confirmed by
injecting its beam into an RFQ. In preparation for
A high-current, cw linear accelerator has been proposed installing the injector as a component of LEDA, the
as a spallation neutron source driver for tritium availability of the CRITS RFQ provided the opportunity
production. Key features of this accelerator are high for an initial shakedown of the injector. The modification
current (100 mA), low emittance-growth beam of the ion source to 50 kV and adaptation of the LEBT
propagation, cw operation, high efficiency, and minimal exit section to the CRITS RFQ made the LEDA
maintenance downtime. A 268 MHz, cw radio frequency injector/CRITS RFQ configuration a realistic testbed for
quadrupole (RFQ) LINAC section and klystrode based rf injector development. Furthermore, this configuration
system were obtained from the Chalk River Laboratories also supported RFQ experiments to evaluate the system
[1] and were previously installed at LANL [2] to support modeling codes and to learn the details of cw RFQ
systems development and advanced studies in support of operations. Figure 1 shows the full beamline used in this
cw, proton accelerators. A variation of the Low Energy project.
Demonstration Accelerator (LEDA) proton injector,
modified to operate at 50 keV, was mated to the RFQ and
was operated to support advance developments for the
Accelerator Production of Tritium (APT) program. High
current, proton beam studies were completed which
focused on the details of injector-RFQ integration,
development of beam diagnostics, development of
operations procedures, and personnel and equipment safety
systems integration. This development led to acceleration
of up to 100 mA proton beam.
1 INTRODUCTION Figure 1. The LEDA Injector/CRITS RFQ experiment
beamline.
The Chalk River Injector Test Stand (CRITS) was the
LANL designation given to a proton accelerator designed, In order to meet the project objectives, the RFQ
built, and tested at the Chalk River Laboratories (CRL) specific studies focussed on verifying the RFQ field
in Canada. The CRITS accelerator apparatus includes a configuration, successfully operating the RFQ at high
1.25 MeV RFQ accelerator section and a prototype fields, verifying the accelerating fields in the RFQ, and
klystrode-based rf system for powering the RFQ. An accelerating proton beam from the modified LEDA
earlier independent study at LANL, utilizing the RFQ, injector.
focussed on the high-power operation of the rf structure
[2]. 2 RFQ FIELD DISTRIBUTIONS
The LEDA program has the objective of developing a
Although the Q and resonant frequency of the RFQ
high-current, cw injector and the initial rf accelerating
were close to the expected values following shipment of
structures for APT. The LEDA injector is comprised of
the RFQ from CRL, the verification of the modeling
the proton ion source and a Low Energy Beam Transport
codes mandated that the field distribution in the structure
(LEBT) section to the RFQ. A 75 kV, cw proton ion
be confirmed. The insertion of a probe through the
source was developed for LEDA and has produced a proton
vacuum pumping holes in each of the quadrants gave a
beam with measured current and emittance meeting
perturbation measurement of the cavity fields from which
program requirements. A state-of-the-art LEBT was
the dipole field contributions to the quadrupole field were
designed and built to match the ion source beam to the
calculated. The uncorrected dipole fields across quadrants
LEDA RFQ [3].
1 and 3 (dipole 1) were measured up to 14% of the
quadrupole field and up to 8% across quadrants 2 and 4
*Work supported by the US Department of Energy.
(dipole 2). The dipole field distribution along the RFQ
594
length indicated that the vane coupling rings near the ends power based on the SUPERFISH prediction of the design
held the distribution close to the desired quadrupole power level. High-power measurements of the actual field
configuration, thus, dipole field reduction at the center level were made using the x-ray endpoint method [4], a
should achieve an acceptable field pattern in the RFQ. technique pioneered by accelerator scientists at CRL.
Adjustment of movable tuners in quadrants 2 and 4 and Measurements made throughout the duration of the proton
modification of the fixed tuner in quadrant 3 corrected the beam studies verified that the peak intervane gap voltage
field distribution to less than 4% dipole contribution. tracked the measured power levels according to the
This was considered acceptable for the beam studies. expected square root dependency. Figure 3 displays the
Figure 2 displays the corrected and uncorrected dipole gap voltage data and the curve used to project the peak
contributions for dipole 1, the larger of the two dipole intervane gap voltage as a function of measured power.
field distributions.
5 4 SPARK RATE ANALYSIS
During the CRITS RFQ operation, the spark rate has
0 been systematically measured and stored. Every second,
the total number of sparks was read on a counter. Every
-5 minute, the raw number of sparks was stored as well as
the number of seconds with at least one spark. In fact,
-10 this last information was found to be more relevant, since
avalanches of sparks do not bias it. The rf power levels
-15 Corrected
(forward, reflected and in cavity) were also recorded, as
Uncorrected well as the residual vacuum pressure (Figure 4). We
established that the spark rate has some influences on
-20
0 25 50 75 100 125 150
vacuum, but there is no evidence of any reciprocal effect.
Longitudinal Posi tion (cm)
Marc h 16, 1998
beam swiched on RF power (kW)
Figure 2. Dipole 1 contribution to the quadrupole field 200
distribution. forward
150
100
cavity
A subsequent intervane gap measurement verified that 50
the vanes had shifted away from their initial 1 mil re flected
0
Spark rate
tolerance and these gap differences were in agreement with per minute
individual spa rks
vacuum (10 -7 Torr)
the uncorrected dipole distributions. 100 seconds with spa rks
10
3 HIGH-POWER FIELD LEVEL 1
VERIFICATION
11:39 11:54 12:09 12:24 12:39 12:54 13:09 13:24 13:39 13:54 14:09 Time
The calibration of the field sampling loops were
Figure 4. Example of archived rf power operations.
completed using a Hewlett Packard 8753 Network
Analyzer, and the rf signals from these loops at high 10
power were monitored using power meters and Sparking
seconds
oscilloscope measurements of the raw rf signals and diode 3 /min with beam
per
rectified signals. The RFQ was conditioned to high minute
1
100.0 0.5 /mi n
80.0 without
(kV)
0.1
beam
60.0 sl ope : 1.75 Kilp
Gap Voltage
4.5 decade/Kilp
40.0 0.01
1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9
Maximum electrique field (Kilp. unit)
Gap Voltage (kV)
20.0
V=6.14*SQRT(P)
Figure 5. Average spark rates during long runs.
0.0 Within the stored data, a set of long runs (between 22
0.0 50.0 100.0 150.0 200.0 and 163 minutes long) of continuous operation have been
RFQ Cavity Power (kW) extracted: 34 runs without beam and 24 with beam. For
Figure 3. Peak intervane gap voltage versus RFQ cavity each run, the average rate of sparking seconds was
power. computed. As some runs yielded no sparks at all, one
spark has been added arbitrarily to each data point in order
595
to be able to plot the zero-spark points on a log scale using the same units. These data are shown in Figure 6.
(figure 5). This induces a slight bias to the data, but The rf incident power difference and calorimetry
takes into account the fact that rates are more accurate if measurements of the beam as a function of RFQ cavity
acquired over a long run. power show a discrepancy in absolute calibrations, but the
Without beam, the rate is typically 0.5 per min at the knee in the curve for both measurements agree. The
design field (1.75 Kilpatrick, 77.4 kV intervane voltage,
lower RFQ cavity power correlated with the knee for
159 kW measured in the RFQ), i.e. the average time
between two bunches of sparks is two minutes. The beam transmission compared with the other power
slope shows that a 0.22 Kilpatrick decrement in the measurements indicates that beam is transmitted even
electric field lowers the sparking tendency by an order of though it is not accelerated.
magnitude.
During beam operations, the RFQ was run about 10% 6 SUMMARY
below the design field because of a peak rf power The CRITS RFQ proved to be the best test device for
limitation. The rate jumped to 3.0 per minute, depending
checking out all components of the injector. By
neither on the beam current (20 to 80 mA) nor on the
field (1.5 to 1.7 Kilpatrick tested). This is about 6 times optimizing the current through the RFQ, all injector
more than without beam at 1.75 Kilpatrick. systems demonstrated that they could operate across the
With rates such as the ones measured here, one could required parameter space. The procedures developed in
not hope to build an RFQ that would be free of sparks preparing the RFQ for beam and in accomplishing beam
over several months of continuous operation. For LEDA studies should expedite successful operations with the
proton beam operations, it will probably be necessary to LEDA RFQ. The successful transmission of beam
deal with a spark rate which requires that the LINAC currents with good agreement to the simulations [5] also
restart automatically after a short power interruption. provides confidence in the codes as we proceed into future
projects.
5 PROTON BEAM MEASUREMENTS
The proton beam studies with the RFQ proceeded 7 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
cautiously by increasing current only as the injector We would like to thank and express our appreciation
match to the RFQ could be confirmed by the beam to the personnel at Chalk River Laboratories who
transmission. The desired field level for the RFQ was set
designed, fabricated, assembled, and commissioned this
from the x-ray endpoint measurement, but a measurement
accelerator section under the RFQ1 program. They
of beam transmission as a function of the RFQ cavity
power was also used to confirm the expected behavior. provided an RFQ which met its design goals and proved
As expected, a knee in the transmission curve was to be robust enough to operate reliably through a long
observed below the design field level. sequence of structure studies. Furthermore, their brilliant
120.0 and innovative work provided not only the basis for the x-
rf Incident Power Difference
ray endpoint measurement which has proven so valuable
Fully Accelerated Beam Current Power
100.0 at LANL, but also the underlying technical knowledge for
Beam Stop Calorimetry Power
(kW)
80.0
cw, proton accelerator development which has been the
cornerstone of the upcoming LEDA project.
Beam Power
60.0
REFERENCES
40.0
[1] J.Y. Sheikh, et al., "Operation of a High-Power CW
20.0 Klystrode with the RFQ1 Facility", Proc. 1993 Particle
Accel. Conf., IEEE 93CH3279-7, p. 1175.
0.0 [2] G.O. Bolme, et al., "High-Power RF Operations
0.0 40.0 80.0 120.0 160.0 Studies with the CRITS RFQ", Proc. 1995 Particle
RFQ Cavity Power (kW)
Accel. Conf., IEEE 95CH35843, p. 923.
Figure 6. Beam power measurements from rf incident [3] J. Sherman, et al., Rev. Sci. Instrum. 69 (1998)
power difference, beam stop calorimetry, and predicted 1003-1008.
power assuming fully accelerated transmitted beam versus
[4] G.O. Bolme, et al., "Measurement of RF Accelerator
RFQ cavity power.
Cavity Field Levels at High Power from X-ray
As a separate check for accelerated beam, the incident Emissions" in Proceedings of the 1990 Linear Accelerator
power difference and beam stop calorimetry were compared Conference, LA-12004-C,219 (1990).
to the expected beam power under the assumption that the [5] H.V. Smith, et al., "Comparison of Beam
entire proton beam was accelerated. This assumption is Simulations with Measurements for a 1.25-MeV, CW
known to be false but allows us to compare the beam RFQ", these Conference Proceedings.
transmission data with the two beam power measurements
596
THE MECHANICAL DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF A
RIDGE-LOADED WAVEGUIDE FOR AN RFQ*
R. Valdiviez, P. Roybal, B. Clark, F. Martinez, D. Casillas, G. Gonzales, J. Tafoya
Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM, 87545
frequency of any cross section through the tapered
Abstract
ridge-loaded waveguide is equal to the cutoff frequency
The APT/LEDA Radio Frequency Quadrupole (RFQ) of the WR2300 waveguide.
accelerator has an RF power input of 2 MW and an H+
beam output current of 100 mA at 6.7 MeV CW. The 3 THERMAL/STRESS ANALYSIS OF
RFQ utilizes twelve nearly identical ridge-loaded vacuum
THE RIDGE LOADED WAVEGUIDE
waveguides to couple the RF power to the RFQ
accelerating cavity. The mechanical design and 3.1 First Ridged Waveguide Section
fabrication of the ridge-loaded waveguides are the topics
of this paper. The waveguide arm connecting the RFQ to the RF
window is actually made up of three vacuum waveguide
sections. The first two sections are the ridge-loaded
1 RFQ AND RF POWER SUPPLY sections. The third section is a straight section of
DESCRIPTION waveguide that includes a vacuum pumping port for
pumping the waveguide arm [3].
The RFQ linac [1] is made of eight different sections
that are joined together with a flange type design. Each A section view of the ridged waveguide is shown in
section is approximately one meter in length and weighs Figure 1. The total weight of the waveguide is 97 pounds.
approximately 680 pounds. RF power is supplied at three
different sections of the RFQ. RF feed sections have four
rectangular shaped ports each that are sized to accept the
nose piece of the ridge-loaded waveguide. The nose
piece of the waveguide actually becomes part of the
cavity wall, with the face being part of the cavity surface.
The RF power is supplied to the RFQ by three separate
klystrons, each rated for 1 MW operation at 350 MHz.
The output of each klystron is divided four ways to create
twelve waveguide runs of nominally 167 kW each. An
RF window [2] is used to separate the air and vacuum
waveguide runs on each waveguide arm.
2 BASIC RF CHARACTERISTICS
DESIGN OF THE RIDGE-LOADED Figure 1. First Ridged Waveguide Longitudinal Section
WAVEGUIDE View
The tapered ridge-loaded waveguide operates in the
dominant TE10 mode, the same mode as in the The first waveguide section inserts into the RFQ, and
half-height WR2300 waveguide used for the airside RF has a plate with an iris slit machined through it brazed to
waveguide. The ridge in the waveguide begins at a the bottom, rectangular face. The iris plate becomes the
location in the waveguide approximately twenty-four cavity inner wall surface. The slit aligns longitudinally
inches from the RFQ inner wall and increases in height with the gap between the ridges, and exposes the gap to
toward the RFQ, while both the height and width of the the cavity. The Rf coupling takes place via the slit. This
waveguide are reduced. The RF fields have intensified configuration places a considerable heat load on the
sufficiently at the end of the ridged waveguide to couple waveguide. Integral coolant channels within the
the RF power into the RFQ cavity with an iris slit small waveguide body are used to provide the necessary
enough to not perturb the tuning of the RFQ. The cutoff temperature control of the waveguide. Water from the
*
Work supported by the US Department of Energy, Defense Programs
597
Resonance Control Cooling System (RCCS) [4] is used in waveguide match to the first waveguide to within a few
the waveguide coolant channels. Since the waveguide thousandths of an inch.
becomes part of the resonating cavity wall it must be
thermally controlled along with the rest of the cavity The waveguide has four separate coolant-flow
walls. channels. The channels are located in the corner regions
of the ridge. The bulk coolant velocity in each channel is
Two parallel coolant channels run down through the 6 ft/s. The coolant water from the first section is split and
ridge, make six turns in a region immediately behind the sent into the second section. The power-loss heat load on
iris plate, and flow up and out of the waveguide. The the second section ranges from 0.21 watts/cm to
2
bulk coolant velocity is 15 ft/s in the iris region, and 0.05 watts/cm .
2
12.8 ft/s in the supply and return channels in the ridge
bodies. This cooling configuration allows for the power
loss heat load, that ranges from 13.0 watts/cm2 to
0.3 watts/cm2 to be accommodated. The high thermal
conductivity of the copper material allows for using only
two discrete coolant channels to cover a rather wide
surface area without creating substantial temperature
gradients.
The thermal/stress Finite Element Analysis (FEA)
model of the waveguide was created and analyzed using
the program COSMOS/M, version 1.75A [5]. The
waveguide geometry was obtained from the solid
modeling software Unigraphics, version 11.1.3 [6] by
using an IGES translation file. Figure 2. Second Ridged Waveguide Longitudinal
Section View
To model the waveguide the thermal profile throughout
the body was first predicted. The peak temperature The thermal/stress Finite Element Analysis (FEA)
o
predicted was 106 F for normal conditions, with an inlet model of the second waveguide was created and analyzed
o
coolant temperature of 66 F. This peak temperature using the program COSMOS/M, version 1.75A. The
occurs in the iris region where the peak heat load is waveguide geometry was obtained from the
located. This thermal profile is then used as one of the solid-modeling software Unigraphics, version 11.1.3 by
boundary conditions in a displacement and stress model. using an IGES translation file.
The largest displacement is predicted to be 0.0022 inch at
the top of the waveguide. The peak von Mises stress is The FEA model was first used to predict the thermal
2
predicted to be 6540 lbf/in and occurs in the iris region. profile of the second waveguide. The peak temperature
The iris region is locked between the lower mounting o
was predicted to be 81 F at a location in the lower part of
flange of the waveguide and the RF seal that the nose the waveguide sidewall, for an inlet coolant temperature
piece of the waveguide presses against. The RF seal acts o
of 72 F. This location is one of the furthest from a
as a very stiff spring that has some pliability, yet still coolant channel in the section. The predicted thermal
offers significant resistance to the thermal growth of the profile was used as a boundary condition for the
nose portion of the waveguide. displacement and stress model. The largest displacement
was predicted to be 0.0013 inch at the top of the
Due to the value of the predicted peak von Mises stress waveguide. The peak von Mises stress is predicted to be
in the waveguide the high strength copper material 2
3680 lbf/in located in a lower corner region of the
Glidcop AL-15 [7] was chosen as the construction waveguide.
material for the waveguide.
The predicted von Mises stresses are not too high for
3.2 Second Ridged Waveguide Section the second section. For this reason OFE C10100 copper
was chosen as the material of construction.
Figure 2 is a section view of the second ridged
waveguide that connects directly to the first section. The
second ridged waveguide is the section where the ridge 4 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF THE
begins, and weighs 186 pounds. One end of the RIDGE-LOADED WAVEGUIDE
waveguide matches the half-height WR2300 waveguide The mechanical design used the results of the thermal
dimensions. The bottom-end dimensions of this and stress analyses to determine a final design that would
meet both strength and space-envelope constraints. Initial
598
concepts for each of the waveguide designs had been In order to overcome the problem of Glidcop joint seal
created using the solid modeling software Unigraphics, and strength integrity several vacuum and tensile
version 11.1.3. specimens were fabricated and put through variations of
the basic brazing procedure being used. In summary, the
The thermal and stress analyses of both waveguide first sample investigations provided some improvement
sections predicted some areas where the initial design steps, but nothing that achieved consistent seal and
required some modification. The size of the coolant strength integrity. Throughout this testing process other
channel in the iris waveguide, in the region immediately users of Glidcop were consulted about the problem. The
behind the iris piece was changed in order to obtain the Stanford Linear Accelerator Complex (SLAC) advised
thermal/hydraulic conditions needed to achieve the that their best success in brazing Glidcop came from first
desired thermal profile in this part of the waveguide plating the surfaces to be brazed with a 0.0008 inch thick
body. The body of the second waveguide section was copper strike in a cyanide-copper plating process. This
predicted as needing reinforced sections in the flange method of preparing the braze surface was employed on
areas in order to reduce the combined stress levels. several sample pieces with very good, consistent results in
sealing and strength. The preparation method was added
5 FABRICATION METHODS to the fabrication sequence of the waveguide sections, and
has worked well on the parts brazed to date.
EMPLOYED
The ridged-waveguide sections are machined copper 6 RESULTING WAVEGUIDE
assemblies with the individual parts joined together by
brazing . The internal ridge and pocket configuration of HARDWARE
both sections along with the tapering in two planes over At the time of preparing this paper the ridged
the length of the section requires skillful machining. The waveguide sections were still being fabricated, so no high
geometry of, and the mechanical loads placed on the RF power operation has been conducted yet with this
braze joints requires equally skillful preparation and ridged waveguide design. Since the desired RF design
brazing. has been able to be manufactured with no major changes
the waveguides are expected to perform as required.
5.1 Machining
7 REFERENCES
Each waveguide section is machined in two halves
[1] D. Schrage et al, “CW RFQ Fabrication and
that are eventually joined together. By using this
Engineering,” these proceedings.
approach the internal ridge and pockets can be machined
in an open-face configuration. The dimensional tolerance
[2] K. Cummings et al, “Results and Lessons Learned
of the internal features was +/- 0.005 inch or less. Five
From Conditioning 1 MW CW 350 MHz Coaxial
three-axis machines and one five-axis machine were used
Vacuum Windows,” these proceedings.
to produce the waveguide bodies.
[3] S. Shen et al, “APT/LEDA RFQ RF Window
Due to the fact that the internal surfaces and features
Vacuum Pumping System-Conceptual Design
see high RF power, the surface finishes and feature sizes
Report,” LLNL Report APT/RFW-091797-001.
(such as corner radii) took on more importance than they
normally would as in a non-RF power component.
[4] R. Floersch, “Resonance Control Cooling System for
Sample pieces were machined out of aluminum for both
the APT/LEDA RFQ,” these proceedings.
waveguide sections to check for surface finish and feature
sizes obtainable, and to check the machine programming.
[5] Structural Research and Analysis Corp.,
After undergoing a few iterations with samples the actual
“COSMOS/M User Manual,” version 1.75A, March,
copper machining was begun.
1996.
5.2 Brazing [6] EDS Corporation, “Unigraphics User Manual,”
version 11.1.3, 1996.
Gold-copper alloys are used to braze the various
pieces of the waveguides together. Brazing the [7] OMG Americas Corp., “Glidcop Dispersion
OFE C10100 presented no major problems due to long Strengthened Copper, Glidcop AL-15 (C15715),”
experience in brazing this copper material. Brazing Technical Data Sheet, August, 1989.
OFE C10100 to Glidcop AL-15 presented some problems
with joint sealing and joint strength. Brazing Glidcop
AL-15 to Glidcop AL-15 presented increased sealing and
strength problems.
599
PROTOTYPE MODELS FOR THE SNS RFQ *
A. Ratti, J. Ayers, R. Gough, J. Greer, M. Hoff, R. Keller, R. MacGill,
J. Remais, J. Staples, R. Yourd
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA
Abstract quadrupole and the dipole modes as a function of the rods’
spacing.
Prototype models that simulate components of the RFQ
which is part of the Spallation Neutron Source front end
injector [1] are described. The RFQ operates at 402.5
MHz, a maximum current of 70 mA H- and 6% duty
factor. The first model, made of copper plated aluminum
is a full size version of one of the four sections of the
RFQ and is used to perform low level r.f. measurements
of frequency, r.f. tuning, field structure and power
coupling port studies. It serves to benchmark the 3D
computer simulation studies and to test assembly and field
measurement procedures. The second model is a quarter-
wave coaxial resonator is used to perform full-power tests
of high current seals and joints. This model is also used
to test the prototype of the RFQ tuners. The design and
construction of both models are presented, as well as test
results.
Figure 1 – Computer analyses of the quadrupole and
dipole modes as a function of stabilizer spacing.
1 INTRODUCTION
The detailed design of the RFQ [2] requires intensive As a result of these analyses, the spacing between each
computer simulations to define the cavity shape as well as set of stabilizers has been chosen to be 15.5 cm, from a
the optimal configuration of many of the components like horizontal pair to a vertical one (and vice-versa). This
the π-mode stabilizers (PISL) [3], tuners and power ports. resulted in a predicted quadrupole mode shift of –11 MHz
While some of the work can be done with a 2D code like and of the dipole modes of +36 MHz. These effects were
Superfish, whose accuracy is quite satisfactory, the lack of factored in the main frequency calculations performed with
radial symmetry mandates the use of 3D codes like Superfish to determine the reference shape of the cavity.
MAFIA, which are not accurate enough to determine final The measurements on the cold model proved the validity
dimensions. A test model has been built to perform low of this method.
level measurements to validate and refine the computer
simulations results. A quarter wave cavity has also been 3 COLD MODEL
built to study tuners and seals under vacuum and rf power.
A full size, 93 cm long RFQ cold model has been
built, representing one quarter of the actual length of the
2 COMPUTER MODELING full RFQ. This model is intended to validate the computer
studies performed and to help defining the geometry to a
The main cavity body geometry for the SNS RFQ has better degree of accuracy than is achievable with MAFIA.
been developed with Superfish. With the adoption of the
PISL stabilizer scheme, the structure has also been The model is made of aluminum, with a hard (acid)
analyzed for mode separation and stabilization. The copper plating to guarantee a stable and strong surface to
insertion of the stabilizer bars has the twofold effect of make good rf contacts between adjacent quarter sections. A
lowering the resonance frequency of the quadrupole mode picture of the cold model is shown in Fig. 2. This model
and of raising the frequency of the degenerate dipole mode. has all vacuum penetrations, power coupling ports and
A family of MAFIA simulations, summarized in Fig. 1, tuner ports, but it is not built to operate under vacuum or
shows the effect of the stabilizer rods on both the with substantial rf power. Piston tuners are also provided,
* This research is sponsored by the Lockheed Martin Energy Research Corporation under the U.S. Department of Energy, Contract
No. DE-AC05-96OR22464, through the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory under Contract No. DE-AC03-6SF00098
600
as well as adjustable end flanges to properly define the 402.5 MHz frequency. The tuners will bring the cavity to
tuning of the vane ends. A set of six π-mode stabilizers, the operating frequency. This means that the cavity cross-
three in the horizontal and three in the vertical plane, is sectional dimensions do not need to be changed, given the
installed to validate the mode separation analysis. chosen stabilizer bars spacing. Figure 1 shows the
measured quadrupole mode in comparison with the results
from computer simulations.
Quadrant perturbation tests were performed using the
available 12 tuners with the goal of judging the quality of
the π-mode stabilization. The perturbation of one quadrant
by 1.53 MHz changes the azimuthal field symmetry by
less than 2.7 %. This satisfactory result finalized the
current stabilization scheme.
Another important result obtained from the cold model
perturbation measurements is the tuning of the end plates.
The vane to end plate capacitance is balanced against the
inductance of the vane undercut at a resonant frequency of
402.5 MHz that matches the cut-off frequency of the wave
guide. With the help of detachable vane ends of various
length it has been possible to find the optimum vane
termination geometry.
The overall performance of the tuners was also verified.
Figure 2 - The Cold Model Cavity By moving all twelve tuners to their fully inserted and
fully extracted position, a total tuning range in excess of
2 MHz was measured.
A computer based motion control and data acquisition
system has been used to perform field perturbation
measurements with the well known bead-pull method. 5 HOT MODEL
The setup has been modified from the existing structure
The hot model is designed to test rf sealing
that was used at LBNL to map the higher order mode
configurations on fully annealed OFE copper as well as
structure of PEP-II cavities [4]. In order to be able to
tuner designs. To accomplish these tasks a quarterwave
observe both the H and the E fields, a set of four alumina
geometry was chosen for its simplicity and ease of
spheres were run along the vane tips, whereas a set of four
fabrication. The cavity is designed to reach peak surface
aluminum beads were run along the wall of each quadrant.
currents of the same density as the ones reached in the
To accomplish this, four motors were employed, with
RFQ walls. This implies that the cavity operate under
each motor servicing one quadrant and controlling one
vacuum and be capable of taking a 6% duty factor rf high
dielectric and one metallic bead.
power pulse.
The data acquisition system, based on the IGOR
The cavity is powered by a tetrode-based 15 kW peak
commercial software package running on a Macintosh
power amplifier, the components of which were provided
platform, controls the motors via the RS232 bus. The
by LANL. Using the energy stored in a capacitor bank,
program determines the bead positions and ensures that
the system will run at a 1 ms long pulse with 60 Hz
only one bead is inside the cavity at any given time. An
repetition rate, thus matching the operating conditions of
HP8510 network analyzer is used to perform the S21
the SNS RFQ.
measurement that is used to observe the effects of the
beads on the cavity. The instrument is software controlled
The less than 1 kW average power is removed from the
via the GPIB bus which allows also for the transfer of the
cavity by a spit-tube flooding the inner conductor of the
acquired data to the computer. Data analysis is later
resonator. The power coupling loop is also cooled in its
performed using separate software.
outside wall.
The rf sealing geometry is designed to allow for testing
4 COLD MODEL TEST RESULTS
of several types of seals. In particular, a copper-to-copper
The perturbation measurements allowed the validation configuration was compared to sealing techniques based
of the chosen cavity geometry. The waveguide cut-off upon indium or tin. The hot model cavity is shown in
frequency was found at 402.18 MHz, close to the required Fig. 3.
601
7 STATUS
The final dimensions of the RFQ cavity, including the
vane undercuts and end plate positions have been
determined and finalized aided by the measurements
performed on the cold model. The bead-pull setup is now
available for use to characterize the fields and assembly
accuracy during the cavity manufacturing, assembly and
brazing processes.
The baseline rf and vacuum sealing design has been
established and will be tested in the hot model power tests
that are soon to begin. These tests will also allow the
conceptual development of the rf tuners.
8 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge the support
received from the Beam Electrodynamics Group at LBNL,
who made available the bead-pull test laboratory and
provided the hardware used in the measurements. John
Figure 3 - The Hot Model Cavity Corlett, Bob Rimmer and John Byrd also contributed with
their extensive experience in the field of cavity design and
measurements.
The rf tuner is designed to help optimizing the piston.
Clearance gap, moving rf contacts and vacuum sealing
techniques will be tested under power. 9 REFERENCES
6 HOT MODEL TEST RESULTS
[1] J. Staples, et al, “The SNS Front End Accelerator
The hot model measurement program is still underway. Systems”, Paper MO4056, LINAC98, August 1998,
So far, the low level measurements have been completed. Chicago, IL USA
The cavity quality factor Q has been calculated by [2] A. Ratti, et al, ”Conceptual Design of the SNS
measuring the reflection coefficient as seen on the RFQ”, Paper MO4090, LINAC98, August 1998,
optimally matched power coupling loop. These Chicago, IL USA
measurements showed no improvement in the rf
performance of the cavity by adopting an indium or a tin [3] A. Ueno, et al, “Beam Test of the Pre-Injector and the
seal. The observed values are listed in Table 1. 3-MeV H- RFQ with a New Field Stabilizer PISL”,
LINAC96, August 1996, Geneva, CH
Configuration Quality Factor Q
Calculated (Sfish) 4600 [4] D. A. Goldberg and R. A. Rimmer, “Automated
Cu-cu 4160 Bead Positioning System for Measuring Impedances
In 4140 of RF Cavity Modes”, Proc. US PAC, Washington
Tin 4125 DC, May 17-20th 1993.
Table 1 – Rf seal measurements results.
The good performance of the copper-to-copper seal led to
the decision to adopt it as the baseline in the first RFQ
test module currently under design. This avoids the
problems associated with using a metal seal on the fully
annealed OFE surfaces and allows for the use of a rubber
elastometer as the main vacuum seal.
The cavity is going to be powered soon to develop the
tuner design. This phase will also allow to validate the
adopted rf seal.
602
DESIGN OF A CHARGE-STATE MULTIPLIER SYSTEM
FOR THE RIKEN RI-BEAM FACTORY
O. Kamigaito, A. Bandyopadhyay, M. Kase, Y. Miyazawa, T. Chiba,
M. Hemmi, S. Kohara, E. Ikezawa, A. Goto, and Y. Yano,
The Institute of Physical and Chemical Research (RIKEN),
Wako-shi, Saitama, 351-0198 Japan
Abstract Charge State 32 35 42 49
238
In the RIKEN RI-beam factory project, a Charge-State 92 U 58
Multiplier system (CSM) is planned to be placed between 25.0 ~16 %
the existing heavy ion linac (RILAC) and the ring ~12 %
23.0 ~7 % 2: Charge stripping
cyclotron (RRC). It consists of an accelerator, a charge ~2 %
stripper and a decelerator. The accelerator section increases 21.0
the stripping energy further and the decelerator section
B (kG) in RRC
tion
brings the beam energy down to the initial value. By use 19.0
lera
of this system, the charge-to-mass ratio (q/A) of the
ece
3: D
heavy-ion beams will be increased so that the ring 17.0
cyclotrons can accept the beams without changing the
injection radius of the RRC. For the accelerator and 15.0 Limit in RRC
decelerator sections, drift tube linacs of variable-frequency
type will be used, whose rf-frequency is varied from 36 to Limit in IRC & SRC
76 MHz. The total accelerating voltage required for the 13.0
accelerator section is about 26 MV and that for the
decelerator section is about 13 MV. Initial design of the 1: Acceleration
low energy part of the CSM, based on a quarter 0.6 0.8 1.48 2.3 3.84
wavelength resonator with a movable shorting plate, is E (MeV/u)
described in this paper.
Figure 1: Principle of the CSM. The size of the dots
1 INTRODUCTION corresponds to the production rate of Uranium ions
with respective charge state at the stripping energy, E,
In the on-going RI-beam Factory project[1], a cascade when using a carbon foil for the stripper. The ordinate
of a K930-MeV ring cyclotron (IRC) and a K2500-MeV represents the necessary bending power in the RRC.
superconducting ring cyclotron (SRC) will be constructed The bending limit in the IRC and SRC is also
as an energy booster of the existing K-540 ring cyclotron indicated.
(RRC). The final energy will be increased up to 400
RILAC are 27.2 MHz and 1.48 MeV/u, respectively. To
MeV/u for light ions such as Oxygen and 150 MeV/u for
be accepted in the IRC and the SRC, the charge state
Uranium with this new cyclotron system. As the injector
must be at least 58+. The most probable charge state at
for the accelerator complex, the existing heavy-ion linac
this energy is, however, 42+ and the production rate of 58+
(RILAC) will be used, whose pre-injector has been
is almost zero[3].
recently upgraded[2]. The intended beam intensity is 1
The proposed method[1] to solve this problem is also
pµA for light ions and 100 pnA for heavy ions.
described in Fig. 1. The output beam from the RILAC is
For very heavy ions, a charge-stripping process is
accelerated further up to 3.84 MeV/u. After charge-
necessary before the RRC so that the cyclotrons can
stripping at this energy, where the production rate of 58+
accept the beams by reducing the magnetic rigidity. There
is sufficiently high, the obtained ions are decelerated to
is, however, a significant problem that the beam energy
the initial energy. It should be noticed that the injection
from the RILAC is too low to provide the required charge
radius of the RRC need not be changed because the input
state with the existing charge-stripper between the RILAC
speed remains the same. This is the principle of the
and the RRC.
Charge-State Multiplier (CSM) system.
We illustrate this problem in Fig. 1 by taking the case
The CSM consists of an accelerator, a charge-stripper,
of Uranium acceleration as an example. If the beam is
and a decelerator as described above. Several designs have
accelerated to 150 MeV/u with the SRC, the
corresponding rf-frequency and the output energy of the been proposed for the drift tube linacs used in the
603
accelerator and the decelerator sections[4,5]. In the recent Table 1: Main Parameters of the Low
design[5], four accelerating tanks and two decelerating Energy Part of the CSM
tanks are proposed, where 16 or 18 gaps are included in Tank Acc.1 Acc.2 Dec.
each tank. The resonator is based on the Interdigital H- Frequency (MHz) 36-76 36-76 36-76
mode (IH) structure with a movable shorting plate, whose Mass to charge (m/q) 26-6 26-6 12-2.7
rf-frequency is twice the fundamental frequency. In order to Input energy* (MeV/u) 1.48 1.74 2.01
put the whole CSM in a present experimental room, the Output energy* (MeV/u) 1.74 2.01 1.48
maximum gap voltage is chosen to be 430 kV. However, Inner length (m) 1.3 1.3 1.3
the power consumption per tank is estimated to exceed Number of gaps 8 8 8
100 kW and the calculated current density reaches 90 Bore radius (cm) 1.75 1.75 1.75
A/cm on the sliding contact around the corner of the ridge Synchronous phase (φs) -25° -25° +25°
of the IH structure. This design has another problem that Max. gap voltage (kV) 450 450 450
the tank becomes too long to make the structure rigid Max. power loss (kW) 50 52 50
especially in the high energy part. Zeff (MΩ/m)* 148 154 146
Max. current (A/cm)** 58 61 58
2 CSM DESIGN * : At 54.4 MHz.
**: Maximum current density on the sliding contacts.
Charge State Multiplier (CSM)
triplets are placed between every two tanks. The total
3.8 MeV/u
length of the accelerator and that of the decelerator will be
U
22+
U
58+ about 16 meters and 8 meters, respectively.
Stripper Construction of the low energy part, indicated by the
hatched circles in Fig. 2, has started and the mechanical
design of the resonators is under progress. The main
Accelerator Tanks
Decelerator Tanks
3.2 MeV/u
parameters are listed in Table 1. The output energy of the
accelerator section of this part is 2 MeV/u at the
fundamental frequency of 27.2 MHz.
2.6 MeV/u
The resonator of the low energy part is based on a
quarter-wavelength resonator of circular cylinder, as shown
2.0 MeV/u in Fig. 3. All the three resonators have the same
dimensions except for the drift tubes and their stems. The
54.4 MHz
RRC resonant frequency is changed by a movable shorting
RILAC plate. The rf-power is fed through a capacitive feeder. A
Present Stripper
22+ 42+ capacitive tuner is used for the fine tuning of the
27.2 MHz 1.5 MeV/u U U 1.5 MeV/u frequency.
The rf-characteristic of the resonators has been studied
Figure 2: Schematic layout of the CSM. The energies with the MAFIA code[6]. The size of the coaxial part as
at the fundamental frequency of 27.2 MHz are also well as the shape of the stems for the first and final drift
indicated.
Figure 2 shows the schematic layout of the present
configuration of the CSM. We plan to put eight tanks in
the accelerator and four tanks in the decelerator. The tanks
φ1300
are independently operated at the doubled frequency of the f1300
fundamental one, which means that the required frequency φ500
for the CSM ranges from 36 MHz to 76 MHz. The
Stroke
1300
synchronous phase of the accelerator tanks has been
chosen to be -25° while that of the decelerator tanks has Shorting
Plate
been 25°, in order to maintain the longitudinal focusing
in the tanks. Each tank has eight gaps in it. The
500
maximum gap voltage is chosen to be about 500 kV. The
power consumption per tank will be made less than 100 Feeder Tuner
200
kW by adopting this configuration.
The last tank of the decelerator covers the same energy-
Side View Front View
range as the first two tanks of the accelerator. In the same
way, there are a pair of accelerator tanks and a decelerator
tank which work in the same energy-range. Quadrupole Figure 3: Schematic drawing of the resonator.
604
loss in the stem for the end drift tube is 9 kW at the
maximum gap voltage. The arrangement of the cooling
2.4 channels is under design based on the heat analysis.
The voltage distribution is not flat along the
2.3
accelerating cells in these resonators, particularly in the
Rs (Mega-Ohm)
2.2
high frequency region. A calculated example is shown in
Acc.1 Fig. 5 for the second tank. As shown in the figure, the
2.1 gap voltage at the end cells is about 80 % of that of the
Dec. inner cells at the highest frequency. The effect of this
2 voltage distribution on the beam transmission has been
Acc.2
estimated with a first-order calculation. According to that,
1.9
30 40 50 60 70 80 the transmission will be good enough when the average
Frequency (MHz)
gap voltage is larger than the designed voltage.
Fig. 4: Shunt impedances of the tanks of the low energy 3 SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK
part. The solid, dotted and dashed curves represent the
impedance of the first, second and the last tank of the A design for the CSM has been proposed consisting of
CSM, respectively. eight accelerator tanks and four decelerator tanks,
independently operated in the frequency range from 36
tubes are optimized so that the current density on the MHz to 76 MHz. Three tanks of the low energy part of
sliding contact could be as small as possible. the CSM are under design based on a quarter-wavelength
The calculation predicts that a stroke of 1300 mm of structure of circular cylinder with a movable shorting
the movable shorting plate covers the required frequency- plate.
range from 36 to 76 MHz in the three tanks. The current The construction of the low energy part will be
density on the sliding contacts is estimated to be 60 A/cm completed in 1999. The three tanks will be installed and
at the maximum gap voltage of 450 kV. tested in the beam line between the RILAC and the RRC
Figure 4 shows the calculated shunt impedances. The in the same year. The rest of the CSM tanks will be
shunt impedance Rs is defined in this paper by V 2/(2P), designed and constructed based on the test of the low
where P is the rf-power consumption and V is the peak energy part.
value of the gap voltage. From this result, the maximum In parallel with the resonator design, study on the
power loss is calculated to be about 50 kW per tank. The charge-stripper should be done, which can withstand the
calculated Q-values are about 30000 and they are almost intended high intensity beams.
constant in the frequency range.
The actual shunt impedances of the resonators will be 4 ACKNOWLEGDEMENT
less than the calculated ones mainly due to the sliding The authors are grateful to Dr. M. Tomizawa at KEK
contacts used around the stem. Therefore, we are planning for informative discussions and valuable comments on
to construct the amplifiers whose maximum power is 100 beam dynamics as well as on IH structures.
kW in the required frequency-range.
Cooling is one of the most important problems in 5 REFERENCES
these resonators. According to the calculation, the power
[1] Y. Yano et al., “RIKEN RI-Beam Factory Project,”
Proceedings of PAC97, TRIUMF, May 12-16, 1997,
in press.
1.1
[2] O. Kamigaito et al., “Recent Developments of the
Folded-Coaxial RFQ for the RILAC,” in this
proceedings.
Gap Voltage (arb. unit)
1
34 MHz
[3] K. Shima et al., Atomic Data & Nuclear Data
0.9 57 MHz Tables. 51, 173 (1995).
[4] M. Tomizawa, RIKEN Accel. Prog. Rep. 29, p.228
78 MHz
0.8 (1995).
[5] A. Bandyopadhyay et al., RIKEN Accel. Prog. Rep.
0.7
31, p.203 (1997).
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 [6] The MAFIA collaboration, User's Guide MAFIA
Gap Number
Version 3.2, CST GmbH, Lauterschlaegerstrasse 38,
D-64289 Darmstadt, Germany.
Fig. 5: Calculated gap voltage of the second tank of the
CSM.
605
THE PRESENT STATUS OF DEVELOPMENT ON SUPERCONDUCTING
CAVITIES AT SHI
Y. Matsubara, M. Hirose, T. Hori, H. Saito*, F. Yukawa**
H. Inoue***, M. Ono***, E. Kako***, S. Noguchi***, K. Saito***, T. Shishido***
Research and Development Center, Sumitomo Heavy Industries, Ltd. (SHI)
2-1-1, Yato-Cho, Tanashi-City, Tokyo 188-8585 Japan
*Quantum Equipment Business Center, Sumitomo Heavy Industries, Ltd. (SHI)
5-2, Soubiraki-Cho, Niihama-City, Ehime-Ken, 792-8588 Japan
**Sumiju Technical Center Co., Ltd. (STC).
1-2, Kuryoutsutsumi, Hiratsuka-City, Kanagawa-Ken, 254-0801 Japan
***High Energy Accelerator Research Organization (KEK)
1-1, Oho, Tukuba-City, Ibaraki-Ken, 305-0801 Japan
Abstract proper welding condition on niobium by our electron
We have started development on superconducting beam welding (EBW) machine, because of the different
cavities with KEK from 1997. First, we checked out the conditions from KEK’s. Then, we applied our own
effect of removal thickness with electropolishing (EP) . conditions to single-cell and 3-cell cavities .
In the results, We could obtain the maximum The all fabricated cavities are named individually as
accelerating field of 32MV/m by a repeatedly small shown in Table 1. SHI-1 which was fabricated at KEK
removal thickness (30µm) up to 150 µm material was applied to study the relationship between the
removal. Next, when fabricating the second, we directly removed thickness by EP and maximum gradient of the
removed as much the thickness as the optimized depth cavity. SHI-2 was only used to optimize EBW condition.
by the first cavity using heavy chemicalpolishing (CP) For SHI-3 without annealing and mechanical treatment,
and final light EP in sequence. We are now in the stage it was used to investigate hydrogen Q_disease. SHI-4 is a
of fabricating the third one, 3-cell cavity. In this paper, 3-cell cavity and under fabrication at SHI factory.
we report on these results and activities at Sumitomo
Heavy Industries, Ltd. Table 1: List of fabricated cavities.
Name # of cell Factory Remarks
1 INTRODUCTION SHI-1 1 KEK Investigate effect of EP
:max. Eacc=32MV/m
Last year, We set up three purposes as follows. First; SHI-2 1 SHI Researching only EBW
fabricating a single-cell L-band niobium cavity to study condition .
surface treatment, and testing it to learn many operating SHI-3 1 SHI Investigate anneal effect
systems in this fields. Second; fabricating multi-cell :max. Eacc=7.3MV/m
cavities by our own technics. Third; design and SHI-4 3 SHI Not measured
fabrication of a cryo-module.
On the first step, we have acquired two important 2 SURFACE TREATMENT ON SHI-1
data, namely, superiority of EP [1] and hydrogen Q-
disease [2]. For the former, it showed the good The purpose of SHI-1 cavity was to study the
relationship between an amount of removed thickness dependence between the cavity performance and the
and accelerating gradient(Eacc), which could be removed thickness with EP. A similar relationship was
obtained with only EP as surface treatment. Finally, the already studied by P. Kneisel et al. using CP [3]. First, a
cavity obtained 32MV/m of gradient. For the latter, we light chemical polishing (20µm) was carried out on this
checked out hydrogen Q-disease with our first fabricated cavity to remove the contaminated surface layer, and
cavity SHI-3. This cavity surface was removed 130µm then annealing at 760° was done to prevent the hydrogen
in depth with CP. Annealing was not practiced for this Q-disease. After that , the performance of this cavity was
cavity. After the first vertical test, the cavity was kept at measured with adding a light EP(30µm) and high-
100K for two hours. Before and after this process pressure water rinsing (HPR) repeatedly. The
( holding 100K) , the performance almost unchanged. experiments were continued until 210µm removed
On the second step, we needed to check out the thickness. These experimental data are shown in Figures
606
1~3. All tests were executed using the KEK’s vertical we inspected the inner surface of SHI-1 cavity and
measuring system. confirmed that the tiny pits have almost vanished except
X-ray was detected at the 1st, 3rd and 4th the large one.
measurements in Figure 1. X-ray was observed over the Although we did not measure the temperature
higher gradients than 16MV/m at 3rd and 4th. This mapping, it is considered that the maximum
radiation should be due to field emission by the reason performance at 6th measurements was limited by the
that the relative X-ray intensity is enhanced in pit. The magnetic field strength on the inner wall at
accordance with increasing field gradient. 32MV/m is shown in Figure 4. At the 6th measurement
1.E+11
(the removed thickness was in total 210µm), Eacc
decreased to 20.5MV/m and X-ray was not observed. By
the inspection after 6th measurement, we found the
1.E+10 existence of many tiny pits similar to the initial stage. It
might be due to EP processes.
Qo
Q0_1
Q0_2 1 60 0
Q0_3 A c c e le r a tin g g r a d ie n ts o f
1.E+09 1 40 0 c e n te r : 3 2 M V /m
Intensity of Magnetic Field(Oe)
Q0_4
Qo_5
1 20 0
Qo_6 O n p its a re a , in te n s ity of m a g n e tic fie ld
1 00 0 is a b ou t 1 2 0 0 O e a t 3 2 M V /m
1.E+08
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 8 00
O u tlin e o f L -b a n d
Eacc(MV/m) C a v ity
6 00
P its A re a
4 00
Figure 1: Q o vs. E acc at SHI-1 cavity.
2 00
35 0
0 5 10 15 20
B e a m A x is (cm )
30
25
Eacc(MV/m)
20 Figure 4: Distribution of magnetic field on the wall
15
at 32MV/m on the axis.
10
5 3 SHI-3 CAVITY
0
0 50 10 0 15 0
R e m o v e d m a t e r ia l t h i ck n e ss( µ m )
20 0 25 0 3.1 Fabrication And Surface Treatment
We started fabricating a L-band single-cell cavity by
Figure 2: E acc vs. removed thickness on SHI-1 cavity. our own factory while measuring SHI-1 cavity. First, we
optimized an appropriate EBW condition with Nb flat
8.0E-09
sheets (thickness: 2.5mm) by our EBW machine(Table
Residual surface resistance( Ω )
2), and next, with beampipes (inner diameter: φ76mm,
7.0E-09
thickness: 2.5mm, length: 40mm). Then, we assembled
SHI-2 cavity with two half-cells and two beampipes.
6.0E-09
SHI-2 got a small hole on the one iris EBW seam,
because of the high electron beam currents. After
5.0E-09
modifying the EBW condition, we finished the
assembling of SHI-3.
4.0E-09
0 50 100 150 200 250
Table 2: Current condition of EBW
µ m)
Removed material thickness(µ
SECTION VOLTAGE(kV) CURRENT(mA)
Figure 3: Residual resistance vs. removed thickness Iris 150 14
on SHI-1 cavity. Equator 150 16
Machine: JE-114 : Osaka henatsuki , Ltd.
This cavity had a large pit (diameter: ~600µm) and : Beam power-15KW (150KV- 100mA)
many tiny pits (diameter: ~50 µm) on the initial stage.
The tiny pits have gradually vanished with adding EP. Although the EBW is not perfectly optimized, our
The field gradient increased with adding 30µm EP until current condition is shown in Table 2. From the results
150µm as shown Figure 2. At the 5th measurement (the of SHI-1, we decided the optimum removed thickness as
removed thickness was in total 180µm), the performance 150-180µm to obtain over 30MV/m of high gradients.
just kept the same value as the case of 150µm removing The subjects of SHI-3 were testing the high gradients
and X-ray was not observed. After the 5th measurement, and making sure of a hydrogen Q-disease without
607
annealing. The treatments on SHI-3 are shown in Table related to two defect. Through the inspection after
3. measurement, we discovered a big defect on nearly the
equator portion as shown in Figure 6. At the time of
Table 3: Surface treatments on SHI-3 cavity. assembling, no such defect had been found.
No Treatment Method Remarks
4 FABRICATION OF A 3 CELL CAVITY
1 Pre_polishing CP 130 µm
2 Final polishing EP 30 µm The manufacturing of a 3 cell cavity (SHI-4) has just
3 Cleaning 1 HWMR* 80°C / 90min. been finished. Whole view is in Figure 7. This will be
4 Cleaning 2 HPR 8.3 MPa / 90min. cold testing soon.
* : Hot Water with Megasonic Rinsing
3.2 Measurement Results of SHI-3
The measurements were carried out twice on the
cavity. First cooling was to check out SHI-3 cavity
performance after our treatment. After that, SHI-3 was
kept constant temperature at 100K for two hours to make
sure of a hydrogen Q-disease. From the second
measurement, Q-degradation did not observed as shown
Figure 5. A hydrogen Q-disease might not happen by
removing sufficient amount with CP before light EP. We
showed have to study the process of making Nb sheets
and aging effect on the material properties. Figure 7: Overall view of 3 cell-cavity.
1.E+11
Qo1 (1.6K)
Qo2 (1.6K)
5 SUMMARY
We obtained the dependence of accelerating gradient
Qo
1.E+10 upon an amount of removed thickness using EP. The
optimum removal by EP to get high gradient is in over
150µm. In case of using a large amount of CP, annealing
process for hydrogen degassing does not always need to
1.E+09
avoid hydrogen Q-disease.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Ea cc(M V /m )
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Figure 5: Q o vs. E acc at SHI-3 cavity.
The authors would like to thank Mr. N. Yasumitsu, Y.
Kumata and K. Sawada at SHI, Mr. T. Minakuchi and Y.
Tateishi at STC, and Mr. Shiratake at Nomura Techno
Research Co. Ltd. for helpful discussions and their
supports.
REFERENCES
[1] K. Saito et al. “Superiority of Electropolishing over
Chemical Polishing on High Gradients” Proc. 8th
Workshop on RF Superconductivity, 1997.
Figure 6: Equator defect found on SHI-3. [2] K. Saito and P. Kneisel “Qo-degradation Due to
Hydrogen in High Pure Niobium Cavities” Proc.
The Qo vs. Eacc curve in Figure 5, we can observe 18th Linear Accelerator Meeting in Japan, 1993.
that Qo was switched to the lower level after the first [3] E. Mahner, P. Kneisel, N. Pupeter, G. Muller “Effect
quench at 5.7MV/m. The maximum Eacc was limited at of Chemical Polishing on the Electron Field
7.4MV/m. On the reverse process when decreasing Eacc Emission of Niobium Samples and cavities” Proc.
from 7.4MV/m, Q jump did not appear at 5.7MV/m and 7th Workshop on RF Superconductivity, 1995.
kept the lower values. I suppose that this phenomenon is
608
RF TESTS ON THE INITIAL 2.8m SECTION OF THE 8m LONG ISAC RFQ
AT TRIUMF
R. L. Poirier, P. Bricault, G. Dutto, K. Fong, R. Laxdal, A. K. Mitra, B. Uzat
TRIUMF, Vancouver, B. C., CANADA
Abstract installed on the concrete mounting pad in the accelerator
building with seven rings assembled. The coupling loop,
The ISAC RFQ is an 8 meter long, 4-rod split-ring which was tested in the prototype test facility for 100
structure operating at 35 MHz in cw mode. The rods are hours at 40 kW, was installed and used to feed the rf
vane-shaped and are supported by 19 rings spaced 40 cm signal for calibrating the monitoring probes. The inside
apart. The rings are unique in that the rf surfaces have groove on the tank flange is for an rf spring contact.
been structrurely de-coupled from the mechanical support
structure to improve dynamic stability. An initial 2.8m
section of the accelerator (7 of 19 rings) was installed and
aligned in the 8m, square cross-section, vacuum tank to
allow rf and beam tests to be carried out. The stringent,
+/- 0.08 mm, quadrature positioning tolerance of the four
rod electrodes was practically achieved and a relative
field variation along the 2.8 meter of the RFQ was
measured to within +/- 1%, using the standard bead pull
method, signal level measurements gave a frequency of
35.7 MHz, a Q of 8700 and a resonant shunt impedance of
292 k Ω.m. Compared to the initial 3 ring prototype, this
represents a 21% increase in Q and a 30 % increase in
shunt impedance. The seven ring section has been
successfully tested with beam at full power. Figure 1. Seven rings assembled, installed and aligned in
the bottom section of the vacuum tank
1 INTRODUCTION
The accelerating system of the ISAC radioactive ion
2 SIGNAL LEVEL TESTS
beams facility consists of an RFQ and a post - stripper
DTL. Ion beams with A/q < 30 from the on line mass 2.1 Frequency, Q and Shunt Impedance
separator will be accelerated from 2 keV/u, to 150 keV/u Measurements
through the RFQ and then to an energy up to 1.5 MeV/u
through the DTL structure. The low charge-to-mass ratios The frequency and Q are measured with a network
of the ions dictate a low operating frequency to achieve analyzer and the shunt impedance is derived from two
adequate transverse focusing, and cw operation is independent R/Q measurements; ∆C method and input
required to preserve beam intensity. The reference design admittance method [5]. The input admittance of a parallel
[1] for the RFQ is a four rod split ring structure operating resonant circuit when plotted against frequency, produces
at 35 MHz. The RFQ accelerator section is 8 meters long a V-curve in the vicinity of the resonance. R/Q can be
and is designed in 40 cm long modules with a peak obtained from the slope of such a curve and is given by
potential between the electrodes of 74 kV. Full power the equation,
tests on a single module [2] and on a three module
R/Q= (2/fo)*df/dy (1)
assembly[3] enabled us to complete the basic electrical
and mechanical design for the RFQ accelerator. The
where fo = resonant frequency, dy = change in input
theodilite intersection method[4] was used to align two
admittance and df = corresponding change in frequency.
platen bases in the tank to allow 7 of the 19 rings to be
It can also be shown that R/Q is related to the change in
installed in the first section of the 8m long vacuum tank.
frequency with change in capacitance and is given by the
The alignment of the ring assemblies on the platens was
equation
accomplished by the same method. Because of the
manufacturing procedures and alignment philosophy
R/Q = (1/pi*fo)* df/dc (2)
adopted [4], when the electrodes were installed on their
mounting surfaces they were aligned by default with no
Results are compared to MAFIA calculations in table 1.
shimming required. Figure 1 shows the vacuum tank
609
Table 1. Comparison of measured values to calculated A similar set of results is shown in figure 3 for the copper
MAFIA values. electrodes with modulation. Because of the modulation,
the teflon carriage for these bead pull measurements was
Parameter MAFIA Measured guided by the straight edges of the electrodes. There is
Frequency (MHz) 34.7 35.7 only one small area where the variation is slightly beyond
Q 15175 8700 the target of +/- 1%.
Rshunt (k-ohms) 174.9 104.4
Rshunt (k-ohms-m) 489.9 292.3 AVERAGE PEAK FIELD
R/Q 11.53 12.0
Capacity (pfd/m) 142 132.6 2
1
0
Because of the size of the mesh used in the MAFIA -1
-2
calculations one would expect the calculated MAFIA
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
frequency to be lower than the measured frequency.
AXIAL DISTANCE
2.2 Bead-pull measurements
The first set of bead pull measurements were made with a
set of test electrodes made of aluminum with a radius of ro QUADRUPOLE FIELD ASYMMETRY
and no modulation. Because the electrodes have no TOP LOWER
shoulder to rest the dielectric bead on when measuring the 2 EAST WEST
lower gap, the sagging of the bead was overcome by 1
fabricating a bead carriage from Teflon that traveled 0
-1
down the centre bore of the RFQ and was captured by the -2
tips of the four electrodes. Five bead pull runs were made 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
for each set of measurements; carriage only and four
AXIAL DISTANCE
separate runs with the dielectric bead in each of the four
quadrants. The carriage only run was used as the average
perturbation reference and the other four runs corrected
accordingly. Figure3. Average peak field and quadrupole field
Both the average peak field variation and the quadrupole asymmetry for the modulated electrodes.
field asymmetry were deduced from the measurements and
are shown in figure 2. The results are within the target of 3 FULL POWER TESTS
+/- 1% field strength variation.
In preparation for full power tests the RFQ tank was
AVERAGE PEAK FIELD baked out for three days at 60° C by uniformly mounting
eighty-four 500W heaters on the tank walls, covered with
2 a glass fibre blanket to contain the heat. At the same time
1 60 degree water was circulated through the structure
0
Y
-1 cooling system. A base pressure of 1.4 *10-7 torr was
-2 achieved, which increased to 4.0*10-7 torr with full RF
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 power applied. Although the bake-out temperature
AXIAL DISTANCE created a longitudinal growth of ~ 2.0 mm in the tank, the
elasticity of the mounting system coped with this and the
growth returned very close to zero at operating
temperature. The RFQ tank went through several bake out
QUADRUPOLE FIELD ASYMMETRY cycles as we encountered a few water leaks. Initial tests
TOP LOWER were carried out at half voltage (36 kV) in order to do
2 EAST WEST
beam tests with N14 [6]. Following beam tests, 76 kV
1
0 (2kV above design value) was achieved on the electrodes
-1 within four hours at the anticipated power level of 30 kW.
-2
The x-ray level during this time was 0.5 microseverts at
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
0.5m from the tank wall. We were able to maintain this
AXIAL DISTANCE condition for two hours before our first major amplifier
overload occurred. Subsequently, we were never able to
achieve the above voltage for the same power. A voltage
Figure 2. Average peak field and quadrupole field versus power curve in figure 4 shows the power
asymmetry for the non-modulated electrodes.
610
requirement for three different days of operation, although 4 CONCLUSION
it did remain at the lower power level for the beam tests
with N28 [7]. The RFQ operated continuously for 15 Except for the increased power requirement, the RF
hours at nominal voltage plus various runs for 5 and 10 behaved very well and agreed with the calculated
hours before being interrupted by an amplifier trip. predictions. The successful beam tests [7] in giving full
Automatic recovery from a high standing wave ratio is agreement between expected and measured beam behavior
being incorporated in the RF controls to cut the RF drive (beam capture ~ 80%), indicate that the mechanical
rather than trip the amplifier. design, fabrication and alignment philosophy adopted was
very successful. The remaining 12 rings will be installed
in Spring 99 and commissioning of the RFQ in its final
50 configuration by the end of 99.
CALC.
Power (kW)
40
30 13-Jul 5 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
20 30-Jul
10 We are especially grateful to Roland Roper (machine
10-Aug
0 shop) who took on the responsibility of the fabrication and
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 manufacturing details of rings, jigs and fixtures.
A special thanks to Bhalwinder Waraich for the
Voltage (kV) mechanical assembly and installation of the rings, and to
Peter Harmer for the organization and integration of the
RFQ with all the ancillary systems.
Figure 4. Voltage versus Power for the RFQ
When the lid was removed there was evidence of strong 6 REFERENCES
multipacting in the 7 cm gap between the RF shroud and
the tank lid front wall as shown in figure 5. This could be [1] P.G. Bricault and H. R. Schneider, "Simulation of the
the explanation for the additional power requirement at TRIUMF Split Ring 4-Rod RFQ with MAFIA", Proc.
higher voltages. We plan to short out this gap to prevent 1995 Particle Accelerator Conf. and Int. Conf. on High-
multipacting in that region. Energy Accelerators, p1125 (1995)
[2] R.L. Poirier, P.J. Bricault, K. Jensen and A. K. Mitra,
“The RFQ Prototype for the Radioactive Ion Beams
Facility at TRIUMF”, Proc. XVIII LINAC Conference,
CERN, p405 (1996)
[3] R.L. Poirier, P. Bricault, G. Dutto, K. Fong, K. Jensen,
R. Laxdal, A.K. Mitra, G. Stanford, “Construction Criteria
and Prototyping for the ISAC RFQ Accelerator at
TRIUMF”, Proc. 1997 Particle Accelerator Conference.
[4] G. Stanford, D. Pearce, R. L. Poirier, “Mechanical
Design, Construction and Alignment of the ISAC RFQ
Accelerator at TRIUMF”, These Proceedings.
[5] P. Bourquin, W. Pirkl and H.-H. Umstatter, “RF and
Construction Issues in the RFQ for the CERN Laser Ion
Source”, Proc. XVIII LINAC Conference, CERN,
p381(1996)
[6] R. Laxdal, et al, “Testing the ISAC LEBT and 35
MHz RFQ in an Intermediate Configuration”, EPAC98.
[7] R. Laxdal, et al, “First Beam Tests with the ISAC
RFQ” This conference.
Figure 5. Cross-section schematic of RFQ tank and rings
611
DEVELOPMENT OF A RASTER ELECTRONICS SYSTEM FOR
EXPANDING THE APT PROTON BEAM *
S. Chapelle, E. L. Hubbard, T. L. Smith
General Atomics, San Diego, California 92121 USA
M. E. Schulze, R. E. Shafer
General Atomics, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87544 USA
An obvious requirement of using a rastered approach to
Abstract
beam expansion is that the beam must not be allowed to
A 1700 MeV, 100 mA proton linear accelerator is being dwell on one spot of the target for very long (on the order
designed for Accelerator Production of Tritium (APT). A of 0.5 ms) or else damage to the target could result. The
beam expansion system is required to uniformly irradiate prevention of common mode and single point failures has
a 19 x 190 cm tritium production target. This paper been a major design driver. The eight magnet systems are
describes a beam expansion system consisting of eight purposely designed to operate synchronously and inde-
ferrite dipole magnets to raster the beam in the x- and y- pendently, so that a failure of one system will not affect
planes and also describes the salient features of the design the operation of any other system, and therefore the beam
of the electronics that are unique to the expander. Eight will always be moved across the target (see Section 2.2).
Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT)-based Fig. 2 shows the raster magnets as they fit into the high
modulators drive the raster magnets with triangular energy beam transport (HEBT) portion of the APT Linac.
current waveforms that are synchronized using phase-
locked loops (PLLs) and voltage controlled crystal Matching 8 Raster magnets Final quad Beam
Doublet lattice
quads 4 x, 4 y doublet to target
oscillators (VCXOs). Fault detection circuitry shuts down
the beam before the target can be damaged by a failure of
the raster system. Test data are presented for the prototype
system. Figure 2: Raster magnets in HEBT
1 BACKGROUND 2 SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
In the proposed raster-type beam expander, there will The block diagram of the Raster Magnet System is
be four horizontal and four vertical raster magnets. They shown in Fig. 3. The logical blocks of the system are the
will be modulated so that the target is “painted” by the 1) Master Clock, 2) PLL/IGBT Gate Driver, 3) IGBT
1 x 2 cm proton beam in a pattern somewhat like the ones Modulator, 4) Raster Magnet and 5) Fault Detection
shown in Fig. 1. The pattern is achieved by modulating Circuitry.
the vertical- and horizontal-axis magnets with triangular
current waveforms at slightly different frequencies in the Fault
Detection
500 to 600 Hz range [1]. The entire target is then
irradiated in a period of approximately 20 ms. RASTERED
BEAM
IGBT PLL/IGBT
Modulator Gate Driver
IGBT PLL/IGBT
Modulator Gate Driver
INPUT
BEAM IGBT PLL/IGBT
Modulator Gate Driver
IGBT PLL/IGBT
Modulator Gate Driver Master
IGBT PLL/IGBT Clock
Modulator Gate Driver
IGBT PLL/IGBT
Modulator Gate Driver
IGBT PLL/IGBT
Modulator Gate Driver
IGBT PLL/IGBT
Modulator Gate Driver
Figure 3: Raster system concept
Figure 1: Sample patterns that are available by changing
the ratio of the x- and y-plane rastering frequencies. 2.1 Master Clock
________________ The Master Clock produces two different frequencies,
* Work supported by the DOE under contract DE-AC04- one for the four x-plane magnets and a second for the four
96AL89607. y-plane magnets. The choice of frequencies is carefully
made to avoid beat patterns. Important design issues of
612
the Master Clock are related to accurately splitting out a quadrupole magnets located downstream of the raster
1.024-MHz crystal-controlled master oscillator to two magnets in the HEBT beamline as shown in Fig. 2. The dc
different “divide by N” circuits to drive the horizontal and capacitor bank exchanges reactive power with the magnet
vertical planes with a minimum amount of skew between on a 1000 Hz timescale (twice per cycle). The IGBT
the channels. The Master Clock includes on-card fault H-Bridge circuit drives the raster magnets with a voltage
check circuitry that monitors the clocks to notify the user square wave, resulting in a triangular current waveform.
of a fault. The clock fault outputs are sent to four inde- The timing of the IGBT gate circuit is controlled by the
pendent divisions in the Beam Enable circuitry to turn off PLL/IGBT Gate Driver already mentioned.
the Linac beam before a raster system failure causes
damage to the target. to raster magnet
2.2 PLL/IGBT Gate Driver
Each magnet gets its timing signal from the Master ac/dc 36 mF Q1 Q3
converter 350 V
Clock described above. Each of the magnets has a PLL/ PLL/
PLL/IGBT Gate Driver that will, using a phase-locked IGBT IGBT
Driver Q2 Q4 Driver
loop, synchronize itself to the Master Clock, or else if the
Master Clock fails, is able to produce its own clock so that
the beam continues to be rastered onto the target. This
design approach is used to preclude a common mode fail-
ure that might cause damage to the target blanket. Figure 4: IGBT Modulator
For this application a sequential type of phase detector,
rather than an analog multiplier type, is used in each PLL The choice of IGBTs as the switches for the H-bridge
to generate error signals for the VCXOs in each IGBT was made on the basis of the operating frequency of
gate driver. The sequential phase detector results in 500 Hz and the low losses that these devices exhibit, in
modulator-to modulator phase errors less than about 50 ns contrast to the choice of MOSFET switches in the system
at the rastering frequencies. The phase detector then out- described in [2]. Freewheeling diodes are included across
puts the error signal to a VCXO that varies the frequency each switch to return the stored energy in the inductive
accordingly. If the Master Clock signal fails, the VCXOs load to the capacitor bank each half cycle, which is
of each modulator will maintain a clock signal, although whenever the voltage applied to the load changes polarity.
the modulators will no longer be synchronized. However, Because of this exchange of stored energy or reactive
the drift is slow, allowing ample time for the fault power between the capacitors and the magnet, the applied
detection circuitry to detect the problem and take action. dc real power to maintain charge on the 36 mF capacitor
The PLL/IGBT Gate Driver, as the name implies, bank is only 4% of the peak reactive power in the load,
generates properly timed signals at sufficient power to making this a very efficient system.
directly drive the gates of the IGBTs of the modulator.
Correct timing also requires that the signals sent to the
2.4 Fault Detection Circuit
IGBTs include some deadtime to ensure that two IGBTs The beam can not be allowed to stop sweeping across
in series are never turned on at the same time, thus the target. The Fault Detection Circuit is the watchdog
avoiding shoot-through failures. circuitry consisting of magnetic field and current sensors
and the associated processing circuits that will check to be
2.3 IGBT Modulator sure no serious failure modes exist in the Raster System.
The IGBT modulator consists of an ac/dc converter, a If a failure is detected, the Fault Detection Circuit
capacitor bank, and an IGBT H-bridge (Fig. 4). Each removes the beam enable from the Linac, thus shutting
modulator will be powered by uninterruptible power to down the beam until repairs can be made.
prevent a common mode failure due to the loss of ac input There are two B-dot pickup coils wound in each magnet
voltage. The ac/dc converter will charge up and maintain that will have a voltage induced in them when there is a
a constant voltage on the capacitor bank. Charge is drawn change in the magnetic field (dB/dt). Since the field is a
into and out of the capacitor bank by the H-bridge. The triangular waveform, this induced voltage is essentially a
value of the dc output voltage of the power supply is square wave that can be used to detect a fault in either the
dictated by system level requirements in that the dc magnet or the magnet drive. There are also two Rogowski
voltage represents the rate of change of the current in the current loops per magnet that will be used to measure the
raster magnet inductance (V = L*dI/dt). derivative of the triangular current. Each of these four
The dc voltage values are different for the x-axis sensors removes the beam enable signal from one of the
magnets and y-axis magnets because the required peak four divisions of the Fault Detection Circuitry if it detects
deflections (i.e. peak B-field) differ. Final beam a fault. The beam is shut off if two or more of the four
expansion and sizing is actually controlled by two beam enable signals are missing.
613
925 Watts. With approximately 1000 joules stored in the
2.5 Raster Magnet 36 mF capacitor bank, the magnet field drops to the 1/e
The raster magnets are ferrite, 30-cm long with an 8-cm point in about 2 seconds if the dc charging circuit is
square aperture. A magnet cross-section is shown in turned off. Fig. 7 shows the raster waveforms as measured
Fig. 5. A prototype magnet has been built and tested on an oscilloscope.
which uses Ceramic Magnetics CMD5005 Hi-mu, low
loss ferrite rather than the air core of [2]. This is a nickel- Magnet current
zinc material with a permeability of 4500 * µ0 H/m at Modulator output 50 A/div
1500 Gauss. The inductance with two 20-turn coils is voltage, 100 V/div
1.1 mH which produces peak fields of 640 Gauss at
100 A. From a radiation hardness standpoint, there is
experience with ferrite cores as kicker magnets at
B-dot voltage,
Brookhaven National Laboratory that show that the ferrite
1 loop, 1 V/div
material will outlast the coils.
FERRITE CORE
-2.50 ms 0.0 s 2.50 ms
500 us/div
Figure 7: Measured waveforms of modulator
COILS The spikes visible in the modulator voltage are caused
by the stray inductances being switched by the IGBTs in
the modulator. The peaking that is seen on the B-dot
waveform, on the otherhand, has two distinguishable
features:
Figure 5: Raster magnet cross section • An overall L/R droop due to the resistance of the
circuit, and
3 TEST RESULTS • A short overshoot of about 10% at the beginning,
with a time constant of about 100 microsec. This is
A raster modulator and magnet have been successfully
due to eddy currents in the coil that essentially
tested at LANL. A photo of the modulator and the
shield part of the volume of the ferrite magnet.
resulting triangular current is shown in Fig. 6. The
The voltage overshoot is thereby caused because
modulator is designed to operate at voltages up to 300 V
the initial inductance is only 90% of its dc value.
and 1000 Hz. For this magnet with an inductance of
approximately 1.1 mH, when the voltage is set to 243 V,
peak operating current is +/- 100 A (59 A rms). 4 CONCLUSIONS
A raster magnet system that is capable of safely and
reliably expanding a proton beam onto the APT target has
been developed and tested. Test data taken on a prototype
indicate that the required ac power is about 4% of the
peak reactive power in the raster magnet. The full-scale
design is robust due to the application of redundancy as
well as the use of independent fault detection circuitry that
monitors the operation of the raster system. Based on the
positive results of the prototype test, a complete system of
eight magnets, modulators and fault detect circuits is
Figure 6: Modulator and test waveform currently being fabricated for full system evaluation and
(+/-100 A, 500 Hz) testing.
The output power capability of the power supply is based 5 REFERENCES
on the predicted losses in the load, which is the sum of the [1] C.R. Rose and R.E. Shafer, “A 200-A, 500-Hz,
losses in the IGBT H-bridge, the cable, and losses in the Triangular Current Wave Modulator and Magnet
magnet which include the magnet cable resistance and the Used for Particle Beam Rastering,” Proc. 1997
magnet eddy current losses. At 243 V and 100 A peak Particle Accel. Conf., #7P089 (Vancouver, 5/97).
current, the output power is essentially reactive and equal [2] C. Yan, et al., “Target Raster System at CEBAF,”
to 14,030 VARs. The measured input power (real) is only Nucl. Inst. and Meth., Vol. A365, pp 46-48 (1995).
614
LOW TO HIGH ENERGY BEAMSTOPS FOR APT
D. Doll, T. Van Hagan, K. Redler, J. Tooker, A. Baxter, M. Fikani - General Atomics, San Diego CA
D. Schneider, F. Spinos - Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM
W. Funk – Westinghouse Savannah River Site, Aiken, SC
Abstract directed to the target/blanket switch-yard instead of
going to 1700 MeV, turning 1800, and returning to the
Beamstops are required for commissioning and operating same switch-yard.
linear accelerators. The family of beamstops currently
being developed for the DOE-sponsored Accelerator Beamstops are being designed and built to accommodate
Production of Tritium (APT) program is addressed. The each stage of the linac assembly as well as on-line tune-
operational range encompasses proton energies of 6.7 up operation. This began with the ED&D [1] program
MeV at the end of the radio-frequency quadrupole RFQ which requires three beamtops, two of which have been
to 1.7 GeV at the target/blanket, and both pulsed and cw built and operated; a third is being designed. This paper
operating modes. An additional beamstop needed on a gives an overview of all these beamstops outlining the
companion test facility to validate ion injector key requirements, basic approach to the designs, and a
performance has been built and operated. This was the summary of the work completed.
first of the series of cw beamstops; the second is under
construction and will be operational by the end of 1998. 2 REQUIREMENTS AND KEY CRITERIA
Particle stopping distance and duty factor drive the size
and heat transfer capacity of these beamstops; the need The obvious prime requirement for any beamstop is to
for low neutron production and activation potential stop the accelerated particles. Not so obvious is the need
drives the material selection. At energies above 6.7 to do so in a manner that addresses both the linac
MeV, the preferred beamstop material is graphite with operation and the need to minimize the effects of nuclear
aluminum the choice for structures and helium the interactions produced. Above a few MeV, protons will
choice for coolant. Boronated water is the preferred activate a target as well as produce neutrons that escape
shielding below about 35 MeV, but is less suitable at the target and activate the surrounding materials. Since
higher energies because of the creation of Be-7. The proton energies up to 1700 MeV will be produced, the
evolution of the low-energy demonstration accelerator APT beamstops will see the full range of nuclear
(LEDA) beamstops to 11 MeV and descriptions of APT reactions well into the spallation regime. The object is to
beamstops are presented with performance ramifications select the solid target material that produces the fewest
and the status of the hardware and testing. neutrons. A comparison of three candidates is shown in
Fig. 1. Carbon is the clear winner throughout all
1 BACKGROUND energies. In the same way, the vacuum vessel and
structures are aluminum because of its low production of
long half-life isotopes; helium is the coolant because it is
A linear accelerator operating cw at 0.100 A has been transparent to the neutrons.
proposed for producing tritium to replace the nation’s
stock-pile as it continually dwindles due to natural Number of Neutrons Produced per Proton vs Energy
decay. The APT program addresses this need and is 100
being implemented by Burns and Roe, General Atomics
10
(GA), and Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) in a
facility to be located at the Savannah River Site (SRS). 1
In support of this program, an Engineering Design and
n/p
0.1
Development (ED&D) program is on-going
simultaneously at LANL. The baseline APT facility will 0.01
Carbon
Aluminum
produce tritium at a rate of 3.0 kg/year. A two-phase Copper/Nickel
0.001
approach now under consideration would accommodate
an intermediate stage whereby a 1.5 kg/year production 0.0001
10 100 1000 10000
rate could be achieved and be upgradable with minimal Energy (MeV)
schedule impact. The linac uses a rf driven ion injector
that feeds into the RFQ at 75 kV. The RFQ accelerates
Fig. 1 Comparison of beam absorber materials
the beam to 6.7 MeV; this is followed in ascending
energy levels by a CCDTL (96 MeV), CCL (211 MeV),
Spallation reactions with carbon produce a wide range of
and high energy cryo-cooled (HE) linac (1700 MeV). In
daughter isotopes but only Be-7 (0.48 MeV gamma, 53
the two-phase program, the first-phase facility would
day half-life) seriously affects shut-down access for
have the proton beam turned 900 at 1032 MeV and
615
maintenance or replacement. The cross section for this neutrons. While the evaporation neutrons have an
reaction is shown in Fig. 2. The low and intermediate isotropic angular distribution, the cascade neutrons are
energy beamstops will not accumulate much Be-7 at 0.1 forward scattered and become more so as the proton
% duty unless long operating times (>>6 months) are energy increases. Yields (n/p) range from 2x10-4 at 20
used in linac commissioning. The 1700 MeV beamstop MeV to 2 at 1700 MeV with mostly evaporation
will build up 5.4 Curies (gamma-producing) over the neutrons at low energy and about half-and-half at high
projected 1000 initial hours of operation at 2% power. energy. One meter of water or concrete (4π) is adequate
Man-access for repair or replacement will be affected. for neutron shielding for proton energies up to 20 MeV;
it is also adequate at higher proton energy transverse to
and upstream of the beam. Above 150 MeV, 6-8 m of
Cross Section
10 concrete are required on the down-stream end to capture
the high energy spallation neutrons. The latter may be
, mb
5 made thinner by substituting an inner layer (20–30 cm)
of steel. Unfortunately, this layer would become quite
0 activated making it a solution of last resort.
10 100 1000 10000
Proton Energy,MeV 3 COMMISSIONING BEAMSTOPS
The preliminary linac commissioning plan [2] calls for
five beamstops. The first three will be used for
Fig. 2 Cross section for 12C(p,n)7Be reaction rises commissioning and stored in shielded alcoves off the
sharply above 32 MeV. main tunnel after the linac has been built and tested to
that point, i.e. 6.7 – 20, 211, and 470 MeV. The last two
As the proton beam enters the graphite, it will penetrate beamstops located at the end of the linac (1700 MeV. 0.1
as far as the initial energy will carry it. This stopping %) and adjacent to the target/blanket (1700 MeV, 2%)
distance and the concomitant power deposition are the are permanently integrated into the linac facility. The
remaining key factors in the beamstop design. At graphite targets of the three commissioning beamstops
energies up to 20 MeV, the heat deposition is essentially are cooled by thermal radiation to the respective vacuum
on the surface (2.75 mm); above this energy, the power vessels, thus eliminating the need for a window.
is deposited into an ever increasing volume and depth Although larger, the 0.1% HE beamstop at the end of the
until at 1700 MeV, 4.6 m of 1.8 g/cm3 graphite is linac is cooled similarly. The 2% 1700 MeV beamstop
required to stop the beam. Fig. 3 shows the radial and requires direct cooling of the graphite with helium and a
axial power distributions for a 1 σ, 2.66 cm beam at window also cooled with helium.
1700 MeV. This is used to design the array of cooling
passages in the graphite target.
Power Density: 1700 MeV Case The low energy beamstop will be used to commission
the RFQ and as many CCDTL modules as practicable
MW/liter
limited primarily by the increased forward scattered
10-2
cascade neutrons (Fig. 4). The graphite beam target is
10-3 located in the center of the shield tank and radiates the
10-4
10-5
heat to the cylindrical housing which is in turn cooled by
0
50
10-6 natural convection of the shield water. Air convection on
10-7
100
10-8
the outside of the tank cools the shield water, resulting in
150
Radius (cm)
200
10-9
completely passive thermal management.
0
100
200
250 300
400
500
Z (cm)
Fig. 3 Power density in graphite from a 1 σ = 2.66 cm
1700 MeV proton beam
Beamstop shielding requirements vary widely over the
linac, driven by the effects of increasing proton energy.
The neutron spectrum produced comes from three
sources: 1) cascade neutrons that are produced from
proton energies >20 MeV and can be as energetic as the
incoming proton, 2) evaporation neutrons whose
energies are <5 MeV, and 3) thermal neutrons arising Fig. 4 Low energy beamstop to be used for
from degradation of the cascade and evaporation commissioning at several energies starting at the RFQ
616
The preferred coolant is helium since it does not activate, chosen over copper because of the lower n/p at 6.7 MeV.
has good heat transfer properties, and can heat-exchange This ogive is integrated into a cartridge that fits into a
to conventional cooling systems. The arrangement for central chamber in an aluminum tank filled with boric
the 470 and 1700 MeV (0.1%) beamstops will be acid saturated water which acts as a neutron and decay
designed similar to the low energy beamstop except gamma shield (Fig. 6, lower right).
elongated to accommodate the increased proton range
and the vessel is cooled with helium. In all beamstops
above 200 MeV, the shield will be concrete about 1 to 2
m thick radially to capture evaporation neutrons and 6 to LEDA Beamstop
8 m thick downstream to stop the cascade neutrons. Boronated Water Coolant
Filled Shield Tank In/Out
The high energy beamstop is the final tune-up target
CRITS Beamstop
before the beam is switched into the target/blanket. It is Ogive Support/
designed to absorb 2% of the 1700 MeV beam, or 3.5 Catch
Beam
MW. The graphite is arranged as vertical hexagonal Basin
blocks with coolant holes running transverse to the beam
and spaced to keep the temperature as uniform as
practicable. Helium is circulated through the blocks
starting at the bottom (up-flow) with a large plenum that
also acts as a support and terminating at the top where
orifices are used to balance the flow through the
Fig. 6 Beamstops built and operated for ED&D
differently heated zones. The heat is exchanged at a
remote location with water to a conventional facility
cooling system. The window separating the vacuum 5 CONCLUSIONS
from the pressurized helium is aluminum, used to
minimize the long-term activation products. It is cooled The development and commissioning plans for the APT
with helium through holes running transverse to the linac have created unique requirements for the
beam. The concrete shielding is similar to the beamstops. These have been met with an array of
intermediate energy beamstops except that special designs that have taken advantage of graphite as the
provisions are made to replace the window remotely absorber, aluminum for structures, and helium for
should that become necessary. coolant. These materials minimize the production of
neutrons and activation products which reduces the
Concrete effects on worker safety and the need for remote
Helium Cooled
Shielding handling. These designs give the greatest flexibility to
Graphite Blocks
the facility design and commissioning activities.
Pressure
Vessel
Window
6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Beam
*This work was sponsored by the Department of Energy
under Contract No. DE-AC04-96AL8907. The authors
wish to thank GA beamstop team members Raj Acharya,
Paul Wegner, Chuck Charman, Terry Figueroa, Hank
Brodnick, Ralph Senior, and Craig Bystedt. We
Fig. 5 High energy beamstop – 1700 MeV gratefully acknowledge the support of LANL staff
members Joe Sherman, Herb Newman, Denise Pelowitz,
4 ED&D BEAMSTOPS Ross Meyer, Jr and Dave Hodgkins.
Two beamstops [3] have been built in support of the 7 REFERENCES
ED&D program at LANL. Both use the same basic
design approach to stopping the proton beam and [1] H. V. Smith, et al, ”Status Update on the Low-energy
dissipating the thermal energy, which is to use Demonstration Accelerator”, LINAC98 POSTER
concentric thin-wall ogive (pointed arch) shapes with TU4014.
high velocity water flowing in the gap between them. [2] L. Warren Funk, et al “Development of a
The first one was built of copper and operated Commissioning Plan for the APT Linac”,LINAC98
successfully in the Chalk River Injector Test Stand Poster TU4012
(CRITS) facility (Fig. 6 upper left) which reached 0.085 [3] T. H. Van Hagan, et al, “Design of an Ogive-Shaped
A at 1.2 MeV, the highest power cw beam yet achieved. Beamstop”, LINAC98 Poster TU4091.
The second was fabricated from electroformed nickel,
617
LOW-STORED-ENERGY 100-kV REGULATOR FOR ION SOURCES
AT LANSCE *
E. G. Jacobson, R. L. Haffner, W. B. Ingalls, B. J. Meyer, J. E. Stelzer
Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545 USA
Abstract output. Several operational amplifier configurations were
tried, and by the spring of 1993, the electronics response
At Los Alamos Neutron Science Center (LANSCE), as was flat out to approximately 300 kHz, the components
elsewhere, it is desirable to minimize the available stored destined for oil immersion had run in air with an output of
electrical energy for the H- ion sources to minimize 7.5 kV for an input voltage of 10 kV, and preparations
accelerating column damage caused by uncontrolled energy were made to test the regulator with a pulsed load.
release during arc-downs. The stored energy includes, in When the supply and regulator were tested in
addition to the charge in the power supply output preparation for use on the ISTS at LANSCE, the only
capacitance, the charge on the electronics racks. The racks detectable component failure resulting from the 4 years of
are supported and insulated from ground by PVC pipe and storage was physical damage to one optical fiber
have a capacitance to ground of approximately 900 pf. In conductor. The fiber optic transmitters were relocated from
1988 LANSCE personnel designed a high-voltage current the ground level electronic chassis to the top of the oil
source using a low-stored-energy power supply and planar tank to prevent recurrence. Approximately 5 m of optical
triode with the goal of eliminating uncontrolled release of fiber were replaced by copper. No performance degradation
charge stored in the power supply. Construction and was detected when duplicating pre-1993 measurements in
testing were performed intermittently as resources the fall of 1997.
permitted until 1993. When work on the Short-Pulse The regulator and power supply were placed in service
Spallation Source (SPSS) [1] started on the LANSCE Ion on the ISTS late in 1997 and they operated satisfactorily
-
Source Test Stand (ISTS), it was recognized that a higher with a pulsed beam current (H plus electrons) up to
current power supply would be needed and work resumed 40 mA with droop of 600 V (15 V per mA). At current
on the regulator circuitry. A 120-kV power supply having above 40 mA, droop was no longer linear due to operation
low output capacitance and a planar triode have been used of the current-limiting feature of the circuitry associated
to supply 40 mA, 120-Hz, 12% duty-factor current for the with the field-effect transistors (FETs). At some total
ISTS beam. The triode’s cathode current is controlled by beam current level above 60 mA, probably over 100 mA,
circuitry operating both at power-supply voltage level and operation of the power supply became erratic, and then the
at ground level via a fiber optic link. Voltage droop is power supply failed.
approximately 600 V during the 1 ms beam pulse. We All components of the regulator have been subjected to
present the status of the regulator and its special the transients associated with ion source arc-downs on the
challenges. test stand and there have been no failures. The tube has an
amplification factor of 1300 and with 120 kV across it, it
is cut off with a grid-to-cathode voltage of –110 V, more
1 BACKGROUND than a factor of 3 below the rated drain-to-source voltage
Requirements for a low-stored-energy power source of the FETs. The high gain of the tube permits the FET
supplying 50 mA at 100 kV at 12% duty were defined a circuitry to limit plate current during normal operation,
decade ago. A 120-kV, 25 mA power supply was specified including arcing to ground (through the source or
and acquired. The power supply’s output capacitance was otherwise) of the output.
to be charged during the 7.3 s periods that beam was not
being extracted from the source, and its output voltage
was to decrease during the 1 ms periods when H- ions were 2 SIMPLIFIED REGULATOR
being extracted. The tube would be controlled, if possible, DESCRIPTION
such that plate voltage, relative to ground, would decrease A 0 to 10 V reference is supplied to the control
1 V for each 1 mA of increase in load during a beam circuitry located at ground and compared with the feedback
pulse. One goal was to have the electronic circuitry, voltage developed by the compensated divider Fig.1. The
including the fiber optic components, have a frequency magnitude of the signal provided to the fiber optic
response of 1 MHz in order to minimize droop at the transmitter is varied as necessary to make the magnitude
beginning of a pulse. Circuitry was also designed to turn of the feedback voltage equal to the reference. Tube
the tube off quickly in case of an arc to ground at the cathode current is controlled by varying current in the
*
Work supported by the U. S. Department of Energy
621
FET. For plate-to-cathode voltage of greater than 3 kV and • Light-emitting diodes that indicate circuit
plate current of less than 150 mA, grid-to-cathode voltage components’ status outside the tank via light fibers
is negative and grid current is zero. Within those
constraints, plate current is equal to FET current.
5 FIBER OPTIC LINKS
(+) The printed circuit board in the oil tank has two fiber
optic inputs from ground level. The analog control signal
120 KV 7 nF P.S.
originates in the regulator module. A digital on-off signal
(–)
comes from a transmitter that receives its input from an
arc-down recovery card module that has several permissive
Output inputs. The FET depicted in Figure 1 represents both the
Planar FET associated with the analog signal and the FET
Triode 0-100 kV
associated with the arc-down recovery card. Figure 2,
though still simplified, is an expansion of the FET
circuitry.
FET High-Voltage High-Voltage
0-10 V Input Output
Reference
(+) 18 VP.S. (–)
Analog
Figure 1: Simplified circuit diagram. Components Signal
represented by symbols inside the dotted line are in an oil-
filled tank. The double arrows represent fiber optic
transmission and detection. Resistor
for
Current
3 COMPONENTS AT GROUND LEVEL On-Off Limit
Signal Function
Reference to the summing junction of the regulator
amplifier is provided by a 10.000 V, +/- 2.5 mV precision
reference chip and a 10-turn potentiometer. The regulator
amplifier is followed by three stages of amplification of
gain seven each. The operational amplifiers used for these (+) 18 V P.S. (-)
stages have a gain-bandwidth product of no less than 45
MHz. They are followed by a buffer amp of gain 0.9
which drives the fiber optic transmitter. The transmitter is Figure 2: Simplified circuit diagram. Analog amplifier
mounted on the top of the oil tank. represents a detector diode and three stages of
amplification. On-off amplifier represents a detector diode
and a comparator.
4 COMPONENTS IN THE OIL TANK
The output of a comparator on the card in oil ensures
Devices located in the tank filled with electrical that the FET associated with the permissive signal from
insulating oil are mounted on a plate that is supported by the arc-down recovery card is either fully enabled or
rods connected to the removable tank top. All components disabled. When enabled (effectively a short circuit), control
are accessible when the tank top is lifted. A 120:24 V of current in the FETs, and consequently the planar triode,
isolation transformer rated 120 kVDC and the is provided by the FET whose gate signal is a function of
compensated voltage divider are mounted on the plate. the output of the ground-level regulator circuitry.
Also attached to the plate is a phenolic support structure
on which is mounted:
• A printed circuit card holding the fiber optic receiver 6 CONTROL RESPONSE
and three stages of amplification, FETs which
provide on-off switching and cathode current control, The open-loop gain, from the reference input of the
and 18- and 23-V voltage regulators regulator to the gate of the controlling FET, is
• Α 24:6 V filament transformer approximately 1600. Time to peak following an input
• Α planar triode and heat sink step small enough not to cause any amplifier saturation,
622
2.5 mV through 1 kΩ into the summing junction, is possible replacement for the polystyrene capacitor if the
approximately 850 ns. Time to reach steady-state is chip’s relatively inferior stability would not be a problem.
approximately 2.25 µs. Because of the limitations of the Although short, 4 cm, the connection between the plate,
compensated divider, measurement of closed-loop response made on the heat sink bolted to the triode, and the top of
has been difficult due to the magnitude of the noise on the the divider is inductive, and the effect of varying the
divider signal. Use of a commercial divider having a half- length has been investigated only briefly.
power frequency response of 5.7 MHz has been used to
observe what we think is a truer representation of voltage 9 CONCLUSIONS
applied to the ion source on the ISTS. The regulator has Regulation of -80 kV using a planar triode and a low-
supplied 40 mA, 1 ms pulses at 120 Hz with a droop stored-energy power supply whose output droops from
from 80 kV of 600 V. –120 kV during the time charge is being extracted from an
ion source on the ISTS has been demonstrated. The
capacity of the high-voltage supply has been exceeded
7 COMPENSATED DIVIDER with no apparent damage to the regulator components.
The divider which generates the voltage feedback signal With an adequate power supply and modifications to the
consists of three 300 pF vacuum capacitors and one 1 µF FET current limit circuitry, which floats at high voltage,
polystyrene capacitor in series that are in parallel with it is anticipated that up to 350 mA at 12% duty could be
seventy-eight 1.283 MΩ resistors and one 10,001 Ω supplied by the regulator using the present planar triode.
resistor in series. The 1.283 MΩ resistors are wound Future work will include investigation of the response
spirally around a phenolic tube that encloses the 300 pF time of on-off FET circuitry, reduction of compensated
capacitors. The first resonance of the vacuum capacitors, divider noise, determination of the cause(s) of the higher-
measured individually, in air, occurs at 33 MHz. The first than-designed-for droop, and testing with the new power
resonance for the polystyrene unit occurs between 0.5 and supply.
0.6 MHz.
The change in effective capacitance when the assembly
is submerged in oil is not known. However, total ACKNOWLEDGMENT
capacitance of the three vacuum capacitors before Andrew A. Browman was the initial designer of the
submersion in 1990 was 116 pF. After the resistor, regulator, provided solutions to circuit limitations as they
capacitors, and phenolic tube had been submerged in oil became apparent as portions were constructed and tested,
for 4 years, measured total capacitance was 256 pF. and has continued to provide valuable suggestions when
Measured individually, the increases were 70 to 80 pF per requested.
resistor-capacitor section. The effects on regulator
performance of the variation from ideal have not been
determined. REFERENCE
[1] R. R. Stevens et al., “Beam Simulations for the H-
8 FUTURE WORK AND CONCERNS Upgrade at LANSCE,” Proceedings of LINAC98,
Chicago, August 23-28, 1998. XXX-XXX (1998).
The initial requirement of supplying a 50-mA pulsed
load has changed to 100 mA and may be increased to 200
mA or more. A nonstandard power supply capable of 200
mA at 12% duty has been ordered. It is possible to add
power supplies in parallel.
The manufacturer’s experience with the planar triode
indicates that, as operated in this application, it is capable
of peak current of 350 mA without exceeding the anode
dissipation capability of the tube or the tube’s emission
capability. Due to consequences of consolidations within
the vacuum tube industry, tube procurement lead time has
been long.
Considerable time was spent before 1992 in the effort
to build a good high-frequency voltage divider. The
original goal for frequency response had been 1 MHz for
the electronics and 10 MHz for the divider. Although
operation using the divider has been satisfactory, the
signal it provides is noisy and needs to be improved. A
chip capacitor whose first resonance is at 1.1 MHz is a
623
TESTING OF VACUUM PUMPS FOR APT/LEDA RFQ*
K. Kishiyama, S. Shen, D. Behne
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA and
N. G. Wilson, AMPARO, Inc., Los Alamos, NM and
D. Schrage, R. Valdiviez, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM
Abstract goals can be met. Therefore, it was important to verify
the performance of the cryopumps and NEGs to ensure
Two vacuum systems were designed and built for the
they would support the operational requirements for
RFQ (Radio Frequency Quadrupole) cavity in the
LEDA.
APT/LEDA (Low Energy Demonstration Accelerator)
linac. The gas load from the proton beam required very 2 TEST SETUP
high hydrogen pump speed and capacity. The gas load
from the high power RF windows also required very high The pump speed and capacity for the cryopump and the
hydrogen pump speed for the RF window vacuum system. NEG pump were measured using test domes built to
Cryopumps were chosen for the RFQ vacuum system and American Vacuum Society Standard 4.1 [1]. The pumps
ST185 sintered non-evaporable getter (NEG) cartridges were tested using only hydrogen, since it is the primary
were chosen for the RF window vacuum system. gas load in APT. A schematic of the test setup is shown
Hydrogen pump speed and capacity measurements were in Figure 1.
carried out for a commercial cryopump and a NEG pump.
Test Dome
This paper will discuss the test procedures and the results
of the measurements. 0.5 D
Gas Inlet
1 INTRODUCTION Stabil-ion gau ge 0.5 D Baratro n
Cryopumps and NEGs are known for their high hydrogen 1 Liter volume
pumping speed and capacity and are used widely in Leak
0.5 D Valve
accelerators applications. Cryopumps were selected for Pump Inlet
the RFQ cavity due to the very high hydrogen gas load Pump under test
from the proton beam loss. A cost analysis showed that Diameter
D
for the same cost, cryopumps could provide twice the
pumping speed compared with turbomolecular pumps.
Figure 1. Test setup for pump speed measurement.
NEGs were selected for the RF windows because in
addition to the high hydrogen pumping speed, they are
The pressure in the test dome was measured using
relatively small in size and lightweight. Size and weight
Granville-Phillips 370 Stabil-ion gauges. These gauges
were important requirements in the RF window vacuum
were supplied with individual calibration data on memory
system since space in the waveguide area was very
modules that were downloaded into their controller.
limited.
Granville-Phillip claims the measurement uncertainty is
3%. The gauges were calibrated at the factory for
The Ebara ICP200 cryopump was selected for the RFQ
Nitrogen. All measurements were taken using the factory
vacuum system because of its reasonable cost, very large
calibration and then corrected for hydrogen.
hydrogen capacity and its flexible interface for remote
operation. The SAES CapaciTorr B1300 NEG cartridge
Gas flow into the test dome was established by charging a
pump utilizing the sintered ST185 blades was selected for
known volume to a set pressure, then measuring the
the RF window vacuum system. The manufacturer
change in pressure with respect to time. The gas flow
claims that the sintered ST185 blades has increased pump
into the test system was controlled by a Varian variable
speed and capacity at room temperature over other types of
leak valve. The pressure in the known volume was
NEGs.
measured using an MKS Baratron. The Baratron is a
capacitance manometer with an accuracy of 0.5%.
Since LEDA is a demonstration facility for APT, beam
availability must be high to prove that APT production
The measurement of pump speed was similar to the
_____________________________
flowmeter method as outlined in AVS Standard 4.1.
*Work performed under the auspices of the U.S. Department However, this method varies from AVS Standard 4.1 in
of Energy by Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory under that the flow rate drops off as the pressure in the known
Contract W-7405-Eng-48 volume drops. The LabView data acquisition system
624
measures the pressure change in the known volume via The hydrogen capacity of the cryopump was measured to
the Baratron and the vacuum pressure via the Stabil-ion be over 30 standard liters at an operating pressure of 1x10-4
gauge at prescribed time intervals. For a given short time
(H2) Torr and a throughput of 2x10 -1 Torr-liters/sec.
interval, we assume that the flow rate is constant. The
pump speed can then be calculated using the equation S = This flow rate is over two orders of magnitude higher than
Q/(P - P0) where the throughput Q is the change in the predicted gas load in APT/LEDA. Figure 3 shows the
sorption plot at the high flow rate. At this very high
pressure in the known volume during the sample time
flow rate the test took 33 hours.
interval and P is the Stabil-ion gauge pressure in the test
dome. P0 is the base pressure in the test dome before the
test gas is introduced. Ebara Cryopump Hydrogen Capacity Test #1
4000
For the pump speed measurements, a certified 1 liter 3500
volume was used as the known volume. By substituting
Pump Speed (liters/sec)
3000
the 1 liter volume with a larger volume and changing the
Baratron to a higher range we used the same LabView 2500
system to measure pump capacity. LabView then 2000
P=1x10-4 Torr
calculated the total Torr-Liters of gas sorbed versus pump 1500 Q=2x10-1 Torr-liters/sec
speed.
1000
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 500
Pump speed and capacity were measured for both the 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
cryopump and the NEG. LabView recorded a timestamp, Quantity Sorbed (std. liters)
pressure in the test dome, and pressure of the test gas in
the 1 liter volume. Figure 3. Measured Cryopump Capacity at High Flow.
3.1 Cryopump Data The cryopump was then regenerated and after regeneration
the cryopump reached a base pressure of 1.90x10-10 Torr.
The cryopump reached a base pressure of 1.78x10-10 Torr The hydrogen capacity of the cryopump was re-measured
in the test dome. The pump speed was measured at over and found to be 32 standard liters at an operating pressure
2700 liters/sec. The pump speed test was repeated 5
of 1.0x10-5 (H2) Torr and a throughput of 2.0x10-2 Torr-
times after the pump was conditioned as stated in the
AVS Standard 4.1. (Pump Conditioning = pump speed x liters/sec. This flow rate was still at least an order of
0.03 Torr-liters. Using the manufacturer’s specification of magnitude higher than the predicted gas load in
2200 liters per second [2], the pump was conditioned after APT/LEDA. Figure 4 show the sorption plot at the
66 Torr-liters.) See Figure 2 for a typical plot of lower flow rate. At this flow rate the test took 12.8 days
cryopump pump speed versus sorption. The measurement and the results agreed very well with the previous test at
shows that the manufacturer’s specification is very the high flow rate.
conservative.
Ebara Cryopump Hydrogen Capacity Test #2
4000
Ebara Cryopump Hydrogen Pump Speed
4000 3500
Pump Speed (liters/sec)
3500
3000
Pump Speed (liters/sec)
3000
2500
2500
P=2x10-5 Torr
Q=7x10-2 Torr-liters/sec
2000
2000
1500 P=1x10-5 Torr
1500 Q=2x10-2 Torr-liters/sec
1000
500 1000
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 500
Quantity Sorbed (Torr-liters)
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Figure 2. Measured Cryopump Pump Speed Versus Quantity sorbed (std. liters)
Sorption.
Figure 4. Measured Capacity at the Lower Flow Rate.
625
3.2 NEG Data A test of the hydrogen capacity of the NEG pump was
performed after a regeneration. The objective of this test
The ST185 NEG, like all NEG pumps, does not pump
was to show that the NEG pump was capable of sorbing
inert gases, therefore a small turbo pump was added to the
one standard liter of hydrogen at the rated pump speed.
system. The turbo was a Varian V70LP and has a
One standard liter was an arbitrary value that represents
specified hydrogen pump speed of 45 liters/sec. The
several months of normal RF window operation. As the
hydrogen pump speed was measured in the test dome
data shows in Figure 6, the pump speed was 1150
before the NEG cartridge was inserted and found to be 51
liters/sec after 700 Torr-liters.
liters/sec.
ST185 Cartridge in 6" Pump Body
The NEG cartridge pump was mounted in the optional 6” Hydrogen Capacity
2000
diameter body rather than the standard 4” body. According
to SAES, this would increase pump speed from about 700
Pump Speed (Liters/sec)
liters/sec to 1200 liters/sec [3]. 1500
P=2x10-6 Torr
It was observed during installation of the cartridge pump 1000 Q=6x10-3 Torr-liters/sec
Turbo Hydrogen Pump Speed = 51 liters/sec
in its heater assembly that the thermocouple used by the
NEG regeneration controller to control the heater was
500
mounted very near the heater element and free standing.
There was concern that the actual temperature of the NEG
pump would not be what the thermocouple was reading 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
since the ST185 blades are mounted radially outward and Quantity Sorbed (Torr-liters)
the view factor of the blade to the heater is small. It was
felt that a thermodynamic analysis was not in the scope of Figure 6. Measured Capacity of ST185 Cartridge Pump.
this study, but it would have been interesting to mount
thermocouples directly on NEG blades and measure the 4 SUMMARY
temperature gradient. Pump speeds could probably be We have measured the pump speed and capacity of the
further optimized by knowing this temperature gradient. cryopump and NEG that are proposed for use in the RFQ
vacuum system for APT/LEDA. The results verify the
After the initial activation recommended by SAES of 500 manufacturer’s specifications and gives us confidence that
C for 45 minutes, several pump speed measurements were these commercial pumps will provide the necessary
made, followed by a regeneration. It was found that by vacuum performance for the operation of LEDA.
increasing the regeneration to an indicated 550 C for 90
minutes produced higher pumping speeds. This agrees
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
with tests performed by others [4]. Subtracting the pump
speed of the turbo, the average speed of the NEG was Reference herein to any specific commercial product,
1380 liters/sec. Figure 5 shows a typical sorption plot process, or service by trade name, trademark,
for the NEG. manufacturer, or otherwise, does not necessarily constitute
or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring
by the United States Government or the University of
ST185 Cartridge in 6" Pump Body California.
Hydrogen Pump Speed
2000
The authors wish to thank Jim Bowman, Tony DeCosta
and Mark Harper, Wolfgang Stoeffl and Marshall Mugge
Pump Speed (Liters/sec)
1500 for their technical assitance.
P=2x10-7 Torr
Q=7x10-4 Torr-liters/sec
Turbo Hydrogen Pump Speed = 51 liters/sec
REFERENCES
1000
NEG Hydrogen Pump Speed = 1380 liters/sec
[1] M. H. Halblanian, “Recommended Procedure For
Measuring Pumping Speeds,” J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A
500
5(4) July/Aug 1987
[2] Ebara ICP200 product data
0
[3] SAES CapaciTorr B1300 product data
0 0.5 1 1.5
Quantity Sorbed (Torr-Liters)
2 2.5 [4] Y. Li et al., “Design and Pumping Characteristics of
a Compact Titanium-Vanadium Non-Evaporable Getter
(NEG) Pump”, accepted, to be published, J. Vac. Sci.
Figure 5. Measured Speed of ST185 Cartridge Pump. Technol 1998
626
MEDICAL APPLICATIONS OF
C-BAND ACCELERATOR TECHNOLOGIES
E. Tanabe, AET Associates, Inc., 20370 Town Center Lane, Suite 252, Cupertino, CA 95014,
USA
Y. Fineberg, Stanford University, PO Box 8205, Stanford, CA 94309, USA
H. Matsumoto, T. Shintake, High Energy Accelerator Research Organization (KEK), 1-1 Oho,
Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305 JAPAN
Abstract 3. The process is moderately tranquil, not
traumatic for patients
Electron linacs have been widely used in medical 4. Patients usually do not suffer side effects
applications. Most of these linacs use S-Band (about 3 from radiation therapy
GHz) microwave technologies. Recently, however, 5. Most patients do not need expensive hospital
several new ideas in radiation therapy have been proposed care
that require new, higher power, higher gradient 6. Smaller medical staff is involved in
accelerators. In this paper, we propose the application of treatment
C-Band (5 to 7 GHz) technology for radiation therapy.
Also, we describe the possible design of a new standing However, the x-rays are “equal opportunity
wave accelerator structure and R&D of C-Band destroyers,” killing healthy tissue while traveling to, and
technology in KEK. through, the target volume. The goal of new radiation
therapeutic technology, therefore, is eradication of the
tumor with minimal radiation damage to the surrounding
1 INTRODUCTION healthy tissue while maintaining a high quality of life for
the patient.
Cancer is the major cause of death in most
developed countries, where approximately one in every 3 CURRENT RESEARCH IN
four persons will develop a cancer at sometime in his or
her lifetime. Modern society has recognized the immense RADIATION THERAPY
value of linear accelerator technology as a powerful tool
in medical technology. Today more than 5500 electron Tomotherapy [2] and stereotactic [3] radiotherapy
linacs are used for medical purposes, mainly for the are new radiation treatments that offer advanced solutions
treatment of cancer, in the world. to this enduring problem. Currently, simulator and CT
(computer tomography) imaging technology allowing
2 MEDICAL ACCELERATORS radiation physicians the ability to precisely locate the
tumor position before treatment. Modern medical
accelerators utilize the most updated computer
Linacs play such an important role in radiation technology, which has allowed radiation to be delivered to
therapy because of its treatment efficacy and cost the tumor as a function of time, space and dose rate. The
efficiency. One of the difficulties in treating cancer is time dependent dose delivery is called "physiological
targeting the treatment at the cancerous cells only, without gating," wherein the beam is delivered only over certain
putting the rest of the body at possible or certain risk, as time intervals in order to account respiration and heart
does often surgery and chemotherapy. motion. For space dependence, the multileaf collimator
Radiation therapy is a preferable alternative to "MLC," which utilized a number of beam absorbing
chemotherapy and surgery, although it is often used in leaves to produce an irregular beam shape in order to
conjunction with both. Nearly half of all cancer patients in "conform" the treatment beam to the prescribed 3-D
developed countries will receive radiation therapy, as treatment volume. However, these advanced techniques
definitive therapy, for palliation, or as an adjunct to are still not based on real time tumor monitoring and
surgery, and more than 50% will be cured by radiation treatment concurrently. Tomotherapy and stereotactic
therapy [1]. Linear accelerators direct the x-ray dosage at radiotherapy will allow physicians to locate the tumor
the target volume, the cancerous tumor cells, and control position during treatment as well, and are able to make
their reproduction capabilities. Radiation therapy offers modifications to the beam based on real-time analysis,
these benefits: thus making the treatments more proficient and yielding a
higher cure rate for its patients. Advances in the ratio of
1. It localizes the treatment to the tumor computational power to computer cost are now making
2. No cuts or abrasions are made on the body
627
this form of therapy economically practical. Between
1970 and 1980, significant advancements in CT and MRI
technology made radiation oncology a precise and
predictable modality. As a result, the cure rate by
radiation therapy has increased dramatically
Figure 1 shows the tomotherapy concept.
Tomotherapy combines the precision of a helical CT scan
with the potency of dynamic radiation therapy. Using an
intensity-modulated fan beam, rotational radiotherapy
delivery is achieved by moving multiple collimator vanes
in and out of the beam path with speed and precision. By
rotating the beam source around the patient, the beam is
able to enter the patient from many different angles and to
deliver more doses of lesser potency, thereby exposing the
healthy tissue to a significantly lower dosage of radiation.
Figure 2: Stereotactic therapy concept
4 MEDICAL ACCELERATORS IN
THE FUTURE
Even today’s most sophisticated linear accelerator
systems for radiation therapy still have many
shortcomings. Both tomotherapy and stereotactic
treatments require more advanced accelerators that can
produce much more x-ray radiation and at a more stable
rate, in time and space. They need:
Figure 1: Tomotherapy concept
1. A dose rate of 1 Gy/sec or higher
Thus, tomotherapy accurately controls the location 2. X-ray treatment beam position accuracy of
and intensity of the radiation entering the patient with the 0.1 mm
joint advanced technology of the MLC system and helical 3. Compact size of the linear accelerator
CT imaging technology, and delivers highly conformal 4. 100% temporal and spatial control of the x-
dose distributions. When using such a capable dynamic ray beam.
modulator, however, one must pay special attention to
possible inaccuracies such as leaf transmission, leakage In today’s treatment, however, there is not 100%
and alignment. temporal and spatial control; tumor position monitoring is
Stereotactic radiotherapy is often prescribed for not done in real-time. Simulation is done in another room
brain tumors, using extreme precision and a finely during the treatment, and what results is bombardment
focused radiation dosage to the target volume. By without knowing the exact target. A second issue is the
directing finely collimated beams of radiation from undesirable shift of organs during the radiation treatment,
thousands of angles, the x-rays converge at one small where organs may potentially move 2 cm and thus
spot, the tumor, while the healthy non-targeted tissue interfere with the line of radiation.
receives very little radiation. Advanced equipment such as CT can be used merely
This technique currently requires the use of a head for sending and storing information through the network
ring, CT scan often in conjunction with magnetic in a sequential manner. What we need is interactive
resonance imaging or angiography, and 3-dimensional equipment that can produce real time imaging and can
simulation and computerized dosimetry as well as feed back immediately (to the degree of a millisecond) to
treatment using a linear accelerator. Figure 2 shows a new the linear accelerator and deliver the dose at once, thereby
concept of stereotactic radiotherapy, which utilizes two eliminating bombardment without knowing the exact
rotary joints that are placed on the side of the gantry and target location. This image-directed therapy modifies the
the top of ceiling. These provide all the necessary radiation source so that the intended target is in the beam
electrical powers and coolings to the accelerator and the line instead of modifying patient position to align with the
X-ray source, which are free to rotate around all angles of radiation source. Taking into account natural organ shifts,
the target volume. it is also necessary to deliver the dose in a very short time,
628
requiring a much higher dose rate and a more powerful of 3.9 microseconds. Having followed the concept of the
linear accelerator. “Smart Modulator,” this one tries to satisfy demands that
it be reliable, simple, cheap, efficient, and easy to operate.
5 C-BAND ACCELERATOR The C-Band accelerating structure is under
development. Table 1 summarizes the design parameters
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT of a proposed compact high power accelerator for medical
applications, which utilizes the hybrid standing wave
Hence, we propose high-power C-band accelerators structure (patent pending).
to fit the requirements of the accelerators of future This structure will be able to deliver a much higher
radiation therapy. The following summarizes the general dose rate (1Gy/sec) than currently used in the S-band
description of these C-band accelerators: accelerator, provided the successful operation of the new
X-ray target concept.
1. Compact
2. High gradient Table 1: Specifications for C-Band
3. High current accelerating structure
4. Stable
5. Mechanically tolerant ACCELERATOR LENGTH (cm) 23
6. More efficient STRUCTURE Hybrid
Standing Wave
There are many advantages to using higher NUMBER OF ACC. CAVITIES 9
frequencies for compact accelerators, i.e. higher shunt FREQUENCY (MHz) 5712
impedance per unit length, smaller diameter, shorter ENERGY (MeV) 10
filling time, and a higher breakdown threshold. Most BEAM CURRENT (mA) 600
electrical parameters can be scaled with frequencies but BEAM PULSE WIDTH (µsec) 4
not for mechanical and thermal parameters. As a result, REPITION RATE (PPS) 240
the shunt impedance can not be increased with the rate of RF PEAK POWER (MW) 11
f 1/2 as we wish. The filling time τ will decrease with a SHUNT IMPEDANCE (MΩ/m) 140
frequency of f -3/2, which is the advantage for short pulse LOAD LINE (MeV) 15-8 i
operation. The voltage breakdown threshold increases
roughly by the square root of the frequency [4].
Meanwhile, there are currently several shortcomings
6 CONCLUSION
in using a much higher frequency, such as a tighter
mechanical tolerance, higher power density, and higher
power transmission loss. These are true not only for the Electron accelerators have been key contributors to
accelerator itself, but also for RF power sources such as the success of radiation therapy. The medical community
klystrons and magnetrons. Because of tighter tolerance is always looking for new linac technologies that are more
and higher power density, these microwave sources are effective and can save more lives. C-Band frequency
difficult to make operating reliable at higher peak power. technology could be the best choice for future
The High Energy Accelerator Research Organization applications in radiation therapy.
(KEK) in Japan has developed C-Band components and
accelerators that bring solutions to the above-mentioned REFERENCES
problems. Among their advanced solutions include:
[1] C.J. Karzmak, et al., “Medical Electron
1. C-Band klystron Accelerators,” McGraw Hill, Inc. (1993).
2. Pulsed modulator for C-Band klystron [2] T.R. Mackie, et al. “Tomotherapy: A new concept for
3. C-Band accelerating structure the delivery of dynamic conformal radiotherapy,”
Med. Phys. 20, 1709-1719 (1993).
KEK’s C-Band 50MW klystron uses π/2 mode [3] W. Lutz, et al. “A system for sterotactic radiosurgery
traveling wave structure in the output circuit in order to with a linear accelerator,” Int. J. Radiation Oncology
enhance the power-conversion efficiency and to reduce Biol. 14, 373-381 (1988).
the electric field gradient in the output circuit. Operating [4] E. Tanabe, et al. “Voltage breakdown at X-Band and
at about 5700 MHz, the beam voltage reaches about 360 C-Band Frequencies,” Linear Accelerator Conference
kV. Various tests have demonstrated that the KEK design Proceedings, 458-460 (1986).
is powerful and reliable for the multi-cell output structure.
The pulse modulator uses an inverter-type power
supply, which eliminated the massive charging-
transformer and also the de’Q-ing circuit from the
traditional design. KEK’s compact modulator design
produces test output voltage of 23.4 kV, and a pulse width
629
AN UPDATED ASSESSMENT OF A MEDICAL CYCLOTRON AS AN
INJECTOR FOR AN ENERGY UPGRADE
J. A. Clarke, D. M. Dykes, C. W. Horrabin, P A McIntosh, H. L. Owen, M. W. Poole, S. L. Smith
and V. P. Suller CLRC Daresbury Laboratory, Warrington WA4 4AD, United Kingdom
A. Kacperek and B. Marsland, Douglas Cyclotron Unit, Clatterbridge Centre for Oncology, Wirral
L63 4JY, United Kingdom
Abstract An attractive option is to exploit the same economical
technology to boost the energy of existing therapy
The 60 MeV cyclotron at Clatterbridge operates as the facilities, especially those in medical centres. Many are
UK centre for proton therapy, concentrating on treatment intermediate energy cyclotrons and it is necessary to
of eye tumours; the accelerator is a Scanditronix model assess whether their extracted proton beams can be
MC60PF fixed energy isochronous cyclotron with a high successfully matched into the small physical aperture and
current ion source. Although possible energy upgrades restricted longitudinal phase space of a high frequency
have been previously considered interest has now been linac structure. In particular the Italian design has an
reawakened by the activities of the Italian TERA acceptance of about 10π mm-mrad and 0.1 % rms energy
Foundation, which has proposed a compact high spread [5]. Beam intensities for treatment need only be
frequency booster linac as a potential solution to achieve 10-20 nA average current and the linac is assumed to
the 200 MeV needed for a broader therapy programme. have a typical duty cycle of about 0.1 %, leading to an
The paper reports progress on studies to assess if the instantaneous cyclotron current of a few 10ís of µA.
Douglas cyclotron is suitable for a test of such a Especially in a hospital environment it is crucial to
prototype booster linac. The results demonstrate that a minimise beam losses in the transfer between the two
cyclotron beam pulse of about 25 microseconds can be accelerators so that it will be important to develop pulsed
achieved by application of amplitude and phase operation of the cyclotron matching that of the linac
modulation to its RF system. The most recent (~10µs) as closely as possible.
measurements of output emittance and energy spread of The initial studies of the suitability of extracted beam
the accelerator are presented and compared with the characteristics of one such cyclotron, at the Clatterbridge
normal CW values. Compatibility with the acceptance of Oncology Centre in the UK, were recently reported at the
the proposed linac is discussed. EPACí98 conference in Stockholm [6]; updated studies
are reported in this paper. It may be possible for this
1 INTRODUCTION accelerator to be used as a test bed for the proposed
An overview of the use of accelerators for medical concept, perhaps in collaboration with the Italian project
applications has been given by Amaldi [1]; this includes [7]. A suggestion to boost the energy of the Clatterbridge
the important technique of hadron therapy using a variety accelerator with a linac, albeit of somewhat lower
of particles. Of these the potential for proton therapy in frequency, had previously been made in an earlier study
the treatment of a broad range of cancers is now widely by AEA Industrial Technology [8].
accepted and has already been identified by an EU
Working Party as deserving of priority support [2]. It is 2 THE CLATTERBRIDGE CYCLOTRON
already used effectively for eye melanomas in the range The Douglas Cyclotron Unit at Clatterbridge has
60-70 MeV but for deep seated tumours requires energies operated a cyclotron for proton therapy since 1988.
of at least 200 MeV. Few hospitals have such higher However for several years before that tests were carried
energy facilities and most patients have had to be treated out on the efficacy of neutron therapy, necessitating an
at nuclear physics laboratories, a less than satisfactory accelerator with exceptionally intense proton currents of
situation. What is needed is a compact, economical at least 50-100 µA to produce the required neutron fluxes
solution for provision of these 200 MeV proton beams. from its beryllium target. A large switching magnet
One route proposed by the Italian TERA Collaboration steered the protons into a neutron area and this separate
[3] is the production of a novel 3 GHz protontherapy beam line still exists, providing a useful facility for test
linac, using an injector followed by two side-coupled purposes.
linac structures with energies respectively of 70 MeV and The commercially supplied isochronous cyclotron is a
200 MeV; this challenge has been taken up by the Scanditronix model MC60PF, whose principal parameters
Frascati team in its TOP project [4]. are summarised in Table 1.
630
has the advantage of not disturbing the tuning loops. A
Table 1. Principal Cyclotron Parameters highly simplified block diagram of the RF system is
Energy (MeV) 62 given in fig 1, showing how the amplitude and phase
Current (µA) 50+ modulating signals are applied. The Clatterbridge system
Emittance/1σ (π mm-mrad) 2-3 was modified to allow the two types of modulation and a
Energy Spread (%, FWHH) 0.25 series of tests were made in which short rectangular
Radiofrequency (MHz) 25.7 pulses of both amplitude and phase shift were applied at a
Harmonic Number 1 repetition rate of 50 Hz and synchronised to the
Dee Voltage (kV) 40 electricity main.
Bunch Length (deg) 13
These are notional parameters, as specified by the
manufacturer, and in some cases are probably
conservative. The current rating reflects the earlier
utilisation as a neutron source and in recent years the
accelerator has rarely exceeded 50 nA in CW mode.
Cyclotron dees
Emittances were measured at the factory and the energy
Phase Amplitude
spread and phase length are assumed to be equal to that of
Figure 1: Block diagram of the modified RF system
another Scanditronix model (MC35). The energy has
been estimated from transmission through aluminium foil
The results showed that both modulations were fully
absorbers and for this type of cyclotron is fixed.
effective in producing a pulsed output beam, which was
The intense ion source is a cold cathode (PIG)
detected from a faraday cup signal. The amplitude
discharge type. Extraction is by utilising a radial integer
modulation was limited to the rise time of the RF system
resonance, together with an electrostatic deflector and
and gave a beam pulse of about 100 µs half width.
focusing magnetic channel. This makes it difficult to
Shorter pulses of about 25 µs were obtained by driving
predict the exact properties of the output beam.
the RF rapidly through the optimum level, but this of
course gave rise to 2 beam pulses, on the upward and
3 MODIFIED PULSE DURATION downgoing edges of the drive pulse. The phase
The obvious and most straightforward method of modulation system gave slightly shorter beam pulses of
modulating the beam in a cyclotron would be to pulse the about 20 µs, as shown in fig 2, but a measurement of the
source of ions whilst they are at low energy. basic system response to step phase changes has not yet
Unfortunately the ion source of the Clatterbridge been made so that it is not clear what the ultimate shortest
accelerator, as with the majority of medical cyclotrons, is pulse would be. At present it is likely that the best
positioned at the centre of the dees and is very technique for generating a single short beam pulse is to
inaccessible. Furthermore, no modifications to the apply shifted, overlapping, phase and amplitude
cyclotron could be considered which might reduce its modulations.
availability in its primary function as a source for
therapy. For these reasons an alternative approach to
achieving a pulsed output beam was selected, that is to
modulate the RF accelerating voltage.
If the RF accelerating voltage is not optimum, the first
few orbits of ions which have been emitted from the ion
source are perturbed, resulting in them colliding with
collimators which are critically placed near the centre of
the dees. Running the cyclotron with reduced RF
amplitude and pulsing the RF up to the correct level when
the beam pulse is required will produce a pulsed output
beam. In practice this technique must be constrained by
the need to keep the RF within certain limits so that the
auto-tuning loops remain functional.
Figure 2. Successful RF pulsing of the cyclotron beam
An alternative technique is possible in cyclotrons of the
type used at Clatterbridge where there are two pairs of
dees used. Adjusting the relative phase of the drive to the 4 EXTRACTED PROTON BEAM TESTS
separate RF amplifiers feeding the dee pairs can alter the The extracted beam properties have been assessed in an
RF accelerating voltage effectively seen by the ions. This experimental programme making use of the beam line
631
previously devoted to feeding the neutron target. This this with a real accelerating structure will now be
0
line has quadrupole triplets before and after a 55 dipole pursued, perhaps in an international collaboration.
magnet and the latter allows a large dispersion to be set if
required. The available diagnostics in the experimental 6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
beam line has been quite limited; a fluorescent screen at
We wish to thank E. Wilson (CERN) and U. Amaldi
the downstream end supplements spinning wire profile
(CERN and TERA Foundation) for helpful
monitors at two fixed locations. Viewing the screen
encouragement and advice. L.-O. Arlasjo (Scanditronix
image with a CCD camera the beam sizes were estimated
Medical AB) provided important technical advice on the
by fitting to Gaussian profiles using framegrabber and
cyclotron.
image analysis software written with LabVIEW [9].
Systematic scans of single quadrupoles with the
beamline set to give both high and low dispersion at the 7 REFERENCES
screen [6] gave a range of data that was then fitted to a [1] U. Amaldi, “Accelerators for Medical Applications”,
th
linear model of the beamline written using Microsoft Proceedings of the 5 European Particle Accelerator
EXCEL [10]; quadrupole field gradients were calibrated Conference, June 1996, Sitges, p 244.
using a Hall plate. Although the predicted beam sizes are [2] “European Strategy for Cancer Research”,
only weakly dependent upon the model energy spread an Commission of European Communities DG XII -
Medical Division (1991): XII/F-6/AV/nv/91001P
upper bound of 0.1% rms can be given for this cyclotron
[3] “The RITA Network and the Design of Compact
parameter; Twiss functions and emittances have also been
Proton Accelerators”, Eds: U. Amaldi, M. Grandolfo
estimated, the latter being consistent with those given in and L. Picardi, INFN, Frascati, 1996
Table 1. An example is shown in Figure 3 where the [4] L. Picardi et al, “The TOP-ISS Linear Accelerator: A
horizontal beam size is compared with model energy High Frequency Proton Linac for Therapy”,
th
spreads of 0.1%, 0.05% and 0.01%. Proceedings of the 5 European Particle Accelerator
Conference, June 1996, Sitges, p 2638
10
[5] M. Weiss, Private Communication
9 [6] J.A.Clarke et al. “An Assessement of a Medical
8 Cyclotron as an Injector for an Energy Upgrade”,
Horizontal Beam Size [mm]
0.1% th
7 Proceedings of the 6 European Particle Accelerator
6 Conference, June 1998, Stockholm.
5 0.05% [7] U. Amaldi, Private Communication
4 [8] M.P.S. Nightingale et al, Proceedings of the Linear
3
Accelerator Conference, Ottawa, 1992, p 398
2
[9] National Instruments, 6504 Bridge Point Parkway,
0.01%
Austin, TX 78730-5039, USA.
1
[10] Microsoft Corporation, Redmond, Washington
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
98052-6399, USA.
Quadrupole Current [A]
Figure 3. Typical fit of cyclotron parameters
5 CONCLUSIONS
The first phase of assessment of the properties of the
extracted proton beam from the 62 MeV Clatterbridge
cyclotron has been successfully completed. Emittances in
both planes have been confirmed to be at or even below
the expected values of about 2-3 mm-mrad and the
energy spread appears to be exceptionally good, with an
upper value (rms) of 0.1 % and probably considerably
lower. Pulsed beam operation has been commissioned by
modification to the RF drive circuitry and a pulse width
of 20 µs at 50 Hz demonstrated; since the modulation is
effectively onto the low energy beam acceptance in the
accelerator it is not expected that the high energy beam
properties will be adversely affected, but this has yet to
be confirmed experimentally. Nevertheless it is clear that
the cyclotron could be a suitable injector into a high
frequency proton linac booster. The possibility of testing
632
LIBO A 3 GHZ PROTON LINAC BOOSTER OF 200 MeV FOR CANCER
TREATMENT
U. Amaldi, B. Szeless, M. Vretenar, E. Wilson
CERN, CH 1211 Geneva 23, Switzerland
K. Crandall
Consult Crandall, Edgewood, New Mexico 87015, USA
J. Stovall
Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Chilton, Didcot, UK
M. Weiss
TERA, Foundation for Oncological Hadrontherapy, Via Puccini 11, 28100 Novara, Italy
Abstract the average power a klystron can deliver that limits the
LIBO duty cycle. The energy spread in the LIBO beam
Several hospitals and laboratories possess proton should be narrow enough to limit the distal fall off of the
cyclotrons with output energies of 60 to 70 MeV. A high dose given to the patients to ≤ 2 mm. A beam pulse
frequency (3 GHz) booster linac (LIBO) is proposed to repetition rate of 400 Hz has been chosen to suit an active
upgrade the cyclotron beam to an energy of 200 MeV, beam scanning method (e.g. pixel scanning). Preliminary
sufficient to treat deep seated tumours. LIBO is a side- tests have been performed to pulse the Clatterbridge
coupled linac which can produce beams with a variable cyclotron beam [4] to study its use as a LIBO injector
output energy. This paper presents the feasibility study of
such an accelerator, together with the milestones planned 2 BEAM OPTICS
for 1998-1999, including the machining of a part of LIBO
Beam optics studies have been made in order to find a
and testing it with full RF power on a test stand at CERN.
suitable layout of LIBO. A high average axial
accelerating gradient E0 (15.3 MV/m) has been selected
1 INTRODUCTION to limit the accelerator length and care has been taken to
The design of a novel high-frequency proton linear avoid synchro-betatron parametric resonances. The
accelerator of 200 MeV for medical purposes was cyclotron beam will be matched transversely to LIBO by
proposed by the TERA Foundation in 1996 [1]. Such an focusing elements placed between the two accelerators
accelerator has been further studied at ENEA, Frascati, and the aperture radius of 4 mm will make the transverse
Italy, and the low energy part of it is now under acceptance At such as to contain the cyclotron beam
construction [2]. Reference [1] briefly describes a study emittance (At ≅12 π mm mrad).
of a booster linac, LIBO, intended to upgrade a cyclotron Longitudinally the situation is different. Only part of
beam energy from about 60 MeV (already available in the low frequency cyclotron beam falls into the short
several hospitals and research institutions) to 200 MeV in LIBO buckets and many particles remain outside. This
order to treat deep seated tumours. In an earlier proposal effect has been analysed by simulating the cyclotron
[3] a similar but lower frequency upgrade was considered beam, which appears continuous in phase when referred
for the 62 MeV cyclotron of the Clatterbridge Centre for to the LIBO frequency of 2998 MHz, and dividing it into
Oncology, UK. LIBO studies are also based on the many thin phase slices which span 360 degrees. Each
Clatterbridge cyclotron, but the operating frequency has slice is followed through the linac with a beam dynamics
been pushed into the S-band in order to reduce the program, and LIBO is optimised in a preliminary way,
accelerator size and increase its breakdown limit. assuming no misalignments. It is then found that about
LIBO is a side-coupled linac (SCL) operating at 50% of the continuous beam can be transmitted and about
2998 MHz. It is composed of 36 tanks, separated by 25% of the transmitted beam is fully accelerated. Thus the
permanent magnetic quadrupoles (PMQs). Four tanks are accelerated beam is about 12.5% of the input beam. Most
grouped into a module, an RF unit, fed by its own RF of the rest of the beam leaves with energies below 70
chain. MeV.
The average output beam required from LIBO is of the Misalignments of PMQs and linac tanks, and other
order of 10nA, and it must be possible to vary its energy errors, such as quadrupole gradient errors, can reduce
from about 130 to 200 MeV. This constrains both the the intensity of the accelerated beam. One can
number of tanks in a module and their length. estimate the effect of quadrupole misalignments on the
The 3 GHz klystrons used to power the tanks operate in transmission by making a Monte Carlo optics calculation.
the pulsed mode with pulse lengths of up to 5 µs, but it is
633
rapidly. With D=70 mm, Epeak is
limited to a conservative value of 1.6
times the Kilpatrick limit Ek.
Figure 3 shows that a thin web
thickness w is preferable, as one might
expect from the short cell lengths of
LIBO. A 4 mm web has been chosen
for a good mechanical rigidity of the
pieces during machining and it has
been decided to braze two basic
elements back to back before the final
machining of the accelerating cells. However, the really
Figure 1: Schematic layout of LIBO delicate issue is whether cooling channels are required in
the web or whether circumferential cooling alone is
Four types of error have been analysed: quadrupole sufficient. Cooling channels would necessitate a relatively
displacement errors of ±0.1 mm; tank displacement errors thick web, which spoils the electrical characteristics and
of ±0.1 mm; quadrupole rotation errors of ±1°; and complicates the mechanical design, adding an extra risk
quadrupole strength errors of ±1%. The only error that and cost.
produces any significant reduction in the transmission is
quadrupole displacement. For a displacement error
tolerance of 0.1 mm there is a 90% probability that the 80
transmission will be greater than 10%, and about a 50%
probability that the transmission will be greater than 11%. 70 β=0.56
With a 10% transmission and a beam duty cycle of
0.0018 (400 Hz and 4.5 µs) the LIBO trapping efficiency
ZT23% (MΩ/m)
60 6.5 cm dia.
will be 1.8 × 10-4 and hence, in order to have an average
output current of 10 nA, the peak intensity in the 7.5 cm dia.
50
cyclotron beam pulse should be about 55 µA. β=0.35
40
3 LIBO STRUCTURE 1.6*E K
A schematic layout of LIBO is shown in Figure 1. Nine 30
50 60 70 80 90 100
modules, each comprising four tanks, are mechanically E peak (MV/m)
coupled together to form the 13.5 m long accelerator. A
Figure 2: The points show the shunt impedances and the
tank has 13 accelerating cells, which are formed from 24
peak surface fields for 11 different cell diameters D, at
basic elements and from 2 half end cells. Each basic
the input (β=0.35) and output (β=0.56) energy. The web
element consists of half of an accelerating cell and half of
thickness w is 4 mm.
a coupling cell. The tanks of a module are resonantly
coupled together via three bridge couplers. The central
coupler is connected to the RF feeder line and the
60
remaining two to a vacuum system. An RF pick-up is
installed at either end of each tank and PMQs, placed
between the tanks, form a FODO focusing lattice. The 50 2 mm Web
7 cm dia.
7.5 cm dia.
soft copper linac will be precisely aligned by fixing it on
ZT23% (MΩ/m)
a rigid support with pre-adjusted keys. 4 mm Web
40
The shape of the cells has been studied using the
program SUPERFISH. Investigations have included,
among other things, the effect of the accelerating cell 30
6 mm Web
diameter D and of the web thickness w (wall between two
accelerating cells) on the effective shunt impedance ZT2 6.5 cm dia. 1.6*E K
and peak surface field Epeak. The shunt impedance 20
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
includes the effect of slots for 3% coupling. The upper E peak (MV/m)
curve in Figure 2 shows that at the high energy end of
Figure 3: The points show the shunt impedances and the
LIBO (β=0.56), the chosen diameter D of 70 mm is
peak surface fields for 11 different cell diameters D and
optimum with respect to ZT2. The lower curve shows that
for 3 web thicknesses w, at the input energy (β=0.35).
at the low energy end (β=0.35) there is little to be gained
in ZT2 by reducing D and that Epeak would increase
634
The cooling problem has been studied assuming an RF incompletely closed stop bands. Cold RF measurements
duty factor of 0.2%, for which 150 W are dissipated in on a few cells of an aluminium model at CERN
each accelerating cell of tank 1. Very little power is completed the studies of LIBO.
dissipated in the coupling cells because LIBO operates in
the π/2 mode. The study has proceeded as follows: 4 FEASIBILITY TEST
• A table of surface coordinates of an accelerating cell
The SCL type of structure is usually used with lower
and of the power density distribution on its walls is
frequencies or with higher β values than those foreseen
generated by SUPERFISH.
for LIBO. It is therefore important to carry out a
• The table is read by a finite element engineering
feasibility test prior to the construction of a complete
code ANSYS, together with the specifications of the
medical booster linac. In a collaboration with High
cell material. In our model this material extends to a
Vacuum Process (HVP), Parma, Italy, the following
radius of 40 mm, where a thermal boundary is
milestones have been set:
defined. Simple cooling is simulated by fixing the
• Construction of a model of the first LIBO tank in
sink temperature, Tsink, at this radius, where one
copper (at HVP) in order to master the delicate parts
may reasonably expect the temperature to be
of the production (machining, tuning, assembling,
uniform. ANSYS computes the temperature
brazing, cooling etc). It should be completed in the
distribution, the thermal stresses and the mechanical
second half of 1998.
deformations of the cell. In our case, there was a
• Construction of the complete first LIBO module (at
temperature gradient between the nose (centre of the
HVP) to be tested with full RF power at CERN; the
cell) and Tsink of about 7° C.
module will be pumped, water cooled and powered
• A special code has been written to compute the
by a spare 3 GHz chain of LIL, and it will also
frequency of distorted cells. The code reads the
contain pick-ups for RF feedback. The tests at
coordinates of the deformed cell surface from
CERN are planned for the end of 1999.
ANSYS, compares them with the original ones and
computes the frequency detuning ∆f by using
Slater’s perturbation theorem. The detuning is found 5 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
to be about –250 kHz if Tsink is held at its ambient Our CERN collegues, L. Bassi, P. Bourquin, A. Millich
value. and R. Zennaro participated in several studies presented
• By lowering Tsink, the original cavity can be in this paper; A. Catinaccio, in particular, dealt with the
mechanically deformed in the opposite sense. Using deformations of the structure and the resulting detuning.
ANSIS and the special code, it was found that J. Lipp of RAL assisted in this analysis. K. Hübner, D.
changing Tsink by –5° C brings the cell back on Simon and the PS division of CERN supported this
tune; see Figure 4. project in many ways and rendered, together with S.
The conclusion is that circumferential cooling will be Ferrari (HVP), the fixing of our milestones possible. To
adequate for LIBO and that by controlling Tsink with the all of them go our deepest thanks.
frequency feedback loop, it will be possible to keep the The financial support of the Price Foundation is
accelerator on tune. gratefully acknowledged.
200
6 REFERENCES
100 [1] U. Amaldi, M. Grandolfo and L. Picardi, editors,
“The RITA Network and the Design of Compact
Proton Accelerators”, INFN, Frascati 1996, ISBN
∆f (kHz)
0
88-86409-08-7.
-100
[2] L. Picardi, C. Ronsivalle and A. Vignati,”Progetto
del TOP Linac”, RT/INN/97/17, ENEA, Frascati
1997.
-200
[3] M. P. S. Nightingale, A. J. T. Holmes and N.
Griffiths, “Booster Linear Accelerator for Proton
-300
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 Therapy”, Proceedings of the Linear Accelerator
T sink (°C) Conference, Ottawa, Canada, August 24-28, 1992,
Figure 4: Detuning ∆f as function of the lowering of the 398-401.
sink temperature Tsink. [4] J. A. Clarke, D. M. Dykes, C. W. Horrabin, H. L.
Owen, M. W. Poole, S. L. Smith and V. P. Suller,
“Assessing the Suitability of a Medical Cyclotron as
The effects of coupling slots between cells have been an Injector for an Energy Upgrade”, Proceedings of
studied with the 3-D program MAFIA. The PSPICE the EPAC – 98, Stockholm, Sweden, 1998.
program, dealing with coupled circuits, has been used to
assess the importance of various errors in the presence of
635
MEDICAL ISOTOPE PRODUCTION WITH THE ACCELERATOR
PRODUCTION OF TRITIUM (APT) FACILITY
M. R. Buckner, Westinghouse Savannah River Co., Aiken, SC 29802
M. Cappiello, Eric Pitcher, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, N.M. 87544
H. O’Brien, O’Brien & Associates, 107 LaSenda Road, Los Alamos, N.M. 87544
1 INTRODUCTION 2 DESCRIPTION OF APT
In order to meet US tritium needs to maintain the nuclear The APT, which is shown schematically in Figure 1, is
weapons deterrent, the Department of Energy (DOE) is made up of four major subsystems which are described
pursuing a dual track program to provide a new tritium briefly below[1].
source. A record of decision is planned for late in 1998 to
select either the Accelerator Production of Tritium (APT) 2.1 Accelerator System
or the Commercial Light Water Reactor (CLWR) as the
technology for new tritium production in the next century. The Accelerator System consists of the following
To support this decision, an APT Project was undertaken subsystems:
to develop an accelerator design capable of producing 3 - Proton injector to develop and maintain a
kg of tritium per year by 2007 (START I requirements). continuous 100-mA current.
The Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) was - Radio Frequency Quadrupole (RFQ) to focus and
selected to lead this effort with Burns and Roe accelerate the proton beam to 7 MeV (kinetic
Enterprises, Inc. (BREI) / General Atomics (GA) as the energy)
prime contractor for design, construction, and - Coupled-cavity Linac (CCL) to accelerate the
commissioning of the facility. If chosen in the proton beam to 211 MeV.
downselect, the facility will be built at the Savannah - Superconducting Linac (SCL) to accelerate the
River Site (SRS) and operated by the SRS Maintainance proton beam to its final energy of 1700MeV. The
and Operations (M&O) contractor, the Westinghouse design is modular so that the portion of the
Savannah River Company (WSRC), with long-term accelerator up to 1030 MeV can be completed to
technology support from LANL. These three produce 1.5 kg/yr of tritium and then a decision can
organizations (LANL, BREI/GA, and WSRC) are be made as late as 2002 to add the last section if the
working together under the direction of the APT National START I production level is still required.
Project Office which reports directly to the DOE Office of
Accelerator Production which has program authority and
responsibility for the APT Project.
1030 MeV Beam Target/Blanket
1700 MeV Beam Transport
Tritium Accelerator Tunnel Injector Building
Transport
Extraction
Heat Removal Klystron Gallery
Fig. 1 APT Plant Layout
636
Fig. 2 APT Target/Blanket
2.2 Target/Blanket (T/B) System 3 MEDICAL ISOTOPE PRODUCTION
WITH APT
The Accelerator System provides a proton beam that is
expanded and directed to a T/B assembly shown in Figure The APT T/B will produce a high energy, high flux
2. The T/B assembly consists of a tungsten clad target in proton and neutron irradiation environment that is unique
which neutrons are produced by spallation surrounded by in the field of isotope production[2]. In addition to
a blanket in which additional neutrons are produced in converting He-3 to tritium, it can be used to create
lead. The neutrons are thermalized by collisions in the isotopes for medical applications. Although the primary
lead and in light-water and are subsequently captured in mission of the APT is to create tritium for the nuclear
He-3 to produce tritium. weapons deterrent, an ancillary isotope production
mission is possible without significantly impacting tritium
2.3 Tritium Separation Facility (TSF) production. Because of the unique irradiation
environment, and the large volume of space available, the
The TSF operates by extracting tritium from a tritium, APT has the potential to provide a significant source of
hydrogen, and He-3 mixture returned from the T/B research, diagnostic, and therapeutic isotopes to the
System in a recirculating He-3 loop. The He-3, hydrogen medical community.
and tritium mixture also contains impurities such as water,
methane, ammonia and small quantities of radioactive The capability for the irradiation of medical isotope
materials. Hydrogen isotopes are separated from the He-3 targets is feasible within the scope of the T/B material
and sent to an Isotope Separation System where the surveillance program. The centerpiece of this program is
tritium is separated from hydrogen. The He-3 is purified a “rabbit” system that allows the insertion and removal of
and recycled to the T/B assembly. material surveillance coupons directly into several (up to
seven) locations within the T/B assembly. Double wall
2.4 Balance of Plant (BOP) Systems tubes with a continuous flow of water provide a cooled
environment for small (approximately 1.4 cm diameter by
The BOP Systems support the integrated operation of the 6.3 cm long) target capsules. These capsules are moved
accelerator, T/B, and TSF, and provide the facility in and out of the irradiation positions using hydraulic
buildings that house them. The BOP System designs are pressure. The design of the tungsten neutron source in the
driven by the required electric power input, the generated APT T/B allows for a large volume of potential irradiation
waste heat to be removed throughout each facility and the positions directly in the high proton and neutron flux
need to handle radioactive materials remotely. regions.
637
A small hot cell located nearby in an adjoining room is “The APT facility will provide a unique resource for the
used to remove the capsules from the ”rabbit” tubes and production of substantial quantities of high specific
load them into shipping casks for transfer to a processing activity radionuclides resulting in enormous scientific,
facility. Location of a private processing facility at the research and education opportunities. These
site boundary is a possibility. As an option to shipping radionuclides will be especially useful in advancing
casks, it is also possible to use pneumatic transfer tubes healthcare for diagnosis and in the rapidly growing area
from the hot cell to the processing facility to speed the of radionuclide therapy. We therefore support an
transfer. expansion of the APT project charter to include designing
into a biomedical radionuclide production capability.
Radioisotopes production in the APT target/blanket was This initiative should not draw from existing radioactive
analyzed to determine production rates and radiopurity of materials research or production programs, as it is
several isotopes that are of interest to the medical fundamental to the overall DOE mission, extending
community. These include Cu-67, Ge-68, Sr-82, In-111, rather than replacing existing efforts, with downstream
Re-186, Sm-153, Pd-103, P-32, Sc-47, and Ga-67. The benefits which are vast for the nation.”
isotopes were produced by nuclear spallation of natural
(non-enriched) target materials by high-energy protons There was general agreement within the group that any
and neutrons. Significant production rates, high new opportunity for radionuclide production and
radiopurity and specific activity were achieved for most development gained by construction of the APT facility
of the isotopes. In addition, the calculations showed that should be jointly pursued by the National Institutes of
for 11 liters of target volume placed directly in the proton Health (NIH), DOE, and the Department of Defense
beam the decrease in tritium production was less than 2%. (DOD), with NIH being the lead agency.
4 THE POTENTIAL IMPACT OF APT ON 5 CONCLUSIONS
MEDICAL ISOTOPE NEEDS
The APT will produce a high energy, high flux proton
and neutron irradiation environment that is unique.
Leaders of the biomedical science community met
Medical isotope production in APT has the potential to
recently in Dallas[3] to discuss the importance of
provide downstream benefits which have been judged by
developing an adequate supply of radionuclides to support
the biomedical community to be “vast for the nation”.
clinical practice, research, education and training, and
Although the primary mission of the APT is tritium
new treatments. The group acknowledged that the present
production, significant medical isotope production is
supply of radionuclides is insufficient to meet current and
possible with little impact on tritium production.
projected future needs.
As an example, the recent development of specific REFERENCES
delivery agents such as monoclonal antibodies that can
target specific tumor cells and carry radiotherapeutic 1. “Accelerator Production of Tritium Conceptual
materials to those cells has led to a major advance in Design Report”, LA-UR-96-4847 (March, 1997).
radiotherapy. Other healthcare areas with great potential 2. Cappiello, M., E. Pitcher, H. O’Brien, “APT
include bone pain palliation, brachytherapy applications Design Overview and Isotope Production
in inoperable tumors, nuclear cardiology and positron Capability”, LA-UR-98-1793, (May, 1998).
emission tomography (PET) procedures. For these to 3. “Proceedings of the Medical Isotope Work-
become available in routine practice there must be a shop”, Medical University of South Carolina,
supply of reasonably priced, high purity radionuclides Charleston, S.C. (June, 1998).
The proposed APT facility has the potential to supply the
much-needed radionuclides. Although the charter for
APT does not include radionuclide production, the
facility has the potential to make a significant
contribution with little impact on tritium production. The
biomedical community leaders learned of preliminary
calculations of production yields, specific activities and
radionuclidic purities for the nuclides listed above. This
wide variety is possible from APT because, unlike reactor
facilities, both energetic protons and neutrons are
available in quantity.
Working as a team, the group developed the following
statement in support of including radionuclide production
in the APT charter:
638
OPERATION OF HIGH-POWER 8.6 AND 17.1 GHz
COAXIAL GYROKLYSTRONS*
W. Lawson, B. Hogan, M. Castle, V. L. Granatstein, M. Reiser, X. Xu
Institute for Plasma Research, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742
tubes. Finally, we mention our Ku-Band progress before
Abstract closing with our near and long term goals.
At the University of Maryland, we have designed, con-
structed, and tested a number of gyroklystron tubes oper- 2 EXPERIMENTAL TEST FACILITY
ating from X-Band to Ka-Band over the past several
years [1]. The purpose of this effort is to examine the The voltage pulse is generated with a line-type modu-
suitability of gyro-amplifiers as drivers for advanced ac- lator which is capable of producing 2 µs flat-top pulses at
celerator applications such as the Next Linear Collider. up to 2 Hz with voltages and currents up to 500 kV and
We are currently conducting a series of experiments with 800 A, respectively. A capacitive voltage divider and a
coaxial tubes which are designed to produce peak powers current transformer are used to measure the time evolu-
in excess of 100 MW in X- and Ku-Band, increasing the tion of the voltage and current. Our single-anode MIG is
state-of-the-art by a factor of 3-5. Preliminary results
have indicated peak powers in excess of 75 MW at 8.6 Table I. The system parameters.
GHz in a three cavity first-harmonic gyroklystron tube Beam parameters
with a gain near 30 dB and an efficiency near 32%. In
this paper we will detail the experimental results of this Beam Voltage (kV) 470
tube and discuss designs and preliminary cold test results Beam Current (A) 505
of a 3-cavity second-harmonic device, which is expected Average Velocity Ratio 1.05
to give comparable results at 17.14 GHz. Axial velocity spread (%) 4.4
Magnetic field parameters
1 INTRODUCTION
Input cavity field (kG) 5.69
At the University of Maryland, we have been investi-
gating the suitability of high power gyro-amplifiers as Buncher cavity field (kG) 5.38
drivers for linear colliders for over a decade. [1] To this Output cavity field (kG) 4.99
end, we have designed, constructed, and tested a variety Input and buncher cavity parameters
of gyroklystron and gyrotwystron tubes operating from Inner radius (cm) 1.10
X-Band to Ka-Band. With a 440 kV, 160-260 A beam,
we were able to produce about 30 MW of peak power in Outer radius (cm) 3.33
1 µs pulses near 9.87 and 19.7 GHz with first- and sec- Length (cm) 2.29
ond-harmonic gyroklystron tubes, respectively. The peak Quality factor 70 ± 15
efficiencies were near 30% and the large-signal gains Output cavity parameters
were 25-35 dB. Circular electric modes were used in all
cavities and the average beam velocity ratio was always Inner radius (cm) 1.01
near one. Efficiency was limited by instabilities in the Outer radius (cm) 3.59
beam tunnel preceding the input cavity and beam power Length (cm) 1.70
was limited by the electron gun. Quality factor 135 ± 10
The focus in the past few years has been to upgrade the
system to achieve peak powers approaching 100 MW in Drift tube parameters
X- and Ku-Band. The increase in power results from a Inner radius (cm) 1.83
larger beam current, which is achieved by maintaining the Outer radius (cm) 3.33
same current density, but enlarging the average beam
Length (between I-B) (cm) 5.18
radius. Subsequently, the tube cross-sectional dimensions
are increased and an inner conductor is required to main- Length (between B-O) (cm) 5.82
tain cutoff to the operating mode in the drift regions. To Amplifier Results
date, we have hot-tested a 2-cavity and a 3-cavity first Drive Frequency (GHz) 8.60
harmonic tube and we are about to test a 3-cavity second
Output power (MW) 75
harmonic tube.
In this paper we first discuss the experimental test fa- Pulse length (µs) 1.7
cility. Then we discuss the computer simulations before Gain (dB) 29.7
describing the experimental results from our X-Band Efficiency (%) 31.5
639
the drift regions. The outer layer is BeO-SiC and the in-
ner layer is CIAS. The 2-cavity circuit omits the buncher
cavity and has a longer drift region.
The input cavity is defined by a decrease in the inner
conductor radius. The cavity loss is roughly evenly di-
vided between the coupling aperture and a CIAS ring on
the inner conductor which is placed adjacent to the cavity.
The power to the input cavity is supplied by a 150 kW
coaxial magnetron. The buncher cavity has identical di-
mensions for the metal components. However, the Q is
determined entirely by CIAS ceramics.
The output cavity is defined by radial changes on both
walls and the lip radii are equal to the drift tube radii. The
quality factor is dominated by the diffractive Q which is
adjusted by changing the length of the coupling lip.
3 THEORETICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL
Figure 1. The three-cavity microwave circuit.
RESULTS
capable of producing a 500 kV, 720 A beam with an av-
3.1 First-Harmonic Results
erage orbital-to-axial velocity ratio of α = 1.5 and an ax-
ial velocity spread of ∆vz/vz < 10%. The beam parameters A partially self-consistent large-signal code is used to
are given in Table I for the operating point where maxi- design the circuit and magnetic field configuration and to
mum amplification occurs. The voltage and current are estimate the performance of the tube at the actual operat-
measured quantities; all other values come from the ing point. A small-signal start-oscillation code is used to
EGUN simulations and are based on the MIG geometry determine the stability properties of the cavities and set
and the magnetic field profile. The actual theoretical limits on the cavity quality factors. The solid line in Fig.
fields at the centers of the three cavities are given in Ta- 2 shows the expected performance of the tube as a func-
ble I. The axial field is detuned by -3.5% in the input
tion of velocity spread for α=1.5. The simulation predicts
cavity, -8.8% in the buncher cavity and -15.4% in the
a zero-spread efficiency of 43%, and an efficiency of
output cavity.
34% for 10% spread. For the 6% spread predicted for a
The 3-cavity microwave circuit is shown in Fig. 1 and
500 A beam, the simulated interaction efficiency is about
the key dimensions are given in Table I. The inner con-
40%. All microwave cavities are expected to be stable at
ductor is supported by two thin tungsten pins and forces
the design operating point for the quality factors indicated
the drift tubes to be cutoff to the TE01 mode at 8.6 GHz.
in Table I. The theoretical efficiency for the 2-cavity tube
The inner conductor only extends a few centimeters into
is slightly less, but the predicted gain is significantly
the downtaper and is rapidly terminated after the output
lower. Consequently, the 2-cavity tube was gain-limited
cavity. Lossy ceramics are placed in the drift regions to
and produced less than 1 MW of output power.
suppress spurious modes. The rings on the inner conduc-
The optimal parameters and experimental results have
tor generally alternate between carbon-impregnated alu-
been listed in Table I. The values are all taken from ane-
mino-silicate (CIAS) and 80% BeO-20% SiC. Two layers
choic chamber measurements. The time dependence of
of lossy ceramics are placed along the outer conductor in
100
500 90
80
2XWSXW SRZHU 0:
%HDP YROWDJH N9
%HDP FXUUHQW $
375 70
(IILFLHQF\
60
50
250
40
30
simulated design point 125
20
simulated operating point
experimental data 10
$[LDO YHORFLW\ VSUHDG
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
7LPH µV
Figure 2. Efficiency versus velocity spread. Figure 3. Time dependence of the output pulse.
640
the beam voltage (dashed line), beam current (dot-
dashed line), and the amplified signal (solid line) are
shown in Fig. 3. There is a slight droop on the flat top
0DJQHWLF ILHOG N*
due to mismatches in the modulator. The peak values
5DGLXV FP
indicated in Table I represent the average value of the
signal in the flat top region. The peak power is about
75 MW, which represents an efficiency of nearly 32%.
The corresponding gain is almost 30 dB and the pulse
width is 1.7 µs (FWHM). Attempts to increase the
peak power further by raising the beam's velocity ratio
result in a sharp cut in the output signal near the
maximum value which is usually indicative of an in-
stability (though none were detected by the microwave $[LDO ORFDWLRQ FP
diagnostics).
An EGUN simulation using the parameters of the Figure 4. The shape of the second harmonic tube and the
operating point indicate that the beam's velocity ratio simulated optimal magnetic field profile (dashed line).
at the entrance to the circuit is near one. There is a rea-
sonably large uncertainty in this ratio due to the neglect
equal on the inner and outer walls naturally leads to a
of the self-axial magnetic field in EGUN and the uncer-
mode with very little conversion to the TE01 modes and
tainty in the applied field at the cathode. In a previous
subsequent leakage fields.
experiment at the University of Maryland, for example,
the measured average velocity ratio was consistently
The principal design parameters for our three cavity
higher than the simulated ratio by about 15%. [2] Simu-
second harmonic tube are given in Table II along with the
lations of the amplifier performance at the operating point
simulated performance estimates. The cavity profile is
are given by the dashed line in Fig. 2. The simulated
shown in Fig. 4. The overall length is very similar to the
cathode magnetic field is adjusted slightly to produce the
first harmonic tube. At this point, the tube components
best match between the theoretical efficiency and the
have been constructed, the cavities have been adjusted to
measured efficiency, which is indicated by the cross. The
achieve the required frequencies and quality factors, and
required field is about 20 G lower than the calculated
the tube is installed in our test facility. Hot testing should
ideal field and well within the uncertainties of the ex-
commence in the next few days.
perimental data.
3.2 Second Harmonic Tube 4 SUMMARY
The second harmonic tube is realized by keeping the In summary, we have developed an X-band coaxial
first harmonic tube’s input cavity but replacing the gyroklystron which has increased the state-of-the-art in
buncher and output cavities with ones that resonate at peak power for gyroklystrons by nearly a factor of 3. In
nd
twice the drive frequency in the TE021 mode. Such cavities the near future we will test our 2 harmonic tube, with the
goal of obtaining about 100-150 MW of peak power at
Table II. The second harmonic design. 17.136 GHz. We will investigate the limitations on ve-
Beam voltage (kV) 500 locity ratio in greater detail and attempt to increase the
nominal velocity ratio to the original design value. In the
Beam current (A) 770
long term we expect to build and power a 17.136 GHz
Velocity ratio 1.51
accelerator structure with an accelerating gradient near
Input cavity Q 50 200 MV/m.
Buncher cavity Q 389
Output cavity Q 320
Gain (dB) 49 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Efficiency (%) 41 The authors would like to thank N. Ballew, P. Chin, J.
Output power (MW) 158 Cheng, P. E. Latham, G. Nusinovich, and G. P. Saraph
for their contributions to this work.
are normally difficult to realize, because the cavity’s end
walls generate other radial modes due to the beam tunnel 6 REFERENCES
opening. For cavity isolation, the fields must not leak
substantially into the drift regions, yet the operating fre- [1] V. L. Granatstein and W. Lawson, "Gyro-Amplifiers
quency is well above the cutoff of the TE01 mode. In cir- as Candidate RF Drivers for TeV Linear Colliders,"
cular waveguide systems, the usual way to avoid this IEEE Trans. on Plasma Science, Vol. 24, pp. 648-
problem is to introduce smoothly-varying wall radii, but 665 (1996).
the added length of these transitions is usually unaccept- [2] J. P. Calame and W. Lawson, IEEE Trans. Electron
able. Fortunately, in coaxial tubes, making the radial wall Devices, vol. 38, p. 1538 (1991).
transitions that define the TE021 cavity approximately
641
EXPERIENCE AT FERMILAB WITH HIGH QUANTUM EFFICIENCY
PHOTO-CATHODES FOR RF ELECTRON GUNS
A. Fry, E. Hahn, W. Hartung,y M. Kuchnir
Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory,z P. O. Box 500, Batavia, Illinois 60510 USA
P. Michelato, D. Sertore
INFN Milano—Laboratorio LASA, Via fratelli Cervi 201, 20090 Segrate (Milano), Italy
“Somebody leave the light on.” Table 1. Selected TeSLA Test Facility beam parameters.
T. Amos
Charge per bunch 8 nC
Bunch spacing 1 s
1 INTRODUCTION Bunches per RF pulse 800
As part of the A0 Photo-injector collaboration at Fermi- Repetition rate 10 Hz
lab [1, 2] and the TeSLA collaboration [3], a high bright- Bunch z in gun 4.3 mm
ness, low emittance electron source has been developed. In
the process, a system was constructed for coating molybde-
num cathodes with a layer of cæsium telluride (Cs2Te), a
photo-emissive material of high quantum efficiency (QE).
The use of Cs2Te was first investigated at CERN [4] and
LANL [5]. The development of the systems for the TeSLA
Test Facility Linac and the Fermilab Photo-injector was
done in Milano [6]. The system at Fermilab incorporates
manipulator arms to transfer a cathode from the preparation
chamber into a 1.3 GHz photo-electron RF gun while it re-
mains in an ultra-high vacuum (UHV) environment, in or-
der to avoid the deleterious effects of residual gases on the
QE. A first prototype electron gun has been operated with a
photo-cathode for several months [1]. This paper describes
preliminary results obtained with the first 2 photo-cathodes
and the first gun. Figure 1. Cathode preparation chamber.
Some of the desired parameters for the TeSLA Test Fa-
cility beam are given in Table 1. The desired characteristics turn without the need to bleed up the chamber. A cathode
for the photo-cathodes include (i) high QE, (ii) high current is moved from the coating chamber to the RF gun via one
density (>500 A/cm2 ), (iii) long lifetime, and (iv) low field mechanical actuator and 2 magnetically-coupled actuators.
emission. The choice of Cs2 Te is a compromise between The electrical contact between the cathode and the wall of
long lifetime, rugged metal cathodes with low QE (typi- the gun is made with a toroidal Be/Cu spring.
cally between 10,6 and 10,4) and semiconductor cathodes
with high QE (>10%), which generally have a short life- 3 COATING OF THE CATHODES
time because of their sensitivity to contamination. Prior to coating, the sources are degassed by flowing a
small amount of current through them. In the mean time,
2 PREPARATION CHAMBER the molybdenum cathode is heated with a halogen lamp
To minimise the poisoning by residual gases, the cath- to encourage the evaporation of surface contaminants: the
odes must be coated under UHV conditions and remain in temperature is ramped up to 350C and held at 350 C for
UHV throughout their useful lives. Thus, all components 30 to 60 minutes. The cathode is then allowed to cool
of the cathode preparation chamber (Figure 1) are compati- to 120 C and held at that temperature for the duration of
ble with UHV. The chamber is baked at 150 to 200C after the coating. A quartz crystal thickness monitor is inserted
exposure to ambient air. The vacuum is maintained by 2 momentarily to calibrate the evaporation rates for the Cs
ion-getter pumps and a titanium sublimation pump. Ioni- and Te sources. Ultra-violet (UV) light from a mercury
sation gauges and a residual gas analyser (RGA) are used lamp ( = 254 nm) is focussed onto the cathode and the
to monitor the pressure. The chamber can accommodate photo-current is monitored during the deposition, as shown
up to 5 cathodes, which could in principle all be used in in Figure 2. Te is deposited for 10 minutes at a rate of 1
nm/minute, and then Cs is deposited at the same rate for
Department of Physics, University of Rochester. Present address: Positive
60 to 120 minutes. The pressure typically increases to be-
tween 1 and 4 10,9 torr during evaporation of Cs or Te.
Light, Inc, Los Gatos, California.
y Corresponding author.
z Operated by the Universities Research Association under contract with The colour of the photo-emissive film was orange for the
the U. S. Department of Energy. first cathode (Cs deposited for 63 minutes) and blue for the
642
second cathode (Cs deposited for 110 minutes).
PQE971208S1A 23-AUG-98
6 6 6 6
6 6
4 QE MEASUREMENTS 6
6 6
6 6
QE [percent]
6
The UV beam from the mercury lamp is used to measure 6
6
6
the QE while the cathode is in the preparation chamber. 6 6 6 66 6 6 6 6 6 6 66 6 6 6 66 6 6 6 6 66 6
0.5
6 66 666 66 66 666 66 666 6 6 66 6 6 6 6 6 6
6 6 66 6 6 6 66 6 6 66 666 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
6
The QE is defined as
QE =
Number of Emitted Photo-electrons
:
Number of Incident UV photons
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
The UV power is measured with a photo-diode. A bias of UV on cathode [µJ]
200 V is applied between cathode and its surroundings to
capture the photo-electrons. The photo-current is measured Figure 3. Dependence of the QE on the energy per laser
with a picoammeter; the background current (obtained by pulse.
blocking the UV light) is subtracted. The DC QE is de-
duced from the ratio of the photo-current to the UV power.
20
QE_T_SUMMARY 27-AUG-98
The UV spot size is typically about 5 mm during the DC in gun in gun
5
measurements. 5 DC
coat
QE [percent]
5 ?
5 coat 5 Pulsed
While the cathode is in the RF gun, the UV pulses from 5 5 5 5
the laser ( = 263 nm, 1 to 10 ps pulse length) are used 5
10
5 ? 5
to measure the QE. The UV energy per pulse is measured 5
?
5
with a photo-diode. The photo-electron bunch produced rejuv ?
5
5 5 rejuv
by a laser pulse is accelerated by the gun. The charge per 5 5 5 5
rejuv
??
bunch is measured with an integrating charge transformer 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
at the exit of gun. The pulsed QE is deduced from the ratio
Time [days]
of the charge per bunch to the UV energy per pulse. As
can be seen in Figure 3, there is a decrease in the measured Figure 4. Time dependence in the QE.
pulsed QE at high charge per bunch. This might be due to
space charge or an actual dependence of the photo-electron sure in the preparation chamber was of order 5 10,10 torr
yield on UV intensity. or lower; RGA measurements indicated that the dominant
The QE measurements on the 2 cathodes are summarised gas was H2 , with other species typically down by at least a
in Figure 4. The initial QE of both cathodes exceeds 10%, factor of 4. The pressure in the gun without RF was about
but the QE after removal from the RF gun is less than 1%. 2 10,9 torr when the first cathode was inserted; it had
The maximum charge extracted from the cathode was 30 fallen to 5 10,10 torr by the time the second cathode
nC for a single bunch and 15 nC per bunch for trains of 9 was removed. The pressure with RF on was significantly
bunches. worse; it got as high as 5 10,8 torr initially, but did im-
prove with time. Actuator motion inside the vacuum sys-
5 GAS EXPOSURE tem also produced some short-term increase in pressure.
Exposure to residual gases, O2 , CO2, and H2 O in partic-
ular, causes the QE to decrease with time. The base pres- 6 REJUVENATION
The decrease in QE due to gas exposure can be partially
reversed with a combination of heat and UV light [5, 7].
Cathode Photo-current [nA]
80
COAT26AUG97Z 26-AUG-98
UV light from the mercury lamp is focussed onto the cath-
Te Cs ode with a spot diameter of about 10 mm; the UV power
is between 6 and 40 W. The cathode is heated to 230C.
40
The combination of heat and light causes improvement of
the QE. The exact process is not yet clear; it may be des-
orption of residual gas from the surface or diffusion from
the surface further into the photo-emissive layer.
0
150 200 250 300 350 Figure 5 shows the increase in photo-current during the
Time [minutes] rejuvenation of the first cathode. From time t = 30 min-
utes to t = 90 minutes, the cathode temperature was ramped
Figure 2. Photo-current as a function of time during the up to 230C; the temperature was held at 230C until t =
coating of the second photo-cathode. The times during 190 minutes, at which time the temperature was ramped
which Te and Cs were being evaporated are indicated by back to room temperature. As can be seen in Figure 5, the
the bars along the top. The downward spikes correspond photo-current increases the most rapidly as the tempera-
to the UV light being blocked momentarily to check the ture is ramped up; it still increases by almost a factor of 2
background current. as the temperature is ramped down (the latter increase was
643
Visible light was used to determine the location of the cath-
2-SEP-98
16
ode in the coordinate system of the graph paper. A QE map
at 230oC taken after the coating of the second cathode is shown in
QE [percent]
Figure 7. As can be seen, the QE is not uniform over the
REJUV970714QE
entire photo-emissive layer (15 mm diameter).
8
60
SCAN27AUG97.PIN3 28-AUG-98
0.0
1.0
2.0
0
3.0
0 80 160 240 320 400 480
50
4.0
y [mm]
Time [minutes] 5.0
6.0
Figure 5. QE as a function of time during the rejuvena- 7.0
40
8.0
tion of the first cathode. As before, the downward spikes 9.0
correspond to the UV light being blocked momentarily. 10.0
11.0
30
12.0
not observed during the rejuvenation of the second cath- 10 20 30 40 13.0
ode, however). The pressure was highest (between 1 and x [mm] 14.0
2 10,9 torr) while the temperature was ramped up.
15.0
As indicated in Figure 4, the QE of the first cathode in- Figure 7. Map of the QE as a function of position on the
creased from 0.65% to 10% during rejuvenation. The QE surface of the second cathode the day after coating. Each
of the second cathode increased from 0.6% to 5% in 2 iter- pixel represents one QE measurement; the legend on the
ations. right indicates the QE values in percent.
7 MUTABILITY
9 CONCLUSION
After coating the second cathode, we observed an in-
crease in the QE with time in the presence of UV light at We have coated and used two Cs2Te photo-cathodes in
room temperature, presumably due to the same mechanism the first prototype RF gun of the Fermilab photo-injector.
as the rejuvenation at elevated temperatures. The QE in- We have extracted 30 nC from a single bunch and 15 nC
creased from 7% to 15.5% in about 150 minutes. Much per bunch from trains of 9 bunches. Under operating con-
less mutability in the QE was seen after rejuvenation: the ditions, the QE falls from 8% to <1% over one or more
QE remained between 2.9 and 3.3% over 130 minutes. The months. Our QE measurements with DC and pulsed light
time dependence in the QE is compared in Figure 6. are reasonably consistent, although we see a reduction in
the pulsed QE at high UV intensity. Rejuvenation allows
8 QE SCANS us to restore the QE to 5%, although we have not yet used
a rejuvenated cathode in the gun. It would be desirable to
Maps of the QE as a function of position on the cathode
improve the spatial uniformity and lifetime of the cathodes.
were obtained by focussing the UV light from the lamp to a
small spot (about 1.25 mm diameter) and scanning the spot ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
over the photo-emissive surface. A mirror on a kinematic
We thank our colleagues, especially E. R. Colby, M.
mount (allowing us to translate and rotate the mirror repro-
J. Fitch, and C. Gesmundo for their help with this work,
ducibly) was used to divert the UV spot onto a piece of
which would not have been possible without the support of
graph paper in order to determine the location of the spot.
H. T. Edwards and C. Pagani.
REFERENCES
16
6
666666 666 6
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 66 6 6 6
666
6 6
6 6 6 6 6 6 [1] J.-P. Carneiro et al., “Beam Transport, Acceleration and
after coating 6 6 6 6
SHINE2PA 23-AUG-98
6 6 6 6
6 6 6
6 6
66 6 6 6 Compression Studies in the Fermilab High-Brightness Photo-
QE [percent]
6
6
6666
injector,” these proceedings.
6 6
6 66 6
[2] E. Colby, “A High Charge, High Duty Factor RF Photoinjec-
8
66 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
tor for the Next Generation Linear Collider,” these proceed-
ings.
after rejuvenation [3] D. Trines, “Status of the TeSLA Design,” these proceedings.
[4] E. Chevallay et al., Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. A340,
0
0 50 100 150 p. 146–156 (1994).
Time [minutes] [5] S. H. Kong et al., Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. A358,
p. 276–279 (1995).
Figure 6. Comparison of the QE versus time before in- [6] P. Michelato et al., in Proceedings of the Fifth European Par-
sertion into the gun and after rejuvenation for the second ticle Accelerator Conference, IOP Publishing, Bristol, 1996,
photo-cathode (UV power = 10 W, spot size = 5 to 10 p. 1510–1512.
mm). [7] A. di Bona et al., J. Appl. Phys. 80, p. 3024–3030 (1996).
644
A HIGH CHARGE PHOTOINJECTOR FOR THE PULSED
RADIOLYSIS FACILITY - ELYSE*
J.C. Bourdon, T. Garvey, J. Le Duff,
Laboratoire de l'Accélérateur Linéaire, Université de Paris-Sud, IN2P3 - CNRS, Orsay, France.
M. Gaillard,
Laboratoire de Photophysique Moléculaire, Université de Paris-Sud, CNRS, Orsay, France.
Abstract
The Physical Chemistry Department of the Table 1: Specification of the ELSYE Accelerator
CNRS at the Université de Paris-Sud and the Laboratoire
de l'Accélérateur Linéaire (LAL) will collaborate on a Energy 4 - 9 MeV
dedicated radiolysis user facility named ELYSE. The Bunch charge > 1 nC
irradiation of users' samples will be performed using Bunch duration < 5 ps (FWHM)
electron beams of energies varying from 4 to 9 MeV, Energy spread (RMS) 2.5%
produced from a laser triggered RF gun. The accelerator Normalised RMS emittance 60 mm-mrad
group at LAL, benefitting from the experience gained Repetition rate > 10 Hz
with their experimental RF gun (CANDELA), are Beam diameter on target 2 - 20 mm
responsible for the design and construction of the
accelerator. The nominal beam requirements for ELYSE In addition to the above requirements there is a strong
are 1 nC pulses of 5 ps width (FWHM). However there is interest in pushing the bunch charge to 10 nC for the
a strong scientific interest in obtaining bunch charges of same bunch length and in having machine operation at
10 nC for the same pulse width. The need to extract such frequencies up to 100 Hz. As the project requires a probe
high charges necessitates the use of Cs2Te photocathodes laser synchronised with the electron beam it seems
with their high quantum efficiency. An essential user natural to consider a laser triggered RF gun as the
requirement is to keep the charge of the integrated dark electron source. Following our previous experience with
current during the RF pulse width (3 microseconds) S-band structures we have opted for a 3 GHz RF gun.
below 1% of the charge of the main beam. We will Good experimental conditions require the level of dark
present the status of our studies aimed at construction of current charge incident on user samples to be less than
an RF gun and its associated transport optics capable of 1% of the charge from the main electron pulse. As the
achieving these challenging goals. RF pulse width will be typically 3 µs long it is clear that
the dark current arriving in the experimental area must
1 INTRODUCTION not exceed several µA and this condition is certainly one
of the principal challenges of the machine.
The ELYSE project is aimed at providing the French
physical chemistry community with a facility for the 3 THE ACCELERATOR
study of fast chemical reaction dynamics. The increasing
interest in such facilities has resulted in their study and 3.1 The Electron Gun
construction elsewhere [1,2]. Irradiation of chemical
samples will be possible with both electron beams We aim to benefit as much as possible from existing
(radiolysis) and laser beams (photolysis). A "probe" laser, RF gun experience and therefore we base our choice of
synchronised with the excitation source, will then be gun on the one developed for the CLIC Test Facility
used to examine the induced reactions. The Laboratoire de (CTF) at CERN [3]. This 1-1/2 cell structure provides a
l'Accélérateur Linéaire has the responsibilty for the design beam of 4.5 MeV for a nominal electric field of 100
and construction of the electron accelerator for the MV/m. As it is known that the dark current is a strongly
increasing function of the cathode field (Ec) we aim to
radiolysis experiments. Our design will benefit from the
slightly modify the CERN geometry so as to permit
experience we have gained with our experimental RF gun
operation at reduced fields. Calculations with the
project, CANDELA [3]. In this paper we will present the SUPERFISH code show that the introduction of a
requirements of the accelerator and illustrate the status of chamfer around the cathode plane can reduce Ec with
our studies towards its design. respect to the maximum axial field by 17% [4]. With this
modification we can envisage running the cathode at
fields of typically 65 - 75 MV/m (79 - 91 MV/m peak
2 SPECIFICATION axial field). In order to allow clean transmission of the
beam for these reduced fields we open the iris diameter of
The desired beam parameters for ELYSE are shown in the structure from 20 mm to 30 mm. PARMELA
table 1 below. simulations indicate that such a gun should produce a
645
beam of 3.6 MeV for Ec = 65 MV/m (4.2 MeV for Ec = space charge forces a solenoidal focusing coil, placed at
75 MV/m). the gun output will be used to focus the beam through
The additional energy needed to reach 9 MeV will be the booster. Table 2 shows a summary of the beam
provided by a “booster” cavity which will be identical to parameters as calculated by PARMELA at the exit of the
the one employed on the CTF. This is a four-cell booster. A schematic drawing of the RF gun and the
standing wave structure operated in π mode. As the 10 booster is shown in figure1.
nC bunch leaving the gun will be strongly affected by
Table 2 Beam parameters as calculated by PARMELA.
9 MeV/1nC 9 MeV/10 nC 4 MeV/1 nC 4 MeV/10 nC
RMS Bunch length (ps) 1.1 2.4 1.2 2.8
RMS energy spread (%) 0.8 2.6 1.7 6.0
RMS Norm Emittance (mm-mrad) 14 67 15 70
(a)
0 (b) 43.5 cm
Fig. 1 Schematic of RF gun and booster showing (a) solenoidal magnetic field and (b) RF accelerating field.
The desire to have 10 nC bunch charges implies the use 3D has no notion of particle distribution we make the
of Cs2 Te cathodes. Such cathodes have demonstrated following approximation; the elliptical phase-spaces used
quantum efficiencies in excess of 1% with life-times of to start the TRACE-3D runs are chosen such that the
several hundred hours [4]. We propose to use a 10 mm values of the beam parameters are equal to the RMS
diameter cathode irradiated at near normal incidence by a values calculated by PARMELA (for which the 2-D
266 nm wavelength laser beam. A commercially projections are not necessarily enclosed by an elliptical
available Titanium-Sapphire laser (800 nm) produces the contour).
UV light after frequency tripling. The UV pulses are As the arc, composed of the two dipoles, has a non-zero
typically of 1 ps RMS width and have an energy of 70 momentum compaction we have the possibility of bunch
µJ. compression due to energy-dependent path length effects.
Initially we run TRANSPORT to find settings for
quadrupoles Q4 and Q5 which yield R51 = R52 = 0,
3.2 The Transport Line where R51 and R52 are the φ-x and φ-x' elements of the
transport matrix (calculated from the entrance of the first
The beam from the booster can be delivered to any of dipole to the exit of the second). We then run TRACE-
three different experimental stations with the aid of two 3D to add the effects of linear space-charge forces and
30° bend dipole magnets (Fig.2). It is hoped that the finally optimise the settings of Q4 and Q5 to obtain a
dispersive nature of the dipoles will serve to reduce the minimum in the bunch length at the exit of dipole 2. In
level of dark current arriving at the targets of those users the absence of space charge forces the final phase width of
for whom this effect is particularly troublesome. the beam, ∆φf, is given by,
Collimating slits between the two dipoles can be used to
select a narrow energy band around the nominal beam ∆φ f = R56 δp/p + ∆φ i
energy. Until now we have checked the transport through
the magnet elements with the TRANSPORT and where ∆φ i is the initial length and R56 is the φ-δp/p
TRACE-3D codes. Input to the codes was provided by element of the transport matrix. We have seen signs of
outputs from PARMELA runs calculated from the such bunch compression from the TRACE-3D runs and
cathode up to the exit of the booster cavity. PARMELA experimental observations of this effect have been
gives the distribution of the particles on the 2-D phase- obtained recently using a two-dipole arc similar to the
space projections; x-x', y-y', and δφ-δE/E, where these one which we propose [1].
symbols have their usual meaning. However, as TRACE-
646
Calculations indicate that compression is possible for all is longer than the bunch which exits the booster. The
energies and charges of interest when the beam is PARMELA simulations indicate that the 4 MeV-10 nC
transported to experimental area 3. In contrast we note beam exiting the booster has transverse phase space
that, for the case in which the space-charge is strongest (4 ellipses which are strongly distorted by non-linear space
MeV, 10 nC), the bunch delivered to experimental area 1
D1
Exp 1
Gun and T1 D1
Booste r Q4
D2
Q5
collimating
slit
T2 Exp 2
Exp 3
Fig.2 Schematic of the ELYSE accelerator showing the gun, booster, triplet magnets (T1, T2),
dipoles (D1, D2), quadrupoles (Q4, Q5) and experimental areas (Exp 1, Exp 2, Exp 3).
charge effects. However, the input phase spaces for
TRACE-3D simulations are ellipses with Twiss REFERENCES
parameters which correspond to the RMS emittance, size
[1] M. Uesaka et al., “Precise Measurement of a
and divergence of the PARMELA outputs. Therefore, the
Subpicosecond Electron Single Bunch by the
results of the TRACE-3D runs should be regarded with
Femtosecond Streak Camera”, Nucl. Inst. and Meth.
some caution. Now that we have some idea of the
A, A 406, 371-379 (1998).
necessary quadrupole strengths required to confine the
[2] C. Creutz et al., “Report of the Workshop on the
beam we intend to perform PARMELA simulations
Proposed Pulsed radiolysis Facility at Brookhaven
throughout the entire accelerator to verify the results of
national laboratory”, BNL Formal report BNL-52229
the TRACE-3D calculations.
(1989).
[3] C. Travier et al., “Experimental Characterization of
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS CANDELA photo-injector”, Nucl. Inst. and Meth.
A, A 393, 451-454 (1997).
We are indebted to R. Bossart and J.C. Godot of CERN [4] R. Bossart et al., "Modular Electron Gun Consisting
for all the information they have provided us with of Two RF Sections and an Intermediate Focusing
concerning the CTF gun and booster cavity. The various Solenoid", Nucl. Inst. and Meth. A, A 340, 157-
simulation runs described above were performed by H. 163 (1994).
Monard and Y. Thiery with the aid of B. Mouton. The [5] E. Chevallay, et al., "Photocathodes Tested in the
modifications to the CTF gun were suggested by J. DC Gun of the CERN Photoemission Laboratory",
Rodier. We thank P. Dufresne for the preparation of Nucl. Inst. and Meth. A, A 340, 146 (1994).
figure 2.
* Funding for ELYSE is provided by the CNRS, the
MENRT, the Universite de Paris-Sud, the Conseil
Regional Ile-de-France and the Conseil General de
l’Essonne.
647
FIRST PERFORMANCE OF THE RFD LINAC STRUCTURE*
D.A. Swenson, K.R. Crandall, F.W. Guy, J.W. Lenz, W.J. Starling
Linac Systems, 2167 N. Highway 77, Waxahachie, TX 75165
Abstract
The RFQ linac structure was fabricated as four
Our “Proof-of-Principle” prototype of the RFD linac separate pieces of OFE copper; two major pieces (the top
structure is fully assembled, tuned, and under vacuum, and bottom vanes) and two minor pieces (the side vanes).
awaiting the delivery of the rf power system, which is now The vane tips were contoured with a special, fixed-radius
15 months late and scheduled for delivery at the end of cutter, with a very small (3.5 mm) throat radius. The
this conference (September 1998). Hence, we have no intent was to bolt the four pieces together for low power
linac beam or full power performance to report. testing and to furnace braze them together for operation.
Nevertheless, we have some ion source beam, prototype However, for expedience, we chose to eliminate the final
assembly, and low-power linac performance to report. furnace brazing step.
For want of a proper machining fixture, the precision
1 THE RFD LINAC PROTOTYPE of the four RFQ pieces was not as high as expected. In
A “Proof-of-Principle” prototype of the new RFD spite of its short length, the RFQ tuning process was quite
linac structure has been installed in the Linac System’s difficult. In the end, we found considerable help from the
laboratory in Waxahachie, TX. The purpose of this dipole-mode tuning rods developed by Los Alamos.
prototype is to demonstrate the validity of this new format Figure 2 shows the resulting mode spectrum and the field
of rf electric focusing and the practicality of using this distribution at three places in each of the four quadrants.
new linac structure for a variety of scientific, medical, and The quadrant fields appear to have an rms deviation of
industrial applications. The prototype is fully assembled, about 2.2%.
tuned, and under vacuum, awaiting the delivery of the rf The RFQ vacuum enclosure is pumped by a single
power system, scheduled for delivery in the near future. 400 l/s turbo pump. It typically operates at a vacuum
This prototype, comprising a 25-keV duoplasmatron pressure of 1x10-6 Torr. The RFQ assembly incorporates
ion source, a short two-element einzel lens LEBT, a 0.65- an ultra-thin (6.35 mm) beam line vacuum valve to
m-long, 0.8-MeV RFQ linac section, and a 0.35-m-long, provide vacuum isolation between the ion source/LEBT
2.5-MeV RFD linac section, is shown in Fig. 1. The left- region and the RFQ region for maintenance purposes.
most section of the prototype, as shown in the figure,
contains the ion source and LEBT, the middle section
contains the RFQ linac, and the right-most section
contains the RFD linac. The linac structures were
designed to operate at 600 MHz; they both are currently
tuned to 596.48 MHz.. The entire length of the prototype
is 1.5 meters; the total length of the two linac structures is
1 meter.
The ion source, on loan from Los Alamos, is a scaled
down version of the LAMPF ion source, designed and
built for the PIGMI program in the late 1970s. It still
produces more than 15 mA of proton current, which is
more than adequate for this application. The ion
source/LEBT vacuum enclosure is pumped by a single
400 l/s turbo pump and operates, under normal hydrogen
gas flow, at a vacuum pressure of about 2x10-4 Torr.
The LEBT incorporates a small amount of
electrostatic steering, a two-element einzel lens, and a
small amount of beam diagnostics near the entrance to the
RFQ linac. An excitation of 24.5 kV on each einzel lens
element produces a small, well-centered beam spot at the
entrance to the RFQ linac, without the use of any beam
steering. A four-quadrant beam collection plate followed
by a beam current transformer completes the Ion
Source/LEBT portion of the system.
*Supported by National Inst. of Mental Health (NIMH). Fig. 1. 2.5-MeV RFD Linac Prototype.
648
10 db E2
per
div.
Frequency: 8 MHz/div. Quad 1 Quad 2 Quad 3 Quad 4
Fig. 2. Mode Spectra and Field Distribution in the RFQ Linac Structure.
The RFD linac structure is essentially a simple water- Soon after receiving the RFD drift tubes, we installed
cooled cylindrical tank, loaded with RFD drift tubes. The them in the RFD tank and checked the resonant
RFD drift tube body and stem design comprises two half- frequency. It turns out to be about 595 MHz. As the
body electrodes, with a total of four fingers to create the rf RFQ frequency is about the same, we accepted 596.48
quadrupole field along the axis, supported on two water- MHz for the Proof-of-Principle (POP) prototype.
cooled support blades that emanate from a single stem We developed a way to measure the RFD lens
that mounts in a single hole through the linac tank wall. excitation. By pulling a small “copper sponge” (diameter
Both the drift tube and the hole are precision machined ~ 2.4 mm) along the axis of the linac, stopping inside each
and no provision for additional alignment is planned. RFD drift tube, we shorted each RFD lens in succession,
The stem/blade assembly is a 4-layer stainless steel resulting in a frequency perturbation to the structure in
sandwich requiring two hydrogen-furnace braze cycles for proportion to the electrical stored energy in each lens.
completion. A portion of this assembly was machined to Initially, we employed the usual phase shift technique
a circular cross section and precision ground to a used for bead pull measurements. However, as the
cylindrical surface for installation into a reamed hole in perturbation was larger than the Q-width of the structure,
the tank wall. The stem and hole is keyed to control the it was better to simply measure and record the resulting
angular orientation of the drift tube. Fig. 3 shows two resonant frequency. The results are presented on the
views of the RFD drift stem prior to adding the two half upper half of Fig 5. Next, we proceeded to measure the
drift tube bodies. Several views of an RFD half drift tube drift tube body gap, which has a direct effect on the
body are shown in Fig. 4. expected lens excitation. The results are presented on the
lower half of Fig. 5. Note the correlation! After
inspection and adjustment of the RFD Drift Tube
geometry, the uniformity of excitation was very good.
1 .0 0
0 .9 0
0 .8 0
0 .7 0
0 .6 0
MHz
0 .5 0
0 .4 0
0 .3 0
0 .2 0
Fig. 3. RFD Drift Tube Stem. 0 .1 0
0 .0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
D rift Tu b e #
4 .5 0
4 .0 0
3 .5 0
3 .0 0
2 .5 0
2 .0 0
1 .5 0
1 .0 0
0 .5 0
0 .0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2
Fig. 5. RFD Lens excitation (upper) and
Fig. 4. Several Views of an RFD Half Drift Tube Body. Physical Misalignment (lower).
649
A resonant coupler, designed to couple the excitation The rf power system is based on a multiplicity of
of the two linac structures by locking their fields in phase high power YU-141 planar triodes. It is designed to
and amplitude, is being employed. The resonant coupler produce a peak power of 240 kW at a pulse duty factor of
extracts precisely the right amount of rf power from the 0.5%. It will consist of a chain of two intermediate power
RFD structure to excite the RFQ structure. It has the form amplifiers (IPAs) and one final power amplifier (FPA).
of a quarter-wave stub in a cylindrical can as shown in The IPAs will be rack mounted, while the FPA will be
Fig. 6. Slots near the base of the quarter-wave stub mounted directly above the RFD linac section, as shown
provide coupling to the fields of both the RFQ and RFD in Fig. 1. The IPAs will use a total of 3 of the planar
structures. triodes. The FPA will utilize an all new single cavity
configuration of 12 planar triodes in parallel.
This rf power system is nearing completion at JP
Accelerator Works, Inc. It features easy tube replacement
(individual cathode assemblies), a broadband cathode
circuit (no tuning required), a light weight cavity
assembly, built-in phase and amplitude control, a PC
based control system with fiber-optically isolated control
modules and professional controls software. The system
is scheduled for delivery next month (September 1998).
We hope to demonstrate successful performance of
this new linac structure in the very near future. The status
of this effort will be reported promptly on our web pages
at: www.linac.com
REFERENCES
1. D.A. Swenson, “RF-Focused Drift-Tube Linac
Structure”, 1994 Intern. Linac Conf., Tsukuba, Japan,
1994.
2. D.A. Swenson, “A New Linac Structure for the
Fig. 6. The Geometry of the Resonant Coupler.
BNCT Application”, Proc. First Intern. Workshop on
Accelerator-Based Neutron Sources for BNCT,
The two linac structures together with the resonant Jackson Hole, WY, 1994.
coupler form a chain of three coupled resonators that, 3. D.A. Swenson, Crandall, Guy, Lenz, Ringwall, &
when properly tuned, can be excited in three different Walling, “Development of the RFD Linac Structure”,
modes corresponding to 0, π/2 and π phase shift between Proc. of the 1995 Particle Accelerator Conference,
adjacent resonators. These three modes can be seen in the
Dallas, TX, 1995.
mode spectra of our coupled linacs shown in Fig. 7.
Our system is tuned to use the π/2 mode, which is 4. D.A. Swenson, F.W. Guy, K.R. Crandall, “Merits of
well known for its ability to lock the phase and amplitude the RFD Linac Structure for Proton and Light-Ion
of the fields in adjacent cavities with great accuracy. Acceleration Systems”, Proc. of EPAC’96
Conference, Sitges, Spain, 1996.
5. D.A. Swenson, K.R. Crandall, F.W. Guy, J.M. Potter,
T.A. Topolski, “Prototype of the RFD Linac
Structure”, 1996 Linac Conf., CERN, Geneva,
Switzerland, 1996.
Both Probes in 6. D.A. Swenson, “12-MeV Proton Linac for PET
RFQ. Isotope Production”, Institute of Clinical PET Conf.,
Orlando, FL, 1996.
7. D.A. Swenson, “CW RFD Linacs for the BNCT
Application”, Fourteenth Intern. Conference on the
One Probe in RFQ,
One Probe in RFD. Applications of Accelerators in Research and
Industry, Denton, TX, 1997.
8. D.A. Swenson, Crandall, Guy, Lenz, Potter, “Status
of the RFD Prototype”, 1997 Particle Accelerator
Fig. 7. Mode Spectra of the Coupled Linacs.
650
THE PERFORMANCE OF THE 1.3 GHz SUPERCONDUCTING RF CAVITIES
IN THE FIRST MODULE OF THE TESLA TEST FACILITY LINAC
Wolf-Dietrich Möller for the Tesla collaboration
Deutsches Elektronen Synchrotron DESY, 22603 Hamburg, Germany
Abstract measured is even 24.6 MV/m, 3 of them showed gradients
Eacc > 28 MV/m (see Fig. 1). The main limitation now
The design goal of the 1.3 GHz 9-cell superconducting is field emission. It is remarkable, that all 4
RF cavities for the Tesla Test Facility (TTF) is a gradient manufacturers delivered cavities with gradients higher or
Eacc ≥ 15 MV/m at a quality factor of Qo ≥ 3·109. The close to 25 MV/m.
cavities are operated in pulsed mode: 0.8 ms constant However at the time of selecting the capture cavity and
gradient with 10 Hz repetition rate. the 8 cavities for module 1, only 4 cavities were available
After the vertical acceptance test and prior to the with gradients > 15 MV/m. 5 cavities were limited by
assembly in the linac the cavities are tested in a horizontal quench below 15 MV/m in the vertical test (see table 1).
cryostat fully equipped with helium vessel, high power The reasons for this limitation were found as foreign
input coupler, higher order modes coupler and tuning inclusions in the material and improper cleaning of weld
system. After installing module 1 the first 120 MeV area before welding[3,4]. In the future this type of defects
beam has been delivered successfully. will be excluded by eddy current scan of all niobium
We report about the measured results in vertical and sheets and by the current fabrication method.
horizontal tests, the processing of the superconducting
cavity system in the first module and the performance of Table 1: Cavity performance during vertical and
the cavity system before, during and after operating the horizontal tests and after installation into the linac. The
linac. numbers are the gradients in MV/m. The 1. linac test was
done before and the 2. test after 3 month of linac
1 INTRODUCTION operation. At the vertical test the dissipated power is set
In order to prove the technical basis of TESLA[1] the to 100W in order to compare the cw measurement in the
TTF (Tesla Test Facility)[2] was established at DESY vertical test with the pulsed measurement (duty cycle 1%).
within the frame of an international collaboration. In May vertical horiz. linac linac linac
1994 the infrastructure was ready to prepare and test test test 1. test 2. test 2. test
superconducting cavities. Twenty-seven 9-cell cavities, cavity Pdiss Pcryo Pcryo Pcryo Pcryo
manufactured by four different European companies have <100W <1W <1W <1W <3W
been processed and measured so far. D3 25.3 21.0 15.5 19.1 19.5
9 cavities from the first production are operating in the S8 12.5 16.0 11.9 11.9 12.5
TTF linac and 8 more cavities are now being installed. In S10 14.2 13.4 13.2 14.7 15.9
end of 1997 26 more cavities were ordered which are now D1 21.3 19.0 21.0 23.1 23.5
under fabrication or final processing. Two of them have D2 17.7 23.5 23.6 24.5 25.6
been measured already. S11 13.5 17.3 12.9 11.8 13.4
D4 13.3 13.5 11.5 12.4 13.5
2 CAVITY TREATMENT S7 12.6 - 11.3 12.2 13.2
C19 19.6 19.0 12.7 - -
The standard cavity preparation before the vertical test
consists of the following steps: 80 µm removal from the sum 150 155* 134 142† 151†
inner surface by buffered chemical polishing (BCP), a 2 h average 16.7 17.2* 14.8 15.8† 16.8†
heat treatment (HT) at 800 ˚C, a 4 h HT at 1400 ˚C with *: S7 test result taken from the vertical test
†: C19 test result taken from the 1. test of linac
titanium getter and additional 100 µm removal by BCP.
The cavity is then rinsed with high pressure (100 bar)
4 HORIZONTAL TESTS
deionized ultra pure water. After welding the He-tank and
prior to the horizontal test a 20 µm BCP and a high 13 cavities for module 1, injectors and first for the module
pressure water rinse takes place. 2, equipped with all auxiliary components (helium-vessel,
high-power-coupler, HOM-couplers, tuning mechanism
3 VERTICAL TEST RESULTS and magnetic shielding) were tested in a horizontal
cryostat. Because of the low Qext of the high power input
The average gradient of the 27 cavities tested so far is coupler only measurements in the pulsed mode were
19.5 MV/m. The average gradient of the last 13 cavities
651
possible (500 µs rise time and 800 µs constant gradient at (Fig. 2). At 34 MV/m a quench occurred. In the vertical
a repetition rate of 10 Hz) test, this cavity reached 25 MV/m, limited by available
power.
35 Cavities showing strong field emission can be further
30 improved by applying HPP[5]. For this purpose, short
pulses of high instantaneous power (≤500 µs, up to 1
TESLA goal
Eacc [MV/m]
25 MW) are applied to destroy field emitters. The power
coupler has to be carefully processed up to 1 MW, which
20 may take several days. Due to a tight time-schedule HPP
TTF goal was not always applied during the horizontal test.
15
10 5 PROCESSING OF THE MODULE 1
5 limited by quench
5.1 High power input coupler
limited by amplifier
0 The two types (Fermilab and DESY design) of high
1995 1996 1997 1998
power couplers[6] consist each of two RF vacuum
Fig. 1: Result of vertical cavity tests. The gradients
windows. The coaxial window near the cavity at 70 K and
below 15 MV/m before mid '97 are due to fabrication
the room temperature window in front of the wave-guide
errors.
(Fermilab) or as a part of the wave-guide to coax
transition (DESY) outside the cryostat. The coupler
These 13 cavities reached an average gradient of 19.7
vacuum of all eight couplers on the module is connected
MV/m in the horizontal test compared to an average
and pumped by a common ion getter pump.
gradient of 20.3 MV/m in cw mode in the vertical test
All 8 cavities in module 1 are driven by one 5 MW
stand. In the horizontal tests, field emission has been
klystron. A linear RF distribution system is branching off
observed higher intensities. The reason is probably
identical amount of power for each cavity by directional
particle contamination due to the more complicated
couplers.
assembly and the processing of the main power coupler.
The higher field emission loading is responsible for the 5.2 Processing couplers and cavities
slight degradationin performance.
The performance of the cavities selected for module 1 The TESLA design parameters call for a transfer of 206
are listed in table 1. Three cavities (D2, S8, S11) showed kW peak RF power per cavity to the beam with a pulse
a higher field in the horizontal test under pulsed length of 1.3 ms and a repetition rate of 5 Hz. In addition
conditions than in the vertical cw test. This is most likely it is also foreseen to apply HPP to the cavities in situ
caused by the slow thermal development of the quench as which requires 1 MW at a maximum pulse length of 500
compared to the rf pulse length. The other cavities µs and at a repetition rate ≤ 1 Hz. Therefor the couplers
sufferedfrom higher field emission or stayed constant. have to be conditioned to this limits.
1011 The coupler processing procedureat TTF starts with the
cw test cavity and coupler at room temperature. Therefor gases
pulsed test, 10 Hz
pulsed test, 1 Hz released by RF stimulated desorption can be pumped
away. In the beginning of the conditioning the cavity is
off resonance. The first power rise (dependent from the
Q0 1010 vacuum pressure and e- and light in the vacuum) is done
with a pulse length of 20 µs, then the pulse length is
doubled for the next power rise and so forth. At the full
TESLA goal pulse length the power is sweeped for some hours. After
TTF goal this the cavity and coupler are cooled down and the same
109 processing procedureis carried out again. The last part of
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 processing is done with the cavities on resonance.
Eacc [MV/m]
5.1. Processing results on module 1
Fig. 2: The best horizontal test so far. The Q values
during the pulse tests are calculated from the cryogenic Due to limited time the processing of couplers in
losses. The cw measurement from the vertical test is module 1 was restricted to 200 kW and 600 µs. The
given for comparison. processing of the coupler on the module at room
temperature was done at two couplers at a time in order to
The best cavity tested so far in the horizontal test distinguish the vacuum reactions in the common coupler
cryostat reached33 MV/m with a quality factor Q = 4·10 9 vacuum. It was always observed, that initially it is
possible to rise the power very quickly without being
652
limited by outgassing, electron signals or light. After a 1011
sudden burst of outgassing on the coupler side of the cold C21
C22
window at a typical power level of 50 - 100 kW many C23
hours are needed to once again reach the earlier achieved C24
C25
power level. Once the maximum power of 200 kW is C26
reached for the shortest pulse length the power rises for Q0 1010 C27
longer pulses are straight forward. After about 48 to 72 h A15
only one multipacting level at 125 kW is visible at the
charged particle detectors. But the signals are smaller by a
factor of 10 compared to the first processing hours. A
second multipacting level at 65 kW is processed away. 109
When the module was cooled down to the operating 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
temperature of 1.8 K the same processing procedure took Eacc [MV/m]
place. All multipacting levels were processed after 30 h. Fig. 3: Vertical test results of the 8 cavities selected for
The temperatures of the Fermilab cold window increased module 2.
due to dynamic losses by about 5 K. Due to a fabrication
failure during brazing metallization of the cold DESY 8 CONCLUSIONS
windows occurred. This causes a much stronger
temperature rise of about 100 K which does not effect the Gradients well above 20 MV/m have been
coupler behavior but creates higher losses at the 70 K demonstratedwith 9-cell TTF cavities. Excluding only the
shield circuit of the module. cavities with a well identified fabrication error, the average
When the cavities are on resonance the field distribution gradient of 13 cavities is 24.6 MV/m.
in the coupler differs from the off resonance full reflection The highest gradient in the horizontal cryostat with a
condition. An additional processing is necessary. After fully equipped cavity was 33 MV/m.
only a few (1-5) more hours the couplers were fully The main limitation is field emission, indicating the
operational without limiting the cavities. No interlock high standardof niobium quality and fabrication methods.
events were observed up to the TTF operating power of Further progress in gradient can be expected by improving
125 kW during the first 30 days of operation time. After a cleanliness during final treatment and assembly.
few days power off time no new processing was needed to The first beam of 8 mA has been successfully
operate the module again. accelerated. The average gradient of the first 8 cavity
module is limited by one of the above mentioned cavity.
6 OPERATION OF THE CAVITIES IN Further improvement of the gradient is possible by
THE LINAC optimizing the RF distribution.
A slight reduction in gradient from horizontal test to
After installation in the linac the cavities were module operation was observedand is caused by high field
measured again individually under pulsed conditions. Here emission loading. It shows that improvements in clean
the capture cavity C19 showed a reduced performance due assembly and coupler handling is still necessary.
to field emission loading (Tab. 1). The 8 cavities mounted
in the module 1 reached almost the same results as in the REFERENCES
vertical tests. One cavity D2 showed a slightly higher,
one cavity D3 a slightly lower gradient, caused by field [1] Conceptual Design of a 500 GeV e+e- Linear
emission. Collider with integrated x-ray Laser Facility, Ed. R.
Operating all cavities with one klystron and a uniform Brinkmann, G. Materlik, J. Rossbach, A. Wagner,
DESY 1997-048, ECFA 1997-182.
power distribution the module performance is limited by
[2] D.A. Edwards: `TESLA TEST FACILITY LINAC -
the worst cavity. Therefor the quench of cavity S7 limits Design Report', TESLA 95-01, 1995.
the maximum gradient of the module 1 to 12 MV/m at [3] W. Singer et. al.: Diagnoses of defects in high purity
the full pulse length of 800 µs flat top and 10 Hz niobium, Eighth Workshop on RF
repetition rate. For shorter RF pulses of 300 µs rise time Superconductivity, Albano Terme (Padova), Italy,
and 100 µs flat top at 2 Hz repetition rate acceleration 1997.
gradients of 16.7 MV/m were obtained. [4] A. Brinkmann et. al.: Performance degradation in
several TESLA 9-cell cavities due to weld
7 CAVITIES FOR MODULE 2 imperfections, Eighth Workshop on RF
Superconductivity, Albano Terme (Padova), Italy,
In Fig. 3 the vertical test results of the 8 cavities 1997.
forseen for the module 2 are shown. The module 2 will be [5] J. Graber, Ph.D. thesis, Cornell University, 1993
installed in the linac by end of September '98. The [6] M. Champion, Seventh Workshop on RF
expected average gradient for this module is ≥20 MV/m. Superconductivity, Gif Sur Yuette, France 1995.
653
SIMULATION OF BEAM DYNAMICS INCLUDING SPACE CHARGE IN
PROTON LINAC WITH ERRORS*
D.V.Gorelov** and P.N.Ostroumov
Institute for Nuclear Research of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 117312 Russia
Abstract 2 MODEL
The LANA computer code (Linear Accelerators The errors which influence the beam dynamics in
Numerical Analysis) has been modified in order to study linacs can be divided into three groups [7]. Beam related
the effect of random errors on beam dynamics in proton errors, e.g. displacements of the beam with respect to the
or heavy ion linacs. The standard well known set of accelerator axis, mismatched beam in phase space, energy
different errors of the accelerating and focusing channel shift and spread, etc, compose the first group. Only errors
including geometry misalignments in all directions, of the displacements of the beam were considered in this
magnetic and electric field imperfections and accelerating study, taking into account the periodical steering of the
field instabilities are simulated. Partial as well as beam position.
cooperative effects of the errors are analyzed. The LANA The second group of errors include time-independent
code includes space charge forces in the beam, using (slow) errors - misalignments, e.g. tanks and drift tubes
certain approximations. A comparison of the errors effect length and positioning, quads gradients, length and
on the beam parameters with and without space charge in positioning, accelerating field flatness and setting of the
the 30 mA proton linac is presented. As was found the amplitude and phase during the tune-up procedures, etc.
error effect on beam dynamics is a main contribution on A full set of this kind of errors is considered in this work.
halo formation as well as on beam losses. The third group of errors consists of time-dependent
(fast) errors – instabilities, e.g. amplitude and phase from
the rf source, mechanical vibrational errors, field
distortion due to transient beam loading, etc. This group
1 INTRODUCTION of errors is responsible for the jitter in the beam. Only the
The present research has been done as part of the accelerating field amplitude and phase instabilities were
conceptual design of the 400 MeV proton linac for JHF at considered during this study as the major errors of this
KEK, Tsukuba [1]. The linac includes an RFQ, MEBT, kind.
DTL and CCL. The errors study has been performed for A simplified space charge model of the beam is used in
the MEBT-DTL-CCL part of the whole linac – from 3 LANA. This is a model based on the analytic relations
MeV up to 400 MeV. The CCL operates at the third between the charge density and the space charge electric
harmonic of the fundamental frequency of 324 MHz, and fields for a distribution with 3-D ellipsoidal symmetry in
a transition from the DTL to CCL occurs at 70 MeV. The real space [8]. Therefore this model can be applied to
structure of the linac has been designed for beam bunched beams only.
intensity of 30 mA. When doing error studies LANA provides the
This research has been done using LANA code [2], following values at the end of every accelerating cell in
that has been developed in INR, Moscow since 1991. the cavity or every intertank element, e.g. drifts or quads:
This code has been extensively used during the the transverse coordinates and derivatives of the beam
commissioning and operation of the Moscow Meson center; the longitudinal average phase and energy of the
Factory linac [3]. LANA was also used during the bunched beam; the maximal radial extent of the beam;
commissioning of the Fermilab linac upgrade in 1993 [4]. vertical and horizontal maximal and rms sizes of the
Presently this code is being used at TRIUMF for the beam; phase and energy maximal and rms spreads; the
ISAC project [5] and at CERN for SPL design [6]. normalized rms emittances and the normalized emittances
containing 99% particles in all 3 dimensions; and a
number of other quantities of interest. A well known set
________________ of different errors in the linac were simulated during this
* Research was done in frames of the collaboration study. Table 1 shows the tolerance limits for all simulated
between INR, Moscow and KEK, Tsukuba and as part of errors which are the maxima of the allowed deviations of
the agreement between these institutions. the corresponding variables, uniformly distributed around
** At present time author has temporary position at its design value. The rms value of errors is 3 times less
NSCL, MSU than the values listed in the table 1.
654
Table 1: Maximal tolerances limits and a factor of 2 – with errors for the simulated number
Error Type Tolerance of particles ~1200.
Limit
1. Transverse beam displacement 500 µm
2. tilt 1 mrad
3. CCL section length 100 µm
4. alignment 100 µm
5. Drift tube length 100 µm
6. alignment 100 µm
7. Quadrupole gradient 1.5 %
8. Length 100 µm
9. Alignment 100 µm
10. Displacement 50 µm
11. Tilt 0.5 mrad
12. Rotation 10 mrad
13. Field difference between CCL Figure 1. Evolution of the maximal beam radius along
sections in amplitude 1% the linac with errors (upper lines) and without errors (i.e.
14. in phase 1° design linac) with space charge (solid lines) and without
15. Non-flatness of the accelerated 3% space charge (dashed lines).
field in the cavity
Average accelerating field
amplitude over DTL or CCL tank:
16. tune-up 3%
17. instability 1%
Phase difference between
neighbor cavities:
18. tune-up 3°
19. instability 1°
The errors of the first group (1. and 2.) were applied at
the entrance of each section where the steering of the
beam is provided after the centering the actual position of
the beam. Figure 2. Evolution of the maximal phase spread along
the linac with errors (upper lines) and without errors (i.e.
design linac) with space charge (solid lines) and without
3 COMPARISON OF THE PARTIAL
space charge (dashed lines).
CONTRIBUTION OF DIFFERENT SETS
OF ERRORS
Five different sets of errors were considered in this
study:
1. All errors listed in Table 1.
th th
2. All errors, except the 17 and 19 – the instability
errors.
th th
3. RF system errors only, i.e. from 13 to 19 .
4. RF system errors except instabilities errors.
5. Geometry misalignments, quad errors and beam
st th
mismatches, i.e. from 1 to 12 .
All these simulations were performed both with and
without space charge effects taken into account. Figure 3. Evolution of the maximal energy spread
st
Figs. 1, 2 and 3 presents the results of the 1 set of along the linac with errors (upper lines) and without
error simulations, listed above. It could be seen in Fig. 1 errors (i.e. design linac) with space charge (solid lines)
that the space charge effects have a smaller impact on the and without space charge (dashed lines).
maximal beam radius growth compared to the error
effect. The error effect for the beam without space charge The interesting result is that the relative effect of the
gives approximately a factor of 4 in the maximal beam errors is smaller in the case of a charged beam (~3 times
radius growth, but the space charge effect gives growth of the maximal beam radius) compared to the case
approximately a factor of 3 for the beam without errors of a non-charged beam (~4 times growth of the same
parameter).
655
The halo formation process could not be studied in 5 CONCLUSIONS
detail because of the limited number of particles used for
The time-consumptive calculations that were done for
the statistical simulations. But in some cases of charged
the statistical analysis of the errors influence on the
beam simulation where the field instabilities were
charged beam dynamics provide interesting results and
included a few particles were lost. These losses indicate
emphasizes the problem of halo formation which is not
intensive halo formation induced by instabilities of the
the subject of the present article. Though in the
accelerating field.
conclusion of this study we would like to state that the
4 PROBABILITY ANALYSIS halo formation takes place in the regions of the non-
adiabatic changes of the linac main parameters and is
The probability distributions of the maximal beam induced by the instabilities of the accelerating field.
radius and the longitudinal effective emittance, The probability distributions study confirms that the
containing 99% of particles, are presented in Figures 4 number of samples for such a study could be chosen to be
and 5 respectively. These figures show the probabilities about 200-300 for the transverse beam dynamics and
for simulations without space charge for 400 and 100 about 400-500 for the longitudinal ones.
random errors samples. Also the probability distributions These studies show that the given values of the
of the simulations with space charge for 100 errors tolerance limits (table 1) could be recommended in order
samples are shown on the same figure in a different scale. to meet the requirements of low losses in the linac.
The detailed consideration of the probability While the most sensitive error for the transverse
distributions, which could not be discussed here because emittance growth is quad rotations, the one for the
of the limited space, show that the statistics of 400 errors longitudinal dynamics is the accelerating field instability.
samples is good enough for the transverse beam The relative increase of the maximum beam radius is
parameter study and reasonable for the longitudinal ones. smaller in the case of the charged beam simulation
The 100 errors samples analysis shows good qualitative compared to the relative growth of this quantity in the
results, but insufficiently reliable quantitative ones. non-charged beam simulation. Nevertheless the
cooperative effect of space charge and the errors could
lead to halo formation if no special care is provided to
control this process.
6 REFERENCES
[1] Y.V.Bylinsky, et al., “Conceptual Design of the JHF
Linac,” Edited by P.N.Ostroumov, Internal Report,
KEK, Tsukuba (1997).
[2] D.V.Gorelov and P.N.Ostroumov, “Application of
LANA Code for Design of Ion Linac,” EPAC’96
Conf. Proc., Barcelona, (1996).
[3] S.K.Esin, et al., “Commitioning/Operation of the
Figure 4. Probability distribution of the maximum
Moscow Meson Factory Linac,” LINAC’94 Conf.
beam radius from 400 NR (dots), 100 NR (asterisks)
Proc., V.1, 31 (1994).
without space charge; and from 100 NR (triangles, upper
[4] M.Popovic, et al., “Measurements of the
scale) with space charge.
Longitudinal Beam Parameters in the Fermilab
Linac,” LINAC’94 Conf. Proc., V.2, 896 (1994).
[5] R.E.Laxdal, D.V.Gorelov, “Optimization and Design
Specifications for Tank1 of the ISAC Drift Tube
Linac,” TRIUMF TRI-DN-ISAC-97-4 (1997).
[6] R.Garoby, et al., “Feasibility Study of a 2 GeV
Superconducting H- Linac as Injector for the CERN
PS,”, these proceedings.
[7] D.Raparia, et al., “Error and Tolerance Studies for
the SSC Linac,” PAC’93 Conf. Proc., 3585-3587
(1993).
[8] R.W.Garnett and T.P.Wangler, “Space Charge
Calculation for Bunched Beams With 3-D Ellipsoidal
Symmetry,” PAC’91 Proc., 330-332 (1991).
Figure 5. Same as in Figure 4, but for the longitudinal
effective emittance, containing 99% of particles.
656
BASIS FOR LOW BEAM LOSS IN THE HIGH-CURRENT APT LINAC
T. P. Wangler, E. R. Gray, F. L. Krawczyk, S. S. Kurennoy, G. P. Lawrence, and R. D. Ryne
Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM 87545 USA
K. R. Crandall, TECHSOURCE, Santa Fe, NM 87594-1057
Abstract above 100 MeV. The design objective for APT is a factor
The APT linac has been designed for very low beam loss. of 10 smaller than these numbers.
This important aspect of the design is supported by three
main bases: 1) an understanding of the performance of the
2 APT BEAM-LOSS THREAT
800-MeV LANSCE proton linac at Los Alamos using Our evaluation of the beam-loss threat in APT and its
measurements and simulations, 2) a theoretical impact on the linac design are based on a combination of
understanding of the dominant halo-forming mechanism in operational experience, and theory plus simulation. The
the APT accelerator from physics models and approach we have used has several aspects and
multiparticle simulations, and 3) a conservative design components:
approach for APT aimed at maximizing beam quality at • Use of measurements of beam performance and
low energies and providing large apertures at high activation levels in the LANSCE linac combined with
energies to reduce beam loss to a very low value. computer simulations to determine the causes of beam
loss in that accelerator.
1 BEAM LOSS AND ACTIVATION
• Choice of the APT linac design architecture and
The APT accelerator [1] is a cw medium-energy proton parameters to avoid the halo-generating and loss-
linac with a design beam current of 100 mA, a number of mechanisms seen in LANSCE.
particles per bunch equal to 1.8x109, and a final energy of • Use of analytic modeling and computer simulation to
1030 MeV or higher, depending on the desired tritium understand the remaining physical mechanisms
production rate. It has been designed to operate with responsible for generating halo, and the amplitudes of
extremely low beam losses to avoid radioactivation of the particles projected into the halo.
machine components. It is important to achieve hands-on
• Confirmation of the predicted beam performance (at
maintenance capability along the machine in order to
meet overall plant availability requirements, although low energies) by measurements on the Low Energy
remote maintenance techniques could be employed at a Demonstration Accelerator (LEDA) now being built at
few high-beam-loss locations without major impact. Los Alamos. In the present schedule, initial data should
The maintenance criterion limits post-shutdown be available in late FY99.
activation levels to a few mrem/hr at the beamline. The
corresponding beam loss rate that can be tolerated, as a 3 BEAM LOSS AT LANSCE
function of beam energy, has been estimated in Ref. [2]. LANSCE routinely achieves hands-on maintenance at all
Expressed in beam power, the loss above 100 MeV is locations in the accelerator and beam transport. Typical
limited to a few tenths watt per meter, a value that is H+ loss rates after the major focusing transitions in the
consistent with experience at the LANSCE linac, which linac are very low; the integrated fractional loss along the
operates with hands-on maintenance. LANSCE is the high-energy linac is normally less than 5x10-4 and never
highest power operating proton linac in the world. It is a more than 10-3. Simulations of the LANSCE linac [3] have
pulsed machine with multiple beam operation that shown several causes of beam loss. The main cause is the
includes a 6%-duty-factor 1-mA average current 800-MeV incomplete bunching action of the 2-cavity 201.25-MHz
output beam. For LANSCE the average fractional H+ loss bunching system in the low-energy beam transport. This
rate above 100 MeV is about 10-6/m. Excluding two hot system, which pre-dates the development of the RFQ,
spots at focusing transitions lowers this value to about a produces a beam with an extended tail in longitudinal
few times 10-7/m. The number of particles per bunch in phase space, leading to poor longitudinal capture. A
APT is only about 3.4 times greater than for LANSCE, significant beam loss occurs downstream from the
and the beam focusing strength in the APT design is frequency jump at 100 MeV, where the 201.25-MHz drift-
greater so that the beam-physics regimes of the two linacs tube linac (DTL) transitions to the 805-MHz coupled-
are nearly the same. The APT peak beam current of 100 cavity linac (CCL); here both the transverse and the
mA is by no means a record for proton linear accelerators; longitudinal acceptance decrease substantially, and the
the Brookhaven and Fermilab injector linacs have beam is also poorly matched longitudinally. Near 200
operated with H+ beams at peak proton currents near 300 MeV, there is a sudden reduction in the transverse
mA. Nevertheless, the challenge for the APT linac is to focusing strength, which leads to additional losses
deliver an average current 100 times higher than LANSCE downstream.
in the same energy range, while achieving a beam-loss rate Several other effects are believed to contribute to
that is no larger in absolute terms. This scales for APT to beam loss in LANSCE. First, the dual beam (H+ and H-
an acceptable average fractional loss rate of about accelerated together) operation of the accelerator limits
10-8/meter, or a total of about 10-5 fractional beam loss the effectiveness of beam steering and other corrections.
657
In practice, beam steering is restricted to the low-energy 5 BEAM HALO IN APT
beam transport and the transition region between the DTL
and CCL, where the two beams are separated. Second, Given that the LANSCE beam-loss mechanisms have been
LANSCE is a pulsed linac, and as much as 40% of the addressed in the APT design, what remains as the main
beam loss occurs during the beam-turn-on transients. This potential cause of APT beam loss? The beam spends only
loss can be caused by several factors, including beam- a short time transiting the linac (a few microseconds) and
neutralization variations in the low-energy transport, and effects common in circular machines, such as intrabeam
the beam-induced transient in accelerating-cavity fields, scattering from single Coulomb collisions have
uncorrected by feedforward signals. Finally, the aperture insufficient time to develop. Far more important are
radii in the LANSCE focusing elements and accelerating collective space-charge forces due to the beam as a whole.
structures are relatively small, 1.6 to 1.9 cm in the high- Numerical-simulation studies predict that the most
energy linac, and the transverse focusing is relatively important potential cause of beam loss is that associated
weak, because of the large spacing of quadrupole magnets. with space-charge-induced halo caused by beam-optics
These two factors taken together result in a small mismatches [4]. These mismatches produce density
“aperture ratio” (the ratio of physical aperture radius to oscillations of the beam core that can resonantly drive
rms beam radius), which varies from about 4 to 7 in the particles to larger radial amplitudes. Theoretical and
high-energy linac. numerical studies of halo formation show particle
amplitudes resulting from single mismatches that extend
4 LANSCE LINAC AND APT DESIGN well beyond the Debye tail of a matched beam, but not
growing without limit.
How are the beam-loss mechanisms identified in
LANSCE addressed in the APT linac design? First, the Particle-core models of mismatched beams such as
dominant loss mechanism in LANSCE, longitudinal tails those in Refs.[5-14] have been constructed to provide
caused by incomplete bunching, is almost completely quantitative estimates of the characteristics of halo-
eliminated in APT by the use of the RFQ, the modern particle amplitudes caused by a single mismatch. In these
replacement for the LANSCE injection and bunching models, the space-charge field from the oscillating beam
architecture. Second, only one charge species, H+, is core in a uniform linear-focusing channel is obtained from
accelerated in the APT linac, allowing uncompromised an oscillating density distribution. The amplitude of the
beam steering and matching. Third, APT is a cw linac core oscillation is directly related to the magnitude of the
with no pulse structure during normal operation, so there rms mismatch of the beam. The behavior of halo particles
are minimal losses due to beam-turn-on transients; these is studied by representing them with test particles that
should be managed to a greater degree than in LANSCE oscillate through the core and interact with it. A
by the rf control loops planned for this system with parametric resonance occurs [6] when the particle
feedback and feedforward. Fourth, APT is designed with oscillation frequency is half the core frequency. The
much larger apertures than in LANSCE and with stronger amplitude growth for the resonant particles is self limiting,
transverse focusing. In the APT high-energy linac, the
because outside the core the space-charge force falls off
aperture radius is 8 cm. Combined with the stronger
focusing in APT, the resulting aperture ratio ranges from and the net restoring force increases nonlinearly with
13 at 100 MeV to about 50 at 1030 MeV, compared with radius, producing a dependence of frequency on the
those given above for LANSCE. The very much larger particle amplitude such that the particles drop out of
aperture ratios in APT mean that beam halo is much more resonance as their amplitudes grow. A simple scaling
easily contained within the aperture. The large aperture formula has been derived [11] from the transverse halo
ratios at high energies, where the activation threat is models that shows how the maximum amplitude for an
greatest, are a major benefit of using superconducting rms mismatched beam decreases with increased focusing
cavities for the high energy linac. Finally, improved strength. Halo formation from the particle-core model has
longitudinal phase-space margin for APT is provided by also been studied in 3D bunches with self consistent
conservative choice of the accelerating gradient in the stationary distributions [14] with bunch parameters close
superconducting linac. A 10% field increase above the to the APT case. Results for the transverse halo are similar
design value is possible in most of the linac, which to those from 2D models; the relative extent of the
produces a 27% increase in bucket phase width and a 14% longitudinal halo has been found to be smaller than that of
reduction in longitudinal beam size. the transverse halo. The halo models have provided a
Improved matching is also addressed in the APT linac basic understanding of the underlying physics of the most
design. Beam-current-independent matching is obtained important beam-loss mechanism expected in the APT
by maintaining the same transverse and longitudinal linac.
focusing strength across accelerating structure transitions,
and focusing-strength changes are made adiabatically 6 NUMERICAL-SIMULATION STUDIES
wherever possible. Operational setting errors that would
lead to mismatch are reduced by providing adjustable Numerical simulation studies are an important tool for the
focusing and appropriate beam diagnostics. analysis of the beam behavior in APT. Simulations using
several codes have been carried out to support the basic
design of the linac. The forces acting on the particles in
658
the simulations include the external focusing fields and the definitive must be carried out with careful characterization
direct space-charge fields; nonlinear force terms are of the input beam in all six phase-space dimensions, and
included. Two-dimensional cylindrical-beam simulations using precision beam diagnostics capable of taking
with a single beam mismatch, initiating a breathing-mode measurements over a large intensity range.
core oscillation, were carried out for comparison with the
particle-core halo models; these have shown remarkably 7 BEAM-LOSS CONTROL
good agreement in terms of maximum radial amplitude as We believe that the practical approach to achieving very-
a function of mismatch[11, 13]. low beam loss in the APT linac is to produce a strongly-
End-to-end (from injector to linac output) simulation focused well-matched high-quality beam in the low-energy
studies of the LANSCE accelerator have also been carried normal-conducting linac, including an RFQ, and inject
out for comparison with beam measurements [3] and loss this beam into the large-aperture high-energy
estimates. The simulations agreed with measured rms superconducting linac. Throughout the linac, rf phase and
quantities to within 10% to 15%. The major loss locations amplitude (feedback) control loops must keep the beam
in the high-energy linac were correctly indicated by the well centered within the longitudinal bucket, and beam
simulations, but the loss magnitudes were overpredicted steering must be provided to keep the beam well centered
by about an order of magnitude. This discrepancy was not in the aperture. The beam halo observed in simulations
unexpected because of the sensitivity of the beam losses to with realistic errors does not extend radially beyond 5σ
the details of the particle distribution in the beam tails for a well-matched beam, or beyond about 10 σ for a
formed during the LANSCE bunching process, and the beam with mismatches; the maximum particle amplitudes
lack of longitudinal phase-space measurements, which are are well within the apertures of the high-energy linac.
very difficult to make.
Both 2D(r-z) and 3D particle-in-cell space-charge 8 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
routines have been compared and are in excellent
The authors acknowledge support from the U.S.
agreement for APT, which suggests that 3D effects that
Department of Energy, and wish to thank Robert
account for x-y differences are not important.
Gluckstern for useful discussions.
Nevertheless, precise calculation of the details of the
particle distribution at the edges of the beam may be 9 REFERENCES
beyond our capabilities. Even assuming that the
simulation code contains all the correct beam physics, and [1] G.P. Lawrence, “High Power Proton Linac for APT; Status
of Design and Development”, these proceedings.
if sufficient numbers of particles could be run to eliminate [2] A.P. Fedotov and B. Murin, Proc. of the 1976 Linear
artificial statistical fluctuations, as a practical matter the Accelerator Conf., Chalk River, Canada, p.377.
exact configuration of the machine errors can not be [3] R.W. Garnett, R. S. Mills, and T. P. Wangler, Proc. 1990
Linac Conf., Sept. 9-14, 1990, Albuquerque, NM, Los
precisely known, nor can the initial phase-space Alamos Report LA-12004-C, pp. 347-350.
distribution of the particles in the beam be precisely [4] A. Cucchetti, M. Reiser, and T. P. Wangler, Proc. 1991
known. Because of these uncertainties, the numerical Part. Accel. Conf., IEEE Cat. No. 91CH3038-7 (1991) 251.
[5] J. S. O’Connell, T. P. Wangler, R. S. Mills, and K. R.
simulation studies can only make probabilistic predictions Crandall, Proc. 1993 Part. Accel. Conf., Washington,
and at best have statistically validity. Given the expected DC(1993) 3657.
statistical distributions of the errors, many computer runs [6] R. L. Gluckstern, Phys. Rev. Lett. 73 (1994) 1247.
[7] R.L. Gluckstern, W.H. Cheng, and H. Ye, Phys. Rev. Lett.
are needed to predict statistical distributions of the beam 75, 2835 (1995).
parameters. [8] R.L. Gluckstern, W.H. Cheng, S.S. Kurennoy, and H. Ye,
Supercomputers using massively-parallel processing Phys. Rev.E 54, 6788 (1996).
[9] T.P. Wangler, R.W. Garnett, E.R. Gray, R.D. Ryne, and
are now being applied to these simulations. Some T.S. Wang, Dynamics of Beam Halo in Mismatched
preliminary simulations looking at beam halo using up to Beams, Proc. of the XVIII Int. Linear Accel. Conf., 26-30
107 particles per run have already been done, and have August, 1996, Geneva, Switzerland, CERN 96-07, 372.
[10] J. Barnard and S. Lund, 1997 Particle Accelerator Conf.,
shown the potential of applying increased computing Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, to be published.
power to the halo problem. Unlike the LANSCE [11] T.P. Wangler, K. R. Crandall, R. Ryne, and T. S. Wang,
simulations, the APT simulations for a linac with realistic Particle-Core Model for Transverse Dynamics of Beam
Halo, submitted to Phys. Rev. Special Topics-Accelerators
errors produce zero beam loss above 100 MeV when and Beams.
using 107 particles per calculation. If the total fractional [12] T.P. Wangler, E.R. Gray, S. Nath, K.R. Crandall, and K.
loss above 100 MeV was equal to 10-5 (an acceptable loss Hasegawa, 1997 Particle Accelerator Conference,
Vancouver, BC, Canada, to be published.
level), these simulations would yield an integrated loss of [13] R. L. Gluckstern, and S. S. Kurennoy, 1997 Particle
about 100 particles along the high energy APT linac. The Accelerator Conference, Vancouver, BC, Canada, to be
absence of particle loss above 100 MeV is an encouraging published.
[14] R. L. Gluckstern, A. V. Fedotov, S. S. Kurennoy, and R. D.
result, and is positive evidence for a successful design. Ryne, Phys. Rev. E., to be published (Oct. 1998).
At present, no direct measurements of beam-halo
amplitude distributions are available for comparison with
the codes, although such measurements will be carried out
on LEDA. Such measurements are not trivial, and to be
659
DESIGN SIMULATION FOR SPOT SIZE STABILIZATION IN ITS/DARHT*
Thomas J. T. Kwan, David C. Moir, Barbara G. DeVolder, Charles M. Snell, and Michael Kang
Los Alamos National Laboratory
direction, the location of the pinch point also moves in the
Abstract same direction. The divergence of the beam immediately
In high resolution flash x-ray imaging technology the after the focal point causes the beam spot on the target to
electric field developed between the electron beam and grow. The temporally increasing radiographic spot size is
the converter target is large enough to draw ions from the detrimental to high-resolution radiography. This
target surface. The ions provide fractional neutralization dynamical phenomenon of the electron beam has been
and cause the electron beam to focus radially inward, and predicted in computer simulations[1] and confirmed by
the focal point subsequently moves upstream due to the experiments at the Integrated Test Stand (ITS)[2] at Los
expansion of the ion column. A self-bias target concept is Alamos National Laboratory
proposed and verified via computer simulation that the
electron charge deposited on the target can generate an 2 CONCEPT OF SELF BIAS TARGETS
electric potential, which can effectively limit the ion
motion and thereby stabilize the growth of the spot size. In this paper, we present a novel idea of establishing an
A target chamber using the self bias target concept was electrical potential between the target and ground that
designed and tested in the Integrated Test Stand (ITS). would overcome the space charge potential of the electron
We have obtained good agreement between computer beam to confine the ions near the converter target. When
simulation and experiment. an electron beam is incident on a target, a certain fraction
of the charge will be deposited in the target in addition to
1 INTRODUCTION the forward transmitted and the backward reflected
components. The partition among the three components
The stable propagation of a relativistic electron beam in depends on beam energy, target material (atomic weight
vacuum requires balance between the electric and and mass density) and thickness (path length). In
magnetic forces. For a charge unneutralized relativistic addition, there are low energy knock-on electrons coming
electron beam, the difference between its Coulomb off the surfaces. Through the variation of target thickness,
repulsive force (radially outward) and its self magnetic
one can achieve a charged state of the target ranging from
force (radially inward) scales as 1/γ , where γ is the
2
positive to negative depending on the balance between the
relativistic factor. The Coulomb force always dominates charge carried away by knock-ons and the charge
slightly so the beam will diverge as it propagates in deposited by the electron beam. If the target is charged
vacuum. However, if there is fractional charge and/or negatively, an electric field will develop to attract the ions
current neutralization of the electron beam, the dynamics toward the converter. This can be an effective method to
of propagation can be quite different. For example, if the control the ion column, leading to the stabilization of the
fractional charge neutralization is η, the net force acting beam spot size. We have performed Monte Carlo electron
2
on the beam scales (η - 1/γ ). For a highly relativistic transport calculations of the ITS electron beam and the
electron beam, a small fractional charge neutralization DARHT electron beam in targets of different materials
can cause the magnetic force to dominate, resulting in and thicknesses. The beam parameters for the ITS beam
radial pinching and the subsequent divergence of the are 5.5 MeV, 3.8 kA, and 60 ns pulse length. The beam
beam after the pinch point. In x-ray radiography, the parameters for the DARHT beam are 20 MeV, 4.0 kA,
electron beam generates x-rays via the bremsstrahlung and 60 ns pulse length. The target material used in the
process in a converter target. For high resolution experiments was either copper or tantalum. To estimate
radiography, the energy density of the electron beam is the charge buildup and the resulting electric field in its
sufficiently intense that an electric field can develop near vacinity, we will take the 1.5-mm-thick copper target as an
the converter target such that ions can be extracted from example. From our Monte Carlo calculation, the
its surface. Typical ions species are from contaminants fractional charge deposited on the target is 0.241. During
such as hydrocarbons, water vapor, oxygen, etc. Among the 10 ns rise of the ITS electron beam pulse, the electron
the various species, hydrogen is the most mobile and most energy is lower and fractional charge deposition will
prone to cause radial focusing of the electron beam. In therefore be higher. From a rough estimate of the charge
our study, we assume hydrogen ions in all of our buildup on the target, we find that after approximately 3.5
calculations. Once the ions are created, they are drawn ns into the rise of the electron beam pulse, an electric
toward the potential well near the axis of the electron potential of 400 kV would be developed. At that time,
beam form by its space charge. Such an ion column
excess charge needs to be drained from the target to avoid
provides fractional neutralization of the electron beam
electrical breakdown between the target and the
locally and thus causes the beam to focus radially inward.
surrounding grounded conductors.
Furthermore, as the ion column expands in the upstream
660
from the target foil according to the space-charge-limited
2 TARGET ASSEMBLY DESIGN emission model. The liquid radial resistor was modeled
One of the major concerns of the target chamber design in our simulation by a vacuum diode with its impedance
is field breakdown resulting from the bias potential across determined by a properly chosen anode-cathode (AK)
the collimator and the target assembly. The final design gap. In Fig. 2, we show the real space diagram of the
of the target chamber assembly is shown in Fig. 1. The target chamber assembly from our simulation. At this
critical surfaces are shaped in such a geometry to time, the beam current has achieved its full value of 3.0
minimize electrical field stress. The design is aimed at a kA. The bias potential has reached a steady state value of
bias potential of 360 kV. The minimum distance between 360 kV after the rise time of the electron beam. We note
the target and the collimator was 2.0 cm. The diameter of that in Fig. 1, the axial length of the hydrogen ion column
the collimating aperture was chosen to be 2.0 cm. The is clearly limited by the self bias potential. The ions
finite element code FLUX2D was used to obtain the execute vortex motion in the potential well, which limits
electric field profile in the target chamber. The maximum its axial excursion. In the case where the ion column is
field strengths were found to be –175 kV/cm at the target not significantly larger than the betatron wavelength of
holder position and 240 kV/cm at the tip of the the electron beam, the spot size on the target will not
collimator. In addition, the code calculated the increase. The quarter betatron wavelength of the electron
capacitance of the target chamber to be 29.2 pF. Note beam is estimated to be 3.3 cm for the parameters in our
that the resistance of the radial liquid resistor between the simulation. As a result, the spot size is expected to be
Rexolite can be varied easily by changing the salt stable. In Fig. 3, we show from our computer simulation
concentration. the root-mean-square(rms) radius of the electron beam on
the target plane. After the transient state due to the rise of
the beam current (i.e., the development of the bias
potential), the rms radius achieves a steady state value of
about 0.5 mm. Note that the root-mean-square value is
weighed by the beam current.
Figure 1 Experimental layout of the target chamber
Figure 2 Physics simulation of the target chamber
3 PHYSICS DESIGN SIMULATION 4 EXPERIMENTAL COMPARISON
The design of the target chamber was numerically
Experiments to validate the concept of a self bias target
simulated by using the large-scale, time-dependent, two-
and the design of the target chamber were carried out at
dimensional fully electromagnetic and relativistic
the ITS. Emittance selectors were used in the beam pipe
particle-in-cell code MERLIN. An electron beam with
to increase the quality of the electron beam and reduce the
the ITS parameters was injected at the left boundary and
beam halo phenomenon. The experiment reported here
was focused on the target with a spot size of 1 mm in
had a beam current of 3.0 kA and a voltage of 5.6 MV.
radius. The electron beam current was chosen to be 3.0
The radiographic spot size was monitored as a function of
kA, corresponding to the experiment in which an
time. Its measured radius versus time is shown in Fig. 4.
emittance selector was inserted upstream in the beam pipe
It is clear that after some transient behavior consistent
resulting in reduced current but higher beam quality. The
with the development of bias potential, the spot size is
transmitted and reflected electrons have the proper
stabilized. Besides the difference in a scaling factor due
momentum and angular distributions determined by prior
to normalization, the comparison with the simulation
Monte Carlo calculations. The hydrogen ions are emitted
result in Fig. 3 is found to be quite favorable.
661
REFERENCES
1.Thomas J. T. Kwan, John C. Goldstein, and
Barbara G. DeVolder, Los Alamos National
Laboratory Research Note XPA-RN(U)97-021,
June 1997.
2. David C. Moir, private communication.
________________
*Work supported by USDOE
Figure 3 The rms radius of the electron beam at the
target plane from the simulation
R (mm)
Figure 4 The radius of the radiographic spot obtained
from the experiment
5 CONCLUSIONS
We found good agreement between experiment and
simulation of the target chamber. The self bias potential
between the target and the collimator is shown to be able
to maintain the radiographic spot size in high dose
radiography.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to thank B. DeVolder, T. Hughes, D.
Prono, L. Thode, and D. Wolkerstorfer for many valuable
discussions.
662
MODELING BEAMS WITH ELEMENTS IN PHASE SPACE
E. M. Nelson
Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545 USA
Abstract are shapes of four or more dimensions. Test particles at the
element’s vertices (and perhaps edges and faces) define the
Conventional particle codes represent beams as a collection
element’s shape and location in phase space. Local coordi-
of macroparticles. An alternative is to represent the beam
nates are assigned to each point of phase space inside the
as a collection of current carrying elements in phase space.
element. There is a simple map from the element’s local
While such a representation has limitations, it may be less
coordinates to global phase space coordinates.
noisy than a macroparticle model, and it may provide in-
Each element carries a number (or charge or current)
sights about the transport of space charge dominated beams
density which is expressed in the element’s local coordi-
which would otherwise be difficult to gain from macropar-
nate system. A number is obtained by integration of this
ticle simulations.
density over the element’s domain. In the jargon of dif-
The phase space element model of a beam is described,
ferential geometry, the number density is a pseudo-d-form.
and progress toward an implementation and difficulties
This density is different from traditional densities where
with this implementation are discussed. A simulation of
one integrates the density over a volume of configuration
an axisymmetric beam using 1d elements in phase space is
space to obtain a number.
demonstrated.
The test particles evolve (e.g., over time) according to
their equations of motion. The elements move with the test
1 INTRODUCTION particles because each element’s shape and location is de-
fined by its test particles. The number density expressed
Conventional particle codes represent beams as collections
in local coordinates on each element does not change. It is
of macroparticles. This representation is adequate for many
simply carried with the element. Collision-like effects are
applications, but there are situations where relatively subtle
not being treated. The validity of this model depends on the
details of the beam distribution are studied, and discretiza-
interpolation of the evolved test particles being close to the
tion noise in the macroparticle representation of the beam
evolution of an interpolated initial particle. Such tests can
may obscure these details. Simulations of beam halo and
be performed to assess the accuracy of the model, and per-
emittance growth in space charge dominated beam trans-
haps to adaptively refine the phase space elements which
port are two examples. Algorithms which model a sub-
represent the beam.
set of the beam distribution have been successful. These
include the f algorithm[1, 2] and an algorithm[3] which
employs a form of domain decomposition in phase space. 3 AN IMPLEMENTATION
Another approach is to model the Vlasov-Maxwell equa-
tion on a grid[4, 5]. Efforts using massively parallel com- A code is being developed to model the transport of
puting paradigms with 108 macroparticles are also pro- an intense steady-state axisymmetric beam in the pres-
viding significant advances in beam simulation[5]. ence of axisymmetric static fields. The phase space is
(x; y; ct;
x ;
y ;
). The relativistic equations of motion
This work discusses another model. In this model
the beam is represented by a collection of elements in for the particles are integrated in z . No paraxial approxi-
phase space instead of point-like macroparticles. Current mation is used. Coordinates (x; y ) are used instead of ra-
is distributed over elements instead of being localized in dius r to avoid potential difficulties pushing particles near
macroparticles. This phase space element model of the the axis. Points (x; y ) with the same radius r are equiva-
beam represents a smooth phase space distribution better lent. One can imagine revolving the phase space elements
than a macroparticle model. Thus, this model might pro- and particles about the axis in order to visualize the beam’s
vide for beam transport calculations with less discretization particle distribution. Coordinate ct is computed for each
noise. The motivation of this work is to develop improved particle, but this coordinate does not influence the particle
models of emittance growth in DARHT[6]. motion.
The phase space elements are one dimensional line seg-
ments connecting two test particles. A local coordinate u,
2 PHASE SPACE ELEMENT MODEL with 0 u 1, labels points on each element. One test
An element in phase space is a d dimensional simple shape particle is u = 0 and the other is u = 1. The map from lo-
embedded in a 2n dimensional phase space. The shapes cal coordinate u to global phase space coordinates is linear
are simplexes such as line segments, triangles or tetrahedra. interpolation of the two test particles’ phase space coordi-
Quadrilateral and hexahedral shapes may also be viable, as nates. Note that radius r is not linearly interpolated. It is
computed from the interpolated values of x and y . This
Work supported by W-7405-ENG-36. scheme better represents the beam’s particles near the axis.
663
y y
1
u=
2
1=
u=
x
x
0
u=
Figure 1: A one dimensional element (solid line) near the Figure 2: A collection of one dimensional phase space el-
axis. Two test particles (filled circles) define the location ements. For the self field calculation at the radius of the
and shape of the element. Local coordinate u identifies dotted circle, the current density is integrated over the re-
points on the element. The dotted line shows the effective gion outlined in gray.
element location if interpolation were performed in radius r
( )
instead of x; y . gation. The integration in Gauss’ and Ampere’s law does
not scale well with increasing number of phase space ele-
Fig. 1 illustrates a one dimensional element and the distinc- ments and test particles. However, the integration requires
tion among interpolation schemes. calculation of the intersection of elements with only one
An element’s current density J =
dI=du is a linear circle at a time. A better implementation will use a grid
function of u. That is, the pseudo-one-form current den- for the computation of self-fields, but such an implementa-
sity is J =( + )
j1 u j0 du with constants j1 and j0 . This tion will have to deal with intersections of an element with
form for the current density J enables good representation two circles instead of just one. This adds complexity to the
of a uniform current density (traditional sense) beam. code.
The fields acting on the particles are external focusing Accelerating fields are treated crudely at this time. A
fields, accelerating fields, and self-fields (including a flux
fixed
is added to each test particle as it passes through
conserving diamagnetic field). The self-fields are com- a gap. The magnetic field on-axis is computed from a ratio-
puted using Gauss’ and Ampere’s laws assuming the beam nal function approximation. Off-axis fields are computed
XZ
is uniform with respect to z . For example, Ampere’s law using a four term Taylor’s expansion. The equations of mo-
gives
( ) = 2( ) = 21
tion for the test particles are integrated using a fourth order
I r
H r
r r i
Ji (1) Runge-Kutta algorithm.
Ui (r)
()
where I r is the current enclosed by a circle of radius r, 4 AN EXAMPLE
and i is a phase space element index. For the ith element,
()
the domain of integration Ui r is the portion of the ele-
An example is shown in Figs. 3-5. Nominal DARHT-I pa-
rameters are employed except for the beam’s initial emit-
ment inside of radius r, tance. The beam is not matched with the accelerator. The
Ui (r) = fu : 0 u 1; ri (u) < rg: (2) initial beam is a laminar (zero emittance), uniform current
density beam. The particle energies are corrected for space
()
The radius at u in the ith element is ri u . An example charge depression and all particles have zero canonical an-
is shown in Fig. 2. Notice that an element may have two gular momentum. The initial beam is composed of 100
intersections with the circle of radius r. The implementa- elements equally spaced in radius on the positive x-axis.
tion splits elements into subelements during each self field The example illustrates two issues. First, the beam
calculation so that each subelement has at most one inter- model is wrapping itself around the axis. This will ulti-
section with a circle. mately ruin the effectiveness of the element’s interpolation
Algorithms have been developed for higher dimensional scheme. The wrapping has two sources. One is the tune
phase space elements. Elements are first split into subele- shift due to the beam’s self-fields. The other is the non-
ments so that intersections with circles are simple. A cir- conservation of canonical angular momentum, p , intro-
cle splits a triangle subelement into a triangular piece and duced mainly by the self-field calculation scheme.
a quadrilateral piece. The possibility that the triangle ele- The assumption of uniformity with respect to z in the
ment encloses the axis has also been considered. A tetrahe- self-field calculation leads to errors in p . The error for
dral subelement splits into a tetrahedral piece and a prism particles near the axis are opposite in sign from the error
piece, or into two prism pieces. for particles near the beam edge. Using an improved self-
The motivation for using Gauss’ and Ampere’s law is to field calculation or particle pushing scheme will reduce this
employ the simplest algorithm at this stage of the investi- effect, but the tune shift must still be dealt with when the
664
5
4
r (cm)
0
200 400 600 800 1000
z (cm)
Figure 3: Trajectories of 20 particles (every 5th particle) of a mismatched laminar beam in the first 10 m of DARHT-I.
0.3
0.5
0.2
y (cm)
r
0 * 0.1
-0.5 0
-1.0 -0.5 0 0.5 1.0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
x (cm) r (cm)
Figure 4: Configuration of the phase space elements of Figure 5: The beam model at z =8.1 m (gray) and
the beam at z =8.1 m (gray) and z =10 m (black). The gray z =10 m (black) projected onto the r- r plane.
curve clearly shows the beam model wrapping around the
axis. The black curve shows that the model becomes very
convoluted. 6 REFERENCES
[1] J. K. Coga and T. Tajima, “The f Algorithm for Beam Dy-
namics,” J. Comp. Phys. 116, 314-329 (1995).
full accelerator is modeled.
One might modify the equations of motion to cancel the [2] W. W. Lee, Q. Qian and R. C. Davidson, “Stability and Trans-
tune shift. Recall that the test particles in this axisymmet- port Properties of an Intense Ion Beam Propagating Through
ric simulation represent an equivalence class of particles at an Alternating Gradient Focusing Lattice,” Phys. Lett. A 230,
347-352 (1997).
the same radius, so it is not absolutely necessary for their
trajectories to coincide with real particles. [3] T. Chen, J. Irwin and R. Siemann, “Simulation of the Beam
This leads to the second issue. The configuration of the Halo from the Beam-Beam Interaction,” Phys. Rev. E. 49 (3),
beam at z =10 m (see Fig. 4) is quite convoluted. This casts 2323-2328 (1994).
doubt on the validity of the beam model. In fact, refine- [4] A. Piquemal, “Renoir, a Numerical Simulation Code for
ment of the model (i.e., more elements) shows that it is sur- the Study of Halo in Intense Charged Particle Beams,”
prisingly good except near the large phase space element 1996 Computational Accelerator Physics, Williamsburg, VA,
labeled *. September 24-27, 1996, 137-142 (1997).
[5] R. Ryne and S. Habib, “Parallel Beam Dynamics Calcula-
tions on High Performance Computers,” 1996 Computational
5 CONCLUSION Accelerator Physics, Williamsburg, VA, September 24-27,
Some progress has been made in developing a phase space 1996, 377-388 (1997).
element model for a beam. More work is needed before [6] M. J. Burns et al, “Status of the Dual-Axis Radiographic Hy-
this model’s viability can be demonstrated concretely, but drotest Facility,” Proceedings of LINAC96, CERN, August
there are promising indications that the model will yield 26-30, 1996, 875-877 (1996).
some improved beam simulations.
665
SURVEY TALK - NEW LASER AND OPTICAL RADIATION DIAGNOSTICS*
W. P. Leemans
Center for Beam Physics, Accelerator and Fusion Research Division
Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720
Abstract except when the unique property of a one-to-one
correlation between observation angle and wavelength of
New techniques are reported for electron beam monitoring, the emission is used, such as in radiation originating from
that rely either on the analysis of the properties of wiggler the interaction with magnetic fields.
radiation (from static magnetic fields as well as from laser Wiggler radiation (from permanent magnets,
“undulators”, also referred to as Thomson scattering) or electromagnetic undulators and lasers) has been used for
on the non-linear mixing of laser radiation with electron diagnostic purposes [1-3, 11-13] in a wide range of beam
beam radiation. The different techniques reviewed are energies, as the radiation contains the full signature of the
capable of providing information on femtosecond time electron beam. In Section 2, a technique for measuring
scales and micron or even sub-micron spatial scales. The energy and energy spread through spectral filtering of
laser undulator is also proposed as a useful tool for non- spontaneous emission of a wiggler will be discussed [1]
destructive measurement of high power electron beams. as well as a technique for bunch length monitoring
An example is given of measuring electron beam energy through fluctuational interferometry of the incoherent
and energy spread through spectral filtering of light [2,3]. In Section 3, experiments using radiation
spontaneous wiggler radiation [1]. A novel technique from laser Thomson scattering [4] (i.e. electromagnetic
based on fluctuational characteristics of radiation is undulator) for beam characterization will be reviewed. In
described, for single shot, non-destructive measurement of Section 4, non-linear optical mixing of laser radiation
the electron beam bunch length [2,3]. Thomson with radiation from electron beams for longitudinal bunch
scattering based beam monitoring techniques are discussed profile measurements [5,6,14] will be discussed.
which, through analysis of the radiated beam properties,
allow non-destructive detailed measurement of transverse
and longitudinal distributions of relativistic electron 2 WIGGLER RADIATION
beams [4]. Two new techniques are discussed which rely
on non-linear optical mixing of laser radiation with 2.1 Beam Energy Diagnostic
electron bunch emission: differential optical gating (DOG)
[5] and electron bunch length measurement in a storage The wiggler emission cone contains information about
ring based on sum-frequency generation [6]. the electron beam mean energy and energy spread [15,16].
A series of proof of principle experiments [1] have been
1 INTRODUCTION carried out at the Accelerator Test Facility (ATF) at
Brookhaven National Laboratory, demonstrating wiggler-
Measurement of the transverse and longitudinal phase based beam diagnosis in single shot mode, both for single
space properties of electron bunches produced in present micropulses and single macropulses. The experiments
and future high performance linacs [7-9], requires were performed using a high precision (0.08% peak
development of beam diagnostics with high spatial amplitude rms) pulsed electromagnetic microwiggler from
(micron or sub-micron) and temporal (femtosecond) MIT, with a wiggler period of 8.8 mm. The high
resolution. Measurement of beam properties of high microwiggler field quality simplified the interpretation of
current, high power linacs [10] requires non-destructive the spectra defined by the convolution over many
diagnostics to be developed. Several diagnostics will be parameters: energy spread, divergence, spot size,
discussed, which rely on direct measurement of the matching, beam pointing and wiggler field errors. For a
properties of electron beam radiation, or on the interaction beam energy of 44-48 MeV, the wiggler emission was in
of that electron beam radiation with a laser beam. In each the visible, where a wide range of optical diagnostics are
of the techniques discussed in this paper, the electron available.
beam radiation is generated through interaction of the The wiggler emission profile was studied at the
electron beam with static magnetic fields (e.g. wiggler fundamental (532 nm). A narrow (1 nm) bandwidth
radiation) or with electromagnetic radiation from a laser interference filter was used to spectrally filter the radiation
(Thomson scattering). Most of the techniques can be cones, and the full transverse far field pattern was recorded
applied more generally to other types of radiation sources, using a CCD camera. For a fixed wavelength, determined
∗
Work supported by the US Department of Energy under contract No. AC03-76SF00098.
669
by the filter, the cone radius depends on beam energy and A proof of principle experiment was carried out at the
wiggler field strength, and the cone width contains ATF, in which the single shot spontaneous emission
information of divergence and energy spread. Analytic spectrum of the MIT microwiggler, was studied for a
expressions were derived, showing that for energy spreads range of bunch lengths (1-7 ps) [1,3]. The microwiggler
realistic for the linac (0.5% FW) at 48 MeV, divergence provided high brightness visible wavelength emissions for
dominates over both energy spread and natural linewidth at an electron beam energy of 44 MeV. A typical measured
sufficiently large angles [1]. For small cones, both effects spectrum is shown in Figure 2a, revealing nearly 100%
are important. The far-field profile provides an advantage modulation and the presence of random spikes of a
over the spectrum in divergence sensitivity. A systematic characteristic width, from which a bunch length of 2 ps
set of experiments was carried out to study cone response was extracted. For comparison, a simulation for a similar
to beam energy, energy spread, wiggler field strength, bunch length including the measured instrumental
electron beam misalignment and filter central wavelength. resolution is shown in Figure 2b. The important features
An electron beam divergence of 0.25 mrad was extracted of the experimental data, the characteristic spike width and
in a single shot measurement. Examples of spontaneous the level of modulation, are reproduced by the theory.
emission cones are shown in Figure 1. Note that with a Quantitative agreement has also been obtained between
wiggler length of 70 periods, sensitivity to as little as bunch length extracted from fluctuations and independent
0.5% change in central beam energy was demonstrated. calibrations of beam bunch length [3].
0. 995*48 M eV 1. 000*48 M eV
a)
300
DATA
250
Intensity (a.u.)
200
150
100
50
0
200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
CCD pixel ( α wavelength)
∆γ/γ = 0 .5% ∆γ/γ = 1. 5% b)
600
THEORY
500
Intensity (a.u.)
400
300
200
100
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Figure 1. CCD images of a 1 nm portion of the far field CCD pixel ( α wavelength)
wiggler spontaneous emission profile, showing sensitivity
to beam energy (top pair – 48 MeV and 48*0.995) and energy
spread (bottom pair – 0.5% and 1.5% FW). From Ref. 1.
2.1 Fluctuational Interferometry Figure 2. a) Single shot spontaneous emission spectrum
In 1995, a fluctuational interferometry technique relying from a microwiggler at 632 nm, showing nearly 100%
modulation of the spectrum. Beam bunch length was
on the incoherent contribution to the radiation was extracted in a single shot measurement from the spectral
proposed [2]. For a radiation pulse to be longitudinally fluctuations. b) A simulation for the same bunch length
incoherent, the spectral bandwidth ∆ ω must be much reproduces both the qualitative and quantitative features of the
larger than the inverse of the pulse duration τ p , data.
i.e. ∆ωτ p >> 1. Using a bandpass filter, centered around
ω0 and with spectral width δω, temporal coherence can be
imposed with an associated coherence time τ coh ∝ δω −1 , 3 LASER SCATTERING
effectively breaking the pulse up in N independent DIAGNOSTICS
portions where N = τ p / τ coh . From shot-to-shot, the A different approach to generating radiation from particle
intensity will vary on the order of 1/ N . Measurement beams for beam monitoring is to use the interaction of
of the variance of the intensity fluctuations will then give the beam with high intensity laser fields. In effect, the
a measure for N and hence τ p ≈ N / δω . laser acts as an electromagnetic undulator and the
670
properties of the emitted radiation can be accurately To measure the transverse electron beam distribution
predicted using an equivalent undulator model [17]. The for a given slice of the electron beam, we scanned the
scattered radiation contains information on energy as well laser beam transversely across the electron beam in steps
as on transverse and (for short laser pulses) longitudinal of 10 µm, by changing the tilt of the focusing mirror. and
distributions of the electron beam. monitored the x-ray yield on the phosphor screen. It was
found (Fig. 3) that the laser based technique and the
At the Final Focus Test Beam (FFTB) at SLAC,
results from OTR were in good agreement and give a half-
transverse e-beam sizes as small as 70 nm were measured, width half maximum (HWHM) vertical size of 66 µm.
by scanning a 50 GeV e-beam across the intensity fringes However, the measurements for the beam edges differed
of an optical standing wave [7] produced by crossing two and were both non-Gaussian. From the OTR data an
laser beams. The gamma ray yield depends on the number HWHM horizontal size of 47 µm was obtained.
of photons with which the electron beam interacts and is 1.2
OTR image of e-beam
therefore much larger at the peaks than at the valleys of 1.0
the standing wave. Such resolution is beyond usual
Intensity [arb. units]
0.8
optical (e.g. optical transition radiation or synchrotron
OTR profile
radiation) based methods. 0.6
A laser based beam diagnostic [4] which relies on
0.4
analysis of the properties of the scattered radiation has
600 µm
been developed and used at the Beam Test Facility (BTF) 0.2 (Imaging resolution = 14 µm)
X-ray yield
[18] of the Center for Beam Physics at Lawrence Berkeley
0.0
National Laboratory (LBNL). Some of the results of this
-200 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 200
experiment are discussed next. y [µm]
3.1 Orthogonal Thomson Scattering Diagnostic
Figure 3: a) OTR image of the focused electron beam and
The experiment [4] was conducted at the BTF and used the b) triangle - vertical line-profile through the OTR image
50 MeV (γ = 98) linear accelerator (linac) injector of the of the electron beam; square - x-ray yield vs. vertical laser
Advanced Light Source in conjunction with a high power beam position.
(40 mJ in 100 fs) short pulse laser system operating at
800 nm wavelength. Electron bunches were transported Measurement of the electron beam divergence for a
fixed longitudinal location (i.e. fixed delay time between
using bend magnets and quadrupoles to an interaction
the laser and electron beam) of a time slice of the electron
chamber where they were focused and scattered against the beam, with a duration equal to the convolution of the
laser beam. After the interaction chamber, a 60˚ bend transit time of the laser pulse and the laser pulse duration,
magnet deflected the electron beam onto a beam dump, was done by monitoring the spatial x-ray beam profile on
away from the forward scattered x-rays. A 75 cm radius of the phosphor screen using the CCD camera (see Fig.4).
curvature mirror was used to focus the S-polarized The scattered x-ray energy flux contains information of
amplified laser pulses to about a 30 µm diameter spot at the angular distribution of the electron beam. By
the interaction point (IP) (measured by a charge coupled convoluting the single electron spectrum with a Gaussian
device (CCD) camera at an equivalent image plane outside distribution for the horizontal and vertical angles (σθx and
the vacuum chamber). σθy are the rms widths of the angular distribution of the
To measure the spot size (and position) of the electron beam in the horizontal and vertical direction
electron beam at the IP, an image of the electron beam respectively) and integrating over all energies and solid
was obtained by relaying optical transition radiation angle, the energy flux can be written as [4]:
[ ]
(OTR) [19] from a foil onto a 16 bit CCD camera or dP 2π 1
optical streak camera using a small f-number telescope. ∝ ∫0 dφ ∫0 dκ F(κ ) κ 1 − 4 κ (1 − κ )cos 2 φ
dθ xd θ y
Electron beam spot sizes as small as 35 µm rms have
been measured. 1
(θ x − γ −1 − 1 cos φ ) 2
During the interaction of an electron beam and laser
exp[− κ ]
beam, scattered x-ray photons are produced with energy 2σθ2x
U x, given by (for γ >> 1)
2γ 2 hω 0 1
Ux = (1 − cos ψ ) , (1) (θ y + γ −1 − 1 sin φ )2
1 + γ 2θ 2 exp[− κ ]
where ω 0 is the frequency of the incident photons, ψ is 2σ θ2y
. (2)
the interaction angle between the electron and laser beam Here dP is the radiated x-rays intensity in a solid angle
(ψ=π/2 in our experiments) , and θ is the angle at which dθxdθy , φ is the azimuthal angle, F(κ) is an x-ray energy
the radiation is observed and assumed to satisfy θ <<1/γ . dependent function modeling the detector sensitivity and
In the experiment, x-rays with a maximum energy of 30 x-ray vacuum window transmission. Also,
keV (0.4 Å) are generated. 2 2 −1
κ = U U max = (1 + γ θ ) and U max = 2γ hω and a
2
single incident laser frequency is assumed.
671
the IP), but chromatic aberrations were about 5 times
10
σθx = 6.3 mrad larger in the second lattice. Result of a 60 ps long scan
1. 0
σθy = 3.9 mrad (time step of 1 ps) and time-resolved OTR from the streak
X-ray intensity [arb.units]
0. 8
camera for the lattice with low and high chromatic
0
0. 6 aberrations is shown in Fig. 5(a, b).
0. 4
1
(a)
Intensity [Arb. Units]
0. 2
0. 8
10
0. X- ray scan
0 -20.0 -15.0 -10.0 -5. 0 0 . 0 5 .0 1 0. 1 5. 0 2 0. 0
-10 0 10 0. 6
0
Horizontal size[mm] Observation angle [mrad]
0. 4 Streak profi le
Figure 4. a) False color CCD image of the spatial profile of a 0. 2
30 keV x-ray pulse on the phosphor screen, which is located
80 cm from the IP; b) square- horizontal line-profile and 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
fitting curve (solid line), triangle -vertical line-profile and
T ime [p s]
fitting curve (dashed line) from Fig. 4 (a). The scale has been
converted into angular units. 1
(b)
Intensity [Arb. Units]
Streak profil e
0. 8
By fitting the data (see Fig. 4) using Eq.(2), an
electron beam divergence of σθx (σθy) = 6.3 ± 0.2 (3.9 ± 0. 6
0.2) mrad was found. F(κ) was adjusted to account for X-ray s can
0. 4
the spectral dependence of the x-ray window transmission.
The difference between σθx and σθy is due to a combination 0. 2
of the electron beam being focused astigmatically at the
IP, resulting in a tilted phase space ellipse (y, y ′ ), and a
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Ti me [ps]
laser spot size much smaller than the vertical electron
beam size. As the laser beam crosses the focal volume of
the electron beam, the complete horizontal (direction of
Figure 5: x-ray yield vs. delay time between laser and
propagation of the laser) phase space (x, x ′ ) is sampled electron beam and profile of time resolved OTR image
by the laser beam. However, only electrons occupying from a streak camera for a lattice with a) small and b)
the region in the vertical phase space defined by the large chromatic aberrations.
spatial overlap with the laser beam will contribute to the
x-ray flux. As opposed to the transition radiation based Whereas the temporal scan for the lattice with low
detector, the laser beam therefore acts as an optical chromatic aberrations (Fig.5a) is in good agreement with
microprobe of a finite region of the transverse phase the time-resolved OTR measured with a visible streak
space. This value of the electron beam divergence is also camera, the scans taken for the second configuration
consistent with an effective angular divergence of the (Fig.5b) typically showed a 2-3 times larger amplitude 5
electron beam of 3.5 - 4 mrad obtained from analyzing the ps wide peak sitting on a 20 ps wide pedestal. This is to
x-ray spectra. Of course, the main difference is that be compared to the time resolved OTR from the streak
measurement of the spatial profile is a single shot camera which typically showed a 25-30 ps wide electron
technique as opposed to measuring the x-ray spectra which beam without any sharp time structure. From lattice
requires accumulation of thousands of shots. calculations, it is found that an energy change on the order
Finally, since the x-ray yield is sensitive to both the of 0.25 % would increase the vertical spot size by a factor
longitudinal bunch profile and the degree of transverse two at the IP, compared to best focus, resulting in a
overlap between the laser and electron beam, time- proportional reduction in vertical overlap between the
correlated phase space properties of the electron beam can laser and electron beam, and hence in x-ray yield. These
be studied. When an electron bunch, which exhibits a measurements indicate the potential of the laser based
finite time-correlated energy spread (chirp), is focused at Thomson diagnostic to measure time-correlated energy
the IP with a magnetic lattice which has large chromatic changes of less than a percent, with sub-picosecond time
aberrations, different temporal slices of the bunch will be resolution.
focused at different longitudinal locations. The transverse It is important to note also that, due to the non-
overlap between e-beam and laser will therefore strongly destructive nature of the Thomson scattering technique, it
depend on which time slice the laser interacts with. This might prove to be a useful tool for the diagnosis of high
in turn will lead to a time dependence of the x-ray yield current, high power electron beams, such as for the
varying faster than the actual longitudinal charge DAHRT project [10].
distribution. To illustrate this, the x-ray flux was
measured as a function of the delay between laser and e- 4 NON-LINEAR MIXING
beam, for two different magnetic transport lattices. In
both lattices, the magnet settings were optimized to Another new direction being pursued for developing beam
obtain a minimum electron beam spot size in the diagnostics, is the non-linear mixing of laser radiation
horizontal and vertical plane (as well as zero dispersion at with radiation from electron beams [14]. Two recent
672
examples of the application of non-linear optics for bunch has been applied to the pulse shape measurement of a
length monitoring are discussed next: one in which a picosecond free electron laser source, using both an
tightly synchronized laser pulse is used to perform a instantaneous gate and a step function gate [5].
cross-correlation measurement and one in which the laser
pulse is loosely synchronized with respect to the electron
beam. 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
4.1 Laser Correlation with Synchrotron Pulses I would like to thank Palma Catravas for kindly
contributing to the section on the fluctuational
Experiments at the Advanced Light Source have recently interferometry and wiggler radiation measurements, R.
shown [6] that a synchronized laser pulse can be used to Schoenlein and M. Zolotorev for information on the non-
measure femtosecond synchrotron pulses via frequency up- linear mixing, C. Rella and T. Smith for the DOG
conversion. Visible synchrotron radiation from the ALS information, as well as my collaborators on the laser
at 2 eV was sum-frequency mixed in a BBO crystal with based probing work. I also want to thank E. Esarey for
1.55 eV radiation from a short pulse (<100 fs) Ti:Al2O3 many useful conversations.
laser. By scanning the laser pulse in time with respect to
the electron bunch, a 16.6 ps rms bunch length was 6 REFERENCES
measured, which is in good agreement with streak camera [1] P. Catravas, PhD thesis, MIT, 1998.
measurements. Furthermore, the technique was shown to [2] M. S. Zolotorev and G. V. Stupakov, SLAC-PUB-
detect sub-picosecond structure of the electron bunch, 7132 (1995); M. S. Zolotorev and G. V. Stupakov, Proc.
purposely imposed on the bunch by co-propagating an 1997 Particle Accelerator Conference.
intense short laser pulse with the electron beam inside a [3] P. Catravas et al., submitted to Phys. Rev. Lett.
wiggler. The laser beam, in the presence of a wiggler [4] W.P. Leemans et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 77, p.4182
field, causes an energy modulation of a slice of the bunch (1996); R.W. Schoenlein et al., Science 274, pp.236-238
via a FEL-like interaction. The energy modulation depth (1996); W.P. Leemans et al., IEEE Journal of Quant.
is determined by the wiggler and the laser pulse strength, Elect. 33, pp. 1925-1934 (1997).
and the duration of the slice is equal to the laser pulse [5] C.W. Rella et al., submitted to Optics Comm.
length. By propagating the modulated electron beam [6] R.W. Schoenlein, M. Zolotorev et al., private
through a dispersive section, this short slice can be communication.
separated from the main bunch, leaving a small density [7] T. Shintake, Nucl. Inst. & Methods A311, pp. 453
depression in the main bunch. The cross-correlation (1992), Balakin, V. et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 74, p. 2479-
technique detected this few 100 fs long depression [6].
82 (1995).
4.2 Differential Optical Gating [8] P. Kung, H. Lihn and H. Wiedemann, Phys. Rev.
Lett. 73, 967 (1994).
The second example relies on the use of a loosely- [9] D. Umstadter et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 76, 2073
synchronized laser pulse as a gate in a non-linear medium (1996); E. Esarey et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 79, 2682
for pulse length measurement in a technique which is (1997).
called differential optical gating (DOG) [5]. DOG uses [10] H. Rutkowski et al., these proceedings.
two non-linear media as gates and two detectors (A and B). [11] P. Heimann et al., Rev. Sci. Instrum., 66(2) 1885-8
The gate pulse and the electron beam radiation are (1995).
optically split in two parts. The laser reaching gate B is [12] A. Lumpkin, Nucl. Instr. & Meth. A, 393 , 170-177
delayed by a time δ with respect to the one reaching gate (1997).
A. Under the assumption that the gate pulse is much [13] E. Tarazona and P. Elleaume, Rev. Sci. Instrum.,
shorter than the radiation pulse (and an instantaneous gate 66(2), 1974-7 (1995).
response), the signal seen by each detector can be written [14] W.P. Leemans, Proc. Advanced Accelerator Concepts
as [5] Workshop, AIP 398, Woodbury, NY (1997)
[15] K.-J. Kim, AIP Conf. Proc. 184, Vol.1, 565-632
A(t1 ) ∝ EG IS (t1 ) (1989).
(3)
B(t1 + δ ) ∝ EG IS (t1 + δ ) [16] R. Barbini et al., Rivista del Nuovo Cimento, 13(6),
1-65, (1990).
where EG is the energy of the laser gate pulse and IS(t) is
the instantaneous intensity of the radiation. From this [17] K.-J. Kim, S. Chattopadhyay and C.V. Shank, Nucl.
measurement, both the instantaneous intensity and its Instr. And Meth. A 341, 351-354 (1994).
time derivative are then known, which allows bunch [18] W.P. Leemans et al., Proc. 1993 IEEE Part. Acc.
shape reconstruction. Through the loose synchronization, Conf., 83, (IEEE, New York, 1993).
the laser pulse randomly “walks” across the bunch, much [19] L. Wartski et al., J. Appl. Phys. 46, 3644 (1975);
like interleaved sampling on digital oscilloscopes. In M.J. de Loos, S.B. van der Geer and W.P. Leemans,
recent experiments at Stanford University, the technique Proc. EPAC 94, 1679 (1994).
673
HIGH GRADIENT SUPERCONDUCTING RF STRUCTURES
H.Weise
Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY, 22607 Hamburg, Germany
properties of superconductors in a microwave cavity at
Abstract 2856 MHz [3]. This program started the pioneering work
for the application of superconducting RF structures for
Superconducting (s.c.) RF structures for the the acceleration of electrons.
acceleration of electrons have been known for over 30 The Stanford cavity was about 14 cm in diameter by 14
years (HEPL, Stanford). More than 10 years after their cm in length and was resonant at 2865 MHz in the TE011
successful start a new generation (i.e. standing wave, mode. In this mode there is no current flux across the
π-mode cavities), made from niobium and operated at joints between the cavity side wall and the two end plates,
frequencies between 352 MHz and 3 GHz, was so that the quality factor Q is independent of these joints.
established at accelerators being operated for high energy Several types of tin and lead surfaces were measured.
physics (CERN, DESY, KEK) as well as nuclear physics Electroplated surfaces gave the highest Q's. A residual
(CEBAF, Darmstadt) experiments. Although the HEPL resistivity was always observed as T approached zero.
s.c. cavities were limited to a 10% duty cycle and the 2nd Today we know from the theory of RF superconductivity
generation now allows continuous wave operation, the that this is not due to improper cavity fabrication but can
increase of the accelerating gradient was remarkably be explained by the BCS theory of superconductors.
small with respect to the > 50 MV/m limit given by the Nevertheless, material properties are limiting the
physics of RF superconductivity. achievable accelerating gradient. We characterize the
Thirty years ago HEPL cavities reached about state of the art material by the so-called RRR (residual
2 MV/m; 15 years later DESY cavities achieved 4 MV/m. resistivity ratio) which is a direct measure of the thermal
And the large 338-cavity CEBAF installation is based on conductivity.
a 5 MV/m gradient, the commissioning of the accelerator At the 1963 International Conference on High Energy
being less than 10 years ago. Since 1992 the TESLA Accelerators in Dubna the Stanford group published a
(TeV Energy Superconducting Linear Accelerator) very preliminary design of a 20 GeV - 10% duty cycle
collaboration has studied the fundamental problems in superconducting accelerator. This at a time at which no
cavity fabrication as well as operation. Last year an 8 mA real cavity has ever been built. The remarkable numbers
electron beam was successfully accelerated in a 15 MV/m were an assumed length of 3000 m corresponding to
module containing 8 s.c. 9-cell cavities. Two more about 10 MV/m (active/total length ratio of 66%), and a
modules (20 to 25 MV/m) will be installed. From recent power dissipated in the walls of the structure of 200 kW
cavity tests a gradient of 25 MV/m can be taken as state average, i.e. 100 W/m; the forward power was claimed to
of the art. Cavity production, preparation, and installation be 2 MW average, so that the total beam power of 1.8
was remarkably improved, a prototype linac (TESLA MW average corresponded to almost 100 µA average
Test Facility Linac) for a large linear collider shows good electron beam current. Ref. [4] can be used to compare
performance. this design with the actual TESLA design [5] for a 500
GeV c.m. linear collider.
1 RF SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND Based on the TE011 measurements the Stanford group
LINEAR ACCELERATORS designed and built the first two accelerating cavities, one
TM010 and one 2 π/3 mode cavity. In 1965 an
In 1961 Banford and Stafford [1] at Harwell proposed
accelerating gradient of 3.7 MV/m was reached at an
the feasibility of a superconducting proton linac, and have 8
unloaded Qo of 2.5⋅10 [6]. The cavity was electroplated
carried out experimental measurements on lead and
with lead and operated close to 2856 MHz. Radiation
niobium at 400 MHz using quarter-wavelength hairpin
exceeding 100 mR/h provoked the optimistic statement
resonators. Similar measurements were started by Susini
The radiation provides indirect evidence of strong
[2] and others at CERN and the University of Lausanne
accelerating fields. The explanation for the field emission
on lead and niobium surfaces at 300 MHz using a
limit was a possible local enhancement of the electric
capacitively-loaded coaxial resonator. Here the interest
field by a factor 200 caused by sharp projections on
was in building a s.c. separator. Also in 1961, a program
typical surfaces [7]. Today we use enhancement factors of
was started at Stanford University to measure the
674
100 to 1000 to explain the level of field emission using chemistry and water cleaning. The resonator frequencies
Fowler-Nordheim theory. and the number of cells varied from 352 MHz / 4-cell
During the discussion of a LINAC 64 conference paper (CERN) to 3 GHz /5 & 20-cell (Cornell; Wuppertal - for
[8] the author felt that the present state of knowledge of the S-DALINAC / Darmstadt).
RF superconductivity was sufficiently discouraging to A significant frequency dependence of the maximum
abandon further work on a superconducting proton linac. obtainable accelerating field could not be found. The
Suelzle from Stanford wrote almost 10 years later lower- choice of frequency was determined by the need to
than-expected accelerating gradients have necessitated combine the cavity operation with other normal
the re-evalution of the energy objectives [9]. The hope for conducting structures or by the existence of klystrons. For
getting roughly 14 MV/m in a 6-meter long, 1300MHz most of the listed cavities the maximum number of cells
accelerating structure was not fulfilled. By the end of was chosen from HOM calculations. The need to damp
1972 the 1300 MHz structures were limited to 3 MV/m. HOMs and to have sufficient coupling between the input
But the first superconducting electron linac was coupler and the cavity led to slightly different designs.
commissioned. It produced an 8 MeV, 250 µA beam with
12 keV ⋅ deg (FWHM) and a transverse emittance of less 3 HIGHER GRADIENTS, LOCALIZED
then 1 π mm mrad. Today the HEPL accelerator is used to DEFECTS, AND HIGHER RRR
drive different undulators and produce Free Electron
Laser radiation in the infrared.
For many years the design goal for superconducting
structures was about 5 MV/m. This was based on
experience with multicell cavities. Nevertheless, the goal
2 S.C. CAVITIES FOR STORAGE RINGS
of high gradients was never forgotten since the BCS
theory predicted maximum gradients of almost 50 MV/m
The somewhat disappointing results from Stanford at 2 K. Considerable effort has been devoted to the
certainly have de-emphasized the search for high understanding of surface defects. Larger defects could be
gradients. But in the late 70's the use of s.c. cavities in localized and sometimes even eliminated by grinding. In
storage rings was considered. Here gradients of a few 1979 the technique of temperature mapping was
MV/m were sufficient. Important were instability developed at CERN and it was demonstrated that well
thresholds - an adequate damping of higher order modes localized defects were one of the prime causes of
(HOMs) for multiturn operation was needed. Tests in quenching [13]. Over the years these temperature
existing storage rings led to promising results as reported mapping devices have been improved, and more
[10-11]. Today we can find 352-MHz cavities in LEP as diagnostics like X-ray diodes and RRR measuring devices
well as 500-MHz cavities in HERA. The first Workshop using eddy current induced by small coils have been
on RF Superconductivity, organized in 1980 by the introduced.
Kernforschungszentrum Karlsruhe (KfK), summarized all Cornell pointed out that the threshold for thermal
activities aiming for the use of RF superconductivity for instabilities could be increased if the thermal
acceleration of ions as well as electrons. conductivity, i.e. the RRR of the cavity wall is improved.
While all first β=1 cavities were of cylindrical In a close collaboration with industry the RRR value for
symmetry, i.e. a pill box with slightly smoothed out the used Nb material was raised from typically 40
edges, one can find the first spherical resonators around (corresponding to a heat conductivity λ = 10 W/(m⋅K) at
1980. According to [12] the Genoa / Italy 3-cell C-band 4.2K) to values between 150 and 200. To increase the
structure was built in spherical geometry because of o
RRR even further yttrification at about 1250 C was used
easier manufacturing. The result was amazing, the o
at Cornell. Later the use of 1400 C UHV baking in the
comparison of the maximum accelerating field shows the presence of titanium vapor was established.
remarkable gradient of 8 MV/m. Somewhat later the The combination of eliminating defects and using
spherical geometry was found to be the best in order to higher RRR has guaranteed a more reliable way towards
avoid multipacting. The high radiation levels in the HEPL accelerating fields of 5 to 10 MV/m in multicell cavities.
tests were not only caused by simple field emission but As examples one can quote results from CEBAF
by resonant electron emission, i.e. multipacting. prototype cavities which reached 6-8 MV/m, a single cell
Within a short time the five laboratories being the KEK 500 MHz cavity (RRR 80) with 7.6 MV/m, the first
driving forces towards high gradient β=1 structures, CERN LEP prototype cavity (4-cell, 352 MHz) with 7.5
CERN, Cornell, DESY, KEK, and Wuppertal, MV/m, and last but not least one 20-cell 3GHz cavity for
concentrated on the spherical geometry. The E peak/Eacc ratio the S-DALINAC which reached 7.8 MV/m after the
was optimized to be about 2 for any geometry. Some preparation at Wuppertal. Cornell was able to reach really
cavities had a wall section being exactly perpendicular to high gradients in 1.5 GHz single cell cavities: 22.5
the cavity axis (remains of the old pill box). Later the MV/m. Wuppertal followed with 23.1 MV/m for a 3 GHz
elliptical geometry was found to be best because of easier single cell structure.
675
A few years later the standard material for s.c. cavities cavities are contained in one cryomodule but each cavity
was RRR 280. The first multicell cavities reached again is separately powered by one 5 kW klystron. According
higher gradients but shortly after the installation of the to [16] the distribution in the accelerating gradients has its
first 20-cell cavity in the S-DALINAC the enthusiasm maximum at about 7.5 MV/m with a spread of 5 MV/m
was damped by a new phenomenon. After keeping the FWHM. The principal limitation of the installed cavities
cavity at temperatures just above nitrogen temperature is electron field emission and associated phenomena, such
(70 - 100K), which can happen in a linac installation, the as X-ray production, charging and arcing at the cold
quality factor dropped, the cryogenic losses were ceramic RF window, and anomalous 2 K heat load. This
increased by a factor of 10. Darmstadt and DESY found affects about 80% of the cavities. Only 12% of the
the Q-degradation (sometimes also called Q-disease) at cavities are limited by quench. The average quench limit
about the same week. Months later it was clearly is at 13 MV/m.
identified as a clustering of hydrogen and therefore The cavity operation in CEBAF has been quite stable
creation of normal conducting niobium hydride areas and reliable. In 1997 the maximum energy delivered to
[14]. For increasing the RRR of the Nb material the the nuclear physics experiments was 4.4 GeV at a beam
oxygen was removed with the disadvantage that the current of 115 µA. The RF could have supported 5.6 GeV
hydrogen is not chemically bound anymore. A cooling of with a five pass beam delivery. In-situ RF-helium
the acid during chemical polishing is necessary to avoid processing of the cavities was tested and yielded an
high hydrogen concentration in the niobium. Otherwise additional 41 MeV/pass. Jefferson Lab intends to upgrade
Niobium hydride areas start to grow. Baking at the machine to the 6-8 GeV region by this method.
o
temperatures above 750 C can cure the problem. Further steps towards higher electron beam energy are
described elsewhere [17]. The Jefferson Lab Free-
Electron Laser installation can operate above 10 MV/m.
4 THE STATUS BEFORE TESLA In 1997 CERN operated 240 s.c. cavities in LEP. Out
At the LINAC 92 Conference R. Sundelin presented a of the 240 cavities 16 were made from solid niobium and
good overview about the state of the art in s.c. cavity 224 were sputtered Nb/Cu cavities. The operation
production [15]. Assembly in clean rooms was standard, frequency is 352 MHz, the nominal operating field 6
the Cornell group had improved gradients using high MV/m. Eight cavities are grouped each and driven by one
peak power processing, and CERN used high pressure klystron. Two klystrons are connected to one HV power
water rinsing to suppress field emission in the LEP converter. According to [18] the overall performance of
cavities which are made from copper but sputter coated the s.c. RF system was good during the 1997 operation
with Nb. The number of superconducting cavity operating period. The average operational gradient of the 224
hours in larger installations increased substantially. Nb/Cu cavities was 5.9 MV/m even though some cavities
were limited at lower gradients. The four solid Nb
Table 1: modules were running at about 3.6 MV/m (nominal
S.c. cavities in operation as known at the time of the gradient 5 MV/m).
LINAC 92 Conference, i.e. before the start of the TESLA
program. The CEBAF installation was ongoing at a rate 6 THE TESLA R&D EFFORT
of 16 cavities per month. Since 1991 the international TESLA collaboration [19]
Nbr.of Cav. MHz m MV/m is following an approach to a 500 GeV linear collider
MACSE 5 5-Cell 1500 2.5 6.5 using superconducting accelerating cavities. Altogether
S-DALINAC 10 20-Cell 3000 10.0 5.9 35 institutes from nine countries are developing linac
HERA 16 4-Cell 500 19.2 3.6 components as there are s.c. accelerating structures,
HEPL 30.8 3.0 couplers, cryostats, RF sources, beam diagnostics etc. The
TRISTAN 32 5-Cell 508 47.2 6.6 TESLA Collaboration tries in a joint effort to increase the
CEBAF 106 5-Cell 1497 53.0 7.6
usable accelerating gradient to more than 25 MV/m. A
LEP 12 4-Cell 352 20.4 3.7
test facility, located at DESY with major components
The achieved accelerating gradients of the different flowing in from members of the collaboration, is going to
machines are listed above. The CEBAF installation was establish a well-developed collider design. The status of
ongoing at a rate of 16 cavities per month. this design work is described elsewhere [5].
The TESLA Test Facility (TTF) includes cavity
5 CEBAF AND LEP INSTALLATION preparation and testing as well as the final test of cavities
in a linac installation [20]. About 25 standard 9-cell 1.3
The CEBAF recirculating superconducting electron
GHz structures operating in the pi-mode have been
linac at Jefferson Lab went in full operation and is now
prepared and tested. Out of the first production series
using 330 s.c. cavities operating at 2.0 K. The operation
eight cavities were taken for the assembly of one TESLA
frequency is 1497 MHz. Four pairs of the 0.5-m-long
cryogenic unit, the TTF module #1.
676
The goal for the accelerating gradient was set to 15
MV/m average (to be compared with the 1992 state of the
art given in table 1) at an unloaded quality factor
9
Qo=3⋅10 . This goal was reached with module #1.
Although some cavities are limited below 15 MV/m the
maximum achieved electron energy was 125 MeV in
short macropulses and 105 MeV in 800 µs long
macropulses. The overall performance is limited by the
weakest cavities since all eight cavities are driven by one
common klystron and the RF forward power is equally
split. Details about the operation can be found in [21].
7 THE FIRST TTF CAVITY
PRODUCTION Fig. 2: The best TESLA 9-cell cavity measured in a
About 25 cavities from 4 different manufacturers were horizontal test cryostat. For this test the cavity is equipped
tested in a vertical test cryostat. The average gradient was with the main RF input coupler and the HOM couplers.
9
19.2 MV/m at Qo > 3⋅10 . 14 cavities showed Eacc > 20
MV/m, 3 cavities showed Eacc > 28 MV/m. The last 9 8 OUTLOOK
cavities delivered and tested had a clearly increased
9 The goal for the second TTF Linac module being just
gradient of 24.3 MV/m at Q o >3⋅10 . Figure 1 shows the
in the assembly phase is 20 MV/m. The third module is
test results as a function of time. Maximum gradients are
expected to reach 25 MV/m. All three modules will be
plotted as well as the usable gradient defined by the onset
used for a Free Electron Laser experiment in the UV [22].
of increased cryogenic losses. Some of the very first
Further modules will be built to finalize the design of
cavities had maximum acceleration voltage being almost
accelerating units of the large TESLA machine [23].
high enough for TESLA 500 but the strong field emission
Being installed in the TTF Linac they will finally drive a
limited the usable gradient.
VUV free-electron laser. Therefore a new cavity
During 1996 the first group of cavities was tested. High
production was started. A total number of 26 cavities is
pressure rinsing with ultraclean water reduced the field
expected to be at DESY by end of 1998. The material for
emission but most of the tested cavities were limited
all cavities was scanned for inclusions of other metals. A
around 13 MV/m. The reason was found to be an
special eddy current scanning apparatus was developed.
insufficient cleaning after the preparation for electron
Single cell cavities have reached 40 MV/m accelerating
beam welding of the equator. Since summer 1997 another
field [24]. The members of the TESLA collaboration and
11 cavities were tested. The average maximum gradient is
also Jefferson Lab as well as KEK are still improving the
almost 25 MV/m. Field emission is still an issue and
gradients of resonators made from solid niobium.
limits the usable gradient to roughly 22 MV/m.
Electropolishing is studied again in order to smoothen the
Nevertheless, all four manufacturers were able to produce
inner surface. High pressure water rinsing is the most
cavities with gradients above or close to 25 MV/m. The
successful method to decrease field emission.
gradient of the best TESLA 9-cell cavity is above 30
Nevertheless, the installation procedure of all RF couplers
MV/m. Figure 2 shows the horizontal test result. This
seems to be a main issue.
cavity is going to be used in the second cryogenic
With the aim to decrease the cavity production costs
module.
two new fabrication methods are studied. Spinning of
cavities is described elsewhere [25]. Hydroforming of
multicell cavities is also under investigation. Both
methods allowed the production of L-band single-cell
cavities with accelerating gradients above 20 MV/m. A
slightly decreasing Q vs. Eacc is not understood. Multicell-
cavities are underway and will be measured next.
9 REFERENCES
[1] A. P. Banford and G. H. Stafford, Plasma Physics, J.
Nucl. Energy, Part C, 3, 287 (1961).
[2] A. Susini, "Initial Experimental Results Concerning
Superconductive Cavities at 300 MHz," CERN
Fig. 1: Vertical test of 1.3 GHz 9-cell cavities. Internal Report 63-2, (Febr. 1963).
677
[3] P. B. Wilson, Nucl. Instr. And Methods, 20, 336 University, Ithaca NY; FNAL, Batavia IL, UCLA,
(1963). Los Angeles CA.
[4] P.B. Wilson, H. A. Schwettman, W. M. Fairbank, [20] D. A. Edwards (ed.), TESLA Test Facility Linac -
"Status of Research at Stanford University on Design report, DESY-TESLA-95-01 (1995).
Superconducting Eletron Linacs", IV Int. Conf. on [21] W. D. Moeller, "The Performance of the 1.3 GHz
High Energy Acc., Dubna 1963, p. 694 (1963). Superconducting RF Cavities in the First Module of
[5] D. Trines, "Status of the TESLA Design," this the TESLA Test Facility Linac", this conference.
conference. [22] J. Rossbach, "The TESLA Free Electron Laser -
[6] H. A. Schwettman, P. B. Wilson, G. Y.Churilov, Concept and Status", this conference.
"Measurements at High Electric Field Strengths on [23] R. Brinkmann, G. Materlik, J. Rossbach, A. Wagner
+ -
Superconducting Accelerator Cavities", V Int. Conf. (eds.), "Conceptual Design of a 500 GeV e e Linear
on High Energy Acc., Frascati 1935, p.690 (1965). Collider with Integrated X-ray Laser Facility, DESY
[7] H.A. Schwettman, J. P. Tourneaure, R. 1997-048 and ECFA 1997-182.
Waites,"Evidence for Surface-state-enhanced Field [24] M. Ono et al., "Achievement of 40 MV/m
Emission in RF Superconducting Cavities", Journ. of Accelerating Field in L-Band SCC at KEK", 8th RF
Applied Physics, Vol.45, No.2 (1974). Superconducting Workshop, Padova 1997, to be
[8] J. M. Dickson, "RF Superconductivity Measure- published.
ments", LINAC 64 Conference, p. 540 (1964). [25] V. Palmieri, "Review of Fabrication of SC Cavity
[9] L. R. Suelzle, "Progress on RF Electron Structures", this conference.
Superconducting Accelerators", 1973 Part. Acc.
Conf., San Francisco, p. 44 (1973).
[10] R. Sundelin, IEEE NS-32 (1985) 3570.
[11] H. Piel, IEEE NS-32 (1985) 3565 and LINAC 84
Conf., p. 260 (1984).
[12] C. Pagani, private communication.
[13] Ph. Bernard et al., XI Int. Conf. on High Energy
Acc., Geneva 1980, p .878 (1980).
[14] W. Bonin and R. W. Roeth, "5th RF Supercond.
Workshop, Hamburg 1991, DESY M-92-01.
[15] R. M. Sundelin, "Review of Progress in
Superconducting High-Beta Structures", LINAC 92
Conf., p. 840 (1992).
[16] C.E. Reece, "Operating Experience with Super-
conducting Cavities at Jefferson Lab.," 8th RF
Supercond.Worksh., Padova 1997, to be publ.
[17] J. R. Delayen, "Development of an Upgrade of the
CEBAF Acceleration System", this conference.
[18] O. Brunner, "RF System Reliability and Performance
in 1997", 8th LEP Performance Workshop, CERN
Internal Reports, CERN-SL-98-006 DI.
[19] The TESLA (TeV Energy Superconducting Linear
Accelerator) R&D effort is carried out by a number
of institutions which includes: Armenia: Yerevan
Physics Institute; China: IHEP, Academia Sinica,
Beijing; Tsinghua-University, Beijing; Finland:
Institute of Physics, Helsinki; France: CEA/DMS
(DAPNIA, CE Saclay); IN2P3 (INP Orsay + LAL
Orsay); Germany: RWTH Aachen; Max-Born-
Institute, Berlin-Adlershof; TU Berlin; TU
Darmstadt; TU Dresden; University of Frankfurt;
GKSS, Geesthacht; DESY, Hamburg + Zeuthen;
University of Hamburg; FZ Karlsruhe; University of
Rostock; University of Wuppertal; Italy: INFN
Frascati; INFN Legnaro; INFN Milano; INFN and
University Roma II; Poland: Polish Academy of
Science; University of Warsaw; Institute of Nuclear
Physics, Cracow; Univ. of Mining & Metallurgy,
Cracow; Pol. Atomic Energy Agency, Warsaw;
Soltan Institute for Nuclear Studies; Otwock-Swierk;
Russia: JINR, Dubna; IHEP Protvino; INP
Novosibirsk; USA: ANL, Argonne IL; Cornell
678
CW RFQ FABRICATION AND ENGINEERING *
D. Schrage, L. Young, P. Roybal, A. Naranjo, D. Baca, W. Clark, F. Martinez,
H. Haagenstad, J. Mitchell, D. Montoya, A. Rendon, F. Krawczyk, T. Davis, D. Casillas,
A. Gonzales, G. Gonzales, S. Hidalgo, E. Kettering, G. Leeches, B. Ormond, R. Reinert,
O. Smith, & J. Tafoya
Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM, 87545, USA
Abstract
These requirements presented significant challenges for
The design and fabrication of a four-vane RFQ to the beam dynamics, cavity design, and thermal
deliver a 100 mA CW proton beam at 6.7 MeV is management. This was further exacerbated by the scarcity
described. This linac is an Oxygen-Free Electrolytic of similar devices which have been built and the limited
(OFE) copper structure 8 m in length and was fabricated operational experience. Indeed, none have been operated
using hydrogen furnace brazing as the joining technology. continuously for as long as one year. A comparison of
CW RFQs is given in Table 2 on the following page. The
1 INTRODUCTION CRNL1 RFQ, which has been moved to LANL and is
now in operation as the CRITS (Chalk River Ion Source
The linear accelerator for the Accelerator Production of
Test Stand), is the only device to have amassed significant
Tritium Project (APT) [1] will include a 6.7 MeV Radio
operational time [4].
Frequency Quadrupole (RFQ) linac. The first phase of
The original concept design for the APT RFQ was
this project, the Low Energy Demonstration Accelerator
carried out in 1993 [5]. That concept incorporated a cavity
(LEDA) [2] consists of this RFQ plus a 20 MeV Cavity-
that was segmented longitudinally as four resonantly-
Coupled Drift Tube Linac (CCDTL) [3]. The technical
coupled cavities [6].
specifications for the APT/LEDA RFQ are given on Table
Because of the high output energy and current, there are
1.
some significant new features in the APT RFQ. Some of
the issues and their resolution are:
Table 1: APT/LEDA RFQ Specifications
• Long Electrical Length - This is possible through use
PARAMETER VALUE
of the segmented resonantly-coupled cavity [6]
Frequency 350.00 MHz
• High Power - The use of a non-uniform vane-skirt
Particle H+
Input Energy 75 keV
width [7,8] reduces the peak and total cavity power.
Input Current 105 mA • High Average Power Density - The average surface
2
Input Emittance, trans./norm. 0.020 π-cm-mrad rms power of 11.4 W/cm is a factor of four higher than
Output Energy 6.7 MeV CRNL1. Use of 24 longitudinal coolant passages in
Output Current 100 mA the cross section is required to dissipate the heat.
Output Emittance, trans./norm. 0.022 π-cm-mrad rms
longitudinal 0.174 deg-MeV 2 FABRICATION CONCEPT
Transmission 95%
The original fabrication concept [5] was based upon the
Duty Factor 100 %
Peak Surface Field 1.8 Kilpatrick electroformed joint which was developed by LANL,
Average Structure Power 1.2 MW Northrop-Grumman, and GAR Electroformers for the
Average Beam Power 0.7 MW BEAR RFQ [9] and later used for the CWDD [10] and
Average Total Power 1.9 MW SSC [11] RFQs. This method produces a monolithic
RF Feeds 12 Waveguide Irises cavity which has high structural efficiency and serves as
Average Heat Flux 11 W/cm2 an integral vacuum vessel. Electroforming is a room-
Maximum Local Heat Flux 65 W/cm2 temperature process and thus there is no concern
Resonant Segments 4 @ 2.0 m each regarding the maintenance of dimensional integrity. These
Brazed Sections 8 @ 1.0 m each advantages are largely offset by the high cost and long
Slug Tuners 128 total process duration.
Length 8.0 m Following completion of the conceptual-design study
Weight 5000 lb
for the APT RFQ, LANL began an investigation of other
Inlet Coolant Temperature 50oF
manufacturing technologies in an attempt to reduce both
Operating Temperature 85 oF
cost and schedule. The primary focus was the joining
________________ technology. Welding, dip-brazing, plasma-spray, and
* Work supported by the US Department of Energy hydrogen-furnace brazing were investigated. LANL has
679
extensive experience in hydrogen-furnace brazing of metal. The alloy was supplied from wire placed into
linear accelerators. The brazed joining concept was tested grooves. Thus it was not necessary to compensate for the
on a 525-MHz, 0.48-meter-long engineering model [12]. thickness of the alloy in the mechanical alignment and RF
The brazed RFQ linac concept has the advantages of measurements. After brazing, it was determined that the
using OFE copper for its high thermal and electrical mechanical alignment had not changed more than 0.001 in
conductivity while facilitating the attachment of high- and the resonant frequency had changed less than 75 KHz.
strength copper (C15715 GLIDCOP [13]) for high-stress
areas such as flanges.
The 8-meter long APT RFQ cavity was fabricated as
eight one-meter long “sections.” A cross section of the
cavity of the APT RFQ is shown on Fig. 1 with a
schematic of the entire 8-meter structure shown on Fig. 2.
The cavity is a major/minor vane arrangement. Each vane
is fabricated as a vane tip brazed onto a base. This allows
coolant passages to be machined in and located very near
the vane tips. Plugs are brazed over the coolant passages.
The brazed-on vane tips are the only water-to-vacuum
braze joints in the structure. An alternative would have
been to deep-hole-drill the passages and plug the ends by
brazing.
The manufacturing plan allowed for each one-meter-
long section to be mechanically aligned and for the RF-
field distribution and resonant frequency to be measured
prior to brazing. The alloy used to form the longitudinal
joints, Cusil (AWS BAg-8), flows freely over copper
surfaces and these joints could be assembled metal to Figure 1: APT/LEDA RFQ Cross Section
Table 2: Comparison of CW RFQs
Parameter FMIT CRNL CRNL1 CWDD APT
CRITS
Particle H2+ H+ H+ D- H+
Frequency MHz 80 267 267 352 350
Injection Energy MeV 0.075 0.050 0.050 0.200 0.075
Final Energy MeV 2.000 0.600 1.270 2.000 6.700
Input Current mA 105 90 86 92 110
Output Current mA 100 75 75 80 100
Length m 4.00 1.47 1.47 3.97 8.00
Wavelengths λ 1.00 1.31 1.31 4.66 9.72
Intervane Voltage (Peak) Kvolts 185.0 78.0 78.0 92.0 102.0
Peak Surf. Field MV/m 27.2 25.0 28.8 33.7 33.6
Peak Surf. Field Kilpatrick 1.00 1.50 1.75 1.80 1.80
Total Power kW 600 133 254 304 1900
Beam Power kW 193 50 105 144 700
*
Copper Power kW 407 83 159 160 1200
Avg. Cu Power/Length kW/m 107 56 107 40 150
2 *
Avg. Cu Power/Area W/cm 0.4 2.4 4.6 0.3 11.4
2 *
Max Cu Power/Area W/cm 8.7 16.7 2.7 65.0
Operated YES YES YES NO SOON
Reference [14] [15] [4,16] [10]
* The CWDD RFQ was designed to operate at 35 K. The stated copper power includes the effect of
enhanced surface electrical conductivity.
680
Figure 2: APT/LEDA RFQ Schematic
temperatures to the cavity walls of each segment are
o
3 THERMAL MANAGEMENT predicted to be 71, 65, 63, and 61 F respectively.
Modulating only the cavity-wall-coolant temperature
A total of 1.2 MW must be removed from the
gives a positive derivative of the frequency with respect to
APT/LEDA RFQ cavity. With the average surface-power
the coolant temperature in the cavity-wall passages (∂f/∂T
density being a factor of four higher than any earlier CW 4 o
= 1.7X10 Hz/ F).
RFQ, thermal management was the major concern for the
Each slug tuner (128), vacuum pumping port (36), RF
engineering analysis and design. The coolant passages
iris/waveguide unit (12), coupling plate (3), and both end-
were sized such that the bulk velocity did not exceed 15
walls are also supplied with coolant. There are 424
ft/s to minimize flow erosion. The coolant passages were
coolant passages.
sized and located such that the heat gain per unit length in o
The 50 F coolant temperature was selected in order to
each passage was equal in the cross section. This was
reduce the peak temperature of the cavity wall to about
necessary in order to assure symmetric thermal distortion o o
100 F. (The highest temperatures, ~150 F, occur in the
of the cavity.
end undercut regions where the surface heat flux is 65
A requirement that the longitudinal tilt of the local 2
W/cm .) This serves to minimize longitudinal thermal
cavity frequency not exceed ±20 KHz in each one-meter
expansion as well as cavity power which would have
long section established the number of cavity coolant o
increased at higher surface temperatures. The 50 F inlet
passages (24 longitudinal passages in each section) and
temperature requires the coolant water to be refrigerated
their locations. The “small” (350 MHz) cavity cross
rather than supplied from a cooling tower. A cooling
section did constrain the number, sizes, and locations of o
tower would provide 105 F inlet water in the summer
the coolant passages.
which would raise cavity-wall temperatures and power
The RF field is ramped along the linac. The RF power
consumption significantly.
in each of the four resonant segments is significantly
different (A = 188, B = 318, C = 361, & D = 398 kW). In
order to simplify manufacture, all segments have the same 4 VACUUM SYSTEMS
number and arrangement of coolant passages. The The vacuum pumping system for the RFQ is designed
-6
differences between the segment cooling requirements are to provide a cavity-vacuum level of better than 1X10
+
addressed by having separate flow loops (including pumps Torr. As much as 10 mA of the H input beam will not be
-3
and mixing valves) for each of the four resonant segments captured. This will form 1.0X10 Torr-l/s of H2 in the first
-3
[17]. resonant segment. There is an additional 0.5X10 Torr-l/s
+ + +
The resonance-control scheme provides coolant (360 of other species (H , H2 , H3 , & O2) from the injector that
o
GPM total) at a constant 50 F into the tip passages (“A” & must also be removed. There are 36 vacuum pumping
“B” as identified on Fig. 1) while the temperatures of the ports, 12 each in Sections A1, A2, and C2. Each pumping
2
coolant (1160 GPM total flow) fed to the cavity wall port has local heat fluxes up to 40 W/cm and therefore
passages (“C,” “D,” “E,” & “F”) are modulated to they must be actively cooled.
maintain the cavity on resonance. The inlet coolant
681
The vacuum-manifolding concept is based on that used
for the SSC RFQ [11]. Five 8-in cryopumps are used. 7 SUMMARY
These are connected via manifolds to allow for operation The detail design of the APT/LEDA RFQ cavity was
during regeneration and to provide installed redundancy scaled directly from the engineering-demonstration model
[18]. [12]. The design, fabrication, and tuning tasks went
There are 12 RF windows [19] connected via ridged smoothly were carried out at LANL and the original
waveguide [20] to the quadrants of Segments B1, C1, and schedule was adhered to. The brazed-RFQ concept is
D1. Each window will transmit 250 kW thru a small robust and can be cost-effectively and predictably
(0.063 in wide by ~3.5 in long) iris. Because the vacuum implemented at all duty factors up to CW and in the
conductance through these irises is very small (< 16 l/s) frequency range of about 200 to 800 MHz.
and the outgassing of the window and ridged waveguide
-9
assemblies is high (>5X10 Torr-l/s), separate vacuum 8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
pumping units are required for each assembly. Direct-
mounted non-evaporable getter (NEG) pumps will be used Other institutions participating in RFQ project include
in these locations [21]. These have the advantages of LLNL and TECH-SOURCE (vacuum system),
being passive (no mechanical vibrations) and oil free. The AlliedSignal (resonance control cooling system), plus
selected units (SAES “CapaciTorr”) have greater than Northrop-Grumman (engineering support). Personnel
1000 l/s speed for H2 and the predicted time between from the Argonne National Laboratory (G. McMichael),
regenerations exceeds one year. There is no installed the FERMILAB (M. May), General Atomics (C. Charman
redundancy in the RF-window vacuum system. & L. Lommers), Northrop-Grumman (B. Abel & J.
Rathke), TECH-SOURCE (P. Grande & N. Wilson),
NOAO (E. Pearson), and LANL (T. Butler) served on the
5 STRUCTURAL SUPPORT project’s technical-review panels.
The cavity is a long, slender structure, sufficiently
flexible that a statically-indeterminate support is required
[22]. The cavity is suspended by five articulated links, one
at the end of each resonant segment. This support meets
the requirements that the gravitational deflection not
exceed 0.0005 in and that the deflection due to predicted
applied loads not exceed 0.005 in.
For assembly, the support structure was mounted in a
vertical orientation on a pair of pyramidal towers (Fig. 3).
The RFQ sections were stacked into the support structure.
The entire assembly was then rotated to the horizontal and
rolled into the linac tunnel. This concept was extrapolated
from that used with the CWDD RFQ [10].
6 INSTALLATION STATUS
Fabrication of the cavity was completed in January of
1998, 28 months after commencement of the project.
Preliminary RF tuning [23], vacuum testing, and assembly
into the support structure was completed in the Spring of
1998. The unloaded Q of the cavity was measured at
8634, more than 80% of the value predicted by
SUPERFISH. With the variable vane-skirt width, the Q
calculated by SUPERFISH varies along the length of the
RFQ so a length-weighted average value is quoted. Fig. 4
shows the complete 8-meter linac assembled for low
power RF tuning.
The unit was installed in the linac tunnel in June of
1998. At the present time, the cavity vacuum system and
cooling system are being installed. Fabrication of the
ridged waveguide components [20] is underway at LANL
and at AlliedSignal. Final testing of the RF-window
vacuum systems is underway at LLNL [24]. High-power
conditioning is scheduled to begin in the Fall of 1998. Figure 3: APT/LEDA RFQ in Support Structure
682
Figure 4: APT/LEDA RFQ Assembled for Pre-Installation RF Tuning
Linac for the Superconducting Super Collider,” 12th
9 REFERENCES Conference on the Application of Accelerators in
Research & Industry, Denton, TX, 1992
[1] G. Lawrence, “High Power Proton Linac for APT;
[12] D. Schrage et al, “A New RFQ Fabrication
Status of Design and Development,” these
Technique,” Proceedings of LINAC94, Tsukuba,
proceedings.
1994
[2] H. V. Smith, “Status Update for the Low-Energy
[13] GLIDCOP, OMG Americas, Triangle Park, NC
Demonstration Accelerator (LEDA),” these
[14] W. Cornelius, “CW Operation of the FMIT RFQ
proceedings.
Accelerator,” Proceedings of the 1985 Particle
[3] R. Wood, et al, “Status of the Engineering
Accelerator Conference, Vancouver, BC
Development of CCDTL for the Accelerator
[15] G. Arbique, et al, “CW Operation and Initial Beam
Production of Tritium,” these proceedings.
Experiments with the RFQ1 Accelerator,”
[4] H. V. Smith, et al, “Comparison of Beam
Proceedings of the 1990 Linear Accelerator
Simulations with Measurements for 1.25 MeV CW
Conference, Albuquerque, NM
RFQ,” these proceedings.
[16] G. Arbique, et al, “Beam Parameter Measurements
[5] D. Schrage, et al, “Conceptual Design of a 7-MeV
on the CW RFQ1-1250 Accelerator,” Proceedings of
RFQ Linac for the Accelerator Production of
the 1992 Linear Accelerator Conference, Ottawa,
Tritium,” LANL Report LA-UR-93-1790
ON
[6] L. Young, “Segmented Resonantly-Coupled Radio-
[17] R. Floersch, “Resonance Control Cooling System for
Frequency Quadrupole (RFQ),” Proceedings of the
the APT/LEDA RFQ,” these proceedings.
1993 Particle Accelerator Conference,” Washington,
[18] S. Shen, et al, “APT/LEDA RFQ Vacuum Pumping
DC
System, “Proceedings of the 1997 Particle
[7] L. Young, “Simulations of the LEDA RFQ 6.7 MeV
Accelerator Conference,” Vancouver, BC
Accelerator,” Proceedings of the 1997 Particle
[19] K. Cummings et al “Results and Lessons Learned
Accelerator Conference.
from Conditioning 1 MW CW 350 MHz Coaxial
[8] D. Schrage, et al, “A 6.7 MeV CW RFQ Linac.”
Vacuum Windows,” these proceedings
Proceedings of the 1997 Particle Accelerator
[20] R. Valdiviez et al, “The Mechanical Design &
Conference.
Fabrication of a Ridge-Loaded Waveguide for an
[9] D. Schrage, et al, “A Flight-Qualified RFQ for the
RFQ,” these proceedings
BEAR Project,” Proceedings of LINAC88,
[21] S. Shen et al, “APT/LEDA RFQ RF Window
Williamsburg, VA
Vacuum Pumping System - Conceptual Design
[10] J. Rathke, et al, “Engineering Design of the Radio
Report,” LLNL Report #APT/RFW-091797-001
Frequency Quadrupole (RFQ) for the Continuous
[22] S. Ellis, “APT/LEDA RFQ and Support Frame
Wave Deuterium Demonstrator (CWDD),”
Structural Analysis,” LANL LA-UR #97-528
Technical Symposium and Scientific Interchange on
[23] L. Young, “Tuning of the LEDA RFQ 6.7 MeV
Neutral Particle Beam Technology, Monterey, CA,
Accelerator,” these proceedings.
1989
[24] K. Kishiyama et al, “Testing of Vacuum Pumps for
[11] D. Schrage, et al, Radio Frequency Quadrupole
the APT/LEDA RFQ,” these proceedings
683
REAL-TIME TRANSVERSE EMITTANCE DIAGNOSTICS∗
P. Piot, G.A. Krafft, R. Li, J. Song
Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility, VA23606 Newport News, USA
Abstract merit of the statistical properties of the beam since it is re-
lated to the beam entropy [4]. Along with the emittance, the
With the increasing interest in high-brightness beams and
trace space is also specified by the Twiss parmeters that are
the recent advances in photoemission guns capable of pro-
related to the moments: αx = −hxx0 i/ε̃x , βx = hx2 i/ε̃x ,
ducing such high-charge, low-emittance beams, measuring
γx = hx02 i/ε̃x . From Eqn.(1), the emittance measurement
transverse emittance has become a primary concern, espe-
reduces to the measurement of the second order moments
cially in driver accelerators for free-electrons lasers (FELs)
of the distribution.
where a degradation of this parameter could result in signifi-
cant deterioration of the FEL gain. Hence frequent and fast
We will use the JLab FEL photoinjector as a basis for nu-
measurement are needed, particularly when detailed para-
merical computations, it is worthwhile to recall in Tab. 1
metric studies are required. Commonly used methods in-
the principal beam parameters at the two locations we wish
clude optical transition radiation (OTR) based methods and
to measure the transverse emittance. A more complete de-
trace space sampling methods. We will discuss these meth-
scription of the injector is found in Ref. [5] and references
ods and provide motivation for our method of on-line emit-
therein. Our goal is to measure a normalized emittance
tance measurement in the Jefferson Lab FEL.
1 INTRODUCTION parameter Location #1 Location #2
ε̃nx (mm-mrad) 6.6 8.8
The characterization and measurement of transverse phase
σx0 (mrad) 0.6 0.3
space is a longstanding topic widely discussed in the lit-
σx (mm) 2.3 1.9
erature [1]. In this paper we concentrate on methods that
ε̃ny (mm-mrad) 6.0 6.2
provide an on-line measurement of emittance and Twiss pa-
rameters. We quantify “on-line” as an update rate of the or- σy0 (mrad) 0.5 0.2
der of a second. Throughout this paper the JLab FEL driver- σy (mm) 2.3 1.4
accelerator is taken as an example. In this paper we use the Table 1: Beam parameters predicted by PARMELA for the
root mean square (rms) emittance. For the x−x0 trace space baseline design injector (Q=135 pC); the total energy is
it is defined as: 10 MeV.
£
ε̃x = κ h(x − x0 )2 ih(x0 − x00 )2 i− (1)
¤ 1/2
h(x − x0 )(x0 − x00 )i2 ranging from 4 to 20 mm-mrad, with the nominal emittance
being approximately 7 mm-mrad.
where x and x0 = dpx /dpz = x/z are respectively the
position and divergence coordinates. The h.i designates 2 OTR-BASED TECHNIQUE
the average operator on the two-dimensional trace space
distribution ρ2 (x, x0 ), the constants x0 and x00 are the When a beam of charged particles has the electric permittiv-
first order moments in position and divergence. κ is a ity of its environment changed, it emits transition radiation
scaling factor; henceforth we set its value to 1 to conform (TR). The use of this radiation for beam diagnostic purposes
to the Sacherer [2] definition of rms emittance. Another has become popular in recent years: in electron accelerators
commonly used definition of rms emittance was defined such radiation is generated by intercepting the beam with
by Lapostolle [3] and now referred to as the effective rms very thin metallic foils and observing the backward TR. For
emittance, defined by letting κ be 4. In this paper we will a single electron the TR angular distribution given by [6]:
also use the normalized emittance defined as ε̃nx = βγ ε̃x .
d2 I e2 β 3 sin2 θ
The advantage of considering an rms-type emittance is that (θ, γ) = 2 R (2)
its definition is not as arbitrary as it is for the geometric dωdΩ π c (1 − β 2 cos2 θ)2
emittance commonly used by experimentalists (which is where β 2 = 1 − 1/γ 2 (γ being the usual Lorentz factor)
defined as the trace space area of a contour encompassing a and R is the reflection coefficient of the foil (R ' 1 for a
certain fraction of the beam particles). The rms emittance metallic foil at optical wavelengths). The generated TR can
also allows comparison of beam quality from different be used to measure the rms beam spot size by computing the
facilities. Finally the concept of rms emittance is a figure of quantity:
∗ Work supported by the US-DOE contract #DE-AC05-84ER40150, R 2
x I(x, y)dxdy
the Office of Naval Research, the Commonwealth of Virginia, and the
hx i = R
2
(3)
Laser Processing Consortium. I(x, y)dxdy
684
where I(x, y) is the two-dimensional density of the TR im- this case Eqn.(2) takes the form:
age on the foil. The beam divergence can be inferred from
the observation of the TR angular distribution since it cor- µ ¶
d2 I sin2 θ πL
responds to the convolution of the TR intrinsic angular dis- ∝ sin2 (1 − β cos θ) (6)
dωdΩ (1 − β 2 cos2 θ)2 λ
tribution with the beam angular density P (x0 ):
Z Simulations of the interference patterns for different beam
d2 I d2 I(θ − α, γ)
(θ, γ) = P (α)dα (4) divergences are presented in Fig. 1(B). In these numerical
dωdΩ dωdΩ
computations, we have simply convolved the Eqn.(6) with
Hence if the upstream magnetic optics is properly tuned to the beam angular distribution that is assumed to be gaus-
achieve a waist at the location of the TR screen, the emit- sian, the beam energy being 38 MeV. The effect of increas-
tance can be estimated by computing the quantity: ing the divergence results in a blurring of the angular distri-
bution. The previous remarks also pertains : for a 10 MeV
£ ¤1/2
²x = hx2 ihx02 i (5) beam we cannot resolve beam divergence comparable to the
one expected in the JLab FEL injector (approximately 0.2
to 0.6 mrad). As in the single foil case, the experimentally
obtained interference pattern is fitted using two parameters
0.0004 (divergence and energy) from which the divergence is com-
zero divergence
TR Intensity (a.u.)
(B) puted, providing an emittance using Eqn.(5). The advan-
x’=1 mrad
0.0003 tage of this method comes from the oscillations that occur
x’=3 mrad
x’=5 mrad at positions depending on energy, it generally gives more
0.0002
accurate fits compared to the single foil method. Also, be-
0.0001 cause the distribution is dependent on the wavelength of
observation and the distance between the two foils, it is
0.0
-0.04 -0.02 0.0 0.02 0.04 possible, using these dependencies, to “tune” the interfer-
0.0003
ometer in order to increase the accuracy of the measure-
ment. TR-based methods are very attractive because of
TR Intensity (a.u.)
zero divergence (A)
x’=3 mrad
their simplicity, generally two CCD detectors and a beam
0.0002 x’=5 mrad
x’=10 mrad splitter are needed. Unfortunately they have a number of
drawbacks: Firstly, it is necessary to locate such devices
0.0001
at a beam envelope waist or to tune the upstream optics to
achieve such waist. Secondly in the case of the two-foils
0.0
-0.04 -0.02 0.0 0.02 0.04 scheme, the first foil used to emit forward OTR inevitably
(mrad) increases the beam divergence due to multiple scattering.
This is especially important for low energy beams; typi-
Figure 1: Dependence of the single foil TR angular distribu- cally this method is suitable only for a beam whose diver-
tion (A) and interferometric TR angular distribution (B) for gence σx0 and energy γ satisfy a relation of the type σx0 À
different beam divergences. For case (B), the wavelength of f (Z, Ω)/(mc2 γ) where f is a function of the foil atomic
observation is λ =500 nm and the foil space is L ' λγ 2 . number Z and the mean number of collisions Ω, and can
be estimated from results discussed in Ref.[9]. Also, both
of these methods are difficult to apply to measure the emit-
Figure 1(A) shows the effect of beam divergence on the tance of a space-charge-dominated beam, e.g., as it is often
TR angular distribution for a beam of 38 MeV (at 10 MeV the case for high-brightness injectors. Indeed, they can be
the effect is not very pronounced). The use of fitting to used provided the beam sizes σx,y at the horizontal waist
obtain the divergence (and subsequent emittance) measure- satisfy the relation (the same equation obtains in the verti-
ment has been successfully implemented in several facili- cal plane replacing x subscript by y):
ties [7, 8]: the experimental TR angular distribution is fit-
ted with two parameters (energy and divergence). The min- · µ ¶¸
σy
imum rms beam divergence that can be experimentally re- 2Kσx2 / 2
ε̃x 1 + ¿1 (7)
solved is approximately x0 ' 0.15γ −1 [8]. Such a method σx
was quickly replaced by a more precise method based on
the Wartski [6] two-foil interferometer: instead of directly where K = 2Ip /((βγ)3 IA ) is the normalized perveance
detecting the backward TR emitted from the foil, the inter- (Ip and IA are respectively the peak and Alfvèn current).
ference pattern between the forward TR emitted as the beam Successful use of OTR interferometry has been reported by
crosses an upstream foil and the backward TR of a second several groups, with an extensive study performed on the
foil is analyzed. The distance between the two foils must be BOEING FEL facility [10]. A measurement of divergence
larger than the far-field parameter Λ = λγ 2 where λ is the of approximately 100 µrad for 650 MeV beam is planned
wavelength at which the interference pattern is observed. In on the APS undulator test line [11].
685
3 TRACE SPACE SAMPLING METHODS Another task common to all these method is the choice
of mask material and thickness. If we restrict our dis-
Trace space sampling techniques are widely use to char- cussion to uncooled systems, a high thermal conductivity
acterize the trace space density with high precision. The material should be chosen to efficiently dissipate the beam
most popular example is the “slit and collector” method deposited power. Also thermal bridges toward the exterior
that has been used by several teams to characterize guns. of the vacuum chamber should be used. Thermal analysis
Though it does not provide an on-line measurement, vari- of the mask with the beam deposited power is necessary
ants of this technique have been used to perform single shot especially when OTR screens are used as collectors,
measurements. In such methods a single slit is replaced since they require the highest possible average current
by an interceptive mask where several apertures are bored. to maximize the S/N ratio. Copper is a good choice
The different methods commonly in use differ in essen- because it offers a relatively good emissivity and therefore
tially two ways: in the shape of the sampling apertures but part of the deposited power is dissipated via black body
also in the type of “collector” device used to observe the type radiation. Other materials such as stainless steel are
beamlet profiles (fluorescent screens, optical transition ra- generally employed when the collector is a fluorescent
diation (OTR), wire scanner). The principle of the trace screen. The deposited power may be reduced by choosing a
proper beam temporal structure (micropulse frequency, and
"collector" ζ
u sampling mask macropulse width and frequency) provided multi-bunch
effects are not significant, a true assumption in the case
u i,o ζ of the JLab FEL where the bunches are separated by 8.03 m.
Beamlet o,i
Beam
O Beam axis O’
The thickness of the mask is a compromise between the
L
beamlet S/N ratio on the collector and edge scattering of the elec-
profile
tron on the aperture edge. Ideally, it is desirable to have
a thickness that is of the order of the stopping thickness
γmc2 /(dE/dx) where dE/dx is the energy loss per unit of
Figure 2: Basis of trace space sampling technique. pathlength in in the material. On the other hand, if the thick-
ness is too large, particles can scatter on the aperture edges
space sampling is sketched in Fig. 2, where we consider the and thereby change their divergences [15]. The thickness
one-dimensional case: the sampling aperture is assumed to can be determined by considering the rms scattering angle
have a zero-extension along the coordinate axis u. The gen- given by the Molière theory [12]:
erated beamlet strikes the collector device after propagat- £ ¤1/2 13.6 p
ing through a drift of length L. For the generated beamlet, hθscat
2
i = z l/X0 [1 + 0.038 ln(l/X0 )] (9)
βcp
the second order moments are hu20,i i, h((ζ − ζ0,i )/L)2 i and
u0,i h(ζ − ζ0,i )/Li. For a set of n beamlets, the second or- where p the momentum in MeV/c, z is the charge num-
der moments are given by the relations: ber, and l/X0 is the mask thickness in units of radiation
length X0 . Using the previous relation we can determine
X n X n
(ζ − ζ0,i )2 the thickness of the mask l so that the rms scattering angle
hu2 i = h u20,i i, hu02 i = h i (8)
i=1 i=1
L2 is much larger than the angle subtended by the collector. In
such cases, the scattered particles will contribute as a uni-
X n
(ζ − ζ0,i )2
huu0 i = h u0,i i form background without biasing the beamlet pattern and
i=1
L2 one avoids erroneous values for the beam parameters. We
have investigated the importance of edge scattering by us-
Using the set of Eqns.(8) and Eqn.(1), we can estimate the ing the PARMELA-generated phase space for the JLab FEL
beam parameters of the incident beam. and numerically retracing each macroparticle through aper-
tures. We found that in the case of the JLab FEL nominal
In the case of on-line measurement, OTR screens or emittance and divergence at the location where we perform
fluorescent screens are commonly used. The latter are the measurements, less than 5% of the particles were inter-
generally preferred because they are very sensitive, but acting with the edge even in the presence of a slight mis-
offer worse resolution, and care must be taken to use them alignment of the mask axis with respect to the beam axis of
in their linear response range. Also the persistence of such the order of 1 mrad. Therefore this latter effect is assumed
screens can be problematic for single-shot measurement. to be insignificant, and no special care such as aperture ta-
OTR screens, on the other hand, provide high resolution pering was considered for the case of the JLab FEL.
but the photon/electron conversion is very small (typically By a proper choice of aperture size, trace-space sam-
1/α, α being the fine structure constant) and special pling allows the measurement of space-charge-dominated
attention must be directed toward maximizing the S/N beams. The aperture size should be determined so that the
ratio by reducing the background noise. space-charge contribution to the beamlets envelope equa-
tion is much smaller than the emittance contribution using
686
Eqn.(7). In such cases, the beam parameters can be inferred 3.2 The multislit method
using Eqn.(8) since the beamlets are emittance dominated
In the case of the Jefferson Lab FEL, we have opted for this
and their behaviour is governed by linear optics. If wx and
method which offers the same features of the pepper pot
wy are the characteristic sizes of the aperture, they should
technique (without the possibility of measuring the hyper-
fulfill the relation:
emittance) with the advantage of providing much more sig-
2
Kwx,y nal. Its principal disadvantage is that the horizontal and ver-
³ ´ ¿1 (10)
w
6(ε̃x,y )2 1 + wy,x tical phase space measurements have to be performed sep-
x,y
arately and therefore the method requires two masks. Prac-
where the coefficients are as defined in Eqn.(7). tically we have addressed this issue by mounting two sets
The separation between the apertures center d and the dis- of slits on the same mask, mounted on a two position air
tance between the mask and the collector L depend on the cylinder so that horizontal and vertical measurements can
beam size and beam divergence. By requiring the resolu- be performed one after the other. In the horizontal plane,
tion to be the same in position and divergence a relation be- the beamlets pattern generated by vertical slits centered at
tween the aperture spacing and distance can be derived: xi is given by:
0
σx,y Pi (x0 ) ∝ wρ2 (xi , x0 ) (15)
σx,y /d ' L (11)
r
where r is the resolution of the detector. On the other hand, where w is the slit width. When writing Eqn.(15) it is
to ensure the beamlets do not overlap we must have: implicitly assumed that the slits are infinitely narrow.
0
If such an approximation cannot be made; one should
4σx,y L<d (12) use formulae derived in Ref. [18]. For the JLab FEL we
Using the two latter equations we find for a given set of have carefully optimized the slits geometric parameters
beam parameters all the geometric parameters of the mask. using PARMELA, taking as starting point numerical values
The acquisition system requires a frame grabber to digi- computed from the previous discussion. For the baseline
tize the analog signal from the CCD detector. In the case of
JLab FEL, we use a DATACUBE digitizer that operates under 1.0
....
the EPICS environment. The digitized data are directly re- ...... .. ..
.
duced on the same CPU as the one controlling the digitizer ................... ...
..... .........
using the VxWorks language, and only results (values of 0.5
.......................................... .....
. 10%
beam parameters, trace-space plot) are broadcast on the net- .... ........... .....
work. These results can be accessed from any X-window ... .... ............................................................................................. . . .
................................................................................ ..... .
x (mrad)
. .. ..... .... .... .
stations using an EPICS-based screen [17].
........................................................................................................................................
90%
0.0
.. . ..................................................................
3.1 The pepper pot method .................................................
. .................... .. ..
90%
50%
In the pepper pot technique [13, 14], the mask consists of a -0.5 10% ... .. ........... .
matrix of generally circular apertures. The beamlets in the
collector plane are given by:
-1.0
Ii,j (x0 , y 0 ) ' ρ4 (xi , x0 ; yj , y 0 )δS (13) -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
x (mm)
where δS is the area of the apertures. The projection on the
x-axis, i.e., summing on yj and integrating on y 0 is:
Figure 3: Simulation of emittance measurement with the
Pi (x0 ) ∝ ρ2 (xi , x0 )δS (14)
multislit mask. The dots are macroparticles generated with
From Pi (x0 ) we can compute the second order moments of PARMELA. The iso-contours are computed from the re-
the x − x0 trace space distribution ρ2 (x, x0 ) and deduce the trieved phase space after simulating the emittance measure-
beam parameters. In fact, the pepper pot method allows one ment using the PARMELA distribution.
to study coupling between the horizontal and vertical trace
space; using Eqn.(13) the coupled second order moments injector the optimized values for the multislit mask are:
hxyi, hx0 yi, hxy 0 i and hx0 y 0 i can be computed. Hence the (1) a slit spacing of 1.5 mm, (2) a slit width of 0.75 µm,
rms hyper-transverse emittance can be estimated. Though and (3) a mask thickness of 5 mm. In our case the dis-
this method can provide much information on the transverse tance between the mask and the OTR screen was set by
trace space, it is difficult to get a decent signal by using an mechanical constraints to 620 mm. With such parame-
OTR screen as collector. In the JLab FEL case, the required ters, a systematic error in the 10% range for the nominal
aperture radius would be approximately 40 µm which im- emittance was found. In Tab. 2 we compare the PARMELA
plies that the average beamlet charge will be less than 6 pC, simulated emittance with the computed emittance simu-
not a large enough number to produce enough OTR photons lating the emittance measurement, the initial and retrieved
than can be detected with conventional CCD detectors. trace space are plotted in Fig. 3. Systematic errors are
687
numerically estimated using errors propagated with the with a lower beam emittance) are presented in Fig. 4. The
anticipated distribution and include finite slit width effects. emittance typically measured is approximately 6 mm-mrad
Other source of error such as remanent space-charge in the which is somewhat larger than PARMELA prediction for
beamlets, space-charge field perturbation due to the slits this charge. Also because the beam divergence and size
have been considered and were found to be negligible. are different from those expected at 135 pC (the charge
However, finite sampling error is a concern and should be for which the mask has been optimized), the number of
reduced below 10% provided that 5 slits, at least, are illumi- generated beamlets is only 4-5. This is a disadvantage
nated by the incident beam. The first tests were performed of single shot phase space sampling method; they have
to be designed for specific parameters and have a limited
dynamic range. Multislit mask devices have been in use
ε̃nparmela ε̃nretrieved ∆ε̃/ε̃% (a) ∆ε̃/ε̃% (b) for several years in the UCLA group [19] to characterize a
8.094 8.077 0.2 9.9 high brightness electron injector and in the CERN heavy
3.947 4.014 1.7 19.9 ion injector to measure emittance of heavy ions beams [20].
24.282 23.016 5.2 2.7
The authors are indebted to the FEL commissioning team
Table 2: Simulation of emittance measurement for different for support and operation of the machine.
emittance, after slit optimization. The quantity ∆ε̃/ε̃ (a) is
just a measure of the relative difference between the nomi- 4 REFERENCES
nal and retrieved emittance while the quantity ∆ε̃/ε̃ (b) rep-
resents the systematic error estimate. [1] C. Lejeune, et al., Advances in Electronics and Electron de-
vices, Supp. 13A, 159-259 (1980)
[2] F. Sacherer, IEEE Tran. Nuc. Sci. NS 18 1105-1107
[3] P. Lapostolle, CERN rep. CERN/DI-70-36 (1970)
[4] J.D. Lawson, et al., Part. Accel. 5, 61 (1973)
(A)
[5] P. Piot, et al., proc of the Euro. Part. Acc. Conf.’98, (Stock-
holm, Sweden)
y (pixel)
[6] L. Wartsky, PhD Thesis, Université Paris Sud (unpublished)
[7] X. K. Maruyama, et al., Nucl. Inst. Meth. A272, 237-240
(1987)
[8] R. Fiorito et al., AIP Conf. Proc. 319, 21-37 (1994)
[9] P. Piot, et al., AIP Conf. Proc. 390, 298-305 (1996)
[10] D. Rule, et al., Nucl. Inst. Meth. A296, 739-743 (1990)
[11] A. H. Lumpkin et al., Nucl. Inst. Meth. A341, 417-421
(1994)
6000
[12] D. E. Groom et al., Eur. Phys. Journ. C 3 Num. 1-4, 144 151
x’ projection
(B) (1998)
5500
[13] A. Vignati, et al., Nucl. Inst. Meth. B66, 503-507 (1992)
5000
[14] Y. Yamazaki, et al., Nucl. Inst. Meth. A322, 139-145 (1992)
4500
[15] E. D. Courant, Rev. Sci. Instr. 22 num 12, 1003-1005 (1951)
4000
[16] P. Piot, et al., proc of the Part. Acc. Conf.’97 (Vancouver,
3500
Canada)
3000
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 [17] J. Song, et al., Nucl. Inst. Meth. A407, 343-349 (1998)
x’ (pixel) [18] M. J. Rhee, et al., Rev. Sci. Instrum. 62(6), 1468-1470 (1991)
[19] S.C. Hartman, et al., proc of the Part. Acc. Conf.’93, 561-563
Figure 4: Typical beamlet pattern from a multislit mask. (1993); S.C. Hartman PhD Thesis, UCLA (unpublished)
OTR image of the beamlets (A) and projection along the y-
[20] M. Crescenti, et al., Proc. of the Diag. Inst. Part. Acc, 66-68
axis (B).
(1995)
in the JLab Injector Test Stand. Because of low energy,
350 keV, we were using, as collector, a fluorescent instead
of an OTR screen. We compare the multislit method with
the “slit and collector” apparatus [16, 17] and agreement
at the 15% level was observed. Recent measurements
performed in the JLab FEL operating at 60 pC (therefore
688
PERIODIC PERMANENT MAGNET DEVELOPMENT FOR LINEAR
COLLIDER X-BAND KLYSTRONS*
D. Sprehn, G. Caryotakis, E. Jongewaard and R. M. Phillips
Stanford Linear Accelerator Center
Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94309
Abstract of magnetic focusing at which all forces operating on the
The Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC) beam are balanced and it is possible to transport the beam
klystron group is currently designing, fabricating and with a constant radius. All of the klystrons have output
testing 11.424 GHz klystrons with peak output powers power levels from 50 to 75 MW except the 150 MW
from 50 to 75 MW at 1 to 2 µs rf pulsewidths as part of an DESY klystron. The cathode-to-beam area convergence,
effort to realize components necessary for the Ac, is approximately 100 for all the X-Band klystrons
construction of the Next Linear Collider (NLC). In order because of the smaller drift tube dimensions. As can be
to eliminate the projected operational-year energy bill for seen the Bz/Br ratios for the PPM klystrons are not all that
klystron solenoids, Periodic Permanent Magnet (PPM) different than those found for the solenoidal-focused
focusing has been employed on our latest X-band klystron
klystrons. The loss in axial beam velocity, ∆uz, is higher
designs. A PPM beam tester has operated at the same
for the PPM klystrons due to the full reversal of the field
repetition rate, voltage and average beam power required
as seen by the beam.
for a 75 MW NLC klystron. Prototype 50 and 75 MW
PPM klystrons were built and tested during 1996 and
1997 which operate from 50 to 70 MW at efficiencies Table 1: Comparison of SLAC Klystrons (see above text)
greater than 55 %. Construction and testing of 75 MW Tube 5045 Desy XL-4 50XP 75XP DFM
research klystrons will continue while the design and Beam Focusing Sol. Sol. Sol. PPM PPM PPM
reliability is perfected. This paper will discuss the design frequency, GHz 2.86 3.00 11.42 11.42 11.42 11.42
of these PPM klystrons and the results of testing to date
Beam kV 350 525 440 464 490 490
along with future plans for the development of a low-cost
Design for Manufacture (DFM) 75 MW klystron and uK 1.90 1.85 1.20 0.60 0.80 0.75
invitation for industry participation. Ac 18 40 129 144 98 126
2 6.34 5.04 8.75 7.39 7.71 7.23
Cathode A/cm
1 AN INTRODUCTION TO PPM Bz confined, T 0.12 0.20 0.45 0.20 0.17 0.23
Flux cath/beam 0.85 0.94 0.92 0.50 0.55 0.75
Periodic Permanent Magnet (PPM) focusing is
Bz/Br, axis 1.90 2.82 2.54 1.15 1.20 1.51
utilized in Traveling-Wave Tube (TWT) devices for
commercial and military applications. Instead of a Bz/Br, drift tube 1.90 2.82 2.54 2.03 2.11 2.66
solenoidal magnet with its associated overhead of power ∆uz 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 1.6% 2.5% 4.8%
supply, cooling, and controls, permanent magnets are
used to reduce operational cost and weight. In PPM The drawback with PPM focusing is that the
focusing the axial field changes polarity with every construction complexity of the tube may be increased so
magnet. If the magnetic period is small enough when construction costs and failure rates could rise. The
compared to the beam plasma wavelength, λp/L, then magnetic circuit is fixed and so there may be no easily
sufficient beam stiffness can maintain the beam profile in accessible "knob" for the operator to turn in case
the presence of large space charge forces due to the rf adjustment is required. If the beam voltage is reduced
bunching. enough, λp/L becomes small and the beam will impact the
Due to the high energy-products required for the drift tube. This is known as the "stop-band" voltage.
magnets combined with geometrical constraints, it is Since the high voltage beam pulse has a finite rise and fall
usually not possible to thread as much flux through the time, then a portion of the beam pulse is below the stop-
cathode as it is with solenoidal focusing so particular band and interception occurs. There are also areas of
attention must be paid to the gun design and beam beam instability in PPM focused tubes and the possibility
transport issues. of coupling to modes which grow from an undulating
The ratio of the axial field to the Brillouin field, beam.
Bz/Br, is shown in Table 1 along with other important
parameters for three SLAC solenoidal-focused klystrons
and three PPM designs. The Brillouin field is that value
*
This work is supported by the Department of
Energy under Contract DE-AC03-76SF00515
689
2 PPM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM magnetic field in the gun with a standard bucking coil and
the field in the region from the gun to the beam minimum
PPM focusing had never been used successfully on with three compact coils closely wound around the drift
very high-power klystrons and so there existed several tube. The gun and magnetic circuit were constructed so
unknowns with respect to the outcome of such an attempt. that operation with and without flux at the cathode was
The large area beam convergence of 144:1, no axial field possible. The same general philosophy and beam
adjustability, possible interactions with an undulating focusing were used in the 50 MW klystron design.
beam, the presence of stop bands, and new materials and
construction techniques presented several engineering Table 2: 11.424 GHz PPM klystron Specifications
challenges. It was decided to construct a beam-tester to rf power 50 MW 75 MW
test the gun optics followed by a 50 MW klystron, and
Beam voltage 464 kV 490 kV
lastly a 75 MW klystron. The 50 MW rf design was
Beam current 190 A 257 A
patterned closely after the successful solenoid X-band
klystrons (XL series) at SLAC after allowances were rf pulsewidth 1.5µs @ 60Hz 1.5µs @ 60Hz
made to drop the perveance to improve efficiency. The Cathode loading 7.4 A/cm2 7.2 A/cm2
75 MW klystron design requires a slightly higher Ac 144:1 98:1
perveance than the 50 MW design to keep the beam RMS Gauss 1950 1680
voltage below 500 kV to reduce modulator costs. Efficiency 55 % 55 %
The beam-tester and 50 MW klystron were Gain 55 dB 55 dB
constructed with Samarium-Cobalt (SmCo) magnets and a
Max gradients: < 700 kV/cm < 650 kV/cm
gun coil. These magnets were die-pressed individually
Cavities
and a high level of quality control went into the
Anode < 250 kV/cm < 250 kV/cm
manufacturing process. Inspection of the field on the axis
agreed with simulation to within 1 %. To reduce cost, an Focus electrode < 220 kV/cm < 210 kV/cm
experiment was performed on the 75 MW klystron by
replacing the gun coil with permanent magnets and using The drift tube is constructed of alternating iron pole
Neodymium-Iron-Boron (NdFeB) magnets instead of pieces and monel spacers that are brazed together in
SmCo. Replacing the gun coil forced large peak-to-peak subassemblies and then welded together at specially split
variations in the field strength design on axis, and pole pieces. Each subassembly consists of eight
switching to bulk NdFeB resulted in a loss of control in permanent magnets where each magnet produces an axial
material quality. These magnets were fabricated out of field opposed in polarity to its immediate neighbor.
large blocks by slicing, core-drilling, and grinding to size. EGUN[1] simulations were performed (Fig. 1) until the
Magnetic, on-axis, field strengths of the individual beam scalloping was less than 8 %. The testing began
magnets varied by as much as 20 % from simulation. The with the confined flow case because the beam is held in
75 MW design has more magnet periods in a plasma check by a larger magnetic field, and continued with the
wavelength and a higher focusing field to Brillouin field shielded flow case afterward.
ratio, both of which should allow for better focusing.
Design parameters for both the klystrons are found in
Table 2.
2.1 Beam-tester and 50 MW gun Design
In order to keep the cathode current density below an
2
average value of 7.5 A/cm for increased lifetime, a 2.25"
diameter cathode was required which resulted in an area
convergence ratio of 144:1. Since this value is higher
than previous SLAC klystrons, a beam-tester was Figure 1: EGUN simulation of the beam as it enters the
fabricated to prove gun and drift region optics for the PPM stack as used for the beam-tester and 50 MW
PPM design. The design philosophy of the beam-tester klystron.
was to eliminate all sources of trouble that could interfere
with a study of the PPM beam formation and When operated in the confined-flow condition the
transmission. The issues of gun voltage breakdown, high-convergence gun design has 50 % of the beam flux
insufficient vacuum pumping, and collector power were threading the cathode (as measured at the axis). This is
addressed by using oversized components from previous low for typical high-power klystrons. Ratios for other
klystron designs. This served to hasten the program and high-power klystron designs range from 80 to 95 %,
allowed for operation at higher voltages than the design which yield 1.7 to 3.2 times the Brillouin field condition.
required (in the interest of research into more powerful It is difficult to get large confinement ratios with PPM
PPM designs). Furthermore, it was decided to control focusing because the pole pieces eventually saturate and
690
magnetic materials have finite strengths. There also two designs was primarily influenced by the lossy
exists a stability limit to the amount of field that may be materials used in the PPM design. The PPM cavities have
applied because the axial velocity is reduced due to the a lower Qo than copper cavities and therefore suffer more
large spin on the beam when the field is reversed from the rf heating. The lossy drift tube material may serve to
direction of the field in the cathode. A value of 50 % dampen possible trapped oscillations and any coupling
yields 1.15 times the Brillouin field on the axis (Fig. 2) between the gun, cavities and collector. The magnetic
which increases to 2 times at the drift tube. This is an field is very similar to the beam-tester until the last three
advantage because the further the beam strays from its cavities are reached where the field gradually tapers up to
radial position, the more focusing force it experiences. eventually peak (Fig. 3) in the output structure. Tapering
PPM focusing, as opposed to solenoidal focusing, serves to confine the beam as the space charge forces
increases as distance from the axis increases, which leads increase due to the growing rf current. The field in the
to a preference for focusing somewhat hollow beams. As output structure is unidirectional, unlike the rest of the
such, hollow beams are a direct result of the gun design klystron where it is periodic, and this forces the magnets
parameters in most high-power klystrons due to to be larger.
limitations in the possible emission current density of
today’s cathode materials for long-life. 2.2 Beam-tester and 50 MW Experimental
Results
2.2
2.0 The beam-tester processing began with a 1 µs beam
Bz / Br
1.8 pulsewidth and proceeded up to 490 kV, 5 % above the
1.6 design point, without incident. The beam microperveance
1.4
1.2 was found to be 12 % higher than the design of 0.6 µK.
1.0 The reason for this discrepancy is not fully known,
although a full autopsy is scheduled to occur in October.
0.00 0.25 0.50
To improve the reliability of beam transmission data, the
cm from axis pulse width was extended to 2.8 µs and the repetition rate
increased to 120 Hz. At 490 kV, there was roughly 42
Figure 2: Variation of RMS magnetic field vs. radial kW dissipated in the collector. The beam transmission at
distance from the axis for the PPM beam-tester and this point was found to be 99.9 %. This rather striking
50 MW PPM klystron. result is in direct contrast to experience with travelling-
wave tubes (TWT) which traditionally are operated on a
bench and iron shunts are placed along the magnet circuit
4 to improve transmission. Such adjustments are not
possible with this high-power device as most of the tube
kGauss on axis
3 is covered in lead due to several kRads of radiation from
2 the collector.
No instabilities or spurious oscillations arising from
1 noise were detected at a 2.8 µs pulsewidth. No gas
pressure rise other than that considered normal was seen
0 -8
and the collector vac-ion pump was running at about 10
20 60 100 Torr under full power and rep rate. With a design goal for
Axial Position, (cm) the klystron of 1.5 µs and 465 kV, the operation of the
beam-tester exceeded expectations and demonstrated the
robustness of the design. The 490 kV level also happens
Figure 3: Axial field (Gauss) vs. axial distance (cm) to be that which is required for the 75 MW X-band
for the 50 MW PPM klystron. klystron discussed later.
The three adjustment coils near the anode had
The 50 MW PPM klystron rf design was based on the negligible effect on the transmission data but one of the
highly successful XL-4 klystron development at SLAC. coils had a visible effect on the rising and falling edges of
The PPM klystron, with its lower perveance, lossy the collector current pulse. Most importantly of all, the
materials, and higher operating voltage requires some shielded-gun operation and the confined-flow operation
modifications in the existing XL-4 rf circuit design. The were essentially identical. Thus the formation and
rf circuit is adapted to the lower perveance beam by transport of the 144:1 area convergence beam into a
increasing the cavity spacings, altering tunings, and shielded or an immersed PPM-focused drift tube for a
adding an extra cell in the traveling-wave output structure high-power device has been proven feasible and robust.
for a total of 5 cells. The number of cavities was kept Initial observations of the 50 MW klystron behavior
constant and the bandwidth was reduced in order to revealed that the gun behaved identically to the
maintain the required gain. This loss in gain between the beam-tester performance. An unusual gain curve
691
containing several jumps was believed to be due to 2.3 A 75 MW Experimental Design
multipactor in more than one location in the drift tube
and/or cavities. The gain steps would decrease as beam In designing the 75 MW klystron, major changes
voltage, drive frequency, or bucking coil setting was made were enlarging the drift tube due to a higher beam
increased which means that the multipactor was not only current, a stainless steel drift tube, and the elimination of
a function of the rf drive but also of the rf current present the gun focus coils. It was calculated that using a 5-cell
on the beam and hence was located downstream of the travelling-wave output circuit would extract more than
input cavity. To eliminate these discontinuities, the tube 75 MW. Opening the beam tunnel by 13 % to 0.425
was opened and the drift tube was coated with a titanium- inches reduced the efficiency of the beam-cavity
nitride (TiN) layer roughly 100 Å thick to reduce the interaction and thereby forced the inclusion of an extra
secondary emission coefficient of the surfaces subject to gain cavity. This also allows more modes to propagate
rf fields in the vacuum. After testing a second time, only within the drift tube, including the second harmonic TM
one gain step remained. mode. The construction of the 75 MW PPM magnetic
Looking in the various coupling ports of the rf drive circuit differed in that the drift tube is a semi-continuous
and rf output, and with a small antenna probe at the stainless steel structure interrupted by the cavities, with
collector ceramic insulator, revealed no oscillations the iron pole pieces and non-magnetic spacers placed
higher than 50 dB below the fundamental, which can outside the vacuum envelope. This design change
easily be ignored. Small signal bandwidth was measured addresses three separate issues; avoiding the multipactor
at 40 MHz, which closely agrees with the predicted value seen in the 50 MW klystron, taking a step toward the
of 35 MHz. Measurements over a 70 dB range of rf drive eventual low-cost design of a production klystron using a
power showed the small signal gain to be 65 dB at the clamp-on magnetic circuit, and adding loss in the drift
design current, falling by 10 dB at the 50 MW power tube to increase the start-oscillation currents of the
level. various parasitic modes which may arise.
The large drift tube opening resulted in a lower beam
0 area convergence and lower current density in the beam,
rf which in turn reduced the necessary magnet strength. On
kV, A, and MW
-100 the other hand moving the pole pieces outside of the
-200 vacuum envelope increased the magnet strength required
and the overall affect was a slightly higher energy-product
-300 Ib required for the 75 MW design. Previously, SmCo
-400 magnets had been used that are highly resistant to
Vb radiation and temperature. The 75 MW design used
-500
NdFeB magnets which have higher energy-products, are
-1 0 1 2 3 4 easier to machine, are less brittle, but have a lower Curie
Time, uS temperature. However, at 500 keV photon levels,
radiation effects do not seem to be an issue over the
magnets projected lifetime. Furthermore, NdFeB magnets
Figure 4: 50 MW rf out, beam current (with and
are less expensive in bulk quantities. Procurement of the
without rf present), and beam voltage vs. time for the
NdFeB magnets presented many difficulties, as the
50 MW PPM klystron.
vendor was unable to meet the required specifications.
This material has been used in applications where the
After removing the gun coils, replacing the first eight
absolute value of the magnetic energy-product is not
magnets, reducing the output magnet field, and applying
tightly held. This issue will be studied over the next few
prefabricated shunts along the whole magnet stack, the
months and a decision will be made on the magnetic
tube was tested in the shielded flow condition. The
materials to be used in future designs.
klystron reached 50 MW with essentially the same gain
Simulations of the klystron using CONDOR[2], a
and efficiency with a 2 % increase in beam interception.
2.5-D particle-in-cell code, show approximately 80 MW
Despite the remaining step in the gain profile
at the design beam power while maintaining low gradients
(believed to be in the input cavity due to an insensitivity
in the output structure.
to beam voltage) the PPM klystron reached the full
operational specification (Fig. 4) of 50 MW at 2 µs. The
efficiency at 50 MW was well over 55 %, and over 60 %
2.4 75 MW Experimental Results
at 60 MW, using calorimetric diagnostics. The
intercepted beam power at 50 MW was about 1 % of the Most of the completed magnets delivered to SLAC
total beam power, but the beam current lost about 7 % failed to meet the specification. Specifically the magnets
while passing through the tube. This means that the at the beam convergence area near the gun, the gain
energy of the electrons lost in the tube must be about 66 cavity magnets, the penultimate cavity magnet, and the
keV on average. output magnets were all below specification. Due to time
constraints it was decided to test the klystron and testing
began with a 1 µs flattop beam pulse. Upon reaching 280
692
kV, an oscillation was noticed at the end of the beam Eventually, the DFM klystron and the research
pulse. The beam pulse was reduced to zero flattop, prototypes along with industry efforts will merge in a
approximately 1 µs FWHM pulse, and the voltage was single design using the best technologies from each.
raised to 360 kV until the oscillation was again seen. A
spectrum analyzer was used to carefully search for all 3 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
frequencies between 11 GHz and 26.6 GHz and found
only the fundamental, the second harmonic, and a signal The results of the 50 MW klystron testing exceeded
at 20 GHz. the design goals in terms of output power, pulsewidth and
As the beam voltage was increased the oscillation efficiency, and provide a proof-of-principle for
could be damped by increases of the bucking coil, which high-power PPM klystrons. The magnetic field
tends to make the beam smaller, but the method has the difficulties with the 75 MW design can most likely be
limitation that too much of an increase and the beam overcome by returning to a magnetic circuit similar to the
impacts unpredictably on the vacuum envelope. 50 MW klystron. Further study is required to fully
Increasing the rf drive would also damp the oscillation but explore the failures and possible solutions concerning the
overdriving most klystrons will usually produce another 75 MW magnetic circuit. By early next year, a new design
set of instabilities. However, by combining the two will be tested which relies on lessons learned from the
methods it was possible to raise the voltage peak to 463 previous 75 MW klystron. Furthermore, smaller gun and
kV and attain 71 MW peak at a 200 ns pulsewidth. collector designs, elimination of some vacuum pumps,
Despite the difficulties, gain was found to be between 55 simpler output waveguide structures, and overall
and 60 dB and efficiency measured 60 % at the saturated cost-reduction schemes will continue development.
rf output level of 70 MW. Despite the requirement for further engineering work,
The magnets have been removed from the klystron this program has shown that a high-power PPM focused
and are inserted on a full-scale model of the klystron klystron is not only feasible, but has demonstrated to
circuit so that the field can be shunted on the bench to a function in good agreement with simulation and
desired profile. After simulation, theory, and engineering analysis. The elimination of the focusing
measurement agree on the required field, the newly solenoids for high-power accelerator sources is a major
shunted stack will be installed on the klystron and testing cost reduction in both the procurement and operational
will resume. It is expected that this will occur late in costs of such sources. It is likely that any future large-
1998. scale, linear electron accelerator constructed will be
driven by PPM focused klystrons.
2.5 A Low Cost Klystron
REFERENCES
A low-cost design of a 75 MW klystron known as the
Design For Manufacture klystron (DFM) has been under [1] W. B. Herrmannsfeldt, "Electron trajectory program,"
investigation for the past three years and seeks to SLAC 226, Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, Nov.
minimize parts count, decrease complexity, reduce 1979.
construction labor, and increase reliability of the klystron. [2] B. Aimonetti, S. Brandon, K. Dyer, J. Moura, D.
A smaller gun and collector with reduced parts count, Nielsen Jr., "CONDOR user’s guide," Livermore
better output waveguide hardware such as mode Computing Systems Document, Lawrence Livermore
converters and windows, and a simplified drift tube and
Nat’l Lab., April 1988.
magnet structure are the main areas of scrutiny. Industry
participation will be solicited with several contracts
awarded to build 50 MW klystrons. Close cooperation
between industry and SLAC will be required for the
successful construction and operation of several thousand
75 MW PPM klystrons. One key to the lower cost will be
the development of a clamp-on magnet structure, which
can be used repeatedly as klystrons reach the end of their
useful lifetime. A clamp-on structure for evaluation
purposes is currently under fabrication at SLAC and will
be tested in the next few months.
Automated processing of the cathode activation, tube
bake and rf processing must be implemented in order to
keep up with the demand that will be an order of
magnitude greater than any similar effort to date. It is
currently planned that one or more factories on site will
continuously build and repair klystrons while the
accelerator is under construction and operation.
693
REVIEW OF FABRICATION OF SC CAVITY STRUCTURES
V. Palmieri
Laboratori Nazionali di Legnaro, ISTITUTO NAZIONALE DI FISICA NUCLEARE,
Legnaro (Padova), I-35020 ITALY
manufacture standards, and importing the know-how of
Abstract the ultra-clean from the neighbouring field of
The search for higher and higher accelerating semiconductors. In parallel to the traditional technology
fields with low rf losses, plus the need of know-how of Electron Beam (EB) welded cavities, already three
transfer from scientific laboratories to firms for industrial laboratories are able to form seamless Niobium cavities of
cavity production, have contributed to the establishment the TESLA shape [7-9]. Besides to whom is depositing
of fabrication technology standards. Over years of research Niobium onto Copper, who reinforces Niobium with
both on high beta and on low beta superconducting Copper is also coming to the fore [10]. Last, the
resonators, various criteria improving resonator rf traditional separation between "low beta people" and "high
performances has been codified as guide-lines or canons in beta people" is becoming weaker and weaker, since middle
the fabrication process. However, the simple transfer of beta cavities are becoming a subject more and more
the standard cavity fabrication technology developed so investigated.
far, is no longer sufficient for the new generation
machines. Not only the progressive achievement of higher 2 THE MOST SAFE APPROACH:
accelerating fields, but also the drastic reduction in THE BULK NIOBIUM TECHNOLOGY
resonator production time and costs (K$ per MV/m) is
compulsorily for the feasibility of more and more It is not by accident that TTF is installing bulk
powerful accelerators. This is the motivation under the Niobium 9-cell cavities. The TESLA goal is 25 MV/m
research toward simpler and cheaper fabrication techniques at a Q-value of 5e+09 and the bulk Niobium technology
as for instance seamless cavities. The paper reviews the is the only one capable to satisfy this requirement at
status of those new forming techniques under development industrial level in the shortest possible time. This does
in several laboratories, as hydroforming, spinning, not mean no room for the Nb/Cu sputtering approach, but
backextrusion or superconductor/normal metal coated only that an eventual R&D for sputtered nine-cells has
cavities suitable for prototype fabrication and at least in compulsorily much longer R&D times. On the other side
principle, considerable for mass scale production. it must be own that the traditional approach to EB weld
half cells, both for material and for manufacture, has been
1 INTRODUCTION convenient for the TJNAF 1.5 GHz 5-cell production, but
it is is definitely too expensive for a possible mass
About ten years ago, the Argonne National production of 20,000 cavities, as in the TESLA Project.
Laboratories under the chairmanship of K. Shepard hosted The traditional fabrication approach for beta 1
the third Workshop on RF Superconductivity [1]. In this resonators consists in forming the cavity cups by
occasion everybody involved in the superconducting spinning or preferably by deep-drawing. The cup edge are
cavity field was proud to show his last and best result. At trimmed by machining. The possible variation in wall
that time the LEP design value consisted in a gradient of thickness due to the mechanical tolerances of the drawing
5MV/m at a Q-value of 3e+09 and the three industries tool can influence the geometry so the resonant frequency
involved in the Nb/Cu sputtered resonator production did (df/dl9cell = 300 KHz/mm). Pad rubber forming has
not yet even start to acquire know-how. D. Proch in a talk been proven to show the best reproducibility [11]. Facing
on SC cavities in Storage Ring Beam Tests, was the cups is the most crucial operation and it is performed
reporting values of the accelerating field values ranging on a rotating machine: any misalignment will certainly
from 1.9 MV/m to 6.5 MV/m [2]. The maximum result in cracks along the EB weld. The thickness of the
accelerating field reported for the TRISTAN 500 MHz 5- lip to weld is much smaller than the equator diameter,
cells was lower did not overcome the 10 MV/m [3], moreover the heated zone will thermically expand respect
while G. Mueller reported even fields up to 24 MV/m but the cold one. This can seldom result into a trivial problem
on a Nb single cell and at 3 GHz [4]. especially occurring when going to weld cups drawn from
About 10 years later again under the ANL textured slabs: it is not said that the ending point of the
organization, the 98 LINAC conference will see the weld will necessarily coincide with the point from where
presentation of results such as the 30 MV/m in the the EB started. However, nowadays the Niobium EB weld
high 1e+9 - low 1e+10 range in horizontal test for some technology for SC cavities is well-established and has
TTF 1.3 GHz 9-cell resonators coming from the been transferred with full success from research
industrial production [5] or such as the 40 MV/m at a Q laboratories to industrial partners. Prior to the welding,
of 1e+10 obtained by K. Saito on a 1.3 GHz Niobium cups and beampipes are chemically treated by a Buffered
single cell [6]. The superconducting resonator fabrication Chemical Polishing (BCP) HF/HNO3/H3PO4 1/1/2 in
technology has made great strides, improving the
697
volume, followed by ultraclean water rinsing and handling electronic fast tuner a mechanical dissipator is inserted
in clean environment. The Niobium is oxidized by the into the resonator shaft, in order to damp vibrations
nitric acid, then the oxydes if transformed in fluoride caused by the environment. An accelerating field of
thanks to the high electronic affinity of fluorine. The 5 MV/m at 7 Watt has been achieved in the bulk
Niobium fluoride is a salt highly soluble in water. The Niobium QWR prototype developed at NSC in New
phosphoric acid mainly works as moderator. Delhi [13].
After welding the cavity undergoes two main A masterpiece of EB welding is however the
steps: titanified at 1400 C in UHV and chemically etched bulk Niobium RFQ for the PIAVE Injector of LNL [14],
in a virgin 1/1/2 bath, then Rinsed with ultrapure water that in its complexity is up to now the most difficult
under High Pressure (HPR) usually at 100 bar. bulk Niobium SC resonator ever built. Machining of the
Besides this elementary recipe some other electrodes, Extrusion of the Cylinder on the back of the
fabrication steps have been found necessary in order to Electrodes, deep drawing of the stems, stiffening of the
achieve voltages in the 20-30 MV/m regime and are external tank by titanium liners, EB welding, and BCP are
clearly reported by Matheisen in his paper about the all operations that must be done within a few hundreds of
"Improvements on standard Fabrication methods" [11]. tolerance.
They can be listed in the following: Last we wish to mention in this paragraph the
1) Since the Niobium ingot is Electron Beam melted in experiments conducted at Wuppertal with Nb3Sn, since
the UHV oven, already it is necessary to exercise a strict Nb3Sn was prepared by vapour diffusion onto a bulk
control that ultra clean conditions are respected. The use
of a furnace seldom used for melting other elements is Niobium cavity [15]. The purpose consists in operating at
risky. 4.2 K instead than at 1.8 K, due to the higher critical
2) Rolling of sheets from ingot is not a less crucial step, temperature of the compound. At 4.2 the cavity arrived up
since microparticles produced during rolling are pressed to 30 MV/m of peak field; moreover at low field the Q-
and embedded into the bulk. value was a factor 2 higher that the value of the Niobium
3) The defect diagnostics of Niobium slabs by eddy substrate at 2 K. A similar slope of Q versus field is
current scanning provides a more accurate selection of found also for NbN thermally diffused Niobium cavities
sheets. It has been seen that by this method, the quench [16]. The investigation carried on this material however is
limitations can be sorted out in a very early step of the some order of magnitude lower than the efforts paied on
production. bulk Niobium cavities. However the problems related to
4) The control of the BCP temperature kept lower than such multicompositional material are much more
15 C, in order to avoid hydrogen charging of Niobium. complex than those of Niobium.
5) The adoption of a wiggled beam with 50% penetration
on the first welding turn, followed by a wiggled full
penetration beam, since this sequence is less sensitive to 3 ALL NIOBIUM DEEPER THAN A
fabrication tolerances. FEW LONDON PENETRATION
6) The vacuum in the welding furnace must be lower than DEPTHS IS UNNEEDED
5e-5 mbar, depending the Residual Resistivity Ratio
(RRR) value on the chamber residual pressure. The rf loss mechanism in a SC cavity is
Besides to this DESY experience seems to advice confined within the first 5,000 Å, approximately ten
that quenches below 30 MV/m in multicell structures can times the London penetration depth. That means that all
be avoided by a strict application of cleanroom techniques the Niobium deeper is there only for providing mechanical
followed by postpurification of Niobium. rigidity. Moreover Niobium is neither a good thermal
Recently K. Saito has perturbed the common conductor. The first Copper-superconductor resonators
beliefs about the Niobium chemical treatment, sustaining were done by electroplating a Lead film. Lead has a
the superiority of electropolishing over chemical critical magnetic field of only 500 G at 4.2, moreover its
polishing on high gradients [6]. The problem must be porosity and its density is dramatically sensitive to the
encountered in deeper detail, however the fact remains that action of moderators mixed into the plating solution.
he has reached 40 MV/m at 1e+10 on a 100 micron Without the right moderator indeed Lead would grow
electropolished cavity. Electrochemical-mechanical according to a dentritic structure. The main problem of
buffing has been also proposed in the framework of a surface instability has been solved [17]. Under the
KEK-Mitsubishi collaboration in order to get the electrodeposition of Lead there is no black magic. All the
smoothest Niobium surfaces. The combination of black or yellowish spots people found after deposition
mechanical polishing and electrochemical polishing is a were caused from residuals of the fluoborate plating
well-known technique adopted for silicon wafer polishing. solution coming from an imperfect rinsing of the surface,
Following the above mentioned basic fabrication or from the dehydratation of Lead hydroxyde.
rules, bulk Niobium and the related EB welding is a A very nice material to play with is the Japanese
paying technology also for low beta cavities. Facco at Niobium clad Copper slabs, since in RF it behaves as
LNL [12] has produced and recently installed 80 MHz Niobium, while mechanically is workable as Copper.
Quarter Wave Resonators in the low beta section of Both the Argonne National Laboratory Split Loops [18]
ALPI. An average accelerating field of 7 MV/m at and interdigital QWRs [19-20], and the JAERI cavities
7 Watt has been reached after HPR. In place of an have only the external enclosure in Nb-Cu, being the loop
or the shaft instead in bulk niobium. Split Loops are
698
cavities that by now have been tested for a very long time but as for Nb3Sn the problems to solve are hugely more
since two machines have been built in ANL and Stony complex than those under Niobium, but up to now they
Brook respectively. With interdigital also "there are no have been faced with hugely less people and investments.
surprises", since they are operational from '93. A totally new solution in the Nb/Cu
Considerably high performances were achieved by JAERI framework has been recently proposed by the Orsay group
niobium clad copper QWRs. Maximum accelerating fields [10]. Thin Niobium cavities are Copper reinforced outside
are normally higher than 7 MV/m, even up to 13 MV/m, by Copper Plasma spray. A series of 3 GHz cavities has
that for such a resonator geometry means an electric peak been fabricated by deep drawing and EB welding using
field of 60 MV/m and a magnetic peak field of about 40 RRR Niobium sheets of 0.5 mm thickness. The
1000 G. cavities were heat treated at 1200°C with a titanium getter
The sputtering of high quality Niobium films before Cu plasma spray. The first two tested cavities have
onto OFHC Copper cavities has been invented at CERN
by C. Benvenuti and it has been successfully applied to a Q in the range 109 at 1.8 K and are limited by quench
LEP cavities. After the successful transfer to the European at field values around 15 MV/m. Taking benefit from the
Industry, This technology has been recognized as a valid thermal conductivity and porosity of the sprayed copper
and in some cases superior alternative to bulk Niobium layer (resulting in an increase of the heat transfer surface
resonators. Almost concluded the 352 MHz production in superfluid helium), the quench fields measured before
CERN is dedicating not little effort in order to understand and after Cu plasma spraying are the same. Tests with
the mechanism preventing the achievement of theoretical high purity Niobium and at 1.3 GHz are in programme.
performances. Smaller size cavities such as the 1.5 GHz
monocells are very suitable for this purpose. The coating 4 SEAMLESS CAVITIES: A WAY
method is based on a Cylindrical magnetron
configuration: in a noble gas atmosphere, generally argon, TO REDUCE FABRICATION TIME
at a pressure of the order of 1e-03 mbar, a potential AND SAVE MONEY
difference is established between the central cathode and
the grounded cavity. The electrical current of the glow Even not mentioning that the equatorial weld is
discharge is stabilized by a permanent magnet internal to the main source of defects, whenever 20,000 cavities will
the cathode. The sputtering temperature takes place at be done it is compulsory to conceive a fabrication method
150 C and the coating thickness is 1.5 microns obtained able to output at least one ninecell per hour. A few
in 15 minutes of treatment. The films have a RRR of 11, laboratories are mainly involved in this search.
the average grain size is around 1000 Å [21]. It is 1) At LNL the author has succeeded in cold forming both
worthwhile to report that the Copper substrate plays a Copper and Niobium multicells by spinning a simple
crucial role for the film growth. All Nb films sputtered circular blank onto a collapsible mandrel [7]. The strong
onto spun substrates have lower losses and Q-slope than advantage of this method lays in the total absence of
those on hydroformed substrates. The role of sputtering intermediate annealings. Moreover the method does not
parameters on RF performances are investigated as well as regard of the possible ununiformity and texture of the
the relevance of physical mechanisms acting on BCS and starting material, since during spinning all the material is
Residual Losses. mixed up again. Spun cavities have been sent to CERN,
Nb sputtering onto Copper has been applied also DESY, TJNAF and to KEK for characterization. CERN
to low beta cavities as QWRs at Legnaro National has proved that spun copper monocells are superior to
Laboratories The first cryostat with sputtered cavities was hydroformed ones, because of lower losses and lower Q-
already installed in 1995 on the ALPI beamline [22]. The slope. Accelerating fields up to 25 MV/m have been
average field was of 4 MV/m. Subsequently last year measured at DESY on 1.3 GHz Niobium monocells,
these four cavities were substituted with other four while 28 MV/m has been achieved on a 1.5 GHz
sustaining an average field of 6 MV/m at 7 Watt. In Niobium monocell by P. Kneisel. Niobium fivecells have
parallel it has started the operation of resputtering with been already successfully spun and are waiting for
Niobium the old Lead electroplated QWR in the ALPI characterization. Clad Nb/Cu slabs were also spun in the
middle beta section. The average field achieved with the framework of a LNL-KEK collaboration. Low RRR
first four resonators is of 4 MV/m. The sputtering Niobium has been adopted for first test, however up to
configuration chosen at LNL was that of a DC Biased now no positive result has been found yet, since the
Diode, because it is the simplest to operate. A DC cavity annealing after forming seems to open crack in
cylindrical magnetron sputtering instead is the Niobium. According the author, however this is a
configuration designed and built at the Australian National problem easily solvable when spinning a thicker slabs
University [23]. All the needed investigation of instead than a rolled blank.
correlation of the deposition parameters with the 2) At DESY a 1.3 GHz Niobium monocell has been
superconducting properties of the films has been carried successfully hydroformed from a seamless tube jacketed
out; the subsequent phase of sputtering onto the real into a steel matrix [8]. The steel was removed chemically
Copper cavity is under investigation. and after a preliminary chemistry, the cavity reached
Sputtering opens new roads to superconducting already 14 MV/m in range 1e+10.
cavities as the one of NbTiN films onto Copper. Some 3) At Saclay, C. Antoine succeeded too in hydroforming a
investigation has been carried on at CERN and at Saclay, Niobium single cell. Two intermediate annealings were
applied, but what is surprising is that the Niobium was
699
very poor in RRR, nevertheless the cavity reached [11] A. Matheisen, "Improvements on standard
18 MV/m [9]. Fabrication methods", ibid ref. 5
4) Seamless Copper cavities were produced by explosive [12] A. Facco, "Mechanical mode damping in
forming in the framework of a KEK-Toshiba superconducting low beta resonators", ibid ref 5
collaboration, that however in recent times is evaluating [13] P. Prakash et al, " QWcoaxial line cavity for New
the possibility to combine explosive forming with Delhi Linac Booster", ibid ref.5
hydroforming [24]. [14] G. Bisoffi et al, " Status of the 80 MHz SC-RFQ
5) Copper Electroforming is instead under investigation at development at LNL", ibid ref 5
CERN [25] and at Protvino [26]. [15] G. Mueller et al, " Proc. of the 7th Workshop on
RF Superconductivity, B. Bonin ed, Gif sur
Yvette, France (1995), p. 119.
5 THE NEW ARRIVALS: THE [16] R. Parodi et al, " RF superconductivity in Genoa",
MIDDLE BETA CAVITIES ibid ref. 5
[17] S. Gustaffson, V. Palmieri, A.M. Porcellato,
It is probable that middle beta cavities will play V.L. Ruzinov, S.Yu. Stark, F. Stivanello, S.
the leading role in the next future. In this framework Los Zandolin, ibid ref 15.
Alamos National Laboratories already fabricated 0.48 and [18] K.W. Shepard, C.H. Sheibelhut, R. Benroya., L.M.
0.64 beta cavities standing over 1e+09 up to 40 MV/m Bollinger, IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. NS-24, 1147
of peak field [27]. (1977).
The spoke resonators [28] proposed by Shepard [19] K.W. Shepard, IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., 3574
and Delayen are also structures over which already a (1985).
certain amount of work has been done. New structures as [20] K.W. Shepard, P.K. Markowich, G.P. Zinkann,
reentrant cavities [29] or shorter QWRs are also suitable Proc. 1989 IEEE Particle Accelerator Conf., March
for being considered. However besides to new 20-23, 1989, Chicago Illinois, IEEE Cat.
structures also new materials should be investigated. For no.89CH2669-0 (1989) p.976.
high intensity machines Copper for instance is not the [21] C. Benvenuti et al, " Niobium sputter-coated
best material, because of the possible activation. The Copper Resonators", ibid ref. 5.
sputtering onto Alluminum or onto Graphite with buffer [22] S. Stark et al, "Niobium sputter-coated QWRs",
layers would be worthy of investigation. ibid ref. 5.
[23] N. Lobanov et al, " NB Sputter coating on QWR
in ANU", ibid ref. 5
6 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS [24] T. Ota, S. Sukenobu, Y. Tanabe, K. Takaishi, M.
Yamada, S. Kawatsu, H. Inoue, S. Noguchi, M.
This is review paper, hence it reports mainly the Ono, K. Saito, T. Shishido, Y. Yamazaki,
work of other people. Among all already quoted, the "Activities on Superconducting cavities at
Author has reported material mainly got from C. Antoine, TOSHIBA", ibid ref. 5
C. Benvenuti, G. Bisoffi, S. Calatroni, A. Facco, M. [25] S. Parussatti, NT-CERN/94-10, CERN 1994
Fouaidy, T. Junquera, P. Kneisel, L. Lilje, A. Lombardi, [26] A. Ageev et al Proceedings of the 6th Workshop
M. Pekeler, A. Pisent, A. Porcellato, D. Proch, K. Saito, on RF Superconductivity,October 1993, CEBAF,
K. Shepard, W. Singer, S. Stark. Newport News, R. Sundelin ed., p.802.
[27] B. Rusnak et al, " High intensity Proton Linac
Activities at Los Alamos", ibid ref. 5.
7 REFERENCES [28] K. Shepard et al, "Accelerator development for a
Radiactive beam facility based on ATLAS", ibid
[1] Proc. 3th Workshop on RF superconductivity, ref. 5
K.W. Shepard ed., ANL, Argonne (1987). [29] M. Comunian et al, " A 100 MeV SC Proton
[2] D. Proch, ibid ref. 1, p. 29 Linac: beam Dynamic issues", this conference.
[3] T. Furuya et al, ibid ref. 1 p. 95
[4] G. Mueller, ibid ref. 1 p. 331
[5] D. Proch, "Status of the TTF", Proceedings of the
8th Workshop on RF Supereconductivity, V.
Palmieri, A. Lombardi eds., Abano, Italy (1997),
on press.
[6] K. Saito, "Superiority of Electropolishing over
Chemical Polishing on High Gradients", ibid ref. 5
[7] V. Palmieri, Seamless cavities: the most creative
topic in RF Superconductivity", ibid ref 5
[8] W. Singer, private communication
[9] C. Antoine, private communication
[10] M. Fouaidy et al, "Copper Plasma sprayed
Niobium Cavities", ibid ref 5.
700
THE U.S. DOE GRAND CHALLENGE IN COMPUTATIONAL
ACCELERATOR PHYSICS
R. Ryne1 , S. Habib1 , J. Qiang1 , K. Ko2 , Z. Li2 , B. McCandless2 , W. Mi2 , C. Ng2 ,
M. Saparov2 , V. Srinivas2 , Y. Sun2 , X. Zhan2 V. Decyk3 , G. Golub4
1
Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM 87545
2
Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, Stanford, CA 74702
3
University of California, Los Angeles, CA 94550
4
Stanford University, Stanford, CA 74702
Abstract Structure (DDS), has been developed to control the wake-
fields and it is necessary to verify the effectiveness of the
Particle accelerators are playing an increasingly important
design by numerical simulation. This entails modeling a
role in basic and applied science, and are enabling new
complete accelerator section that consists of 206 complex
accelerator-driven technologies. But the design of next-
three-dimensional cavities requiring hundreds of GBytes of
generation accelerators, such as linear colliders and high
memory. It is evident that these simulations are beyond the
intensity linacs, will require a major advance in numeri-
desktop computer’s capabilities, and can only be performed
cal modeling capability due to extremely stringent beam
on the most advanced high performance computing (HPC)
control and beam loss requirements, and the presence of
platforms using software and algorithms targeted to paral-
highly complex three-dimensional accelerator components.
lel and distributed environments.
To address this situation, the U.S. Department of Energy
has approved a “Grand Challenge” in Computational Ac- In 1997 the U.S. Department of Energy initiated a Grand
celerator Physics, whose primary goal is to develop a paral- Challenge in Computational Accelerator Physics to support
lel modeling capability that will enable high performance, a collaborative effort involving LANL, SLAC, UCLA, and
large scale simulations for the design, optimization, and nu- Stanford, together with two HPC centers, the National En-
merical validation of next-generation accelerators. In this ergy Research Scientific Computing Center (NERSC) and
paper we report on the status of the Grand Challenge. the Advanced Computing Laboratory (ACL). The primary
goal of this project is to develop a new generation of ac-
celerator modeling tools for HPC platforms, and to apply
1 INTRODUCTION them to large complex problems of importance in future
Several accelerator projects are planned or under consider- accelerators, including those mentioned above. In this pa-
ation that will have major impacts in basic and applied sci- per we will report the progress-to-date in two main thrust
entific research. Examples include the Next Linear Collider areas: electromagnetics and beam dynamics.
(NLC),the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), the Spallation
Neutron Source (SNS), and fourth-generation light sources. 2 ELECTROMAGNETIC MODELING
All of these projects will require high-resolution modeling
far beyond that which has ever been performed by the ac- The development of new electromagnetic tools for the
celerator community. Similar modeling will be needed for Grand Challenge project originated from advanced acceler-
proposed accelerator-driven technologies, including Accel- ator structure research for the NLC. The main thrust of the
erator Production of Tritium (APT), Accelerator Transmu- effort is aimed towards large-scale simulations of realistic
tation of Waste (ATW), and Accelerator Driven Energy 3-D structures. Such a capability can be applied to system-
Production (ADEP). scale analysis such as finding the wakefields in the entire
For example, future high average power linear accelera- DDS as described in Fig. 1, or to individual component de-
tors, such as the APT, will have to operate with extremely sign such as one cell in the DDS Fig. 2, by modeling with
low beam loss ( 0:1 nA=m) to prevent unacceptably an accuracy approaching fabrication tolerance level. The
high levels of radioactivity. To ensure that this require- new set of tools incorporates the following features to en-
ment will be met, simulations with on the order of 100 able the high-resolution modeling required: (i) the use of
million particles are needed. An equally challenging mod- unstructured grids to capture realistic geometries, (ii) the
eling problem exists in the NLC for which the linac design development of refinement algorithms to improve accuracy
is dominated by the issue of beam emittance growth due to and optimize computing resources, and (iii) the implemen-
long-range transverse wakefields. To suppress this effect, tation on parallel platforms to take advantage of the latest
a complex 3D accelerating structure, the Damped Detuned in HPC resources for large-scale simulations.
Work supported by the U.S. Department of Energy, Division of Math- Presently, there are two types of solvers being developed
ematical, Information, and Computational Sciences, Division of High En- for the tool set. The first type is formulated in the frequency
ergy Physics, and Office of Defense Programs. domain using linear and quadratic finite elements on an ir-
701
tive library AZTEC to solve the sparse linear systems.
The other type of solver is a three-dimensional time-
domain code, called 3, that uses a generalized Yee algo-
rithm on an unstructured grid [1][2], Fig. 3. A leapfrog
time advancement scheme with filtering is implemented as
well as a broadband termination at the waveguide ports.
Therefore it is able to handle pulse transmission for S-
parameter evaluations of RF components over a wide fre-
quency range in a single run. Dipole excitation is also pos-
sible to calculate external Q’s of waveguide-loaded cavi-
ties. A parallel version, 3P, currently runs on a shared
memory machine, like the 4-node Intel Xeon server, using
threads while the distributed memory version for the T3E is
Figure 1: One end of the DDS 206-cell section including
presently under development. The inclusion of a transiting
the input coupler and HOM load termination.
rigid beam to compute wakefields is planned.
2.1 Examples
We present here some recent results from
3P and 3.
First, we report the modeling of a single DDS cell using
3P on the T3E. Fig. 4 shows the cell geometry partition-
Figure 2: One-eighth of the DDS cell geometry from a
solid model.
1
0
0
1
0
1
11
00
00
11
00
11 B
n 1 Figure 4: Domain decomposition of the DDS cell.
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
E 0
1
Figure 3: A non-orthogonal cell for the generalized Yee
algorithm used in 3.
regular grid, and includes eigenmode solvers in two and
three dimensions, named
2 and
3 respectively. The par-
allel versions,
2P and
3P, use MPI and currently run on
the SGI/Cray T3E at NERSC. In the case of
3P , the cal-
culation proceeds in three steps: First, there is the mesh
distribution step with a module called DistMesh that uses
the parallel library ParMETIS for partitioning unstructured
graphs. This is followed by the matrix assembly step which
consists of the finite element formulation that provides the
mass and stiffness matrices for the generalized eigenvalue
problem. The final step is a solution step, with Lanczos or
Jacobi-Davidson algorithms, that utilizes the parallel itera- Figure 5: Mass matrix distribution over 16 processors.
702
Figure 8: Input power coupler for the NLC linac modeled
Figure 6: RFQ cavity for the SNS. by 3.
10000
disk position
8000
Amplitude
6000
4000
2000
0
−0.01 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
z (m)
0
disk position
−100
Phase (degree)
−200
−300
−400
−0.01 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
z (m)
Figure 7: Calculated frequencies and measured data for Figure 9: Field amplitude and phase of accelerating field at
two modes of the SNS RFQ cavity. matched condition.
ing into 8 pieces using DistMesh/ParMETIS. Fig. 5 is the
mass matrix distribution over 16 processors. Together they The 3 capability is demonstrated by the matching and
demonstrate the importance of domain decomposition to tuning of the input power coupler for the NLC accelerator
achieve load balancing. Currently,
3P is the tool we use section. Fig. 8 shows the mesh used in modeling a pair of
to determine the new dimensions for improved versions of couplers separated by two regular cells. 3 finds the match
the DDS design. Another
3P result comes from the Spal- by either single frequency or pulse excitation. The reflec-
lation Neutron Source project for which we modeled the tion is determined to be 0.005 at 11.424 GHz. The match
RFQ cavity as shown in Fig. 6. This cavity is difficult to is confirmed by the accelerating field amplitude and phase
simulate accurately due to the disparate lengthscales be- along the beam axis. Fig. 9 indicates the field that is due
tween the focusing vanes, the stabilizing rods, and the cav- to a travelling wave with the correct phase advance of 120
ity proper. Fig. 7 shows the convergence of the calculated degrees per cell from coupler to coupler. The advantage
frequencies to measured data for the two modes of interest of 3 over other commercial packages will be the ability
when the resolution is increased to require several million to model much larger problems when the parallel version,
degrees of freedom in the simulation. 3P, is completed.
703
3 BEAM DYNAMICS SIMULATIONS 3.1 Examples
Fig. 10 shows the horizontal and vertical rms emittances
Many systems involving intense charged-particle beams from a 2D Langevin simulation of a beam in a potential that
can be described by the Vlasov/Poisson equations. There can produce chaotic dynamics. In the absence of damping
are two main approaches to solving these equations: parti- and diffusion, the motion is governed by the Hamiltonian,
cle simulation techniques and direct methods.
H=
1 (p2 + p2 ) + x4 + y4 + 1 x2 y2 + q ; (1)
In the particle simulation approach, the beam distribu-
tion function is represented by a number of macroparti-
2 x y 2
cles, typically 10’s to 100’s of millions in a large scale where and are constants, and where is scalar po-
simulation. Often the single particle equations of motion tential associated with the beam space charge. Damping
are derived from a Hamiltonian which includes both ex- and diffusion were turned on at t = 0 in the simulation,
ternally applied fields and a mean field due to the beam’s and the beam approached thermal equilibrium quickly, as
space charge: H = Hext + Hsc . Such a form is ideally is evident from the emittance curves which reach their fi-
suited to the application of symplectic split-operator meth- nal values after about 20 units of time. As further evidence
ods [3]. These methods provide a powerful framework ca- that that beam has reached equilibrium, we turned off the
pable of dealing with the complicated Hamiltonians often damping and diffusion at t = 100 and observed little or no
encountered in accelerator physics, where the Hamiltonian change in the emittances.
is usually approximated by a high-order polynomial in the Though early work in beam halo physics emphasized
phase space variables. Besides being able to treat Hamilto- 1D and 2D models of the transverse beam halo, recent
nians with many terms, the split-operator approach is easily activity has turned to 3D models including longitudinal
generalized to high-order accuracy in time. A well-known beam halo. We have developed a parallel PIC code called
fourth-order algorithm is due to Forest and Ruth [4], and an HALO3D specifically for studying beam halo formation in
arbitrary-order scheme was derived by Yoshida [5]. There 3D bunches. Such a code is extremely useful for testing
are also implicit symplectic methods that do not require analytical models of halo formation, such as particle-core
the Hamiltonian to be split into a sum of exactly solv- models. A unique feature of the code is that it has a ca-
able pieces [3]. Finally, time-dependent systems are easily pability to model a new 3D beam equilibrium distribution,
treated by “extending the phase space” [4]. developed by R. Gluckstern and A. Fedotov of the Uni-
versity of Maryland [10]. It also has the ability to include
Unlike some split-operator treatments that separate the nonlinear rf focusing fields, a feature incorporated in col-
Hamiltonian into terms involving only position and only laboration with J. Barnard and S. Lund of Lawrence Liver-
momentum, our particle simulations separate the Hamilto- more National Laboratory. Based on their CTP (“core test
nian into terms involving the external fields and terms in- particle”) code, Barnard and Lund had predicted that the
volving the self fields. The external fields are treated using period-2 parametric resonance widely known to be a ma-
well-established techniques from magnetic optics. One ad- jor source of beam halo could be detuned by the presence
vantage of this approach is that it enables one to take large of nonlinear rf fields. This was supported by HALO3D
time steps, since the dynamics due to external fields is usu- simulations, as shown in Figs. 11 and 12. These figures
ally dominated by a linear map which is easily obtained show a stroboscopic plot in longitudinal phase space of test
analytically or numerically. To treat the self fields, we particles moving in the field of a mismatched beam. The
use a 3D Particle-In-Cell (PIC) approach with area weight- resonance is evident in Fig. 11, which has a linear model of
ing. Open boundary conditions are treated using the con- the rf fields. In contrast, the resonance is absent in Fig. 12,
volution method of Hockney [6]. We are currently using which has a nonlinear model of the rf fields.
and evaluating several methods of implementing our par- In addition to HALO3D, we are also developing a new
allel particle simulation codes: High Performance Fortran 3D beam dynamics code called IMPACT (Integrated-Map
(HPF), C++ with message passing via the POOMA frame- and Particle Accelerator Tracking code). This code has an
work [7], and Fortran 90 with message passing [8]. In our accurate and efficient treatment of RF accelerating gaps,
HPF codes, charge deposition and field interpolation are obtained by numerical integration of the gap transfer map
parallelized using the method of Ferrell and Bertschinger rather than integration of single particle trajectories. The
[9]. In our codes that use explicit message passing, a “par- code is especially useful for modeling superconducting
ticle manager” is used to make the data needed by proces- proton linacs, where there are only a few types of accel-
sors local to the processors prior to charge deposition and erating cavities. An example input geometry that was used
field interpolation. to test the code is shown in Fig. 13. The figure shows the
Stochastic corrections to Vlasov/Poisson evolution oc- quadrupole gradient in a FODO cell along with the elec-
cur due to particle collisions and noise in external fields. tric field on-axis due to accelerating cavities between the
To treat these effects we have modified our PIC codes to quadrupoles. Finally, we have developed a parallel version
include Langevin forces and damping, which corresponds of a code called LINAC, developed by K. Crandall, which
to solving the Fokker-Planck equation for the distribution is the primary code used by the APT project for halo simu-
function. An example is shown in the next section. lations. In addition to parallelizing LINAC, we also added
704
0.005
a 3D space charge capability, as described in the preceding
section. 0.004
0.003
4 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 0.002
0.001
This research used resources of the National Energy Re-
dz/ds
0
search Scientific Computing Center, which is supported by
-0.001
the Office of Energy Research of the U.S. Department of
Energy under Contract No. DE-AC03-76SF00098. This -0.002
research also used resources of the Advanced Computing -0.003
Laboratory, located at Los Alamos National Laboratory, -0.004
which is supported by the U.S. Department of Energy. -0.005
-0.015 -0.01 -0.005 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02
Longitudinal position, z(m)
rms emittances vs. t
0.26
epsx
yrms
0.24
Figure 12: z-pz phase space plot from a HALO3D simula-
tion with rf nonlinearity.
0.22
0.2
60
epsx,epsy
’G_quad’
’E_acc’
0.18
40
0.16
G_quad (kG/m), E_acc (MV/m) 20
0.14
0.12
0
0.1
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
t -20
-40
Figure 10: Emittance curves from a 2D Langevin simula-
tion of a beam driven to thermal equilibrium.
-60
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
z(m)
0.006
Figure 13: Example cell geometry for IMPACT simulation.
0.004
[3] E. Forest et al., “Application of the Yoshida-Ruth Techniques
0.002
to Implicit Integration and Multi-Map Explicit Integration,”
Phys. Lett. A 158, 99-101 (1991).
dz/ds
0
[4] E. Forest and R. Ruth, “Fourth-Order Symplectic Integra-
-0.002
tion,” Physica D 43, 105-117 (1990).
[5] H. Yoshida, Phys. Lett. A 150, 262 (1990).
-0.004 [6] R. W. Hockney and J. W. Eastwood, Computer Simulation
Using Particles, (Adam Hilger, NY, 1988).
-0.006
-0.02 -0.015 -0.01 -0.005 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 [7] J. C. Cummings and W. F. Humphrey, “Parallel Particle Simu-
Longitudinal position, z(m)
lation Using the POOMA Framework,” Proc. 8th SIAM Conf.
on Parallel Processing for Scientific Computing” (1997)
Figure 11: z-pz phase space plot from a HALO3D simula- [8] V. Decyk, “Skeleton PIC Codes for Parallel Computers,”
tion without rf nonlinearity. Comp. Phys. Comm. 87, 87-99 (1995).
[9] R. Ferrell and E. Bertschinger, “Particle-Mesh Methods on
the Connection Machine,” Int. J. Mod. Phys. C 5, 933-949
5 REFERENCES (1994).
[10] R. Gluckstern and A. Fedotov, “Halo Formation in 3-D
[1] Proceedings of the 1998 International Computational Accel- Bunches,” Phys. Rev. E, 58 (4), 4977-4990 (1998).
erator Physics Conference, in preparation.
[2] C. Ng et al.,, “Modeling Linear Collider RF Components in
the Time Domain with Unstructured Grids,” this conference.
705
HIGH-INTENSITY LINAC STUDIES IN FRANCE
J-M Lagniel
CEA-Saclay, DSM-DAPNIA-SEA, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France
Abstract European Commission. The confrontation of ideas with
Teams from different French research agencies are scientists from different labs is very fruitful and the work
-
working on high-intensity high-duty factor proton, H and with our European, Japanese, American and Russian
deuteron linear accelerators for several applications colleagues has been and is still highly appreciated. The
(waste transmutation, spallation neutron sources, tritium IFMIF design is based on two 125 mA, 35-40 MeV, cw
production, materials irradiation facilities...). The deuteron linacs. A full description of the work done
conceptual design of the TRISPAL project achieved by during the IFMIF Conceptual Design Activity (CDA,
the CEA for tritium production is presented. A separate 1995 and 1996) can be found in ref. [4]. The project is
R&D program undertaken by a CEA-CNRS (IN2P3) now in the Conceptual Design Evaluation (CDE) phase.
collaboration is also discussed. This program includes The CEA-Saclay team is working on the ion source, high-
both the construction of a high intensity (100 mA), cw power 175 MHz RF systems (in collaboration with
(continuous wave), 10 MeV, prototype linac (IPHI) and Thomson-Tubes-Electronics) and beam loss.
the fabrication and test of β < 1 superconducting cavities. The CEA is also involved in the 5 MW European
Spallation Source (ESS) project [5]. CEA-Saclay will
1 OVERVIEW OF THE HIGH-INTENSITY participate in the R&D program for the linac (1.33 GeV,
-
107 mA H peak current, 6% duty cycle). R&D studies
LINAC ACTIVITIES IN FRANCE -
are being contemplated in the development of H ion
Proton and deuteron accelerators with average beam source, the beam diagnostics and the design of the
power greater than 1 MW are being studied all over the accelerating structures including the evaluation of a
world for numerous applications (see [1-2] for reviews), superconducting cavity option for the high energy part of
mainly because they are increasingly considered as ideal the linac.
sources of neutrons (high flux, broad energy spectra, cw Two French research agencies, CEA and CNRS-IN2P3
or pulsed mode, safety associated with fast shut-down...). (Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique - Institut
In France, the CEA (Commissariat à l'Energie National de Physique Nucléaire et de Physique des
Atomique) started the study of the TRISPAL project for Particules), have started an evaluation program for the
tritium production in 1992. In this project, a high- accelerator driven transmutation of waste (ADTW)
intensity cw proton beam is used to produce a high technology. In such a system, spallation neutrons are used
neutron flux through spallation process in a heavy metal to transmute long lived nuclei with high radio-toxicity
6
target. These neutrons are then used to transmute Li into into short lived or stable nuclei. The accelerator is
tritium. The TRISPAL conceptual design is now coupled to a sub-critical target where minor actinides
complete [3]. The 24 MW beam power linac (40 mA, and/or fission products for transmutation are located
600 MeV, cw, protons) designed by a team from CEA- [6-7]. A beam power of 20 - 40 MW or more is needed.
Bruyères-le-Châtel, CEA-Saclay and Thomson-CSF- For this, 20 - 60 mA cw proton beam will be accelerated
Airsys is described in section 2. by a linac up to an energy range 600 - 1200 MeV. The
The CEA-Saclay team is also involved for the last choice of beam intensity and energy must result from a
several years in the IFMIF project (International Fusion complex optimization process of the whole system and
Material Irradiation Facility). The aim of this IEA the design must take into account the severe constraints
(International Energy Agency) activity is the design of a on the accelerator availability and beam losses [7-8].
high-flux neutron source with an energy spectrum peaked A significant R&D program has been undertaken by
near 14 MeV for research and development of materials the CEA-CNRS (IN2P3) collaboration in order to
for the next generation of fusion reactors. The IFMIF optimize the design of such a high-power proton linac
team has the distinction to have a broad community of which could be also used for the next generation of
scientists from different fields (accelerator, Li-target, test radioactive ion beam facilities and for muon colliders.
facility, users, design integration) and from different The program includes the construction of a high intensity
countries e.g. the European Union (EU), Japan and the (up to 100 mA), cw, 10 MeV prototype (IPHI, section 3)
United States of America, along with the Russian and the fabrication and test of β < 1 superconducting RF
Federation as an associate member. The EU contribution (SRF) cavities (section 4).
in the accelerator field is done by a Frankfurt University -
CEA-Saclay collaboration thanks to a support of the
706
2 THE TRISPAL PROJECT The high output energy of the RFQ is achieved in a 8 m
long structure thanks to the segmented coupled RFQ
TRISPAL is the CEA project for tritium production concept developed at LANL [9]. This capability of
using spallation neutrons. The accelerator parameters pushing up the RFQ energy is very useful because as
have been optimized to produce the requested quantity of β = v/c increases, the first cells of the DTL become long
tritium per year. Optimization process has taken into enough (~ 8 cm) to accommodate electromagnetic
account the fluctuation in the cost of electricity during the quadrupoles. The front end cavities can then operate at a
year (electricity in France is ten times more expensive relatively high RF frequency allowing the construction of
during the winter). The process has lead to the choice of a a high energy machine without a frequency jump
beam power of 24 MW delivered by a 600 MeV 40 mA (352 MHz for the TRISPAL basic design), or only with a
cw proton linac [3]. jump of a factor of two if 704 MHz SRF cavities are used
The main directive to the TRISPAL design team was to in the high energy part. This is an important point to
be as conservative as possible for the choice of the facilitate the beam matching in the accelerator, to avoid
technology and parameters. This accelerator based tritium halo formation, and unacceptable beam losses.
production system compete directly with the process The medium energy part of the TRISPAL linac is made
based on a conventional nuclear reactor. Thus, the linac up of an RFQ to DTL matching section, a 29 MeV DTL
must be built as part of an industrial facility. The major and SDTL cavities up to 85 MeV. The beam matching
considerations that went into the design of the accelerator between the RFQ and the DTL is done in a ~ 80 cm
are : section using four quadrupoles and two 352 MHz
- limit beam losses to an extremely low level bunchers. The phase advances per unit length are kept
-9
(~∆I/I < 10 ) in order to allow hands-on maintenance. constant from the last cells of the RFQ to the first cells of
- achieve a high reliability/availability (greater than the DTL and the beam envelope modulations are
90%) and minimize the number of abrupt beam minimized as much as possible in order to obtain an
interruptions to limit the stress in the target. It has been intensity independent matching and to minimize
calculated that the TRISPAL target (including the emittance growth. The transmission through the 29 MeV
window) can accept up to 10000 abrupt beam stops DTL is 100% ; a full beam dynamics study including
(longer than 100 ms) per year. This approximately errors on both the beam and accelerator parameters has
corresponds to a mean value of one stop per hour which been completed to determine tolerances [10]. The DTL
seems to be realistic. has two tanks, each fed by an 1.3 MW RF system similar
- Minimize the total cost of the machine (construction to those used in LEP or ESRF accelerators. A SDTL
and operation) without compromising the two previous (Segmented DTL), mechanically simpler to build than a
items. standard DTL, is chosen for acceleration from 29 to
Figure 1 shows the layout of the TRISPAL linac. The 85 MeV. The SDTL is composed of short DTL cavities
24 MW proton beam is produced using 4 types of RF (5-7 cells) with simple drift tubes, the transverse focusing
cavities, all operating at the same frequency (352 MHz). being provided by the quadrupoles located outside the
This minimizes bunch compression which is always a cavities.
source of mismatch and halo formation. The front end is LEP-type CCL copper cavities (see figure 2) take the
composed of an 95 kV ECR source, a low energy beam beam to the final energy (600 MeV). The beam dynamics
transport line with two solenoids and a 5 MeV RFQ. The beyond the DTL has been studied using a simplified
main parameters of the RFQ are listed in Table 1. The linear model ; more accurate simulations using
maximum electric field is limited to 1.5 Kilpatrick to multiparticle codes (including error analysis) may lead to
reduce the sparking rate. The price for this choice is a an adjustment of the transition energies. In the present
relatively low transmission. TRISPAL design, each SDTL and CCL cavity is fed by
couplers capable of maximum power of 125 kW (a
Table 1, TRISPAL RFQ main parameters conservative value). The RF power is supplied by 49
Length 8 m (578 cells) 1.3 MW RF systems. A quadrupole doublet focusing
lattice is chosen. The SDTL uses seven β families in a
Vane voltage 88.5 kV (1.5 Kp) total of 40 cavities with beam apertures ranging from Φ
R0 (mean aperture) 4.38 mm (min a = 2.8 mm) 50 to 30 mm and effective shunt impedance ranging from
ρ (vane radius) 3.72 mm (ρ/R0 = 0.85) 44 to 34 MΩ/m (80% SUPERFISH). The CCL uses
Input trans. Emit. 0.25 π mm mrad (rms norm) twelve β families in a total of 344 cavities with beam
apertures ranging from Φ 30 to 60 mm and effective
Output trans. Emit. 0.23 π mm mrad (rms norm) shunt impedance of ~30 MΩ/m. An option using
Output long. Emit. 0.12 MeV deg (rms norm) superconducting RF cavities is also presented in addition
Transmission 93% (for 50 mA input current) to this basic conservative design.
707
E C R
P ro to n
s o u rc e 840 m
0
8 m ~ 30 m ~ 65 m 730 m
R F Q D T L S D T L C C L T e s t ta rg e t
(re d u c e d p o w e r)
B eam
95 keV exp an d er
IP H I
5 M eV 29 M eV 85 M eV
P ro to n s
T a rg e t 600 M eV , 40 m A
Figure 1 : TRISPAL layout
Figure 2 : TRISPAL CCL high-energy copper cavity
Figure 3 : General layout of the IPHI project
708
3 IPHI No damage to the new HV extraction electrodes was
observed after more than 300 hrs of cw operation at
IPHI (Injecteur de Protons Haute Intensité) is the name 100 mA. The stability and reproducibility of the beam are
of the CEA-CNRS R&D program undertaken in 1997 for excellent. A non-interceptive emittance measurement
the front end of a typical high-power linac. The objective system based on measurement of beam profiles with a
is to gain experience in this difficult part of the CCD camera has been successfully tested recently [12].
accelerator in order to optimize the whole machine in The key parameters of the 5 MeV RFQ are now almost
terms of performances, cost, reliability and availability. fixed. Table 3 shows that our objective to achieve a very
To summarize, the IPHI objectives are : high beam transmissions with a relatively low maximum
- validation of the beam dynamics codes in the low- electric field is at hand. The optimization of the beam
energy sections where space-charge effects are dominant, dynamics has been done using a large set of codes
- knowledge of the beam distribution at an energy where developed at Saclay, LANL (PARMTEQM) and MRTI
halo considerations are crucial, (LIDOS) [13]. An in-depth analysis of the different
- demonstration of the merit of technological choices and models used in these codes is underway [14].
adequacy of design codes,
- acquisition of data on reliability and availability, reality Table 3 : IPHI RFQ main parameters
check on the cost of the components and ability of the Length 8m
manufacturers to build them.
Vane voltage 87.34 to 122.82 kV (1.7 Kp)
The project goal is to build a 10 MeV "Injector for
R0 (mean aperture) 3.69 to 5.27 mm
Protons with High Intensity" (up to 100 mA) and duty
cycle up to 100%. The first stage is a High-Intensity ρ/R0 0.85
Light-Ion Source, SILHI, designed to produce high- A 3.56 to 4.41 mm
intensity proton or deuteron beams at 95 kV. This M 1.0 to 1.735
2.45 GHz ECR source is now at a high performance level Input trans. Emit. 0.25 π mm mrad (rms norm)
[11]. Table 2 shows the current performance data Output trans. Emit. 0.25 π mm mrad (rms norm)
(consistent values except when specified) for two values
Output long. Emit. 0.18 MeV deg (rms norm)
of extraction diameter.
Transmission 99.4% for 1.8 Kp
(100 mA input current) 99.3% for 1.7 Kp
Table 2, status of the SILHI source 97.3% for 1.6 Kp
Objective Achieved
Extraction Diameter (mm) 10 8 10
The thermo-mechanical analysis of the cavity and the
study of the RFQ vacuum system has been successfully
Proton current (mA) 100 91 98
completed. Several prototypes will be built before the end
Duty cycle (%) 100 100 100
of this year to validate the fabrication process. Financial
Extraction voltage (kV) 95 95 92
commitment for the high-power RF system will be made
Total current (mA) ~110 108 122.5
in 1999 (klystrons, windows and circulators).
Proton fraction (%) > 90 84 80
2
To optimize the geometry of the DTL, a full 3D
Plasma density (mA/cm ) 140 215 156 magnetic analysis of the low energy quadrupoles (around
RF power (W) 1200 1100 1200 5 MeV) has been done. The field non-linearities have
Hydrogen mass flow (sccm) < 10 2 3 been calculated taking into account the effect of
Beam current noise (%) ±1 ±2 NA surrounding quadrupoles. The construction of a short tank
Norm. rms emittance 0.20 0.17 0.21 (4 cells) for high-power tests will start at the end of this
(π.mm.mrad) @ 80 mA @ 97 mA year. A affirmative decision for the construction of a
10 MeV tank is expected in 1999. Total investment for
A first uninterrupted operation was done at the end of the IPHI prototype is ~8 M ECU (equipment only) and
1997 to measure the availability of the source. It was the CEA - CNRS-IN2P3 team consist of around 45 men-
operated continuously for 100 hours (~5 days) at 100 mA year/year. The key dates are :
cw. An availability of 96% was obtained with 1 h 45 mn
for the Mean Time Between Failures and 4 mn 44 s for Source / LEBT :
the Mean Time To Repair. Most of the beam interruptions Test the matching conditions to the RFQ 1999
occurred during the first day. When this conditioning RFQ :
period is not taken into account in the statistics, the Tests of the 2 RF systems 01-06/2001
source availability reach 99% (MTBF = 5 h 33 mn). EMC Tuning of the RFQ cavity 06-12/2001
improvements made after this test and incorporation of an Low beam current tests 01-06/2002
automatic restart controlled by computer is expected to Nominal beam 06/2002
improve these already high performance statistics. Diagnostic Line :
Beam measurements at nominal power 09-12/2002
709
DTL : aperture ? - Is 100 MeV the right energy to start SRF
Short tank hot RF tests 04-08/2000 cavities ? An answer to the last question is definitely
Start a 10 MeV tank 01/2001 (not yet funded) needed before starting the R&D on β ~ 0.5 SRF cavities.
Analysis and improvement of the codes to achieve high
4 SRF CAVITY STUDIES precision for these beam dynamics calculations are an
A strong R&D effort on β < 1 SRF cavities is justified important part of the current effort [21-22]. For this, as
by the fact that this technology brings important well as for the development of the SRF cavity
advantages, the most obvious one being economy. In fact, technology, a strong and productive collaboration is in
the high RF to beam power efficiency (almost 100%) place with several laboratories around the world,
significantly reduces the operation cost. In addition, the particularly with LANL (USA) and INFN (Italy).
investment cost can also be slightly reduced through
length reduction. Standard copper RF cavities typically REFERENCES
provide ~1.5 MeV/m with a shunt impedance ~35 MΩ/m. [1] S.O. Schriber, "Survey of proposed high intensity
A 1 GeV linac is then ~ 670 m long and ~43 MW of RF accelerators and their applications", EPAC94 proc. p.213
power is lost in the copper (~ 70 MW from the plug). [2] M. Promé, "Major projects for the use of high power
An important know-how for the SRF cavity has been linacs", LINAC96 proc. p.9
obtained by the CEA - CNRS-IN2P3 collaboration (CEA- [3] Rapport de faisabilité TRISPAL, CEA-DAM, 1998
Saclay, IPN-Orsay and LAL) and by the French industry [4] IFMIF Conceptual Design Activity final report,
(CERCA...) thanks to several studies and constructions Edited by M. Martone, ENEA Frascati Report
done for the TESLA-TTF electron linac. This expertise is [5] The European Spallation Source study, Volume III,
obviously very useful in the high-power proton linac field The ESS technical study, ESS-96-53-M, November 1996
for which β < 1 SRF cavities must be developed. The first [6] See the proc. of the "Second International Conference
studies done in 1996 by a LANL - CEA-Saclay team on Accelerator-Driven Transmutation Technologies and
demonstrated that beam losses as high as Applications", June 1996, Kalmar, Sweden
16 2
10 protons/cm /s do not affect the superconducting [7] J-M. Lagniel, "A review of linac and beam transport
properties of niobium cavities [15-16]. In 1997, four systems for transmutation", EPAC98 proc.
700 MHz single-cell cavities (β = 0.48 and 0.64) were [8] J-M. Lagniel, "Halos and chaos in space-charge
successfully built and tested at LANL with participation dominated beams", EPAC96 proc. p.163
of CEA-Saclay [17-18-19]. Several single cell 704 MHz [9] L.M. Young, "Segmented resonantly coupled RFQ",
β = 0.6 Nb cavities have been made by CERCA for CEA- PAC93 proc. p.3136
Saclay ; low power RF tests will start very soon. Studies [10] D. Uriot, Internal memos, March and August 1998
are also underway for the development of high-power RF [11] R. Gobin et al., "New performances of the cw high-
couplers. "CRYHOLAB", the horizontal cryostat being intensity light-ion source SILHI", EPC98 proc.
built by CEA and CNRS, will be available in 1999 to test [12] R. Ferdinand, "Non-interceptive emittance measure-
multicell cavities. ment of a high intensity beam at low energy", this conf.
In the near future, a full study for the best choice of the [13] B. Bondarev et al., "CW RFQ designing using the
RF frequency (352 vs 704 MHz) in terms of cost, beam LIDOS.RFQ Codes", this conference
dynamics and reliability-availability will be done. A new [14] R. Duperrier et al., "Field description in an RFQ and
R&D programme called "ASH" (Accélérateur its effect on beam dynamics', this conference
Supraconducteur pour Hybrides) [20] has also been [15] B. Rusnak et al., "In-situ proton irradiation and
proposed for high-power RF tests. The aim is to design a measurement of superconducting RF cavities under
cryomodule fully equipped with high field cavities, high- cryogenic conditions", PAC97 proc.
power couplers and cryogenic connections, to measure [16] H. Safa et al., "A superconducting niobium RF
the real cryogenic losses of the system. The ultimate cavity irradiated with a proton beam", Submitted to NIM
objective of this proposal (1999-2002) is to transfer [17] B. Rusnak et al., "High intensity proton linac
technology to the industry. th
activities at Los Alamos", Proc. of the 8 workshop on RF
Together with the SRF cavity technology development, superconductivity, Padova, Italy, October 1997
beam dynamics studies including errors on both beam [18] H. Safa, "Optimum operating temperature of
and accelerator parameters need to be done. This would superconducting cavities", this conference
answer several basic questions such as - Are the long [19] H. Safa, "Multiple coupling and beam loading of an
focusing periods due to the use of room temperature RF cavity", this conference
quadrupoles lead to acceptable beam losses ? - Must we [20] H. Safa., "Le projet ASH", Internal memo, July 1998
limit the accelerating field to avoid emittance growth due [21] P. Lapostolle et al., "The SCHERM space charge
to a strong transverse-longitudinal coupling ? - Must we routine, limitations and solutions", this conference
use superconducting quadrupoles to shorten the focusing [22] N. Pichoff et al., "Simulation results with an
periods ? - What is the best choice for the beam alternate 3D space charge routine, PICNIC", this conf.
710
COMMISSIONING OF THE KEKB LINAC
Y. Ogawa, Linac Commissioning Group*
High Energy Accelerator Research Organization (KEK), Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0801 JAPAN
width of about 10 ps (FWHM). After acceleration to the
Abstract
end of sector B (1.5 GeV), it enters into the J arc section,
The injector linac for the KEKB ring has been in which achromatic and isochronous conditions are
commissioned step by step since last autumn, while fulfilled. It is then re-accelerated either to the end of the
continuing the construction of the remaining parts as well linac (8.0 GeV) or to the positron production target (3.3
as ordinary operation for beam injection into the Photon GeV), depending on the operation mode. The 8-GeV
Factory. The commissioning has so far given quite electron beam is directly transported into the ring, while
satisfactory results: (1) A single-bunched beam with a the produced positron beam is accelerated to the end of
charge of about 1.5 nC for direct injection into the ring the linac (3.5 GeV) and passes into the ring injection line
was accelerated to the end of the linac (about 8 GeV). (2) after an energy-compression system (ECS) located at the
A single-bunched beam with a charge of 6 nC for positron beam switchyard. In the case of positrons, the primary
production was accelerated to a positron production target electrons also pass through a bunch-compression system
(3.3 GeV). Positron beams with a charge of about 0.5 nC (BCS) just before the target to decrease the bunch width
have been successfully accelerated to the end of the linac so that a positron bunch-lengthening effect in the
(3.5 GeV) and transported to the beam line of the ring solenoids after the target can be partially compensated,
with a proper energy spread. (3) Various kinds of beam realizing an appropriate bunch width for a positron energy
instrumentation have been employed and utilized for spread.
precise beam tuning and diagnosis. Two operation modes (8-GeV, 1.2-nC electrons and
3.5-GeV, 0.64-nC positrons) have thus been almost
1 INTRODUCTION established, realizing the designed beam characteristics.
For efficient commissioning, we have organized for the
The construction of the KEKB linac [1] was completed
first time a linac-commissioning group comprising both
on schedule at the beginning of May, 1998. The
members of the linac and the KEKB ring. We believe
commissioning, which had been carried out step by step
that it has made a great success in that linac beam
since October, 1997, has entered a full-commissioning
parameters required for ring injection are being
phase at this moment so that two design beams for the
intensively pursued while sharing common
KEKB ring could be realized: full acceleration of an
commissioning experiences.
electron beam (about 8.0 GeV) as well as the production
of a large quantity of positrons and their acceleration (3.5
GeV). 2 OUTLINE OF THE COMMISSIONING
The layout of the linac is shown in Fig. 1, comprising Fig. 2 shows the results of commissioning concerning
two parts: a newly constructed part (sectors A, B, C and J the beam positions and intensity in two operation modes
arc) and an upgraded part (sectors 1-5 and a beam of the KEKB linac: an 8-GeV electron beam and a 3.5-
switchyard). A beam starting from an electron gun passes GeV positron beam. In the following sections, the beam-
two subharmonic bunchers (SHB1: 114.24 MHz and tuning process is discussed along with the beam flow of
SHB2: 571.2 MHz) and an S-band bunching section (2856 the linac.
MHz) to accomplish a single-bunched beam with a bunch
Beam Gun
J arc Sector-B Sector-A
: Q magnets
B-8 B-7 B-6 B-5 B-4 B-3 B-2 B-1 A-4 A-3 A-2 A-1
Positron production target
C-1 C-2 C-3 C-4 C-5 C-6 C-7 C-8 1-1 1-2 1-3 1-4 1-5 1-6 1-7 BCS 2-1 2-2 2-3 2-4 2-6 2-7 2-8
Sector-1 Beam Sector-2
Sector-C
PF ring
3-1 3-2 3-3 3-4 3-5 3-6 3-7 3-8 4-1 4-2 4-3 4-4 4-5 4-6 4-7 4-8 5-1 5-2 5-3 5-4 5-5 5-6 5-7 5-8 ECS
Sector-3 Sector-4 Sector-5
KEKB ring
Beam
0 100 m
Figure 1: Layout of the KEKB linac. Sectors A, B, C and J-arc are newly constructed.
*
N. Akasaka, A. Enomoto, J. Flanagan, H. Fukuma, Y. Funakoshi, K. Furukawa, T. Ieiri, N. Iida, T. Kamitani, T.
Kawamoto, M. Kikuchi, H. Koiso, T. T. Nakamura, Y. Ogawa, S. Ohsawa, K. Oide, K. Satoh, M. Suetake, T. Suwada
711
2.3 Acceleration in Sectors A and B
In sectors A and B, the energy must reach the J-arc
design energy of 1.5 GeV, which is realized by using 10
accelerator units with a margin of one unit. The last two
units are used as a knob for adjusting the energy in a
Electron: 8 GeV, 1.5 nC cross-phase configuration so as to compensate for any
energy spread due to the slope of the sine function. In a
high-current acceleration mode, the acceleration phase for
the rest of units is set at an off-crest angle of about 15
degrees in order to minimize the energy spread, satisfying
the J-arc energy acceptance of 2.8% (FW=4σ ).
Beam transmission from the end of the bunching
section to that of sector B is quite good, accomplishing
almost 100% without any significant loss. It has been
anticipated, however, that some problems related to wake-
Positron: 3.5 GeV, 0.5 nC
field effects might emerge for an intense primary electron
beam with a charge of 10 nC. In fact, we sometimes
observed some peculiar phenomena concerning beam
Figure 2: Two design beams have been achieved at the profiles in high-current beam acceleration, while in beam
end of the linac: 8-GeV, 1.5-nC electron and 3.5 GeV, acceleration with a small charge of 1.5 nC we found no
0.5-nC positron beams. such problems. Details concerning these items are
discussed in Section 4.
2.1 Electron Gun and Its Orbit Measurement
2.4 Tuning of the J-arc Section
The electron gun emits a beam with an energy of 200
keV and a pulse width of 2-3 ns (FW). The beam is The J-arc section is designed to be achromatic and
immediately injected into the bunching section to form a isochronous [3]. The achromaticity condition is fulfilled
single bunch in the S-band structure. Since the beam is in the following manner:
still non-relativistic in this region, a solenoid-type • Measure the dispersion at all beam-position
focusing system is employed against strong space-charge monitors (BPM: see Section 3.1) along the J-arc by
forces among particles. It sometimes happens, however, changing the energy using the energy knob.
that if a beam having even a slight inclination to the • Calculate the strengths of the quadrupole magnets
solenoid field axis is injected into this region, the central so as to simulate the observed dispersion and obtain
orbit may rotate in the magnetic field, causing an ratios to the set values.
emittance growth. In order to prevent this kind of beam • Set the strengths of the quadrupole magnets at the
degradation, we not only checked the transverse values calculated from the inverse ratios to the set
components of the magnetic field, but also improved the values.
alignment of the electron gun. As a result, the beam-orbit • Measure again the dispersion and iterate the process.
rotation is considerably minimized and the beam profile For the isochronicity condition, the same procedure is
along the region becomes quite improved. taken, except for the first step, which is replaced by:
• Measure the time delay with a streak camera system
2.2 Tuning of Bunching Section (see Section 3.2) at the end of the J-arc by changing
Tuning of the bunching section [2] has been carried out the energy using the energy knob.
mainly by observing a bunch monitor with a streak In achromaticity corrections, second-order effects are
camera (see Section 3.2) located at the end of the section. also cured by adjusting the strengths of the sextupole
With proper powers fed into two SHB cavities, an S-band magnets.
prebuncher and a buncher, as well as by precise tuning of The central energy in the J-arc is maintained at 1.5 GeV
the corresponding rf-phases, we succeeded to establish a by introducing an energy feedback loop utilizing the
single-bunched beam without any satellites. The bunch energy knob. As mentioned in the previous section, we
widths obtained in the 1.5-nC beam and the 10-nC sometimes observed interesting phenomena related to a
primary beam for positron production are about 10 ps. degradation of the beam quality, which made the beam
The energy spectrum is also measured at an energy- transmission in the J-arc quite low. The cures obtained by
analyzing station at an energy of about 70 MeV, giving an using local bumps and adjusting the acceleration phases at
energy spread of about 9% (FW). sectors A and B were successfully tried, and are described
in Section 4.
712
After passing through ECS, a positron beam with a
2.5 Acceleration in Sectors C and 1 charge of about 0.4 nC was successfully transported to the
In the midst of sectors C and 1, the newly constructed temporary beam dump in the midst of the injection line.
part and the upgraded part were joined together during the Although the beam-loss monitors installed along the
last week of March, 1998. In order to successfully make injection line showed an allowed level of radiation in this
the prompt connection without causing any disturbances time of operation (5 pps), it turns out that for the full-
to the ordinary operation for the Photon Factory, we had injection mode (50 pps), the radiation level must be
prepared a temporary pre-injector comprising an electron reduced by almost one half. This reduction will also be
gun and a bunching section at the first section of sector 1. expected to be achieved with a proper tuning of the linac
Although two independent accelerators have been and the beam-transport line.
successfully connected without any obstacles, the short
period for a connection has not allowed a satisfying
alignment of the accelerator components. In fact, the
beam losses in this region, which are suspected to be due
to a misalignment, have so far not been avoided. A re-
alignment of the linac is planned for this summer.
The largest amount of charge obtained for positron
production was about 6 nC at the target, not reaching the
design value of 10 nC. We expect a considerable
improvement after a re-alignment.
2.6 Tuning of Primary Electrons at a e+ Target
Primary electrons for positron production pass through
BCS just before the target so as to partially compensate
the bunch lengthening of positrons occurring in the
following solenoids. The acceleration phases at sectors C
and 1 are set at an off-crest angle of about 30 degrees,
making the phase-space orientation for BCS. Although
BCS worked quite well, fine-tuning will be carried out in
the autumn. Figure 3: Energy spread of positron beams compressed
Since the positron yield strongly depends upon the into a half width by the ECS located at the end of linac,
beam profile at the target, the beam waist was surveyed reaching almost the energy acceptance of the ring
by changing the optics before the target. The minimum injection line.
radius of the beam size was estimated to be around 1 mm,
obtaining a maximum positron production. 3 BEAM INSTRUMENTATION
2.7 Acceleration in Sectors 1-5 3.1 BPM Calibration
Acceleration in this region has proceeded without any
BPMs [4] installed in all quadrupole magnets have been
problems for electron and positron beams. The beam
quite efficient tools for beam diagnosis in the
characteristics have been measured for both beams at the
commissioning. We have performed several kinds of
end of sector 5, giving the quite satisfying results reported
BPM calibrations using a beam: measurements of the
in Section 5.
position resolutions and offsets as well as estimations of
2.8 ECS for e+ beam the calibration factors by employing a recalibration
method [5]. The obtained results are summarized in
The energy acceptance required for the positron Table 1.
injection line to the KEKB ring is 0.5% (FW). In order to
achieve this value, the positron beam is passed through 3.2 Bunch Monitor with a Streak-Camera
ECS at the end of linac. An energy-compression ratio of System
about 0.5 was obtained: an energy spread of 1.7% (FW)
became 0.8% (FW) after ECS. According to an analysis Another important progress in beam diagnosis was the
of the data (Fig. 3), it turns out that almost 90% of the introduction of new streak-camera systems [6] for
positrons fall in the energy acceptance of the injection line. observing a bunch structure. Three systems (at the end of
The remaining slight difference relative to the design sector A and the J-arc, and just after the positron target)
value will be expected to be eliminated by fine tuning of have been installed, while another one is being prepared at
the acceleration phases as well as that of BCS. the end of the linac. One of the main features in the new
713
system is an integration of hardware and software; all of effects are taken into account so that the bump can be
the necessary steps to observe streak-signals are integrated, closed. The bump, however, sometimes failed to close the
and the handling becomes quite simplified. Detailed orbit, possibly because quadrupole wake-field effects
descriptions can be found in the reference. emerged when the beam profile-deformation was large.
Incorporating quadrupole wake-field effects in bump
3.3 Test of Wire Scanner calculations might be necessary during the next
As non-destructive beam-profile monitors, wire opportunity.
scanners have been tested concerning several aspects: a
4.3 Method of Downhill Simplex
detection scheme and its configuration as well as a
radiation-shield method. The results indicate that with a Since the beam intensity at a certain point of the linac
suitable configuration of the detector, wire scanners give a depends upon many parameters upstream, it may happen
sufficient signal-to-noise ratio against a strong radiation that searching the optimum combination of parameters
environment. We are planning to install three sets (each would be practically difficult. We tried the method of
comprising three or four wire scanners positioned at downhill simplex [8] for obtaining the maximum positron
proper distances) at the end of sector B, J-arc and the linac, yield by changing the strength of a few upstream steering
respectively, so that the twiss parameters can be coils together with some acceleration phases. The results
calculated in nearly real-time using signals from three or suggest that this kind of method could be useful in some
four wire scanners at the same time. Details are to be cases. A more elaborate application of the method will be
presented elsewhere [7]. introduced in the future.
3.4 Wall Current Monitor: Charge Calibration 5 BEAM CHARACTERISTICS
Although the quantity of charge is one of the key The beam characteristics obtained during the
parameters, the calibration is not a simple task, especially commissioning are listed in Table I, compared with the
in the case of a very short pulse, like a single-bunch beam designed target values. As far as the beam intensity at the
(10 ps) in the S-band linac. We employed two methods: a end of linac is concerned, the target values have been
relative calibration utilizing a signal from the beam- nearly realized for electron and positron beams, though a
induced field observed at the end of accelerator section as slight increase of positrons may be required. The single-
well as an absolute one using a Faraday cup installed in bunch purity is practically 100%, while the bunch length
the straight branch line at the entrance of the J-arc. Details is not in agreement with the design value, which does not
will be presented elsewhere. seem to be a serious problem. The emittance growth
observed in sectors A and B for an intense beam might be
4 FINE TUNING OF INTENSE BEAM reduced by the effective use of local bumps or the method
of downhill simplex. The energy margin for ring injection
4.1 Acceleration-Phase Tuning is rather poor at this time of commissioning, but can be
considerably improved during the next commissioning
The acceleration phase for an intense beam has been set period. The energy spread of both beams falls at almost
at an off-crest angle of about 15 degrees in sectors A and the energy acceptance of the injection line.
B for achieving an energy acceptance of the J-arc (Section
2.3). On the other hand, it has been about 30 degrees off-
6 CONCLUSIONS
crest in sectors C and 1 for BCS (Section 2.6). The
maximum beam transmission in these regions, however, The first commissioning of the KEKB linac was
was obtained by even a finer adjustment of the successfully completed, reaching two major goals: 8-GeV
acceleration phases in sectors A and B, so that they were acceleration of electron beams and 3.5-GeV acceleration
slightly shifted in the inverse direction relative to each of positron beams with sufficient quantity and quality.
other. In this way, the beam profiles in the J-arc were High-quality hardware completion of the machine was
greatly improved, suggesting the existence of transverse also verified and confirmed through commissioning,
wake-field effects, which are clearly shown in the next satisfying the beam characteristics required for the KEKB
section. A detailed analysis will be carried out during the ring.
next commissioning period.
7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
4.2 Orbit Tuning
The authors would like to thank to all of the staff
Local bumps have been introduced somewhere in members of linac for the high-quality completion of the
sectors A and B, depending upon the beam state to construction. They also greatly appreciate various forms
improve the beam transmission in the J-arc and sector C. of support by the project leaders, Profs. K. Nakahara and
In calculations of a bump, dipole transverse wake-field S. Kurokawa.
714
Table I: Evaluation/Score of the KEKB Linac Commissioning
Primary Electron Beam : 10 nC @ Target
Beam Type Electron Beam : 1.2 nC
Positron Beam : 0.64 nC
Target Value Achieved Value Score Target Value Achieved Value Score
Beam @ Gun
Charge*1 1.5 nC 2 nC A 13 nC ~ 14 nC A
Pulse Width (FW) 2.0 ns 1.8 ns A 2.0 ns 2.8 ns B
Beam @ A1
Charge*1 1.4 nC 1.9 nC A > 10 nC 11 nC A
Satellite Bunch <2 % 0 % A <2 % ~0 % A
Bunch Width (FWHM) 5 ps 10 ps B 16 ps 11 ps A
Beam @ B8
Charge*1 1.2 nC ~ 1.8 nC A > 10 nC ~ 9.5 nC A
Transmission (A1-B8) 100 % ~ 95 % A 100 % ~ 86 % A
Energy 1.5 GeV 1.5 (Max 1.8) GeV A 1.5 GeV 1.5 (Max 1.8) GeV A
Energy Spread (±2σ) ±1.4 % ±0.58 % A ±1.4 % ±0.75 % A
Energy Stability (p-p) < 0.2 % < 0.2 % fast 0.1 % A
After Feedback drift< 0.2 %/h A
Beam @ C1
Charge*1 1.2 nC ~ 1.8 nC A > 10 nC ~ 9.0 nC A
Transmission (J-Arc) 100 % ~ 100 % A 100 % ~ 95 % A
Bunch Width (FWHM) 16 ps 18 ps C
Beam @ e+ Target
Charge*1 > 10 nC ~ 6.0 nC C
Transmission (C1-17) 100 % ~ 67 % C
Transmission (A1-17) 100 % ~ 57 % C
Energy 3.5 GeV 3.3 GeV B
Beam @ 21_45
Charge*1 (e+) >2 nC ~ 1.5 nC A
e+ Conversion (/GeV) ~ 7.6 %/GeV
Beam @ 23_43
Charge*1 (e-) 1.6 nC (e+) > 0.6 nC ~ 0.8 nC A
Transmission (21-23) 30 % ~ 53 % A
Beam @ 58
Charge*1 1.2 nC 1.5 nC A (e+) > 0.6 nC ~ 0.7 nC A
Transmission (23-58) (e-) 100 % 94 % A 100 % ~ 88 % A
Transmission (A1-58) (e-) 100 % 79 % B
Transmission (21-58) ~ 47 % A
e+ Conversion (/GeV) ~ 1.8 %/GeV ~ 3.5 %/GeV A
Energy (e-) 8.0+0.8 GeV 8.0+0GeV A 3.5 GeV 3.5 GeV A
Energy Spread (FW) ±0.8 %
Beam @ ECS
Charge*1 (e+) > 0.6 nC ~ 0.5 nC B
Transmission (ECS) 80 % ~ 70 % A
Energy 3.5 GeV 3.5 GeV A
Energy Spread (FW) ±0.25 % ±0.4 % B
Norm. Emittance (Bmag)
Injector x(×10-6) 60 m 71 (1.2) m A 60 m 89 (1.0) m A
y(×10-6) 60 m 66 (1.2) m A 60 m 120 (1.1) m B
B8 x(×10-6) < 1600 m 230 (1.6) m A < 1600 m 770 (1.3) m A
y(×10-6) < 750 m 500 (1.8) m A < 750 m 760 (1.5) m B
C1 x(×10-6) 800 (1.6) m
y(×10-6) 820 (1.2) m
23 x(×10-6) (e+) 5600 (6.5) m
y(×10-6) (e+) 6600 (16) m
57 x(×10-6) 1100 m (e+) 1600 m 2000 (1.3) m B
y(×10-6) 1100 m (e+) 1600 m 2300 (1.6) m B
Orbit
Deviation(rms) ∆x < 0.1 mm < 0.1 mm A < 0.1 mm 0.3 mm B
∆y < 0.1 mm < 0.1 mm < 0.1 mm 0.3 mm B
Variation ∆x < 0.1 mm < 0.1 mm A < 0.1 mm ±0.2 mm B
∆y < 0.1 mm < 0.1 mm < 0.1 mm ±0.2 mm B
BPM
Resolution < 0.1 mm < 0.1 mm ~ 0.1 mm A
Offset*2 < 0.1 mm < 0.1 mm 0.1~0.2 mm A
Repetition Rate 50 pps 5 pps 50 pps 5 pps
*1
Under calibration, *2Calibrated
8 REFERENCES [5] K. Sato et al., “Recalibration of Position Monitors
with Beams”, Proceedings of PAC95, Dallas, USA,
[1] A. Enomoto et al., “Commissioning of the KEKB 8-
- + May 1-5, 1995.
GeV e / 3.5-GeV e Injector Linac”, Proceedings of
[6] Y. Ogawa et al., “New Streak-Camera System for the
EPAC98, Stockholm, June 22-26, 1998.
KEKB Linac”, Proceedings of APAC98, KEK,
[2] S. Ohsawa et al., “”, Proceedings of APAC98, KEK,
March 23-27, 1998, in press.
March 23-27, 1998, in press.
[7] Y. Funakoshi et al., in preparation.
[3] T. Kamitani et al., “Optics”, Proceedings of APAC98,
[8] J. Flanagan et al., “Downhill Simplex Method”,
KEK, March 23-27, 1998, in press.
presented in KEKB mini-workshop, KEK, July 21-23,
[4] T. Suwada et al., “BPM”, Proceedings of APAC98,
1998.
KEK, March 23-27, 1998, in press.
715
A REVIEW OF ACCELERATOR CONCEPTS FOR THE ADVANCED
HYDROTEST FACILITY
Alan J. Toepfer
Science Applications International Corporation, Albuquerque, NM, USA
Abstract multi-pulse data in a single dynamic test. The ultimate
goal of this Advanced Hydrotest Facility (AHF) is to
The Advanced Hydrotest Facility (AHF) is a facility produce a high-resolution radiographic movie of a
under consideration by the Department of Energy (DOE) dynamic test object. Achievement of this goal requires
for conducting explosively-driven hydrodynamic the development of a number of new technologies
experiments. The major diagnostic tool at AHF will be a including accelerators, converters, beam steering/optics,
radiography accelerator having radiation output capable of and detectors which make up the AHF system, as well as
penetrating very dense dynamic objects on multiple the computational tools needed to interpret and visualize
viewing axes with multiple pulses on each axis, each the data. This paper reviews accelerator technologies
pulse having a time resolution capable of freezing object proposed for AHF which are currently under development
motion (≈ 50-ns) and achieving a spatial resolution ≈ 1 by the DOE laboratories at LLNL, LANL, and SNL.
mm at the object. Three accelerator technologies are
being considered for AHF by the DOE national 2. TECHNOLOGY APPROACHES
laboratories at Los Alamos (LANL), Livermore (LLNL),
There are presently two conceptual approaches to AHF
and Sandia (SNL). Two of these are electron accelerators
radiography, the traditional x-ray source produced by the
that will produce intense x-ray pulses from a converter
interaction of a beam of (12 - 40 MeV) electrons with a
target yielding a dose ≈ 1,000 - 2,000 Rads @ 1 meter.
high Z “converter” target, and a newer approach using a
LLNL has proposed a 20 - 40 MeV, 3 - 6 kA linear
pulsed beam of (25 - 50-GeV) protons to directly irradiate
induction accelerator (LIA) driven by FET-switched
the test object, which are then imaged by an innovative
modulators driving metglas loaded cavities. SNL has
magnetic lens system. Both approaches must be capable
proposed a 12-MeV, 40-kA Inductive Voltage Adder (IVA)
of penetrating the high density test object and achieving
accelerator based on HERMES III pulsed power
the required spatial and temporal resolutions to resolve
technology. The third option is a 25 - 50-GeV proton
phenomena of interest. The resulting radiographic source
accelerator capable of ≈ 1013 protons/pulse proposed by
requirements for each approach are given in Table 1.
LANL. This paper will review the current status of the
three accelerator concepts for AHF. Table 1: AHF Radiographic Source Requirements
Parameter X-ray Proton
1. INTRODUCTION Pulse length (ns) ≤ 50 ≤ 50
X-radiography is a well-known diagnostic for Resolution at object (mm) 0.5 - 1.0 0.5 - 1.0
nondestructive test measurements, both of static and Equivalent flux
- kRads @ 1m 1-2 -
dynamic systems. Pulsed x-radiography is commonly
- protons/sec - 1017
used for the study of a number of physical problems
Number of pulses 5 - 10 5 - 10
involving the hydrodynamics of materials, for example,
Number of views (axes) 4 - 12 4 - 12
the stability of accelerated material interfaces and the
Pulse separation (µs) 0.2 -15 0.2 - 15
response of targets to ballistic penetration. Intense,
Temporal coverage (µs) 1.5 - 75 1.5 - 75
single-pulse x-ray sources have been used for the past 30
years to study hydrodynamic phenomena at the extreme 2.1 X-Radiography Approaches
energy densities produced in the hydrodynamic stage of a
nuclear detonation (before criticality). Traditionally this The U.S. hydrodynamic x-radiography program has
data, obtained in non-nuclear tests, has supplemented that traditionally used electron linacs such as the 20-MeV
available from underground nuclear tests. Phermex rf-linac at LANL, and the 18-MeV FXR single-
With the advent of the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty pulse, linear induction accelerator (LIA) at LLNL. For
(CTBT), assurance of the safety and reliability of the U.S. AHF, LLNL has proposed a 20 - 40 MeV, 3 - 6 kA, high
nuclear stockpile in the absence of underground testing repetition rate, solid-state modulator driven LIA, with
requires the development of high resolution pulsed injector and cavity designs closely related to an advanced
radiography systems capable of obtaining multi-axis, LIA being developed for the Dual Axis Radiography
Hydrotest Facility (DARHT) now being built at LANL.
*
Work supported by Sandia National Laboratories under [1]
Subcontract No. AV-0973
719
An alternate x-ray source based on high current,
inductive voltage adder (IVA) technology developed for
weapon effects simulation has been proposed by SNL.
Pulsed power-based x-ray sources were first developed and
have been used extensively by the British Atomic
Weapons Establishment (AWE) for hydrotest radiography.
These machines have typically been < 10-MeV in energy,
but the Sandia-developed IVA technology has extended the
capabilities of these accelerators to 20 MeV in the
HERMES III accelerator. The IVA AHF proposal is an
extension of a pulsed power radiography concept
developed as one of the options for DARHT. [2]. For
AHF, SNL has proposed a 12-MeV, 60-kA, 50-ns pulse
length IVA.
2.2 Proton Radiography
Proton radiography may be capable of measuring both
mass density and the atomic number of materials in the Fig. 1. Schematic of LIA AHF concept.
radiographed object. For AHF, LANL has proposed a 25
The LIA fast kicker system concept is shown in Fig. 2.
- 50 GeV proton synchrotron fed by an 800-MeV linac
It consists of four stripline electrodes and a fast pulser for
injector similar to LANSCE. The required beam flux is 5
driving the electrodes and deflecting the beam. A dc bias
x 1012 protons/pulse. A unique magnetic lens system is
dipole wound over the kicker is used to steer the beam in
used to discriminate between Coulomb multiple scattering
the absence of a pulse to one of two or four desired output
and nuclear (strong interaction) scattering effects to extract
positions which are separated by several cm. The pulser
target information.
drives the stripline electrodes to overcome the bias field
and switch the beam to an output position. A drift space
3. ACCELERATOR TECHNOLOGIES
following the kicker amplifies the spatial separation, but
In the following paragraphs we discuss the LLNL, not the angular separation. A DC septum magnet is used
SNL, and LANL - proposed accelerators for AHF in more two steer the output beams apart and provide room for
detail, covering the unique features of each, the additional focusing magnets if necessary. A prototype
technology status, and the issues to be resolved. kicker with two outputs has been installed on the ETA-II
beamline at LLNL and preliminary tests give measured
3.1 Linear Induction Accelerator (LIA)
deflections consistent with theory.
The demonstrated utility of LIAs for pulsed radiography
accompanied by advances in solid-state modulator
technology have led LLNL to develop the AHF system
concept shown in Fig. 1. A 20 - 40 MeV, 3 - 6 kA
accelerator produces a MHz train of pulses ranging from
200 ns to 2 µs in length. Fast kickers are used to direct
the individual pulses to various beam lines and converters
arranged about the object to be radiographed.
The Advanced Radiography Machine (ARM) induction
accelerator cells are driven by FET-switched modulators.
Prototype ARM modulators have been built and tested at
LLNL. The 2-MHz, three-stage ARM-II modulator has
4,032 FETs in a series-parallel array and produces a flat-
topped 45-kV open circuit voltage pulse with a maximum
source current of 4.8 kA. The 10-MHz ARM III
modulator, currently under development, will take Fig. 2. LIA fast kicker system schematic.
advantage of the FET’s active amplification region to
Heating of the x-ray converter target by the incident
produce arbitrary waveform shapes with a 20-kV open
electron beam will cause desorbtion of gas from the
circuit voltage and 7.2-kA output. In both ARM II and
target, resulting in plasma formation and ion production
III, a separate reset circuit is connected in parallel with the
which can defocus the incident beam and adversely impact
induction cell load.
the spot size. In addition shock waves induced in the
target by the beam loading can alter the target for
720
succeeding pulses. LLNL is currently investigating they have made substantial advances in understanding and
several approaches towards alleviating these effects. In modeling the physics of high current “immersed” diodes.
one, a retarding potential will be introduced at the target
to reduce the accelerating fields produced by the beam and
inhibit ion acceleration. An experiment using a modified
ATA induction cell will test this concept. For multi-
pulse systems, dynamic target concepts have been
proposed, both linear (hypervelocity projectile or shaped
charge jet) and rotating (flywheel). None of these
concepts have been tested to date.
Two of the major technology issues raised regarding the
LIA approach to AHF, namely the reliability of the solid-
state electronics in the high voltage environment, and the
feasibility of the kicker to maintain beam quality for
suitable spot size have been addressed by LLNL in
experiments and testing. Proof-of-principle tests have
been encouraging. The remaining major issue to be
addressed for the LIA accelerator concept is that of
maintaining beam spot size at the target and developing a
multi-pulse converter concept. The first of these will be
addressed on DARHT. The second is the subject of
ongoing research at LLNL, LANL, and SNL as part of the
overall AHF program.
3. 2 Inductive Voltage Adder (IVA)
The SNL AHF concept is based on multiple modules
incorporating the IVA pulse forming network shown in
Fig. 3. The ≈ 1-µs, 3-MV output from a Marx generator Fig. 3. IVA AHF concept.
is transformed through three successive pulse sharpening
stages to a 1.5-MV, 60-ns pulse driving the cavities.
Charging of eight metglas loaded cavities connected in
series is synchronized with laser triggered gas switches to
give a 12-MV voltage on the coaxial magnetically
insulated transmission line (MITL). Electrons which are
field emitted from the surface of the center charged
conductor are trapped by the self-magnetic field of the
current in the line. An ≈ 50-ns FWHM, 60-kA electron
beam is produced at the cathode.
The engineering of IVA accelerators is well in hand,
however the physics of the high current x-ray converter
diode is complex. Electrons incident on the target are
born at the cathode tip. Ions produced by beam
interaction with the anode and ionization of neutral gas in
the A-K gap stream counter to the electron flow. The
diode geometry is designed to inhibit the flow of electrons
born with large canonical angular momentum to the
anode, and a 60-tesla, axial magnetic field is imposed on Fig. 4. IVA X-ray spot measurements and calculations.
the cathode to inhibit the growth of ion hose instabilities
in A-K region. The major issues confronting the IVA concept are the
SNL has carried out proof-of-principle experiments at achievement of AHF parameters in the diode, the
9.2-MeV, 30-kA on the SABRE accelerator [3], achieving feasibility of multi-pulsing a single diode, and the
the anticipated 1.5-mm, FWHM x-ray spot. More feasibility of charging multiple transmission lines for a
recently, they have begun scaling experiments on multi-axis system. To address the first issue, further
HERMES III at 12 MeV, 150 kA; however, diode experiments are planned on HERMES III. The second
contamination on HERMES III caused premature shorting issue will be addressed by the construction of a
of the A-K gap. From this data summarized in Fig. 4, Radiographic Integrated Test Stand (RITS). RITS can be
configured to produce either a single 12-MeV pulse or two
721
6-MeV pulses along the same MITL with complete resonant. Electrostatic septum splitters would be used to
timing flexibility. The feasibility of splitting and divide the beam transversely among two beam lines per
combining pulses in multiple MITLs has been stage.
demonstrated in a number of pulsed power machines. The number of beam lines at the target is currently
Extension of this capability to an AHF accelerator should envisioned to be 8 - 12. Each beamline would transport
be straightforward, but is yet to be demonstrated. up to 10 pulses to the target. In order to arrange that the
beams all arrive at the target simultaneously, the lines
3.3 Proton Radiography (PRAD) must be equal in length. These long beam lines appear to
The LANL concept for PRAD (Fig. 5) includes an 800- be the dominant cost driver for the PRAD.
MeV H– linac injector, a 20-GeV proton synchrotron low Interaction of the protons with the target occurs via
energy booster (LEB), and a 50-GeV high energy booster/ three dominant processes:
accumulator (main ring), and is based both on LAMPF • Multiple coulomb (elastic) scattering (MCS)
technology and designs developed for the superconducting from protons in the target nuclei. The MCS
cross section increases with atomic number (A).
super collider (SSC). A fast kicker modulator extracts the
• Beam attenuation due to (inelastic) nuclear
beam from the LEB into the main ring, and a interactions with protons and neutrons in the
combination of ferrite kickers and electrostatic septum target nuclei. The nuclear cross section decreases
beam splitters transfers the beam bunches from the main with increasing A.
ring into ultimately twelve separate beam lines at the test • Energy loss due to collisions with target
facility. The total number of 50-GeV protons stored in the electrons. The cross section for this interaction
main ring is ≈ 3 x 1012. An earlier embodiment of this increases very slowly with increasing A.
concept which assumed injection directly from the 800- PRAD proposes to take advantage of the differing
MeV linac into a 50-GeV synchrotron was published in dependence of the elastic and inelastic cross sections on A
Ref. [4]. to measure spatial and time resolved mass density and
The rf technology assumed in the LANL PRAD material composition of the target. To accomplish this,
concept is 45 MHz at injection (800 MeV), and is raised LANL has developed a two stage magnetic lens geometry
to 53.3 MHz at the entrance to the delivery system. (inset, Fig. 5) which differentiates between coulomb and
Based on experience at Fermilab, the proton bunches nuclear scattered beam particles. [5] Since MCS scattered
should be less than 5 ns wide at extraction time, and if particles are deflected in the process, it is necessary to
properly synchronized, the bunch pattern will be repeated refocus them at the image plane following aperture 1.
once each 150 ns for as long as beam is delivered to the These particles are measured with the inelastic flux at the
delivery system. At 800 MeV, a minimum 95% first detector. The MCS scattered protons are then
emittance of 4.7 π-mm-mrad is required. stripped from the transmitted beam by aperture 2, so that
From the requirements in Table I, he kicker modulator the second detector measures only the beam component
must be capable of pulsing up to 120 times on demand attenuated by nuclear scattering. Analysis of these two
over a 1.5 - 75-µs interval. The ferrite kickers would be transmitted beam components should provide data on
triode driven and operated with capacitors to make them target mass distribution and A.
Fig. 5 Proton Radiography Concept
722
PRAD proof-of-concept experiments have been cost alternative. The major challenge facing these x-ray
successfully carried out by LANL at 800-MeV on approaches is the development of multi-pulse converters
LANSCE and at 7 - 10 GeV on AGS at Brookhaven having the radiation output and spot size necessary to do
National Laboratory (BNL). Experiments at LANSCE the job. PRAD is a potentially revolutionary approach
(Fig. 6) have probed both static and dynamic targets, which holds great promise for the long term, assuming no
whereas only static target experiments have been carried “unknown unknowns” are discovered, but may be too
out at AGS. A new beam line is currently under costly a system.
construction at AGS for 25-GeV, high intensity tests. The DOE National Laboratories at Los Alamos,
Livermore, and Sandia have embarked on a multi-year
research and development effort to establish the capability
of each approach and are making significant progress.
The rate of progress is limited primarily by the
availability of funds and facilities. DARHT, when it
comes fully on line at the end of 2002, will help to
address some of the multi-pulse issues in a real test
environment that can only be approximated today.
5. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author would like to thank George Caporaso of
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, John
McClelland of Los Alamos National Laboratory, and John
Maenchen of Sandia National Laboratories for their
cooperation in preparing this review paper.
6. REFERENCES
[1] G. J. Caporaso, “Linear Induction Accelerator
Approach for Advanced Radiography,” Proceedings of
1997 Particle Accelerator Conference, Vancouver.
Fig. 6 Dynamic proton radiographs from LANSCE. B.C., Canada, May 12-16, 1997, 3C005 (1997).
[2] D. L. Smith, et. al., “Proposed Inductive Voltage
PRAD has the potential to significantly improve the Adder Based Accelerator Concepts for the Second
utility of hydrodynamic radiography. The main technical Axis of DARHT,” Proceedings of 11th IEEE
issues associated with the accelerator and beam lines are International Pulsed Power Conference, Baltimore,
the demonstration of the kicker modulator, resonant ferrite MD, Vol. II, 1647 (1997).
kicker, and electrostatic beam splitters required to extract [3] J. Maenchen, “Inductive Voltage Adder Driven Flash
and transport the beam bunches to the target. Proof-of- Radiography,” Bull. Am. Phys. Soc. 43 (2), 1198
concept experiments must also be carried out at 30 - 50 (April 1998).
GeV to demonstrate there are no “unknown unknowns” in [4] F. Neri, H.A. Theissen, and P.L. Walstrom,
“Synchrotrons and Beamlines for Proton
the beam-target interaction that could give rise to
Radiography,” Proceedings of 1997 Particle
inadequate resolution, loss of material discrimination Accelerator Conference, Vancouver. B.C., Canada,
capability, or unacceptable background. May 12-16, 1997, 9B005 (1997).
The capability to discern material identity needs to be [5] C.T. Mottershead and J.D. Zumbro, “Magnetic
demonstrated. Experiments to date have shown excellent Optics for Proton Radiography,” Proceedings of 1997
mass density resolution, but do not differentiate materials Particle Accelerator Conference, Vancouver. B.C.,
in the radiographed objects. This capability is a key Canada, May 12-16, 1997, 4V006 (1997).
feature of PRAD.
4. OUTLOOK
Achieving the AHF objective of a high-resolution
radiographic movie of a dynamic test object extends the
state of pulsed radiographic art well beyond present
capabilities. The three approaches to developing a multi-
pulse, multi-axis source each have their pluses and
minuses. The LIA concept is an extension of existing
systems to incorporate modern power electronics, and the
IVA technology is an unproven, but potentially lower
723
REVIEW OF BEAM DIAGNOSTICS IN ION LINACS
P.N. Ostroumov
Institute for Nuclear Research of Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow 117312, Russia
demonstrated during the development of BSM for the
Abstract
installation on the inter-tank space between the Alvarez
High quality beam diagnostics have been found to be tanks of the DESY 50 MeV Linac. The detector, called
useful for rapid commissioning and good operation of IT-BSM, fits onto the existing 2 ports on the cylindrical
ion linacs, especially for linacs containing many separate surface of the inter-tank space [7].
rf cavities. Our group, at the INR, has been working on
the development and practical use of several beam I( )
diagnostic tools. As such, we have been engaged in Analyzed beam
beam measurements on operating ion linacs in close
V foc U m sin(n t ) Vst
collaborations with several laboratories: CERN, DESY, ,Z
2
Fermilab, GSI, KEK, SSC and TRIUMF. Experience Ut arg
Secondary electrons I(X) X
with commissioning these new beam diagnostic devices, Signal
their use for beam measurements, and studies of the
machine performance will be discussed. In particular, a
1 2 3 4 5
description of the new tools for time-of-flight (TOF) and
Um
bunch shape measurements, and the results of beam V foc
2 sin(
n t ) Vst
studies using them will be reported.
The purpose of the paper is not to review all types of
beam diagnostic devices to be used in ion linacs, but to
Figure 1: Principle of operation of the BSM. 1 – target,
familiarize the reader with several modern techniques
2 – input collimator, 3 – rf deflector and electrostatic
for the measurement of ion beam parameters.
lens, 4 – output collimator, 5 – secondary electron
multiplier (SEM).
1 BUNCH SHAPE MONITORS
A device, allowing the measurement of the bunch BSMs have found applications in a number of
shape (or phase spectrum) of the proton beam with high accelerators [1-10]. Four BLVDs have been developed,
precision has been developed and built for the first time designed and built at the INR for the meson factory linac
at INR [1]. The principle of operation (see fig. 1) is (INR), CERN heavy ion linac [4], DESY H linac [7]
based on the analysis of secondary electrons produced by and KEK H RFQ [9]. The 3D-BSM operates routinely in
a primary beam hitting a 0.1 mm diameter tungsten wire CERN proton linac [6]. IT-BSMs are installed at the
(position 1 in fig. 1), to which a potential of -10 kV is DESY 50 MeV H linac. Similar IT-BSMs are being
applied. In a BSM the longitudinal distribution of charge manufactured for the CERN proton linac.
of the analyzed beam is coherently transformed into a
spatial distribution of low energy secondary electrons 1.1 Bunch Length and Velocity Detector
through transverse rf modulation. The temporal TOF methods have been used to measure the average
distribution of the secondary electrons follows the velocity of beams with an rf bunch structure. Either two
distribution of the beam being measured with a time monitors installed a known distance apart [11] or a
delay <5 ps. The historical view of the BSM single movable one [12] can be used for this purpose. A
development is elsewhere [2]. BSM can be used as a movable detector [3]. When
A number of modified BSMs has been built recently moving the BSM in a longitudinal direction one can
with additional functional abilities. The Bunch Length observe a change in the bunch phase shape location by a
and Velocity Detector (BLVD) provides a measurement value 0=2 d/ , where is the relative velocity of
of the average beam velocity as well as the bunch shape the beam, is the wavelength of the deflector rf field
[3,4]. The traditional BSM can be modernized to and d is the distance of the monitor displacement. By
measure longitudinal and transverse distributions of measuring 0 and d one can find the beam velocity. For
beam bunches including two component H and H a high it is expedient to use a higher harmonic for the
beams [5]. A further modification of the monitor is a deflecting field. The BLVD for the DESY Linac
3D-BSM - a detector, which allows the measurement of operates at the fourth harmonic f=810.24 MHz. For 50
the charge density distribution in a 3-dimensional space MeV protons the value of the detector translation, /2,
[6]. A fairly high level of mechanical design has been is 60 mm. Fig. 2 shows the curves obtained during the
724
energy measurement output of the 50 MeV DESY linac.
The phase positions of the centers of the bunches 1.4 H beam measurements with a BSM
measured before and after the detector translation are BSMs now operate with proton, H and lead ion
practically the same and the energy found beams. There are specific features of the BSM operation
experimentally Wexp=50.04 MeV is practically equal to for each of these three types of ions. Particularly, for all
Wdesign=50.00 MeV. type of ions there is a small fraction of high energy
The BLVDs provide energy measurements with an electrons (delta-electrons) but the number of such
accuracy of about 0.15%. electrons compared to secondary ones is negligible and
2.5
there is no real influence on operation of the bunch
2 Before movement shape monitors. As for negative hydrogen ion beams, the
After movement
Before movement (+ 180 deg)
electrons detached from the ions in a target can perturb
1.5
Intensity
After movement (+ 180 deg) the results of the measurements. An experimental study
1 of the influence of detached electrons has been carried
out during the commissioning of the DESY BSMs and
0.5
KEK BLVD. In fig. 3 the bunch shape of the 30 MeV H
0 beam is shown. The right bump in the figure is caused
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Phase, deg 202.56 MHz
by the influence of the detached electrons. The
Figure 2: Bunch shapes during energy measurement. secondary electrons can be separated from the detached
electrons using a simple spectrometer located on the
1.2 Detectors to measure a three dimensional path of electrons to the electron beam detector [10].
density distribution 1
In order to measure the 3-dimensional density 0.8
distribution of a bunch, the following modifications of 30 MeV
Intensity
0.6
the BSM have been done: the target (pos. 1 in fig.1) is
0.4
moved across the beam horizontally; the secondary
electron beam is collimated by slit which is moved 0.2
vertically and finally the electron beam is analyzed as in 0
a standard BSM. Owing to the high strength of the 20 40 60 80 100 120
Phase, deg
electric field near the target, the electrons move
practically horizontally and their vertical co-ordinates at Figure 3: Bunch shape of 30 MeV H beam.
the plane of the horizontal slit correspond to a short
vertical section of the target wire determined by the Further studies of the H beam have been made on the
position of the slit. Spatial distribution of the electrons KEK 3 MeV RFQ with the help of a BLVD. In order to
after the passage through the rf deflector and drift space avoid the contribution of the detached electrons a 1 m
is measured with the 30 channel electron collector. aluminum foil has been installed upstream of the BLVD
1.3 Phase resolution and sensitivity of BSM wire target. The passage of the H beam through the foil
produces a proton beam without any change of the
The main parameter of the BSM is its phase resolution longitudinal charge distribution. In order to measure the
which depends upon a number of factors [1,2]. A bunch shape in a wide dynamic range the measurements
resolution of 1 for frequencies up to 400 MHz can be have been done with
achieved. The sensitivity of the BSM becomes important 1 different gains of the
during the measurement of a low intensity beam or a SEM tube using the
0.98
longitudinal halo of a relatively high intensity beam. calibration curve.
Normally electron multipliers are used in BSMs to detect 0.96 The longitudinal
secondary electrons. Typical values of the maximum
I/I0
H-minus density distributions
gain of the multipliers for different types of the devices 0.94 Protons
for H and proton
are 105-108 and can be adjusted over three to four
0.92 beams are similar
orders of magnitude by varying the HV. The multipliers
can detect individual electrons so, as a matter of except for the halo
0.9
principle, by increasing the duration of the 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 region. Fig. 4 shows
measurements it is possible to measure longitudinal
Phase, deg the particle fraction
parameters of extremely low intensity beams. with respect to the
Practically, the sensitivity is limited in any specific case. Figure 4: Particle fraction as phase extension for
The minimum peak beam current we have made a function of phase half- H and proton
measurements by BSM was about 1 A. width for H and proton bunches. The proton
beam contains much
less particles in the halo, but still has a long tail. The
725
background for the proton beam is connected with a directly corresponds to the density distribution of the
systematic error due to the electron beam interaction primary beam. The use of ions, not electrons, allows one
with the edge of collimator (pos. 2 in fig. 1) [9]. to deal with the signals with very low noise. The image
from the phosphor is viewed by a CCD camera and is
2 TRANSVERSE PARTICLE DENSITY digitized. The residual ion beam current is directly
proportional to the stopping power d /dx. The minimum
MEASUREMENT collector current density which can be measured with
The use of high intensity beams for the irradiation of good signal/noise ratio is ~10-16 A/mm2. For example, for
2
targets near the melting temperature requires control of a 600 MeV proton beam with cross-section ~25 mm the
the transverse beam density. The measurement of the minimum peak current which can be observed by a
-6
profiles is not enough. As was mentioned the 3D-BSM residual gas detector at vacuum pressure of 10 torr is
could measure the density in three-dimensional space ~0.7 A.
and the particle distribution on the transverse cross- This type of monitor can be applied for all type of ions
section can be obtained by the integration along the in wide energy range from several keV/n to hundreds of
longitudinal coordinate. However, the 3D-BSM has MeV/n. The range of beam current being studied is from
nanoamps to hundreds of milliamps. The spatial
relatively small transverse aperture ~10x10 mm 2. For the
resolution, whether one uses electrons or the ions, is
measurement of the transverse particle density
limited, as space charge perturbs the trajectory of the
distribution a detector has been developed [13]. The collecting particles. This can be greatly improved upon
electrons are produced due to the interaction of primary applying high extraction voltages and a focusing
beam with the thin wire which is under negative magnetic field in the same direction.
potential. The electrons move on orbit in uniform
magnetic field applied perpendicularly to the beam pipe 3 WIRE-SCANNERS, HARPS
axis. The secondary electrons are focused by
electrostatic lenses in the vertical plane and by the The wire scanners and harps are applied in all type of
magnetic field in the horizontal plane. The electron linacs. The use of wire-scanners is preferable for many
reasons, but the harps are best for quick measurements in
density distribution in the horizontal direction is
one beam shot. The spatial resolution of wire-scanners
transformed without distortion to the collector which is
can reach a micrometer and with fast electronics,
the multi-channel plate and located outside of beam bunches can be observed individually. Their great
pipe. The density distribution in the vertical direction is sensitivity followed by the multi-gain amplifier allows
obtained with the help of wire movement along the the study of halos [15].
vertical coordinate. The detector is installed in the 750 Carbon or SiC wires with a diameter > 0.002” are
keV injection line of the MMF linac and an example of a mostly used for high intensity beam diagnostics up to 1
beam density distribution is shown in fig. 5. mA average current for a 800 MeV beam. The wire
Another type of the particle transverse density scanners and harps must satisfy the following main
measuring device is a residual gas monitor which is used specifications: 1) Multiple scattering of the primary
on many accelerators. In Atomic Energy Institute, must be small; 2) High vacuum; 3) Must not be
Moscow, this destroyed by thermal expansion; 4) Must not melt; 5)
2 type of monitor
Intensity Must be strong enough to withstand shock waves due to
1.6 has been sudden vacuum failures; 6) Cooling is by radiation – the
1.2 modernized by emissivity should be high; 7) The thermionic emission
0.8 adding an must be a small fraction of the secondary emission
0.4 electrostatic current. There are additional features in the design of
0 analyzer which scanners and harps for heavy ion [16].
-0.4 gives the
possibility to
0
4 TIME-OF-FLIGHT MEASUREMENTS
7
14
21
47
observe on-line
28
35
31
X, mm Y, mm
42
In a multi-cavity rf linac the measurements of relative
16
49
the density
0
distribution of the as well as absolute energy is required. For this purpose
Figure 5: Transverse density particles [14]. TOF measurements are widely used [11]. The beam
distribution on 750 keV The ions created energy is calculated through the beam velocity. The TOF
injection line of the MMF linac. in the residual device includes a phase monitor and signal processing
gas are circuit. As a phase monitor coupling loop, capacitative
accelerated by the applied electric field and are collected pickup [16], wall current monitor [17], directional
by the multi-channel plate. The electrons at the exit of coupler [18] and rf resonators [19-21] have been used.
the multi-channel plate produce an image on the The latter provides most sensitive measurements, a
phosphor. After extraction from the beam pipe the phase monitor capable to measure 1nA beam current has
trajectory of the residual ions is governed by the 45 been reported [20,21].
electrostatic bend. Therefore the image on the phosphor In rf linacs the TOF is calculated through the
measurements of phase difference. For relative
726
measurements it is enough to observe the phase 50 MeV H linac. At the output of the linac the ellipse in
difference between the induced signals. However to the longitudinal phase space is assumed as a canonical
obtain the absolute beam energy the calibration is shape. Then the longitudinal emittance is determined as
required. For calibration purposes two detectors must be a multiplication of the momentum spread and phase
excited by an external rf in phase. The relative velocity width. The longitudinal phase distribution has been
L 1 measured with the help of a BLVD located close to the
of bunched beam is calculated as , exit of the last tank. The momentum spread is measured
n /2
by magnet spectrometer which operates on-line owing to
where L is the distance between the monitors, is the a target converting H to protons. Owing to a narrow
phase difference of the induced signals with wavelength
target (28 m wire) and unit transformation of the
, n is determined as a integer of L/ 0 . The latter means transverse emittance from the target to the “momentum”
that the beam velocity 0 must be known roughly. The harp location, the effect of the transverse emittance on
rough value of the absolute velocity 0 can be found, for the momentum measurement resolution is negligible.
example, using one more phase probe [16] located closer The horizontal profile determined by the harp well
to the other in order to have n=0. If a chopper exists in corresponds to the beam momentum distribution with a
the linac one can produce single bunch mode for the conversion ratio p/p = 0.0526 x, where p/p is in %
measurement goals [17]. and x is in mm . The spatial resolution of the
The precision of the velocity measurements is found “momentum” harp has been improved by sweeping the
L ( ) beam center at the harp position by the setting of several
as . By the selection of long
L 2 n values of the bending magnetic field. Energy spread and
enough distance the first term can be made negligibly phase spectrum measured at the signal level of 98%
small. An accuracy of phase measurement depends on result in an emittance value of 2104 keV deg, which is
processing circuit. Careful design of phase detectors can 5.05 times larger than the rms value.
provide a precision of ~1 at a frequency of ~1 GHz. For fast measurement of the transverse emittance on
TOF measurements can be applied for beams with there is a procedure of the emittance restoration based on
kinetic energy close to the rest energy of the particle. three profiles measured by the harps 26 . To improve
Relative energy measurements can be performed with the spatial resolution of the harps we have measured the
resolution as low as 6 10-5 [21], for absolute beam profiles by sweeping the beam position on the
measurements the precision is ~10 .
-3
harps. To produce a beam center deviation the steering
magnets located upstream of the harps have been
5 EMITTANCE MEASUREMENT calibrated. The rms value of the density distribution has
been calculated from 20-30 measurements on each harp.
Conventional slit-collector measurements give Emittance calculation has been done by using the least
detailed information about the emittance which may be squares method. Table 1 shows rms emittance in all 3
neither elliptical nor symmetrical. They may be planes.
extended up to perhaps 200 MeV before multiple
scattering in the slit ruins the profile resolution. Several 5.2 Emittance measurement of 50 MeV Proton
methods have been reported in which the emittance is Beam
assumed to be elliptical (see references in [16]). For low
energy beams <10 MeV/n the conventional method of The proton Linac at CERN serves as an injector to the
the emittance measurement has been modified by using booster and operates with a peak current up to 170 mA
a phosphor screen instead of the particle collector. The in routine operation. For the emittance measurement
beam image after the slit or pepper-pot is directly during one shot in all 3 planes special equipment has
digitized by a CCD camera connected to a personal been developed [27]. The transverse emittances are
computer. This technique produces emittance during measured by the help of two kicker magnets for the
single shot and is successfully used for proton [22] or sweeping of the beam position on the slit. Downstream
heavy ion beams [23,24]. of the slit a quadrupole doublet allows the adjustment of
New opportunities are being discovered for H beam the resolution on the collector. Longitudinal
diagnostics because of the simplicity of H beam measurement equipment contains two 54.3 bending
0
neutralization by the laser beam [25]. H transverse magnets to provide the spectrometer function, rf cavity
emittances are measured downstream of an H beam located downstream of the first spectrometer and slit.
bending. To measure the longitudinal emittance the The rf cavity tuned to the linac frequency works as a
detached electron beam is analyzed. rotating lens in the longitudinal phase space
transforming the phase dispersion into an energy
5.1 Emittance measurement of 50 MeV H dispersion which is analyzed by the second spectrometer
Beam magnet. After the installation of the 3D-BSM 90 cm
As an example, we describe a technique to measure behind the last Alvarez tank, the measurements of both
the emittance in all 3 planes at the output of the DESY transverse and longitudinal rms emittances became
available. The measurement of the transverse rms
727
emittance with the help of the 3D-BSM is performed by [10] J.M. Hurd et al. Bunch Shape Monitor for SSCL
several (more than 3) settings of the quadrupole Linac. Proc. of the 1993 PAC, Washington, 1993, p.
gradients and taking measurements for the calculation of 2426.
rms radius. In table 2 the rms emittance data for a 170 [11] Linear Ion Accelerators. Ed. by B.P. Murin, V.2,
mA proton beam is listed. The measurements performed Atomizdat, 1978 (in Russian).
by direct measurement of the emittance area in the phase [12] A.V. Feschenko et al. Precise Energy Measurement
space and by the help of 3D-BSM are consistent. The of the Continuous Proton Beam. Proc. of the 1989
longitudinal rms emittance is determined as a IEEE Particle Acc. Conf., Chicago, 1989, p. 1409.
multiplication of rms phase width by the rms energy [13] A.M. Tron and Vasilev. Secondary Electron
spread from the spectrometer measurement. Monitor of Beam’s Two-Dimwnsional Transverse
Current Density Distribution. EPAC-92, p.1124.
Table 1: 50 MeV Beam Emittance [14] V.G. Mikhailov et al. Muli-parameter Ionization
Lab DESY CERN, Detectors for Measurement of Accelerated Particle
H, normalized, mm mrad 2.1 4.5 Beams. PTE, 1995, No 6., p. 39.
V, normalized, mm mrad 1.8 4.1 [15] O.R. Sander et al. Recent Improvement in Beam
L, deg keV 417 780 Diagnostic Instrumentation. IEEE Trans., Vol. NS-
26, No. 3, June 1979, p. 3417.
[16] P. Strehl. Ion Beam Diagnsotics. In “Handbook of
6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Ion Sources”, CRC Press, 1995, p. 385.
The author gratefully acknowledges for the help [17] M.B. Popovic et al. Time-of-Flight Measurements
during the commissioning of the detectors and work for of Absolute Beam Energy in the Fermilab Linac”,
this paper his colleagues from INR, IAE, MEPhI, CERN, Proc. of the 1993 PAC, p.1689.
DESY, KEK, TRIUMF and GSI. [18] J.D. Gilpatrick et al. Noninterceptive Beam Energy
Measurements in Line D of the Los Alamos Meson
7 REFERENCES Physics Facility. ibid, p. 485.
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Tuning. Proc. of the 1986 Linac Conf., Stanford, of a Detector. AIP Conf. Proc. 333. Proc. of the
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Accelerated Beam by Means of an Upgraded Bunch Intercepting Beam Average Velocity Monitoring
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1702. Proton Linac. Proc. Of the 1993 PAC. p. 1697.
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of the 1996 Linac Conf., Geneva, 1996, p. 193. Diagnsotics and Instr. for Part. Accel. (DIPAC97).
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BLVD. This Proceedings.
728
HALO FORMATION IN INTENSE LINACS
Chiping Chen
Plasma Science and Fusion Center
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
Abstract identified with chaotic particle motion and nonlinear reso-
nances occurring in the vicinity of the boundary of phase
Halo formation is an important issue in the development of
space occupied by the particles in the beam core. Invariant
high-power accelerators. In this paper, we discuss from
(Kolmogorov-Arnold-Moser) surfaces [20] play an impor-
the point of view of beam transport the mechanisms of
tant role in confining halo particles transverse to the direc-
halo formation in root-mean-square (rms) matched, high-
tion of beam propagation. Because halos in rms matched
brightness, space-charge-dominated beams in periodic fo-
beams are relatively tenuous compared with those in rms
cusing transport systems. In particular, it is shown theoreti-
mismatched beams, experimental observations of halos in
cally that an important mechanism of halo formation in rms
rms matched beams require detectors with a wide dynamic
matched beams is due to chaotic particle motion induced by
range. A recent observation of a halo in an rms matched
potassium K+ ion beam at the 2-MV Heavy Ion Beam In-
charge-density fluctuations about the ideal uniform density
profile transverse to the direction of beam propagation. Ex-
jector Experiment at Lawrence Berkeley National Labora-
perimental evidence is presented in support of the theoret-
tory (LBNL) [13] provides the first experimental evidence
ical predication of halo formation in rms matched beams.
in support of the theoretical prediction [5, 8, 14, 15] of
Finally, to gain a better understanding of the equilibrium
halo formation in rms-matched beams in periodic focusing
and stability properties of periodic focused intense charged
transport systems.
particles, a rigid-rotor Vlasov equilibrium is discussed, and
For beam propagation through a periodic focusing trans-
the effect of beam rotation on the phase space structure is
port system with the periodicity length S and the vacuum
studied.
phase advance 0 , a space-charge-dominated beam satis-
fies the condition [15]
1 INTRODUCTION
SK
> 1; (1)
The problem of halo formation in intense charged-particle 40 "
beams has been the subject of recent vigorous theoretical,
computational and experimental investigations [1]-[19]. It whereas an emittance-dominated beam satisfies the condi-
is of fundamental importance in the development of next tion
SK
generation high-power accelerators for basic scientific re-
40 "
1: (2)
search in high-energy and nuclear physics as well as for a
wide variety of applications ranging from heavy ion fusion, In Eqs. (1) and (2), K = 2q 2 Nb = b3 b2 mc2 is the normal-
accelerator production of tritium, accelerator transmutation ized beam perveance, " is the unnormalized rms emittance
of nuclear waste, spallation neutron sources, high-power of the beam, q and m are the particle charge and rest mass,
microwave sources, to high-power free-electron lasers. In respectively, Nb is the number of particles per unit length,
such high-power accelerators, beam halos must be con- b c and b are the characteristic velocity and relativistic
trolled in order to keep beam losses at minimum. mass factor of the particles, respectively, and c is the speed
It is well-known that a space-charge-dominated beam of light in vacuo. For an electron beam,
can develop a sizable halo if there is a root-mean-square
SK 1 S Ib
(rms) mismatch between the beam and the focusing field = 2:9 10 5 ;
2 2
(3)
[2]-[4],[6],[9]-[11]. The mechanism for halo formation 40 " 0 "n b b
in rms mismatched beams has been well described in the
where Ib is the electron beam current in amperes, "n =
particle-core model [3, 6]. When there is a sizable mis-
b b " is the normalized rms emittance in meter-radians,
match, the halo can contain a substantial fraction (up to
and S is in meters. For an ion beam,
15%) of the entire beam.
SK 1 q S Ib
= 1:6 10 8
Recently, it has been shown theoretically [5, 8, 14, 15]
;
b2 b2
(4)
that in periodic focusing transport systems, charge den- 40 " 0 A e "n
sity fluctuations in rms-matched space-charged-dominated
beams can also cause halo formation. An important mech- where A and q=e are the atomic mass and magnitude of
anism of halo formation in rms matched beams has been the charge state of the ion, respectively, Ib is the ion beam
729
current in amperes, "n =
b b " is the normalized rms emit-
tance in meter-radians, and S is in meters.
In this paper, we review recent theoretical, compua-
tional and experimental investigations of halo formation
in high-brightness, space-charge-dominated beams that are
rms matched but not fully matched (in terms of phase-space
distributions) in periodic focusing transport systems. In
particular, it is shown theoretically that the mechanism of
halo formation in rms matched beams is due to chaotic par-
ticle motion induced by charge-density fluctuations about
the ideal uniform density profile transverse to the direction
of beam propagation. Experimental evidence is presented
in support of the theoretical predication of halo formation
in rms matched beams. Finally, to gain a better under-
standing of the equilibrium and stability properties of peri-
odic focused intense charged particles, a rigid-rotor Vlasov Figure 1: Transverse density profile described by Eq. (7).
equilibrium is discussed, and the effect of beam rotation on
the phase space structure is studied.
being the number of particles per unit axial length), and
2 MECHANISM OF HALO FORMATION Æ n^ b (s) = ÆNb =rb2 (s) is a measure of beam density fluctu-
ations. The outermost beam radius rb (s) can be determined
IN RMS MATCHED BEAMS
from the rms envelope equation. Note that the Kapchinskij-
It has been shown theoretically [5, 8, 14, 15] that in pe- Vladimirskij (KV) beam equilibrium [22] corresponds to
riodic focusing transport systems, charge density fluctua- Æ n^ b = 0.
tions in rms-matched space-charged-dominated beams can It can be shown that in the Larmor frame of reference
also cause halo formation. The mechanism of halo forma- [23], the transverse equations of motion for a test particle
tion in rms matched beams has been identified with chaotic in the combined periodic solenoidal and self fields are ex-
particle motion [20] and nonlinear resonances occurring in pressed as [15]
the vicinity of the boundary of phase space occupied by the
d2 x q @ s
particles in the beam core. + z (s)x + (x; y; s) = 0; (8)
To illustrate the mechanism of halo formation in rms ds2
b3 b2 mc2 @x
matched beams, we consider test-particle motion in the
d2 y q @ s
field configuration consisting of the self-electric and self- + z (s)y + (x; y; s) = 0; (9)
magnetic fields of a thin, continuous, intense charge- ds2
3 2 mc2
b b @y
particle beam and the periodic solenoidal focusing field where z (s) = [qBz (s)=2
b b mc2 ]2 , and the self-field po-
tential s is defined by
B0 (x) = Bz (s)ez 12 Bz0 (s)(xex + yey ): (5) 8< q (Nb + ÆNb )r2 =rb2 + qÆNb r4 =2rb4 ; r < rb (s),
Here, ex and ey are unit Cartesian vectors perpendicular
s
to the beam propagation direction, s = z is the axial coor-
=
: q (Nb + ÆNb =2) 2qNb ln[r=rb ]; r > rb (s).
dinate, xex + y ey is the transverse displacement from the (10)
beam axis at (x; y ) = (0; 0), the superscript ‘prime’ de- Figure 2 shows a Poincare surface-of-section plot in the
notes d=ds with Bz0 (s) = dBz (s)=ds, and the axial com- phase space (x; x0 ) for 2000 test-particle trajectories mov-
ponent of magnetic field satisfies ing through 20 periods of a step-function lattice with filling
factor for a beam with a hollow density profile. The test
Bz (s + S ) = Bz (s); (6) particles are loaded initially on a circle defined by
where S is the axial period of the focusing field. W (x; y = 0; x0 ; y 0 = 0; s = 0) = 1; (11)
The self-electric and self-magnetic fields [21] are read-
where W is defined in [15]. The Poincare surface-of-
ily determined from the steady-state Maxwell equations,
section plot is generated by plotting the positions and mo-
assuming the following transverse density profile (Fig. 1)
8
< n^ + Æn^ [1 2r 2 =rb2 ]; r < rb (s),
menta of the test particles as they pass through the lattice
points s=S = 0; 1; 2; ; 20. In Fig. 2, x and x0 are scaled
by the multiplication factors rb 1 (0) and rb (0)x0 =4"m , re-
b b
n (r; s) =
b
: 0; r > rb (s),
(7)
spectively, where "m = (1 + 2Æ n nb Æ n^ 2b =3^n2b ) 1 ".
^ b =3^
There is a pair of stable and unstable fixed points at
where rb (s) = rb (s + S ) is the outermost radius for the the edge of the beam, i.e., at x=rb = 1 in the phase
rms-matched beam core, n ^ b (s) = Nb =rb2 (s) (with Nb space. The unstable fixed point is located inside the beam,
730
Figure 2: Poincare surface-of-section plot in the phase Figure 3: Shown as the dashed and bolded solid curves are,
space (x; x0 ) for 2000 test particles moving through 20 lat- respectively, regular and chaotic trajectories for the same
tice periods. Here, the choice of system parameters corre- choice of system parameters shown in Fig. 2. Also shown
sponds to = 0:2, 0 = 88:8Æ , SK=40 " = 6:45, and as the two solid curves are the outermost periodic bound-
Æn^ b =n
^ b = 0:95. aries of the rms-matched beam core. The chaotic trajectory
intersects the beam core envelope approximately at the thir-
teenth period of the focusing channel.
whereas the stable fixed point and associated island are lo- 3 COMPARISON BETWEEN THEORY
cated outside of the beam. Because of the symmetry in the AND EXPERIMENT
underlying equations of motion (8) and (9), there is another
pair of stable and unstable fixed points at (x; x0 )
Experimental evidence of halo formation has been ob-
served in a space-charge-dominated potassium (K+ ) ion
= ( 1; 0).
These fixed points, which correspond to periodic solutions
beam in the 2-MV Heavy Ion Beam Injector Experiment
of the equations of motion (8) and (9), are induced by
at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL)
excessive space-charge at the edge of the hollow beam.
[13]. In this experiment, a potassium ion beam was ex-
Associated with the two unstable fixed points is a thin
tracted from a 1-MV diode. The beam was then accelerated
chaotic layer (separatrix) which occupies both the region
and transversely focused by four electrostatic quadrupoles
with W < 1 and the region with W > 1 in the phase space.
(which correspond to two periods in a periodic focusing
Particles in this thin chaotic layer can cross the beam enve-
transport system). The four electrostatic quadrupoles add a
lope, forming a halo around a dense core of beam deter-
mined by W 1 in the phase space. Although the chaotic
total of 1 MeV to the ions at the end of the injector. Table
layer has a sizable excursion along the x0 -axis, it extends
1 gives the basic system parameters measured at the end
to x=rb
of the injector. The measured density profile at the end of
= 1:8 along the x-axis. Therefore, the halo size in
the injector shows a density depression on the beam axis,
this case is about 1.8 times the beam core radius. Because
and a halo extending 1.47 times the core envelope. The
the chaotic layer is thin, the particle density in the halo re-
halo was tenuous, containing about 2% of the ions in the
gion is expected to be very tenuous compared with that in
beam. A detailed description of the experimental setup and
the core region.
measurements can be found in [13].
A comparison between theory and experiment has
Shown in Fig. 3 as the dashed and bolded solid curves been made. In the theoretical analysis, the electrostatic
are, respectively, examples of regular and chaotic trajec- quadrupoles are treated as an alternating-gradient focus-
tories for the same choice of system parameters shown in ing system but the effect of acceleration is ignored. The
Fig. 2. In Fig. 3, s is scaled by the multiplication factor
S 1 , and both x and rb are scaled by the multiplication
elliptical cross section of the beam is incorporated. The
factor (4g"S ) 1 , where g = (1 Æ n ^ b ) 1 . The regular
transverse beam density profile is assumed to be
^ b =n
trajectory is initialized well inside the beam envelope with
8< n^ + Æn^ (1 2T ); T < 1,
x0 = 0, whereas the chaotic trajectory is initialized near the
b b
unstable fixed point with x0 = 0. Also shown in Fig. 3 as
n (x; y; s) =
b
: 0; T > 1,
(12)
the two solid curves are the outermost periodic boundaries
rb (s) of the rms-matched beam core. The chaotic trajec- where T (x; y; s) = x2 =a2 (s)+ y 2 =b2 (s), and a(s) = b(s +
tory intersects the beam core envelope approximately at the S ) and b(s) = b(s + S ) are the outermost core envelopes in
thirteenth period of the focusing channel. the x- and y -directions, respectively. For an rms matched
731
(0:9a; 0). It is the chaotic separatrix associated with the
unstable period-one orbits that is responsible for particle
escape from the beam interior to form a halo.
For beam propagation through several lattice periods,
the Kolmogorov-Arnold-Moser (KAM) surface [20] at
(x; 0) = (1:42a; 0) is expected to determine the halo
size. Therefore, the halo size in the x-direction is esti-
mated to be xhalo = 1:42a, which is in good agreement
with the measured halo size xhalo = 1:47a [13]. Detailed
numerical studies of the beam dynamics with a properly
chosen initial distribution function show that a relatively
small fraction (4%) of the particles in the beam become
halo particles after five lattice periods, and the experimen-
tal measurements indicate that about 2% of the particles
become halo particles in one lattice period.
Figure 4: Poincaré surface-of-section plot in (x; x0 ) phase
space for 41 test particles in a nonuniform density beam.
Here, the choice of system parameters corresponds to 0 =
4 RIGID-ROTOR VLASOV
70Æ , = 0:5, SK=4"x = 16, "x = "y , and Æn^ b =n^ b = EQUILIBRIUM
0:2. The results presented in Secs. 2 and 3 show that charge-
density fluctuations about the ideal uniform density profile
beam, a(s) and b(s) are determined from the rms envelope induce chaotic particle motion and halo formation in rms
equations. matched space-charge-dominated beams in periodic focus-
Figure 4 shows the overall phase space structure for test- ing transport systems. Therefore, it is important to gain a
particle motion in a Poincaré surface-of-section plot for the better understanding of the equilibrium and stability prop-
nonuniform density beam. The choice of system parame- erties of periodically focused beams. In this regard, we dis-
ters used to generate Fig. 4 is listed in Table 2, correspond- cuss a rigid-rotor Vlasov equilibrium [24, 25] discovered
ing to the basic system parameters listed in Table 1. recently for intense beam propagation through a periodic
Shown in Fig. 4 are the trajectories solenoidal magnetic field.
The rigid-rotor Vlasov equilibrium distribution function
Table 1. Basic Parameters of the LBNL Experiment can be expressed as [24, 25]
Ion Type Potassium fb0 R; PR ; P
( )
Beam Current 0.79 A
Ion Kinetic Energy 2.0 MeV 2
4 Normalized Emittance 0.6 mm-mrad = N2 "b 2
Æ PR + PR2 + R2 + 2!bP (1 !b2 "T :
)
T
Electrostatic Quad Period 0.8 m (13)
Vacuum Phase Advance 70 Æ
In Eq. (13), !b = const. ( 1 < !b < 1) is a pa-
Table 2. Parameters in the Simulation rameter measuring beam rotation relative to the Larmor
frame. The normalized canonical phase-space variables
Vacuum Phase Advance 0 70Æ (R; ; PR ; P ) are related to the Larmor-frame phase-
Lattice Filling Factor 0.5 space variables (r; ; Pr ; P ) by
SK=40 "x ("x = "y ) 13.1 p
^ ^
Æ nb =nb -0.2 R = r ("sT) r; = ; (14)
b
of 41 particles as they pass through the lattice points at
s = 0; S; 2S; ; 400S . The initial conditions for these
particles are: x(0)=a(0) = 0:1n, y (0) = 0, and x0 (0) = PR = p1" ( ) dsd r
rb s r
d
ds
()
rb s ; P = P : (15)
T
y 0 (0) = 0, where n = 0; 1; ; 20. Note that for R
y (0) = 0 = y 0 (0), the motion in (x; x0 ) phase space is It can be shown that nb (r; s) = dx0 dy 0 fb0 is indeed iden-
decoupled completely from that in (y; y 0 ) phase space. In tical to the step-function density profile defined in Eq. (7)
Fig. 4, the vertical axis is scaled by the dimensionless quan- ^ b = 0. It can also be shown that the well-known KV
with Æ n
tity (S=4g"x)1=2 . There are two stable period-one orbits equilibrium corresponds to the special case with !b = 0.
near the edge of the beam at (x; x0 ) = (a; 0). These Finally, a recent analysis [26] shows that beam rotation
stable period-one orbits are accompanied by two unsta- with !b 6= 0 reduces the degree of chaotic behavior in
ble period-one orbits located approximately at (x; x0 ) = phase space.
732
5 CONCLUSIONS [14] C. Chen, Y. Fink, R. C. Davidson, and Q. Qian, “Halo For-
mation in RMS Matched Intense Ion Beams,” Proc. of the
We have discussed several important mechanisms of Eleventh Int. Conf. on High Power Particle Beams (Prague,
halo formation in high-brightness, space-charge-dominated Czech Republic, June 10-14, 1996), p. 1018.
beams from the point of view of beam transport. In partic- [15] Y. Fink, C. Chen, and W. P. Marable, Phys. Rev. E55, 7557
ular, it has been shown theoretically that the mechanism of (1997).
halo formation in root-mean-square (rms) matched beams
[16] M. Pabst, K. Bongardt, and A. P. Letchford, in Ref. 1, p.
is due to chaotic particle motion induced by charge-density 343.
fluctuations about the ideal uniform density profile trans-
verse to the direction of beam propagation. Experimental [17] R. W. Garnett, et al., in Ref. 1, p 60.
evidence is presented in support of the theoretical predica- [18] R. Pakter and C. Chen, “Emittance Growth and Particle
tion of halo formation in rms matched beams. Finally, to Diffusion Induced by Discrete Particle Effects in Intense
gain a better understanding of the equilibrium and stability Beams,” Proc. 1997 Part. Accel. Conf. (1997), p. 1938.
properties of periodic focused intense charged particles, a [19] H. Okamoto and M. Ikegami, Phys. Rev. E55, 4694 (1997).
rigid-rotor Vlasov equilibrium is discussed, and the effect [20] A. J. Lichtenberg and M. A. Lieberman, Regular and
of beam rotation on the phase space structure is studied. Chaotic Dynamics, 2nd ed. (Springer-Verlag, New York,
1992).
6 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS [21] R. C. Davidson, Physics of Nonneutral Plasmas (Addison-
Wesley, Reading, MA, 1990).
The author wishes to thank R. C. Davidson, Y. Fink, [22] I. M. Kapchinskij and V. V. Vladimirskij, in Proceedings of
R. A. Jameson, R. Pakter, Q. Qian, and S. S. Yu for their the International Conference on High Energy Accelerators
contributions. This work was supported by the Depart- (CERN, Geneva, 1959), p. 274.
ment of Energy, High-Energy Physics Division under Grant
[23] M. Reiser, Theory and Design of Charged-Particle Beams
No. DE-FG02-95ER40919, Air Force Office of Scientific (Wiley & Sons, New York, 1994).
Research under Grant No. F49620-97-1-0325, and Prince-
[24] C. Chen, R. Pakter, and R. C. Davidson, Phys. Rev. Lett. 79,
ton Plasma Physics Laboratory under Subcontract No. S-
225 (1997).
03834-K.
[25] R. C. Davidson and C. Chen, Part. Accel. 59, 175 (1998).
[26] C. Chen, R. Pakter, and R. C. Davidson, “Phase Space Struc-
7 REFERENCES ture for Intense Charged-Particle Beams in Periodic Focus-
[1] Space Charge Dominated Beams and Applications of High ing Transport Systems,” submitted for publication (1998).
Brightness Beams, edited by S. Y. Lee, AIP Conf. Proc. 377
(AIP, New York, 1996).
[2] I. Haber, D. Kehne, M. Reiser, and H. Rudd, Phys. Rev. A44,
5194 (1991).
[3] J. S. O’Connell, T. P. Wangler, R. S. Mills, and K. R. Cran-
dall, Proc. 1993 Part. Accel. Conf. (IEEE Service Center,
Piscataway, New Jersey, 1993), Vol. 5, p. 3657.
[4] C. Chen and R. C. Davidson, Phys. Rev. Lett. 72, 2195
(1994); Phys. Rev. E49, 5679 (1994).
[5] Q. Qian, R. C. Davidson, and C. Chen, Phys. Plasmas 1,
3104 (1994).
[6] R. L. Gluckstern, Phys. Rev. Lett. 73, 1247 (1994).
[7] L. M. Lagniel, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. A345,
1576 (1995).
[8] Q. Qian, R. C. Davidson, and C. Chen, Phys. Plasmas 2,
2674 (1995).
[9] C. Chen and R. A. Jameson, Phys. Rev. E52, 3074 (1995).
[10] S. Y. Lee and A. Riabko, Phys. Rev. E51, 1609 (1995).
[11] I. Haber, et al., in Ref. 1, p. 105.
[12] F. L. Krawczyk, et al., Proc. 1995 Part. Accel. Conf. (IEEE,
Piscataway, New Jersey, 1995), p. 2306.
[13] S. Yu, S. Eylon, E. Henestroza, and D. Grote, in Ref. 1,
p. 134.
733
RF PULSE COMPRESSION FOR LINEAR COLLIDERS
H. Mizuno
KEK, High Energy Accelerator Research Organization
Oho, Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki-ken 305, JAPAN
Abstract modulators with a step-up pulse transformer can never
In the high gradient electron linacs at X or S band, a drive a klystron with the rise time much shorter than
conventional klystropn driver cannnot supply short pulses 100ns.[7][8] Thus the klystron modulator systems will
that a linear collider operation requires. Therefore, some suffer from poor efficiency if it were to drive klystrons
RF pulse compression system that can compress the RF with output pulses of 250ns.
pulse length and at the same time heighten the peak RF
power become necessary. Such an RF pulse compression Table 1. General parameters for the next generation
system has been already utelized successfully in the S- linear colliders
band electron linacs of several laboratories. In the studies
of the X-band linear accelerators, such RF pulse RF frequency(GHz) 11.4
compression systems, SLED (SLAC Linac Energy Accelerating gradient(MeV/m)
Doubler) [1] or its direct successors SLED2 [2] and VPM Unloaded/Loaded 76/57
(VLEPP Pulse Multiplier) [3][4] were studied and Active linac length(km) 9.2
developed as the RF pulse compression system for the Total linac length(km) 10
future machines. These system are all based on the same Peak power /meter(MW/m) 100
principle that the RF pulse energy is once stored in some Structures/power unit 6
storage circuit (a resonance cavity or a delay line) and Structure length per power unit(m) 7.8
thereafter emitted within short time to create the shorter Total number of power unit 1180
RF pulse. Instead of these schemes, BPC (Binary Pulse Total number of klystrons 4720
Conpression) [5] and DLDS (Delay Line Distribution Total number of modulators 2360
System) [6] use the delay lines as the tool to make the RF Repetition rate(pps) 150
pulse shorter (BPC), or to adapt the longer RF pulse into RF pulse length at str.(nsec) 250
the shorter linac driving pulse (in case of DLDS). A Peak beam current(mA) 0.79
DLDS was recently introduced as an RF pulse Total average RF power at Str.(MW) 34.5
compression equivalent system based on the different
operation principle from an ordinary pulse compression
system. DLDS is expected as the RF pulse compression
Consequently, the RF power system of the X-band linear
equivalent system for the future RF system of X-band
collider must supply the RF power that is shorter in pulse
linear colliders.
length and at the same time higher in peak power, than
the present technology could achieve. This requirement
1 INTRODUCTION imposes a notable change in the RF power system of the
As the typical example of the modern X-band linear X-band linear colliders. As shown above, the energy
collider, general parameters of JLC (Japan Linear consumption of the future collider is considered to reach
Collider) are summarized in the Table 1 [7]. to several hundred megawatts, it is quite important to
To achieve an accelerating gradient of ~70MeV/m or supply these RF power with high conversion efficiency.
greater in an accelerating strcture with shunt impedencec Thus the major change was introduced to the X-band RF
of ~80Mohm/m, the RF power fed per unit length of the power system. It is, the introduction of the RF pulse
linear collider should be around 100MW/m or higher. compression stage to compress the klystron RF output
Duration of the RF pulse should be 250nsec, which is the pulse shorter about factor 4. This difference are due to
sum of the filling time of and to time length of the multi- the fact that the X-band RF power system has to deliver
bunch train that consist of 90 bunches each separated by about factor 4 shorter RF pulse than S-band system. The
1.4 nsec. most important difference between the S and X-band Rf
In the JLC design, to provide a peak power up to power echnogy is that an RF pulse which dirves an X-
130MW/mto the accelerating structure, klystrons are band linac is about 4-times shorter than that of S-band
distributed every 4-5m to feed 3-accelerating units with case. Therefore, 4-times longer RF pulse that is created
the RF power totaling 390MW. Clearly, such a high peak by the present klystron modulator technology limit must
power is out of reach for a single klystron, even with the somehow adapted to this 4-times shorter linac driving
most advanced modern klystrion technologies. In pulse length. On this point, there is the absolute necessity
addition, the required RF pulse duration of 250ns is too of the RF pulse compression measure.[7][8]
short to drive klystrons efficiently. Present high voltage
737
2 RF PULSE COMPRESSION SYSTEMS illustrated in case 2), RF pulse is divided into 4 RF bins
in time domain and each shorter RF bin accelerates the
The RF pulse compression system is generally same beam independently instead being piled up to the
considered as the measure that can make an RF pulse higher pulse like SLED type pulse compression system.
shorter and higher while preserving its total RF pulse In this DLDS system the longer RF pulse from the
energy as much as possible. As an linac RF power klystron are only divided into shorter pulses and steered
sources, this condition is can be re-considered as follows. into the different parts of the linac to meet the identical
If an RF pulse that is several times longer than the linac beam. These two systems can be considered as essentially
driving pulse can drive a linac utilizing all its RF energy the same, because both utilizes the longer Rf pulse to
i.e. its longer pulse, this system has the same effct as the drive the linac that has 4-times shorter driving pulse. And
ordinary type pulse compression system driving a linac. the beam also gain the energy that is 4-times more than
Thus, the present Rf pulse compression methods can be expected from the klystron output peakpower. Thus, this
divided into two categories. Firstly, the conventional RF second type can be also called as the RF pulse
pulse compression schemes such as SLED, SLED2 and compression system of the factor 4 compression ratio.
VPM etc. [9] These methods are based on the same
operational principle that the RF pulse are once stored in
3 SLED SLED2 & VPM (SLED-FAMILY)
some energy storage system such as a resonnant cavity or
cavity equivalent system, and later extracted as the The operational principle of this SLED group is
shorter and higher RF pulse. In other words, the RF pulse illustrated in Fig. 1.[1] All of this family has the same
is re-shaped into the shorter operational principle as the original SLED operation. As
shown in the figure, RF energy is once stored in the
resonnant cavities and later extracted through 3-dB
hybrid which steers the RF pulse into the output port
direction within short period.
case-1)
Fig. 2. Principle of operation of SLED
case-2) This kind of system necessarily has the two main
causes of the energy loss in their operation process,
Fig. 1. Two types of RF shortening scheme firstly the reflection of the incoming RF pulse while the
build up period especially at the early part of this stage
but higher RF pulse. On the other hand DLDS and its and this reflection can never be avoided as long as the RF
application are based on the fact that the RF pulse are output pulse from the klystron are flat shape.[9] This
applied on the beam in the different linac position to device and the necessity of the time to build up RF
achieve the multiple acceleration by each RF bis that are energy in these storage cavity or cavities, mainly
cut from the longer original RF pulse. The main determines it’s energy efficiency. The energy losses in
important feature of this DLDS like methods are that the this system are consist of following two categories, (1)
RF pulse is divided into several shorter RF pulses (bins) The wall loss on the inner surface of the energy storage
and each pulse accelerates the same beam in the different cavity, (2) the RF reflection while the storage period. and
position of the linac to adjust the time delay. Fig. 1 the RF energy left after extraction of the energy from the
illustrates these operation principles in case of factor 4 storage devices. The main part of loss in this stage, is the
compression ratio for each case. The ordinary RF pulse reflection of the input RF pulse while the build up period
compression is illustarted in case-1) in this Figure. of the SLED operation. Thus the energy efficiency of this
Longer RF pulse from the klystron is re-shaped into the system is about 80% even neglecting the possible wall
shorter and higher RF pulse using the energy store system loss.
mostly resonnant cavities. On the other hand, as As illustrated above, this original SLED can only re-
shape the RF pulse into the exponentially decaying pulse
738
waveform. However, several methods that can shape the 5 DELAY LINE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
RF pulse into a flat pulse are proposed. One is SLED2 (DLDS): A NEW RF POWER
that uses a pair of delay lines instead of the resonant
cavities. Others uses the chain of the RF cavities for DISTRIBUTION METHOD EQUIVALENT
energy strage. One more possibility is to control the TO A PULSE COMPRESSION SYSTEMS
phase, amplitude or both to make a flat pulse. Detail of Recently, the new RF power distribution system
these sre omitted but the essential character of the system named DLDS(Delay Line Distribution System) which
remains almost the same.[3][4] works as the replacement of an ordinary RF pulse
compression system and has the better energy efficiency
4 BINARY PULSE COMPRESSION (BPC) was proposed by the authors [6][7]. This system is based
One more RF pulse compression system based on the on the new operational principle different from the
different operational principle from these energy storage existing any other RF pulse compression systems. Like
type pulse compression of the SLED family is the BPC BPC, in this new DLDS, the short pulse trains that are
(Binary Pulse Compression). This pulse compression divided into from the long klystron output pulse are led to
system was proposed by D.Farkas and the first high the different parts of the linac respectively. The most
power test was successfully achieved in SLAC.[10] specific point of this new system is that the divided RF
The operational principle of this BPC system is pulses are never compiled again like SLED family or
graphically illustrated in Fig. 3 in case of the BPC. In this new system, the flight pass of the beam itself
compression factor of 4. This system is driven by two works as the delay line in the BPC, thus the half of the
independently phased klystrons and their output pulses delay time necessary for the divided short RF pulse trains
are divided into 4-short pulses respectively. The phase of is given by the beam flight itself. In this new system, the
each part of the RF pulse are coded as shown in Fig. 3. length of the delay lines and consequently their losses can
Through the 3-dB hybrid and delay lines, RF pulse trains be decreased by about factor 2 compared to that of BPC.
from each klystron are combined and at the same time The operation principle of this new system DLDS is
sterred to the two output port of the hybrid. described in some detail below.
5.1 Basic factor 2 DLDS
In this new scheme, as shown in Fig. 4, the RF power
from two klystrons that are independently phase
controlled are combined together through the 3-dB
coupler. One output port of the 3dB hybrid is connected
to the upstream of the linac about one half of the linac
operating time apart from the klystron location through
Fig. 3. Principle of ooperation of BPC the low-loss waveguide, and another port is connected to
the structure located close to the klystron position. The
One port of the hybrid is connected to the delay lines first half of the RF pulse which is equal to the sum of the
which gives the necessary delay time to the first half of filling time and the bunch train is sent to the upstream of
the RF pulse to meet with the following half of the RF the linac through the delay line shown in the figure. The
pulse just in time at the input of the next 3dB hybrid. second part of the RF pulse is fed to the structure close to
Through next hybrid, first and the second part of RF the klystron without delay. Delay line gives the delay
pulse are combined to give the twice peak power with time of Tdelay=L/Vg and the beam flight time between
one half of the original pulse duration. And as illustrated two structures is Tbeam=L/c. If these time delay satisfies
in the figure, this RF pulse again guided to the next stage next relation neglecting the delay time in the other RF
as the figure illustrates. Repeating this process as shown transport system such as 3dB hybrid etc.,
in Fig. 3, 2n pulse compression could be achieved. If the Tdelay + Tbeam = L V + L c = t a
wall loss of the delay lines are neglected, it is quite easy g
to find that an n-stage of the BPC system can give the where ta is the pulse length of the linac operation, just the
factor 2n times higher pulse with 2n-th of a original pulse sum of the structure filling time and the duration of the
duration. It is also easy to recognize that in this BPC bunch train. It is easily recognized that the timing of the
system the intrinsic energy efficiency could reach to bunch train and the RF pulse is adjusted to accelerate the
100% in case of the loss-less delay lines. beam and the beam is accelerated just as the ordinary
Due to this rather cumbersome configuration of the linac pulses. Thus, The factor 2 DLDS (Delay Line
system, this BPC has been considered as of secondary Distribution System) which works equivalently as the
importance even it can achieve better energy efficiency of factor 2 RF compression system can be constructed. The
close to or more than 90% in case of compression factor timing relation of this delay line scheme is illustrated in
4.[5] the “train diagram” shown in Fig. 5 in case of the RF
739
pulse from the klystrons are divide into two consecutive
RF bins.
Fig. 6. A factor-4 DLDS built from factor-2 DLDS
blocks.
Recently, an interesting application of this DLDS
operation principle was proposed for a driving beam
Fig. 4. A schematic diagram of the simplest factor-2 system for TBA (Two Beam Accelerator)[12]. Each RF
delay line distribution system bins in DLDS is replaced by the bunched beams that
carries the RF power, and these bunch trains are
transported to the counter direction to the accelerated
beam like the RF bins in DLDS. The ssame operation
principle as DLDS can be applied to the driving beam of
TWA. Thus, even in TBA, an RF pulse compression
equivalent system can be constructed and this scheme can
replace the intense drive beam to the less intense but
longer drive beam. It is expected that this new
configuration could relax the technological problems on
the drive beam compared to an ordinary co-direct drive
beam cionfiguration.[12]
5.2 Design of a 4/3 DLDS for the JLC X-band
main linacs
As an example of DLDS at X-band linear collider, 4/3
Fig. 5. A train diagram of factor 2 DLDS DLDS was designed as the RF pulse compression
equivalent system for JLC. Fig. 7 schematically illustrates
In general , this scheme can be extended to the factor the 4/3 DLDS. Note that the 4-set of the klystrons and 3
2n combined pulse height as follows. Each of the 2- groups of accelerating atructures that are seperated to
klystrons in the factor-2 scheme mentioned in the adjust the time delay. The train diagram and the
previous section, can be replaced by the pair of 2- operational principle of this 4/3 DLDS are the essentially
klystrons combined through a 3-dB hybrid coupler, thus the same as factor 2DLDS, therefore further detailed
this new system also works as factor-2 system, and explanation is unnecessary.
remaining 2-output ports of the 2-hybrid couplers can be
connected to the one more 3-dB hybrid coupler which
serves as the additional factor 2 DLDS same as Fig. 4.
This process can lead to the construction of the
factor-22 DLDS system. It may be easy to understand this
procedure illustrated in the Fig. 6. Apparently, the train
diagram of this factor factor-22 DLDS is easily
understood as the extension from the factor 2DLDS case.
It should be noted that in this scheme the time domain
compression equivalent factor i.e. klystron pulse length
can be chosen from 1 to 2n times longer than the linac
operational RF pulse length. This system is generally
noted as factor 2n/m Delay Line Distribution System(2n/m
DLDS), 2n represents the number of independent RF
sources, and m represents the time domain compression
equivalent factor. In this case, the (2n - m) ports left Fig. 7. 4/3 DLDS for JLC
unconnected to any structure.
740
6 MULTI-MODE DLDS 5) The operation principle of DLDS can alsobe applied
to TBA drive beam system.
Recently, SLAC group proposed a clever
configuration of DLDS which could save the delay line
REFERENCES
length by the use of multi-mode loading of the lines. This
Multi-mode DLDS scheme works as follows. instead of [1] Z.D.Farkas et al. “SLED: A method of doubling
the several delay lines, one delay line is set to have SLAC’s Energy”; Proc. 9th Int. Conf. High Energy
several mode extractor that are inserted on the one delay Accelerators, SLAC. Stanford. 1974. P576.
line to give the delay time as required by the DLDS [2] P.B.Wilson ;“RF Pulse Compression for Future
operation.[11] Each mode extractor is designed as to Colliders” ; “AIP Conference Proceedings 337
extract only a specific mode and at the same time to (Pulsed RF Sources for Linear Colliders)”,
transport the other modes completely. The one end of the Montauk, NY 1994. P-293
delay line where RF sources are located, the mode [3] V.E.Balakin. I.V.Syrachev;”Status of VLEPP RF
launcher is attached. Primary RF pulse from the klystron Power Multiplier” ; Proc. of EPAC92. March 1992
is divided into the short RF bins and each RF bin is Berlin, Germany.; P1173.
converted into the different mode through the mode [4] I.V.Syrachev; “The progress of X-band “Open”
launcher and lead into the delay line. Thus, each RF bin Cavity RF Pulse Compression Systems” ; Proc. of
is extracted, in other words, distributed to the necessary EPAC94. P375.
location just as an ordinary DLDS. This new version of [5] Z.D.Farkas et al.; “Binary Peak Power Multiplier
DLDS is currently considered as the best candidate for and its Application to Linear Collider design”;
the next linear collider that is under study by joint effort IEEE Trans. MTT-34(1986), P1036.
of SLAC/KEK. [6] H.Mizuno and Y.Otake;”A new RF power
This multi-mode DLDS requires several new RF distribution system for X-band linac equivalent to an
device such as a mode launcher, Intensive R&D plan is RF Pulse compression scheme of Factor
now going on at SLAC and KEK aiming the design of 4/4 2n”;Proceedings of the 17th International Linac
multi-mode DLDS for their next linear collider. Conference, Tsukuba, Japan, August 21-16 1994: P-
463.
7 CONCLUSION [7] “JLC-1”; KEK report 92-16, December 1992
A/H/M.
The most important advantage of this new DLDS [8] “Zeroth-order Design Report for the Next Linear
pulse compression equivalent system is firstly the high Collider”; SLAC Report 474. May, 1966.
energy efficiency, as considered in the previous section [9] C.D.Nantista; “Radio frequency pulse compression
its intrinsic efficiency could reach 100%. To compare for linear accelerators” Thesis, University of
this system efficiency with that of the ordinary SLED2 California 1994.
pulse compression system, , the efficiency of the DLDS is [10] T.L.Lavine, Z.D,Farkas et al.; “High Power RF
better than that of the SLED2 by about 20%. In Binary Pulse Compression Experiments at SLAC”;
comparison between an original DLDS and a muti-mode Proc. of the IEEE Particle Accelerator Conference
DLDS, if 4/4 DLDS is intended, a multi-mode DLDS is May 1991. San Francisco. California. USA. P652.
expected to be less cost due to the saving of delay length [11] S.Tantawi et.al.; This Conference.
by its multi-mode loading of the delay lines. Considering [12] J.P.Delahaye for the CLIC Study Team; “CLIC, a
the present status of R&D on the RF pulse compression 0.5 to 5Tev e-p Compact Linear Collider”;
schemes for an application to X-band linear colliders, CERN/PS 98-009(LP).CLIC-Note-360.
following points can be pointed as a brief summary on
this subject.
1) At X-band, DLDS especially muti-mode type is
considered as the top ranked candidate as an RF pulse
compression scheme for linear colliders.
2) DLDS has several advatage to other conventional RF
pulse compression systems, howeveer DLDS can be
applied only to a long linac such as a linear colilider.
3) traditional RF pulse compression schemes, such as
SLED family, will remain as the useful measure for
most of electorn linacs especially at S-band.
4) For the realization of the application of DLDS to
linear colliders at X-band, technological R&D’s such
as high power tests, developments of several RF parts
and beam operation oriented studies are still needed.
741
THE DESIGN OF AN ACCELERATOR FOR ADVANCED PULSE
RADIOLYSIS EXPERIMENTS*
C. D. Jonah and R. A. Crowell
Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, Illinois 60439 USA
Abstract Pulse radiolysis and flash photolysis experiments are
complementary. Pulse radiolysis excels in creating ions
New accelerator techniques have made it possible to and in mimicking the chemistry that can occur in real-
make shorter and shorter electron pulses. If appropriate world systems such as waste storage tanks and biological
detection techniques are available, these pulses make it systems after the impingement of ionizing radiation. In
possible to measure many important sub-picosecond such systems, the concentration of reactants is very high
chemical processes. We are proposing an accelerator sys- and so the chemistry can occur at times less than a few
tem that can be used to measure important sub-picosecond picoseconds.
chemical processes, such as solvation, vibrational relaxa- The important chemistry that needs study has prompted
tion, excited state relaxations and molecular the Argonne Chemistry Division to propose a new pulse
fragmentation. radiolysis facility. We envision a facility that will be
used by the entire radiation chemical community to probe
1 INTRODUCTION important chemical processes. In this paper we shall
It has long been known that radiation can induce highly discuss
complex reaction chemistry. At Argonne National Labor- • The Chemical and Physical Processes that can occur.
atory, one of the first pulse radiolysis experiments was • The design criteria for the facility.
done.1 In pulse radiolysis a short pulse of ionizing radia- • Some of the specific experiments that we plan to do
tion is used to create radicals and ions and the evolution of
this chemistry is then observed. 2 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL
In the more than 35 years since the first pulse ra- PROCESSES
diolysis experiments, the time resolution of pulse ra- Figure 1 displays a simplified picture of the chemical
diolysis has increased from microseconds to under 5 ps.2 and physical processes that can occur after radiolysis. If
With the advances in accelerator technology, it is now there are high concentrations of reactants, they can easily
possible to push the time resolution to below a compete with relaxation fragmentation and solvation.
picosecond.
10-13 - 10-11 sec
ionizing ra 10-15 sec ax a
tio n
AB+
diati rel
on
AB+* fr
ag
AB
men
t ati o n A + B+
e-high energy e-solvation
e-thermalized
10-14 - 10-12 sec 10-13 - 10-11 sec
Solvent interactions
Figure 1: Schematic of the physical and processes occurring after radiolysis.
As one can see from looking at the figure, there are 3 THE DESIGN CRITERIA FOR THE
many processes that will occur at times where time reso- FACILITY
lution better than the 5-30 ps that are presently available
Recently there have been several reports of sub-pico-
in radiolysis experiments.
second pulses from linear accelerators.3 However the goal
________________
of our project is to develop a sub-picosecond pulse ra-
* Work performed under the auspices of the Office of Ba-
diolysis facility. This means that 1) there must be a suf-
sic Energy Sciences, Division of Chemical Science, US-
ficiently large concentration of species created and 2) there
DOE under contract number W-31-109-ENG-38.
must be a detection technique that can make use of the
short pulse and that will be of sufficient generality to
742
make meaningful measurements for a large variety of pulse width of a few hundred femtoseconds, too short for
chemical systems. In addition, we had the desire to make injecting electrons into an accelerator.
a facility that would be usable for more general experi- The synchronization between the light and the electrons
ments and would not be limited to sub-picosecond can be assured by keeping the length of the cell suffi-
experiments. ciently short. If we assume a refractive index of 1.5 for
The initial design criterion was to create a system that the sample, then the difference in transit times for the
could be used for optical absorption measurements. Opti- electrons and the light will be less than 0.5 ps if the sam-
cal absorption is applicable to a large variety of chemical ple length is less than 0.3 mm long. There is no diffi-
systems. While single shot kinetics would be ideal, such culty in creating a cell of that depth; the primary difficulty
measurements at short time scales are very difficult. is that such a short cell will limit the amount of optical
Streak cameras are unsuited to such measurements. A absorption.
typical experimental layout is shown in Figure 2. The most difficult problem will be the synchronization
photocathode between the light and the electrons. While the electrons
and the light should be synchronized when the electrons
laser
are formed, they may not be synchronized at the exit of
light the accelerator. Because the compressor works by chan-
ging the transit time through the magnets as a function of
accelerator electron energy, anything that changes the energy of the
Optical electron pulse will change the time at which the electrons
Delay line strike the cell relative to the light pulse. These can in-
clude different amounts of energy in the accelerating
waveguides and the synchronization of the laser pulse rela-
tive to the RF of the accelerator. For example calcula-
tions suggest that a shift of 1 ps in the timing between
experimental the RF and the laser can yield a shift of 0.5 ps in the tran-
cell sit time.
Table 1 shows the proposed pulse widths. The larger
pulses will be very useful for experiments when second
electrons order reactions are studied or when weakly absorbing spe-
compressor cies are formed.
Figure 2: Pump probe measurement technique. Table 1 – Pulse characteristics.
This figure shows a simple pump-probe detection tech-
Pulse Width Charge
nique. The time that the light strikes the cell can be al-
0.6 ps 2 nC
tered by changing the length of the optical delay line.
1.0 ps 5 nC
Thus time resolution depends only on the width of the
electron pulse, the light pulse and the synchronism be- 3 ps 10 nC
tween them. Time resolution can then be reduced to a 8 ps 50 nC
distance. For 1 ps, a distance of 0.3 mm is needed, easily 45 ps 90 nC
measured and controlled. A similar technique could be 30 ps 25 nC (present linac)
used for fluorescence detection using upconversion or for
4-wave mixing techniques such as CARS (Coherent Anti- 3.2 Detection Options
stokes Raman Scattering). These techniques make use of A large variety of optical detection techniques are avail-
the availability of a synchronized laser. able that will make use of the synchronized probe light
source. Figure 2 shows the experimental layout for opti-
3.1 General Requirements
cal absorption. The diagram suggests that the laser that
To make use of the resolution available from the width ejects the electron will be used as the detection light
of the accelerator pulse, it is necessary to source. This is clearly an over simplification because
• Have the pulse width of the probe laser pulse to be techniques such as optical parametric oscillators can pro-
less than the width of the electron pulse. duce a wide variety of wavelengths that can be used as
• Have the electron pulse and the accelerator pulse be probe sources. With the high powers available, contin-
synchronized as they pass through the sample cell uum generation can be used, which will provide a white
• Keep synchronization between the linac pulse and the light source that can be used as a probe light source.
laser pulse Present picosecond experiments have used Cerenkov
The width of the laser will be narrower than the elec- light as the probe light. Experiments using this probe
tron pulse. In fact, one of the problems will be stretching source have been limited in signal-to-noise because of the
the laser pulse to a width that is appropriate for injecting shot-noise limit. With a laser available as a probe light
electrons into the accelerator. Modern lasers will have a source, the signal-to-noise should be much larger.
743
Fluorescence can be detected either using a streak cam-
era or fluorescence upconversion. With fluorescence 4.2 Chemistry before Relaxation
upconversion, one can impinge the fluorescence signal Radiation will produce radicals, ions and highly excited
and the probe light on a crystal. The probe light source states in fluids. In traditional chemical experiments, the
can act as an optical gate that will sample the fluorescence concentration of additives is low so that the reactions with
when the probe light is there. the additives will occur much more slowly than the re-
With the availability of intense, synchronized probe la- laxation of the excited states and highly excited vibra-
ser pulses, all the sophisticated techniques available in tional states of the solvent. However, when the concen-
laser spectroscopy may be used when appropriate. One tration of reactants is high, one will have reaction com-
well-known technique is CARS spectroscopy where the peting with the relaxation process. Without an explicit
vibrational state of a molecule can be measured using understanding of the relaxation processes, it then is not
visible spectroscopy. possible to predict the final chemistry.
We have tried to summarize a few of the experiments
4 SCIENTIFIC GOALS FOR A SUB- that will require the very fast time resolution of a new
PICOSECOND PULSE RADIOLYSIS facility. In such a short space and in this forum further
FACILITY details are not appropriate.
As stated in the introduction, pulse radiolysis and flash
photolysis are complementary techniques. While the time 5 SUMMARY
resolution of flash photolysis has always been greater In this short discussion we have tried to summarize our
than pulse radiolysis, there are experiments that are best design goals for a subpicosecond pulse radiolysis facility.
done using pulse radiolytic techniques. These include: We have tried to show that such a facility is more than a
Studies of the primary processes in radiation chemistry short pulse – detection techniques must be taken into ac-
can only be studied using these techniques. The kinetics count when designing the facility because the goal is to
of the geminate recombination reactions of the electron in make chemically significant measurements. We have
water has been studied using lasers. It has been shown tried to highlight a few fields of study for the future.
that the rates of these reactions depend on the photon en- Details on the machine design have been ignored in the
ergy producing the hydrated electron.4 This means that present discussion. Information about the design process
the spatial distribution of the electron depends on the pho- can be found in the paper by Hans Bluem and coworkers
ton energy. Thus there will be no straight-forward corre- in this conference. Details about the laser design can be
lation between the laser experiments and the radiation ex- found in the paper by Robert Crowell and his coworkers.
periments. These recombination reactions depend on the
distance distribution that is created in the ionization event 6 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
and the distribution depends on the source of ionization.
We gratefully acknowledge the scientific discussions of
Laser studies have been very effective in studying the
the Radiation and Photochemistry Group, Alexander D.
solvation of excited states (dipole solvation). However
Trifunac, David M. Bartels, Ilya A. Shkrob and David W.
until radiation chemical techniques were used to study
Werst and discussions of the Electron Transfer and Energy
solvation, ionic solvation was not measured. The unex-
Conversion Group, John R. Miller and Dani Meisel.
pected differences between ion solvation and dipole
Nothing could have been done without the simulations of
(excited state) solvation were only discovered with pulse
Hans Bluem, Alan Todd and their collaborators at
radiolytic techniques.
Northrop Grumman.
Ionization by lasers depends on the optical cross sec-
tions while ionization by ionizing particles depends on 7 REFERENCES
the number of electrons present. These differences will
allow one to probe a wide variety of chemical processes. [1] M. S. Matheson and L. M. Dorfman, Detection of short-
lived transients in radiation chemistry. J. Chem. Phys.
4.1 Nonhomogeneous processes 32, 1870-1 (1960).
Radiation deposits energy nonhomogeneously, which [2] M. C. Sauer, Jr., Charles D. Jonah and C. A. Naleway
leads to many of the important characteristics of radiation- “Study of Reactions of Geminate Ions in Irradiated
induced chemistry. These high local concentrations of Scintillator, Hydrocarbon Solutions Using Re-
radicals and ions will recombine very quickly. The com- combination Fluorescence and Stochastic Simulations”
petition between the fast recombination and reaction with J. Phys Chem. 95, 730-740 (1991).
[3] Kozawa, T.; Kobayashi, T.; Ueda, T.; Uesaka, M.
other species in the system will determine the efficacy of “Generation of high-current (1 kA) subpicosecond
the radiation-induced reactions. With the new radiolysis electron single pulse”. Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys.
facility, we will probe these reactions on faster time Res., Sect. A 399 180-184 (1997).
scales. [4] Crowell, Robert A.; Bartels, David M. “Multiphoton
Ionization of Liquid Water with 3.0-5.0 eV Photons”. J.
Phys. Chem. 100, 17940-17949 (1996).
744
NEW TECHNIQUES FOR EMITTANCE TUNING IN THE SLC*
P. Raimondi, R.W. Assmanny, T. Barklow, J.R. Bogart, F.J. Decker,
C. Field, H. Hendrickson, D.J. McCormick, M. Minty, N. Phinney,
M.C. Ross, J.L. Turner, T. Usher, M.D. Woodley, F. Zimmermann
SLAC, Stanford, CA 94309, USA
Abstract The luminosity of a linear collider L is given by
In the 1997-98 run, the luminosity of the SLAC Linear Col- + ,
lider (SLC) increased by about a factor of four compared L = N4N f H ; d (1)
x y
to previous runs. A significant contribution to this im-
provement came from revised emittance tuning techniques where N are the number of electrons and positrons at the
throughout the accelerator. A new strategy was used to can- interaction point (IP), f is the repetition frequency, x;y are
cel wakefields and dispersion in the LINAC. Careful mon- the average horizontal (x) and vertical (y ) beam sizes, and
itoring and control of the ARCs optic reduced the emit- Hd is the disruption enhancement factor which depends on
tance growth due to coupling, wakefields and synchrotron the beam intensities and on the transverse and longitudinal
radiation. New Final Focus optics and upgraded diagnos- beam sizes. At the SLC, the repetition frequency is 120 Hz
tics improved the emittance measurement resolution and and the beam intensity is limited by wakefield effects and
otpimization. These and other new procedures resulted in instabilities to about 4 10 10 particles per bunch. The only
an average 25residual emittance growth in both planes from route to significantly higher luminosity is by reducing the
the damping rings to the interaction point. effective beam size. Using the definition of emittance as
the product of the beam size and angular divergence (x;y ),
1 LUMINOSITY OVERVIEW x;y = x;y x;y , one may reexpress the luminosity as
During the 1997-98 run, a total of 350,000 Z0 s were
recorded with an average electron beam polarization of L / x y
Hd : (2)
%
74 . This was nearly double the total sample of events x y
from all previous SLD runs and reflected a substantial in- For higher luminosity, the basic strategy was to decrease
crease in luminosity of about a factor of four. The peak the emittance and increase the angular divergence. Any re-
luminosity delivered was 300 Z0 s per hour or
, 2 , 1 0
30 3 10 duction in beam size strengthens the disruption, or mutual
cm s with a record of more than 5300 Z events focusing of the beams, and further increases the luminosity.
recorded in 24 hours. The luminosity steadily increased
throughout the run bringing the SLC to within a factor of 2 EMITTANCE TRANSPORT
two of design [1]. The improvement was due almost en-
A variety of new techniques were used to minimize the
tirely to changes in tuning procedures and reconfiguration
emittance growth from the damping rings to the final focus.
of existing hardware with no major upgrade projects.
In the ring-to-linac transfer lines where the bunch length
350000
is compressed, the horizontal beam size is large and fills
1997/8 the available aperture, causing emittance dilution and beam
300000 1996 loss. Ballistic beam-based alignment minimized disper-
1994/5 sion generated in the strong matching quadrupoles. A new
optics with a larger momentum compaction factor better
Integrated SLD Z Events
250000 1993
1992 matched the beam size to the apertures and reduced losses
200000 [2]. Shielding sleeves were also added to reduce wakefields
generated by the bellows in the beamline.
150000
In the linac, a new implementation of two-beam disper-
sion free steering [3] constrained the electron and positron
100000
beams to follow the same trajectory, minimizing dispersion
50000
and wakefields. Once established, the trajectories were sta-
ble over several months, with only occasional resteering re-
0
quired. A stronger focusing lattice [4] improved the damp-
ing of incoming oscillations while ensuring compatibility
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
5
Week in run with PEP-II (the SLAC B-factory) operation. This also al-
lowed a reduction in the beam energy spread introduced
Figure 1: History of integrated SLD Z 0 events from 1992 for BNS damping which helped minimize chromatic emit-
through 1998, showing the steep increase in 1997-98. tance growth. Known sources of jitter from vibrations in
Work supported by the Department of Energy, contract DE-AC03- the mechanical systems near 10 Hz and in the water cooling
76SF00515 systems near 59 Hz were reduced by stiffened supports, up-
y present address: CERN, SL division, Geneva, Switzerland graded water pumps [5], and special high-speed feedbacks.
745
Another important improvement was the development of size when the integrals are properly evaluated and predicts
a fast, accurate procedure for phasing the rf accelerating higher luminosity for increased angular divergence. The
voltages. All of the 30 linac subboosters, each of which third curve demonstrates the gains from a different FF op-
drives 8 klystrons, could be phased in about 2 minutes to tics used for this run where the final demagnification was
an accuracy of 1-2 degrees. This provided a stable, well moved closer to the interaction point (IP). With these op-
understood energy profile throughout the run [6]. tics, the divergence, beam size, and predicted disruption en-
In the collider arcs, emittance growth is inevitable due hancement (assuming a 1 mm bunch length) were changed
to the emission of synchrotron radiation in the bending from x = 350 rad, x =20
: m, Hd =13
: to x = 470
dipoles. In addition, the non-planar geometry of these rad, x = 15 : m, Hd = 20
: . This was still less than
beamlines can cause transverse coupling. In this run, the the optimal values of x = 530
rad, x = 13
: m, and
optical properties of the arcs were more precisely opti- Hd =22
: .
mized and maintained. First the beam trajectory was care- 2.2
fully centered through the magnets to reduce wakefields.
Then the emittance growth was constantly monitored and 2.1
minimized using refinements of the techniques first devel- 2
oped in 1990 [7]. The realization that the final focus dis-
persion matching quadrupoles strongly coupled the beam 1.9
σx [µm]
led to the development of new methods for matching dis- 1.8
persion in the arcs themselves.
1.7
Most importantly, the strategy for global optimization of
the linac emittances was changed significantly. Since 1991, 1.6
the SLC has used closed betatron oscillations early in the
1.5
linac to cancel wakefield tails caused by residual structure
misalignments [8]. Studies showed that where the energy 1.4
spread is large, dispersion dominates the emittance growth. 1.3
Oscillations used to cancel dispersion may generate addi- 300 350 400 450 500 550
tional wakefield tails. At low energy, the optics is also θx [ µ rad]
extremely sensitive to small errors in the energy profile.
Tuning further downstream in the linac where the energy
Figure 2: Horizontal beam size y at the SLC IP as a func-
spread is small, produced more stable, reproducible results.
tion of angular divergence y . Curves (solid), RMS, and
In previous runs, emittances were optimized using wire
scanners located near the end of the linac at about the (dashed), with proper integration, are for the 1996 optics.
%
90 point. Measurements in 1997 indicated that signifi- The dot-dashed is for 1997 optics.
cant emittance growth can occur in the last 200 meters, as
At the SLC, the maximum achievable angular divergence
predicted by simulations [9]. The solution was to use wire
is limited primarily by backgrounds in the SLD detector.
scanners early in the final focus for the global optimiza-
In preparation for the 1997 run, changes were made to
tion. To provide high precision measurements during lumi-
the FF collimation and to the masking near the IP. Col-
nosity running, several upgrades were required. Thin car-
limators from the FF were moved to the arcs and rotated
bon wires were installed to allow measurements while the
45
by to allow for 'round' collimation. In addition, for
most collimators (60 jaws in total), a new technique en-
SLD detector was logging data. New optics improved the
phase space coverage and high resolution ( 2 m) beam
sured that they were properly centered on the beam to mini-
position monitor electronics allowed precision correction
mize wakefield kicks. Later, offline studies using upgraded
for pulse-to-pulse orbit fluctuations. The revised optimiza-
tracking codes revealed that part of the detector back-
tion strategy produced not only a smaller emittance, but
grounds were generated by higher order chromatic terms
( 2 ), specifically T266 and T226 in transport notation.
also much less variability without anomalous sources of
emittance growth. Most significantly, for the first time, the
Based on these results, permanent magnet sextupoles were
emittance transport was qualitatively and quantitatively un-
installed just after the end of the linac and additional sex-
derstood and controlled.
tupoles were energized in the FF to cancel these contribu-
tions.
3 FINAL FOCUS IMPROVEMENTS In addition to the new optics mentioned above, several
The key to improving the performance of the SLC final fo- other upgrades to the FF were implemented during the run
cus (FF) was the understanding that for non-Gaussian beam to reduce the emittance growth due to synchrotron radia-
distributions, the beam sizes, x;y , in Eq. 1 must be cal- tion and to cancel residual higher order aberrations. The
culated from the integral over the beam overlap distribu- additional FF sextupoles not only reduced backgrounds,
tions and not from the root mean square (RMS) distribu- but also reduced the contribution to the vertical beam size
tion. The upper curve in Fig. 2 shows the RMS beam size from two third-order aberrations, U3246 and U3244 , gener-
as a function of angular divergence for the 1996 FF optics. ated by the interleaved sextupoles. At the end of 1997,
Because the RMS is dominated by tails containing only a the average bend radius in the FF was increased by us-
small fraction of the beam, it increases after an optimum di- ing offset quadrupoles and steering dipoles. This reduced
vergence value. The second curve shows the effective beam synchrotron radiation emittance growth in both planes. In
746
February, permanent magnet octupoles were installed to beams. The data are in agreement with the theoretically
further cancel the U3246 and U3244 vertical aberrations. The calculated disruption enhancement. At the highest lumi-
%
observed decrease in the vertical beam size was about 15 . nosity, the enhancement was more than 100 . %
Finally, in May the strength of the final quadrupole near-
est the IP was increased to further raise the horizontal an- 2.5
gular divergence. The horizontal and vertical beam sizes
achieved were x =15 : m and y = 0 65
: m, which to-
Disruption Enhancement Factor
gether yield a beam area which is a factor of 3 smaller than 2
the SLC design value.
1.5
4 LUMINOSITY OPTIMIZATION
To achieve and maintain the minimum beam size at the
SLC IP, 5 final corrections are routinely optimized for each 1
beam. These include centering of the x and y beam waist
positions, zeroing of the dispersion x and y , and mini-
mization of an x , y coupling term. Since the first SLC col- 0.5
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
lisions, an automated procedure has been used to scan the
beam size as a function of each parameter and set the opti- SLD Measured Zs per Hour
mal value. The beam size was measured with a beam-beam
deflection scan but this technique lacked the resolution re- Figure 3: Ratio of luminosity measured by SLD to that
quired to measure micron-size, disrupted beams. It was calculated for rigid beams without disruption.
estimated [10] that poor optimization caused a 20 30%
,
reduction in luminosity during the 1996 run. For 1997, a
novel 'dithering' feedback was implemented which opti- 6 SUMMARY
mizes a direct measure of the luminosity (i.e. the beam- The remarkable increase in luminosity after nearly a decade
strahlung signal) as a function of small changes in each pa- of operation demonstrates that the SLC remains on a steep
rameter [11]. By averaging over thousands of beam pulses, learning curve and has far from exhausted its potential for
it was possible to improve the resolution by a factor of 10. further improvements and for a deeper understanding of
The feedback was configured to cycle through each of linear colliders. The success of the 1997-98 SLD run was
the 10 parameters automatically, typically every hour or due to the hard work and dedication of many groups and
two. In contrast, the old, slower, more invasive procedure individuals. In particular, we acknowledge the outstand-
was typically implemented only a few times per day. Be- ing efforts of the operations crews and the engineering and
cause of the improved resolution, it was possible to align maintenance staff as well as the physicists from SLD and
the FF sextupoles and new octupoles much more accurately the Accelerator Research departments.
and to develop new methods for cancelling all of the sec-
ond order chromatic and geometric aberrations. An added 7 REFERENCES
benefit of the feedback optimization was that it was highly [1] SLC Design Report, R. Erickson (ed.), SLAC-PUB (1994).
reproducible and no longer required operator intervention. [2] S. Kuroda, SLAC-CN-418 (1997).
Lastly, with the improved optimization and increased sta- [3] R. Assmann et al , this conference.
bility in the upstream systems, high luminosity was more [4] Y. Nosochkov, unpublished (1997).
quickly reestablished after any interruption. [5] R.E. Stege, J.L. Turner, Beam Instrumentation Wkshp
(1998).
[6] J. Bogart et al , EPAC98.
5 DISRUPTION [7] T. Barklow et al , AIP Conf. Proc 255, (1992).
In the 1997-98 SLC run, a significant luminosity enhance- [8] J.T. Seeman et al , HEACC (1992).
ment from disruption was demonstrated for the first time. [9] R. Assmann et al , SLAC-PUB-7577 (1997).
As the beams collide, each beam is focused by the field of [10] P. Emma et al , IEEE PAC (1997).
[11] L. Hendrickson et al , ICALEPCS Conf. (1997).
the other beam, causing the transverse size to shrink. If [12] F. Zimmermann et al , EPAC98, and SLAC-PUB-7898.
the resultant focal length is shorter than the bunch length, [13] M. Minty et al , IEEE PAC (1997).
the average beam size seen by the other beam decreases,
which increases the luminosity. The magnitude of the dis-
ruption, or pinch effect, depends on the transverse beam
size, the bunch length and the beam intensities. For this
run, along with the significant reduction in beam size, the
bunch length was carefully monitored and set to the opti-
mum value [12]. In addition, the beam currents were main-
tained at record levels partly due to bunch precompression
in the damping ring [13]. Fig. 3 shows the ratio of lumi-
nosity as recorded by SLD to that calculated from the mea-
sured beam parameters assuming rigid (i.e. undisrupted)
747
TOWARDS THE ZERO BEAM DIAGNOSTICS
A. Rovelli
INFN Laboratori Nazionali del Sud, via S. Sofia 44/a, 95123 Catania, Italy
1 INTRODUCTION 3 THE GUIDELINES
Low intensity beam diagnostics is a challenge that has Two main guidelines are followed approaching the low
involved the accelerator community in the last years. The intensity beam diagnostics problem. The first one, based
interest in this activity is due to the fact that a number of on the performances improvement of conventional
applications are based on the use of low intensity beams. techniques, consists of a deep investigation about the
The produced effort is mainly oriented to improve the typical sensitivity limitations of the beam diagnostics. The
performances of the conventional beam diagnostics in second one is based on the evaluation of using particle
order to work properly also when the beam intensity goes detection techniques very reliable for sensitivity and
down to 108÷106 pps. A very important incentive for this precision in nuclear as well as high energy physics
activity came few years ago with the development of a research. It is evident that a realistic solution is
new type of beam facility for the production of represented by two different sets of devices with an
radioactive ion beams (RIB) [1]. The new challenge was overlapped operative range to perform relative
very hard because the required sensitivity for the beam calibrations for absolute measurements.
diagnostics was in the range 1010÷105 pps, or even lower.
The necessity to measure the beam characteristics all over 3.1 Conventional techniques
such a wide range and the variety of ions and energies
involved forced the development of a complete set of Conventional beam diagnostics is a very wide set of
beam instrumentation able to satisfy all the requirements. instrumentation: secondary electrons emission (wire,
grids, etc.), light emission (screen, fiber, etc.), gas
2 THE PROBLEM EVALUATION ionization (residual, chamber, etc.) and charge induction
(pick-up, transformer, etc.) are the most diffused
A facility for the production of radioactive ion beams is techniques. The typical advantages are the simplicity in
the best reference to evaluate all the problems related to their structure, use and maintenance. This is a very
the low intensity beam diagnostics; the typical variety of important consideration that has to be always taken in
ions, energies and intensities involved, offers the account also developing low intensity beam diagnostics.
meaningful scenery inside which the new apparatus have The reason of this simplicity is that they were developed
to be developed [2]. The first items to be considered are mainly looking the operative procedures performed by the
the expected intensity and energy range. From an people (the console operators), which are not necessarily
overview all around the projects it is possible to expert of particles detection techniques, that have to
individuate two ranges: accelerate and transport the beam from the source to the
• beam intensity: 105 ÷ 1011 pps experimental point. The low signal-to-noise ratio of a lot
• beam energy: 104 ÷ 107 eV of these devices is the main limitation to their use for low
Once fixed the operative ranges, it is necessary to fix also intensity beam diagnostic. With the exception of the
few general requirements related to the specific use of ionization chambers, extensively used also as particles
these devices. In addition to the typical parameters to detector, all the others techniques have to be subjected to
characterize an ion beam in the longitudinal and in the a deep revision in order to increase the general
transverse plane, a new request, typical for a RIB facility, performances toward the lower limits. This revision has to
is the unambiguous isotope identification. To perform all be performed following two directions: the research for
these measurements these devices have to guarantee: new materials (as sensor) and the electronics
• the highest sensitivity to the lower current; improvement. The new materials have to guarantee:
• the highest sensitivity to the lower energy; • higher conversion efficiency;
• the highest reliability; • higher collection efficiency;
• the highest strength; • lower background noise;
• the highest simplicity to use and to maintain it. • higher radiation hardness;
Furthermore, all these requirements have to be added to The electronics improvement has to guarantee:
the typical ones for standard beam diagnostics. • lower electronic noise (connectors, contacts,
cables, components, etc.);
748
• lower electromagnetic noise (grounding, shielding, 4 SEMICONDUCTORS
etc.);
• higher signal first amplification; The semiconductors probably are one of the most popular
• improving the read-out electronics; materials category used to develop nuclear detectors.
• higher radiation hardness; Their versatility allows the realization of different
The goal is to reach the minimum sensitivity of 107 ÷ 105 configurations very useful also for beam diagnostics. In
pps. In this way it will be possible to overlap the typical the end of this chapter it will be reported also some
highest limit of the nuclear detectors and to perform applications based on a particular material, the diamond.
absolute calibrations with respect reference devices. It is an insulator but it can be considered, from the
applications point of view, the most important alternative
3.2 Particles detection techniques to the use of semiconductors.
The typical instrumentation and techniques used in 4.1 Silicon based detectors
nuclear as well as high energy physics research can be
used for low intensity beam diagnostics if they are To state the reason for the wide use of the silicon as
modified looking the peculiarity of this application. particles detector the best and the easiest way is to list its
Semiconductors, gas chambers and scintillators based main characteristics:
detectors offer, together with other ones, a wide choice in • the mean energy to produce a pair is 3.62 eV;
terms of performances and versatility. • well suited for different configurations;
The advantages are the sensitivity, the precision and • good timing performances;
the absolute measurements that can be performed after a • medium price.
suited calibration. The main limitation is the setup Unfortunately its radiation hardness is very low. This
complexity from the point of view of its structure and use. aspect limits its use for beam diagnostics; in particular, it
Beam diagnostic measurements require a fast read-out of can be used only in single particle counting mode and, in
the information, on-line if possible, and at the same time any case, great care has to be devoted to protect it.
well understandable by the operators. In this sense the Silicon based detectors can find useful applications for
main effort has to be devoted to: very low intensity beam diagnostics. Silicon micro-strips,
• reduce the setup complexity; for example, can be used as beam profile and position
• reduce the measuring time; monitor. The sensitivity and the spatial resolution (higher
• increase the general hardness; than 100 µm over a 10×10 cm2 area) are very good, but
• increase the automated procedures; the electronics and the price are very expansive. Much
more suited is the application for isotope identification
3.3 The ideal solution [3]. A thin Au target is used and a silicon telescope is
positioned at a suited angle in order to match a suited
All the arguments up to now mentioned allow the scattering counting rate. The ∆E-E information allows the
identification of the ideal solution. A list of the isotope identification. The operative energy range
recommendations for such a device is the following: depends by the silicon and dead layers thickness.
• measure different beam characteristics;
• cover a wide intensity range; 4.2 Germanium based detectors
• cover a wide energy range;
• allow self calibration; This very sophisticated kind of detector is mainly used for
• minimize the interferences with the beam; high resolution gamma ray spectroscopy. Its main
• minimize maintenance operations and price; characteristics are.
• maximize reliability and versatility; • the mean energy for a pair production is 2.96 eV;
• allow different measurement modes: • operating at 77 °K;
• charge/current collection; • very low radiation hardness;
• continuous/pulsed acquisition; • very complex experimental setup;
• integration time settable; • very high price.
Very important is the integration of this instrumentation It is obvious that such a detector has several limits for
in the main control system of the facility. This feature beam diagnostics application but, for a specific use, can
means that the operator in the console must operate the be very useful. For example, it is a powerful tool for very
beam management with no regard to the beam intensity. rare radioisotope identification [4]. The main advantage
Furthermore, the choice of the right device has to be done of this setup is that implanting the radio-isotope at very
considering that the setup structure has to be strong low energy it is possible its identification just after its
enough to resist to quick intensity changes. If necessary, a production, allowing an efficient tune of the transport line
suited interlock system has to be provided in order to avoiding any beam contamination.
protect the device in case of mistakes or faults.
749
4.3 Diamond based detectors the micro-strips chambers because the lithographic
procedure to realize the strips on a suited substrate
The operating principle of this isolating material is the (typically glass) allows to obtain 100 ÷ 200 µm (the pitch)
same of the semiconductors one. Its main features are: of spatial resolution. Also the chamber size can be
• the mean energy to produce a pair is ~ 13 eV; reduced as well as the setup complexity.
• the collection length is 50 ÷ 100 µm; Two very interesting devices were developed at the
• very good radiation and power hardness; LNS to measure the beam profile [7] and for particles
• very good timing performances; identification [8]. Both are based on the use of a 5×5 cm2
• versatility for different configurations; glass plate with 200 µm pitch of Au strip. To measure the
beam profile the strips are parallel with respect the beam
• high price.
direction, while for particles identification are
Nevertheless the higher energy to produce a pair, an
perpendicular. The whole structure, very simple and light,
important advantage with respect the semiconductors is
can be inserted or removed, through a suited actuator.
the high energy gap that strongly reduces the noise. The
strength of this material allows its use with high intensity
as well as low intensity beams. The very short collection 5.1 Residual gas detectors
length, depending by the nature and density traps,
determines very high performances in terms of spatial and The ionization produced by the beam interaction with the
time resolution. Can be used in pulses counting mode, for residual gas contained along the beam pipes can be used
very low beam intensities, as well in current mode to measure several beam properties without any
looking the continuous component of the signal produced interference with the beam itself. Generally and especially
by high intensity beams. An interesting application is the with low intensity beams, the ionization events are very
use of diamond film with 100 µm pitch micro-strips [5]; rare then it is necessary some signal amplification. The
this setup allows the beam profile and position typical setup foresees a charge collecting field and an
measurement. The increasing interest on such a material electron amplifier, generally a micro-channel-plate
is due to the advanced techniques nowadays available for (MCP), to collect the charges. This setup has no problems
the production of synthetic diamonds at realistic prices. for the radiation damage, on condition that it is prevented
The CVD (Chemical Vapor Deposition) technique allows from the direct beam interaction. The MCP choice
the production of very thin diamond films of some depends by the application; several model with different
centimeter size; the possibility to realize wide characteristics and performances are available. Here is
homogeneous layers with controlled impurity reported a brief description of two different techniques.
characteristics, justifies the big effort that is devoted to The MCP with electric readout is a detector where the
test new devices for beam diagnostics. signal coming from the collecting electrode is directly
acquired and analyzed. This system, in different
configurations, is very useful for both transversal and
5 GAS BASED DETECTORS longitudinal beam profiles. To measure the transverse
beam profile, as well as the position, the collecting
Many detectors are based on the ionization produced by a
electrode is coupled with a silicon micro-strips plate; the
charged particle crossing a gas volume. The gas can be
spatial resolution is very good (0.3 ÷ 1 mm). A similar
used to fill a chamber with thin entrance and exit
setup [9], but coupled with a 50 Ω anode is used to
windows, or can be the residual gas itself contained along
measure the longitudinal beam profile with a very good
the beam pipes used to transport the beam.
time resolution (100 ÷ 200 ps).
The most famous gas detector is the gas chamber; it
The MCP with light readout is similar to the previous
founds many applications also for beam diagnostics. Its
one; the only difference is that the electrons coming out
versatility in terms of dimensions and shapes allows to
from the amplification stage are sent onto a scintillating
develope a variety of setups well suited for beam
screen. The light produced by the electrons hitting the
diagnostics applications. The signal is produced by the
scintillator can be acquired through a common CCD
energy loss into the gas and its amplitude depends by the
camera [10] or directly through silicon strips. The signal
gas pressure and by the collecting electric field. The mean
is acquired by a frame-grabber PC board. A simple
energy to produce a pair is about 30 eV, depending by the
program allows displaying the on-line acquired images
gas. Very important features are:
together with the beam profile and position information;
• very good radiation hardness;
is better to use a camera with gain and shutter control to
• energy loss and charge multiplication effect; match the setup sensitivity.
• very good sensitivity;
• versatility for different configurations;
6 SEM BASED DETECTORS
• medium price.
The most interesting configurations for beam
Secondary electrons emission based devices probably are
diagnostics purposes are the wire chambers and the
the most diffused ones for beam diagnostics. The ions
micro-strips chambers [6]. Their main are the sensitivity
hitting the outer layer of several materials produce an
and the spatial resolution. Particular interest is devoted to
750
electron emission that is proportional to the released sensor. Also for the light detector there is a wide choice of
energy. Because only the electrons contained in the first devices. Rather than a long list of the available devices
microns can exit from the material, the emission is a (photomultipliers tubes, photodiodes, avalanche
typical surface effect and it is proportional to the surface photodiodes, hybrid photodiodes, etc.) it is better to do a
exposed to the beam. Moving wires, grids and thin foils brief overview of the most significant applications for low
are commonly used to measure several beam properties. intensity beam diagnostics. Profile, total current and time
The limitation of their use for low intensity beam measurements can be easily done using scintillating
diagnostics is mainly due to the bad signal-to-noise ratio. optical fibers and screens.
To improve their performances it is possible to devote
particular care to the material selection and to the 7.1 Beam profile and position monitor
electronic noise reduction; in any case it is very difficult
to increase their sensitivity more than 107 pps. To do that, The simplest setup is based on the use of a scintillating
it is necessary to develop most sophisticated apparatus screen that intercepts the beam; the emitted light is
based on such an amplification (MCP, channeltron, etc.) collected through a quartz window by a CCD camera. The
of the detected signal [11]. main limitation is the bad light collection efficiency that
limits the use with low intensity beams. To improve its
7 SCINTILLATORS BASED DETECTORS performances it is possible to use more efficient
scintillating screens (Cr doped alumina, rare earths plastic
As the previous category, also the scintillating materials sheets, etc.) or collecting with the same camera the light
are very well known and used for beam diagnostics emitted at different solid angles.
applications. The main advantage with respect the SEM A more sensitive setup was developed for very low
based devices is that the wide choice of materials and intensity (104 ÷ 106 pps) and energy (higher than 104 eV)
light detectors allows to develop several apparatus well [13]. It is based on the use of the CsI(Tl). A small brick of
suited also for low intensity beams. Very briefly, the main this material is positioned behind a moving slit and it is
items for the scintillating materials are: coupled with a compact photo-tube by means of a PMMA
• fluorescent light due to the particles energy loss; prism. The photo-tube is completely shielded by the slit
• mean energy to produce a photon is 10 ÷ 100 eV; itself with respect to the beam. The use of faster
• good radiation hardness for the inorganic ones; scintillators (CsI, BaF2, etc.) increases the upper limit of
• poor radiation hardness for the plastic ones; the count rate allowing absolute calibrations with normal
• versatility for different configurations; intensities.
• medium price. The scintillating fibers offer an interesting alternative.
The first important question concerns the material The advantage with respects the previous systems is that
choice. It is not so easy to have a global view on the the efficiency in the light transmission is strongly
scintillating materials because of their very big number, improved. Plastics as well as glass fibers can be
continuously in progress with the fast improvement of the successful used depending by the application. A very
technology to produce them. A significant contribute simple setup was developed to measure the beam profile
comes out also from other sectors of the scientific and position [14]. It is based on the same idea of the
research where scintillating materials are employed for moving wires monitor. Sensitivity and spatial resolution
completely different applications. A simple way for a depend by the fiber choice. Using glass fibers the
choice is to select them in terms of: radiation hardness is higher but the mechanical strength is
• the mean energy to produce a photon; lower. The light collection is performed through a
compact photo-tube able to work also inside the beam
• the decaying time constant;
pipe. A special I/V converter [15] was developed to get
• the photon wave length;
the continuous signal component as well as the impulsive
• the refraction index of the material; one coming from the tube. This configuration allows to do
• the efficiency of photon collection; measurements over the widest intensity range. The only
• the radiation hardness. limitations are the damage produced by the power
Many other properties have to be taken in account: for released by the beam and the outer dead layer of the fiber
examples, the mechanical features as well as the (only the core is scintillating); this last problem limits its
hygroscope one. In literature [12] are reported the most functionality at the lower energies.
important features of the common organic and inorganic
scintillators; also some amorphous materials like glasses,
7.2 Time structure and total current monitor
usually doped with rare earths elements (Tb, Gd, Ce, etc.),
represent an alternative choice for radiation hardness and
For this applications the best choice is the use of very fast
light emission efficiency. However, a scintillator based
organic scintillators. The high counting rate obtainable
detector also consists of a suited photo-sensor and,
allows, if coupled with a suited photo-sensor, to get high
sometime, a suited light-guide. Once fixed the
time resolution and absolute current measurements over a
scintillating material to be used, it is necessary to match
wide intensities range.
its characteristics with the proper light-guide and photo-
751
To measure the phase of pulsed beams a useful setup REFERENCES
is based on the use of a fast plastic scintillator [16]. The
PILOT-U sensor is coupled with a photo-tube through a [1] NuPECC Report, December 1997.
long optical fiber; the whole setup is mounted on a radial [2] J. D. Garret, Nucl. Phys. A 616 (1997) 3.
probe to measure the beam time characteristics inside the S. Kubono et al., Nucl. Phys. A 616 (1997) 11.
cyclotron. The operating range is 104 ÷ 106 pps. The same A. C. C. Villari, Nucl. Phys. A 616 (1997) 21.
setup can be also coupled with a silicon detector to D. Habs et al, Nucl. Phys. A 616 (1997) 29.
perform ∆E-E measurements but at lower rates (103 pps). D. J. Morrissey, Nucl. Phys. A 616 (1997) 45.
Total current measurements can be performed using I. Tanihata, Nucl. Phys. A 616 (1997) 56.
very fast scintillators after a suited calibration [17]. The G. Ciavola et al, Nucl. Phys. A 616 (1997) 69.
short decay time of the polymeric plastic scintillators [3] R. Pardo et al, presented at the RIB workshop, May
allows very high acquisition rates; they can be easily 1997, Vancouver (Canada).
shaped in different geometry and are very cheap. The [4] B. Launé et al, presented at the RIB workshop, May
main drawback is their poor radiation hardness if used at 1997, Vancouver (Canada).
low energies and high intensities. [5] H. Fenker et al., presented at the IEEE Nucl. Sc.
Symp., November 1995, S. Francisco (CA, USA).
8 SUMMARY AND PROSPECTS [6] A.Oed, NIM A 263 (1988) 351.
[7] P. Finocchiaro et al., submitted to NIM A.
It is not so easy to report a complete overview of the [8] S. Aiello et al., NIM A 400 (1997) 469
activities that are coming out developing low intensity [9] J. P. Vignet et al, AIP 390 (1996) 223.
beam diagnostics. The wide choice of materials, detectors [10] A. Rovelli et al, AIP 390 (1996) 398.
and techniques involved produces an increasing quantity [11] D. Shapira et al, presented at the RIB workshop,
of experimental apparatus very different in terms of May 1997, Vancouver (Canada).
performances and operating ranges. In any case, this is an [12] G. F. Knoll, Radiation Detection and Measurement,
encouraging situation meaning that the interest is very 2nd edition.
high as well as the number of the possible applications. [13] P. Finocchiaro et al., IEEE Trans. on Nucl. Sc., in
At the end of this very general overview it is possible print.
to draw some conclusions regarding the state of art and [14] P. Finocchiaro et al., NIM A 385 (1997) 31.
the prospects of this activity. To satisfy all the [15] A. Amato et al., LNS Report 09-10-97.
requirements for the low intensity beam diagnostics the [16] B. Launé et al, presented at the RIB workshop, May
investigation on the use of particles detecting techniques 1997, Vancouver (Canada).
has produced the most promising results. Gas chambers as [17] L. Rezzonico et al., presented at the RIB workshop,
well as scintillators based detectors represent the May 1997, Vancouver (Canada).
preferred solutions for their versatility, reliability and
cost. For the next future, also the diamond based detectors
will represent a good alternative.
752
NONLINEAR SPACE CHARGE EFFECTS AND
EMITTANCE GROWTH IN LINAC*
Yinbao Chen and Zhibin Huang
China Institute of Atomic Energy, P.O. Box 275(17), Beijing 102413
Abstract We should point it out that the above results
concerning the calculation of the space charge field
The nonlinear space charge effect of bunched beam in energy are based on the assumption of a continuous beam in
linac is one of the important reasons that induce the a tube or a bunched beam in free space though involved with
emittance growth. The general formulas for calculating different density distributions. There is an obvious difference
the potential of space charge with nonuniform between these results and the reality of the electron (or ion)
distribution in surrounding structure are presented. For a bunched beam in a linear accelerator or some microwave
bunched beam with different distribution in waveguide of devices.
linac, the expresses of the nonlinear field energy of a With regard to a bunched beam in surrounding
cylinder model of space charge are derived, and the structures, the space charge effects of nonuniform density
numerical results of the nonlinear field energy for distributions in waveguide of linac have been studied in
different density distributions are given. The emittance our early work [8]. In this paper, first we review the main
growth caused by these nonuniformities are discussed. point of Ref. [8] to give the general formulas for potential
induced by a cylinder of space charge with nonuniform
1 INTRODUCTION density distribution in a surrounding cylinder (Section 2); in
Section 3, for a bunched beam with nonuniform
In high-current beam for Free Electron Laser (FEL) distributions in waveguide of linac, we present the
and linear accelerator for high energy physics, induction expresses of the nonlinear field energy of a cylinder model
linac for heave ion fusion, microwave devices and other of space charge; in Section 4, we show the numerical results
applications, the space charge force is no longer small of the nonlinear field energy for different density
compared with the externally applied focusing forces. distributions; and finally, in Section 5, we discuss the
And the space charge effect is assumed to be one of the emittance growth for a bunched beam in linac.
fundamental factors governing the beam dynamics.
Since the theoretical study and numerical simulation 2 GENERAL FORMULAS FOR
show that the nonuniform particle distributions have POTENTIAL OF NONUNIFORM
more electrostatic field energy per unit length than that CHARGE DISTRIBUTION
of the equivalent uniform beam with the same current I,
rms radius, and rms emittance. Therefore, it is suggested For the convenience of understanding and application,
that this additional field energy is converted into particle here we review the main point of Ref.[8] in which the
kinetic energy and caused emittance growth as the general formulas for calculating the potential of space
distribution tends to become more homogeneous. This charge with nonuniform distributions in waveguide have
concept has been already accepted by many studies. been obtained.
Historically, the relationship between rms emittance and A cylinder model of space charge is used to present a
space charge field energy term for a continuous beam in a space charge bunch in linac as shown in Fig.1.
continuous focusing channel was firstly derived by
Lapostolle [1]. The rms envelope equation with space charge r
was obtained by Sacherer [2]. An equation for emittance a
growth in space-charge-dominated beam having nonuniform b
density was derived by Struckmeier, Klabunde, and Reiser
[3]. For a round continuous beam with an arbitrary z
distribution in a linear focusing channel, a differential -L/2 L/2
equation for emittance change was derived by Wangler [4].
And, a generalized differential equation for a bunched beam
was derived by Hofmann and Struckmeier [5]. Also, there
are many further study results on the subject (see for Figure 1. Cylinder model of space charge.
examples Ref. [6] and [7]). Letting a as the accelerator waveguide radius, b and ±L/2
as the boundaries of the cylinder model in r and z directions,
*
Supported by National Natural Science of China.
753
respectively. The potential induced by the space charge direction. Therefore, t and l can be u (for uniform), w (for
bunch with uniform distribution ρ in a cylindrical waterbag), p (for parabolic) and g (for Gaussian). We list all
coordinate system can be written as follows [9]: possible combinations of the four distributions in Table 1,
where
ϕ0 = ρ f 0 (r, z; b, L / 2) , (1)
Nq 2 Nq r2
ρ u, u ( r , z ) = , ρ w ,u ( r , z) = 1 − ,
πb 2 L πb 2 L b 2
where f0 is the potential induced by a unit space charge 2
2
3Nq r2
r
density. Nq −
ρ p , u (r , z ) = 1 − , ρ g ,u ( r , z ) = e 2α
2
,
According to the general formulas in Ref.[8], for the space πb 2 L b 2 2 πα 2 L
charge bunch model with nonuniform charge density 3 Nq z2 3Nq r2 z2
distribution ρ(r, z) = ρ(r )ρ(z) , we have the induced potential as
ρ u , w (r , z ) = 1 − , ρ w, w (r , z ) = 1− 1 − ,
2 πb L
2
( L / 2) 2 πb 2 L b 2 ( L / 2) 2
follows: 9 Nq r2
2
z2 3 Nq − 2
r2
z2
ρ p , w ( r , z) = 1 −
2πb 2 L
1 −
b 2 ( L / 2) 2
, ρ g , w (r , z ) =
4 πα 2 L
e 2α 1 −
( L / 2) 2
,
L
b ∂2 f (r, z; ξ, ζ) dξdζ .
∫ ∫ ρ(ξ, ζ)
2
ϕ= 2 0
(2) 15 Nq z2
r2 z2
2
0 0 ∂ξ∂ζ ρ u, p ( r , z ) = 1 −
8πb 2 L ( L / 2) 2
, ρ w, p ( r , z ) =
15Nq
1
−
1
−
,
4πb 2 L b2 ( L / 2) 2
2
2 2
45Nq r2 r
2
Therefore, so long as the potential ϕ0 ( in the form of Eq.(1)) ρ p, p ( r , z ) = 1 − 1 −
z2
, ρ g, p (r, z) = 1615παNq2 L e − 2α 2
1 − z2 ,
8πb 2 L b 2 ( L / 2) 2
( L / 2)
2
induced by a space charge bunch model with uniform z 2
z 2
distribution is known, the potential ϕ induced by the space Nq −
2 Nq r 2 − 2β 2
ρ u , g ( r , z) = e 2β
2
, ρ w, g ( r , z ) = 1 − e ,
πb 2 LD πb 2 LD b 2
charge with the same model but nonuniform distribution can 2
2 z 2
z
2
be obtained from Eq.(2). 3Nq r 2 − 2β 2
r −
−
ρ p, g ( r , z ) = 1 − e , ρ g , g ( r , z) =
Nq
e 2α e 2β
2 2
,
The potentials of a cylinder of space charge with uniform πb 2 LD b 2 2 πα 2 LD
density distribution inside a conducting cylinder have been (8)
obtained : [9] and
L2
1 − t2
∫
1
2ρab
∞
L α2 = r2 , β2 = z 2 , D= e 8β
2
dt . (9)
∑ ( k a)
J1 ( k l b ) J 0 ( k l r ) kl L
ϕ 1,2 = sh e −k l z
, z > , (3) 2 −1
ε0 3 J2 k a
1 ( l )
2 2
l =1 l
Table 1. Density Distributions
J1 ( k l b ) J 0 ( k l r ) − l
∞ k L
2ρab 1 − ch( k l z) e 2 , z <
∑
L
ϕ3 = 3 J2 k a
, (4)
ε0 k a
( l ) 1( l ) 2 Distribution Distribution in longitudinal direction
l =1
in transverse
direction uniform waterbag parabolic Gaussian
where J i ( k l x) is the Bessel function of the ith order, and k l is
uniform ρu,u ρu,w ρu,p ρu,g
chosen so that J 0 ( k l a) = 0 . Substituting Eqs. (3) and (4) into
waterbag ρw,u ρw,w ρw,p ρw,g
Eq. (2), we can rewrite the general formulas for calculating
the potential induced by the same cylinder of space charge parabolic ρp,u ρp,w ρp,p ρp,g
with nonuniform distribution as follows: Gaussian ρg,u ρg,w ρg,p ρg,g
L ∞ Substituting the density distributions of Eq. (8) into
ξ J 0 ( k l ξ) J 0 ( k l r ) L
∑
b
∫ ∫
2
ϕ 1,2 = 2
ρ( ξ ,ζ) ch( k lζ) e -kl |z| dξdζ, z > ,(5)
ε 0a 0 0 ( k l a) J 12 ( k l a) 2 Eqs. (3) to (6), we can get the potentials induced by the
l=1
∞
ξ J 0 (k l ξ) J 0 (k l r )
cylinder of space charge with different density
∑
z b
∫ ∫
2
ϕ3 = ρ(ξ ,ζ) ch(k l ζ) e -k l|z| dξdζ + distributions. ( For details of the derivation see Refs. [10]
ε0 a 0 0
l=1
(k l a) J 12 (k l a)
to [12] ).
∞
ξ J 0 (k l ξ) J 0 (k l r )
L
L
∫ ∫ ρ(ξ,ζ) ∑
2 b
+ 2 ch(k l z ) e -k l ζ dξdζ , |z|< . (6)
ε0 a z 0
l=1
(k l a) J 21 (k l a) 2
3 NONLINEAR FIELD ENERGY OF
A CYLINDER OF SPACE
Suppose that the density is given by
CHARGE IN LINAC
ρ(r, z ) = N t , l ρ t , l , (7)
The nonlinear field energy of the cylinder model of space
charge in a waveguide of linac can be found by integrating
where the normalization constants Nt,l are chosen to ϕdq over the entire volume occupied by the space charge: [9]
L
∫∫
b
2π ρ( r , z ) rdrdz = Nq , where N is the total number
2
satisfy L
0 −
2 L
r=b z=
of particles, the subscription t presents the distribution in W = 2π
∫ ∫
r =0 z= −
2
L
ρϕrdrdz . (10)
transverse direction and l represents that in longitudinal 2
754
∞
Substituting the different density distributions of Eq.(8) e− k l α
2 2
∑ ( k a)
5N 2 q 2
Wg , p = A pa , (24)
and the potentials ϕ induced by these space charge in the 7 πε 0 L
l =1 l
2
J12 ( k l a)
regime (|z|<L/2) from Eq.(6) into Eq.(10), we get the self-
where
field energy of the cylinder of space charge in waveguide as
3 63 945 2835 2835
the following. A pa = 1 − + + + +
( k l L / 2) 2 2( k l L / 2) 4 2( k l L / 2) 6 2( k l L / 2) 7 2( k l L / 2) 8
For a bunched beam with longitudinal uniform
distribution and different distributions in transverse 315 3 3 − kl L k L
2
− 1 + + e 2 sh l . (25)
direction, we get: 2( k l L / 2) 5 ( k l L / 2) ( k l L / 2) 2 2
∑ (k a)
2 N 2q 2a2 J12 ( k l b)
Wu, u = Akv , (11)
πε 0 Lb 2 l =1 l
4
J12 ( k l a ) For a bunched beam with longitudinal Gaussian
∞ distribution and different distributions in transverse
∑
2 2 4
32 N q a J 22 ( k l b)
Ww, u = Akv , (12) direction, we get:
πε 0 Lb 4 l =1
( k l a) 6 J12 ( k l a )
∞ ∞
∑ (k a) J
1152 N 2 q 2 a 6 J 32 ( k l b)
∑ (k a)
Wp,u = , (13) 2 N 2q 2a2 J12 ( kl b)
Akv Wu, g = Aga , (26)
πε 0 Lb 6 l =1 l
8 2
1 (kl a ) πε 0 Lb 2 4
J12 ( k l a)
l =1 l
∞
e −kl α ∞
2 2
∑ (k a)
N 2q 2
∑ ( k a)
Wg , u = , (14) 32 N 2 q 2 a 4 J 22 ( k l b)
Akv Ww, g = Aga , (27)
2πε 0 L 2
J12 ( k l a ) πε 0 Lb 4 6
J12 ( k l a )
l =1 l
l =1 l
where ∞
∑ (k a) J
1152 N 2 q 2 a 6 J 32 ( k l b)
kl L Wp, g = Aga , (28)
2 k L − πε 0 Lb 6 8 2
Akv = 1− sh l e 2 . (15) l =1 l 1 (kl a )
kl L 2
∞
e −kl α
2 2
∑ ( k a)
N 2q 2
Wg , g = Aga , (29)
2 πε 0 L 2
J12 ( k l a)
For a bunched beam with longitudinal waterbag l =1 l
distribution and different distributions in transverse
where
direction, we get:
1− t
2
1+ t
2
1− t 1+ t
−
L
v+ − kl L v+
∫ ( )∫
kl L 1 1 8β 2 2 2
2
∞ Aga = 1− t e
2 2
dv ×
∑ (k a)
18 N 2 q 2 a 2 J12 ( k l b) 8D 2 −1 −1
Wu, w = Awb , (16)
πε 0 Lb 2 l =1 l
4
J12 ( k l a)
2 2
L L kl L
∞ − t2 1 − t2 − t
∑ ( k a) ∫
288 N 2 q 2 a 4 J 22 ( k l b) 8β 2
kl L kl L 8β 2
Ww, w = Awb , (17) ×e ch tdt + e 2
×
πε 0 Lb 4
l =1 l
6
J12 ( k l a ) 2 8D 2 −1
L t
2
t
2
v +
∞ −
kl L t t
∑ ( k a) J 8β 2
10368 N 2 q 2 a 6 J 32 ( k l b)
∫
1 2
× t v + dv dt
2
Wp, w = Awb , (18) e ch . (30)
πε 0 Lb 6 8 2
1 (kl a )
−1 2 2 2
l =1 l
∞
e− k l α
2 2
∑ (k a)
9 N 2q 2
Wg , w = Awb , (19)
2 πε 0 L 2
J12 ( kl a )
l =1 l
4 NUMERICAL RESULTS OF
where NONLINEAR FILED ENERGY
2 1 1 1
Awb = − + 1 + −
15 3( k l L / 2 ) 2 ( k l L / 2 ) 3 ( k l L / 2 ) As an example, take a cylinder model of space charge
2 kl L
with total charge Nq=6×10-9 Coulomb in a surrounding
1 1 − kl L
− 1 + e 2 sh . (20) cylinder with radius a=0.015m. The calculations of
( k l L / 2 ) 3 ( k l L / 2 ) 2
nonlinear field energy W versus b/a of the bunch and wall
radius and b/L of the bunch radius and length are carried
For a bunched beam with longitudinal parabolic out. The related plots for different transverse distributions
distribution and different distributions in transverse combining different longitudinal distributions are shown in
direction, we get: Figures 2 and 3. As can be seen, first, the all nonuniform
particle distributions have more nonlinear field energy than
∞
that of the equivalent uniform beam. Second, the nonlinear
∑ ( k a)
20 N 2 q 2 a 2 J12 ( k l b)
Wu, p = A pa , (21) field energies increase as b/L increases and decrease as b/a
7πε 0 Lb 2 l =1 l
4
J12 ( k l a )
increases for all distributions. Thirdly, from Fig.2, it can be
∞ seen that the smaller the b/a, the bigger the nonlinear field
∑ (k a) J
320 N 2 q 2 a 4 J 22 ( k l b)
Ww, p = A pa , (22)
7πε 0 Lb 4 l =1 l
6 2
1 ( k l a)
energy W. Therefore, it can be predicted, the nonlinear field
∞
energy tends its maximum in free space for a space charge
∑ ( k a) J
11520 N 2 q 2 a 6 J 32 ( k l b) bunch with any distribution.
Wp, p = A pa , (23)
7πε 0 Lb 6
l =1 l
8 2
1 ( k l a)
755
x10-5 x10-5
6
(a) 1--Wu,u 2--Ww,u 6 (b) 1--Wu,w 2--Ww,w
3--Wp,u 4--Wg,u 3--Wp,w 4--Wg,w
4
W (J) 4
W (J)
4 4
2 3 3
2 2
2
1 1
0 0
0.15 0.3 0.45 0.6 0.75 0.9 0.15 0.3 0.45 0.6 0.75 0.9
b/a b/a
x10-5 x10-5
8
6 (c) 1--Wu,p 2--Ww,p (d) 1--Wu,g 2--Ww,g
3--Wp,p 4--Wg,p 3--Wp,g 4--Wg,g
6
4
W (J)
W (J)
4
4
3 4
2 3
2 2
1 2
1
0 0
0.15 0.3 0.45 0.6 0.75 0.9 0.15 0.3 0.45 0.6 0.75 0.9
b/a b/a
Figure 2. Field energy W versus b/a of the bunch and wall radius for different transverse distributions and (a) longitudinal
uniform distribution; (b) longitudinal waterbag distribution; (c) longitudinal parabolic distribution; (d) longitudinal Gaussian
distribution.
x10-5 x10-5
6 6
(a) 1--Wu,u 2--Ww,u (b) 1--Wu,w 2--Ww,w
3--Wp,u 4--Wg,u 3--Wp,w 4--Wg,w 4
4
4 4 3
3
2
W (J)
W (J)
2
1
1
2 2
0 0
0.15 0.3 0.45 0.6 0.75 0.9 0.15 0.3 0.45 0.6 0.75 0.9
b/L b/L
x10-5 x10-5
6 6
4
(c) 4 (d)
3
3
4 4 2
2
W (J)
W (J)
1
1
2 2
1--Wu,p 2--Ww,p 1--Wu,g 2--Ww,g
3--Wp,p 4--Wg,p 3--Wp,g 4--Wg,g
0 0
0.15 0.3 0.45 0.6 0.75 0.9 0.15 0.3 0.45 0.6 0.75 0.9
b/L b/L
Figure 3. Field energy W versus b/L of the bunch radius and length for different transverse distributions and (a) longitudinal
uniform distribution; (b) longitudinal waterbag distribution; (c) longitudinal parabolic distribution; (d) longitudinal Gaussian
distribution.
756
5 EMITTANCE GROWTH FOR A Obviously, the emittance growth caused by the free
BUNCHED BEAM IN LINAC energy Un will be also dependent of the ratio of the bunch
and wall radius, and may tend its minimum in free space.
The generalized three-dimensional equation for the Therefore, it may be not enough to form a true estimation of
emittance and field energy of high-current beams in the emittance growth if the change of nonlinear field energy
periodic focusing structure was derived by Hofmann and is predicted with the value in free space in stead of that in
Struckmeier [5], and can be written for three degrees of a channel of linac.
freedom x, y and z (with linear focusing in each plane) as:
REFERENCES
1 d 2 1 d 2 1 d 2
(W − Wu ) ,
32 d
εx + εy + εz = − (31)
x 2 ds y 2 ds z 2 ds mγ 3v 2 N ds [1] M. Lapostolle, Possible emittance increase through
filamentantion due to space charge in continuous
beams, IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. NS-18, 1101 (1971).
where s=v⋅t , εx , εy and εz present rms emittance in x, y
[2] F. Sacherer, RMS envelope equations with space
and z directions, respectively, W and Wu are the space
charge, IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. NS-18, 1105 (1971).
charge field energies of the real beam and equivalent
[3] J. Struckmeier, J. Klabunde and M. Reiser, On the
uniform beam. The equation allows one to estimate the
stability and emittance growth of different particle
total emittance growth if the change of nonlinear field
phase space distributions in a long magnetic
energy can be predicted.
quadrupole channel, Part. Acc. 15, 47 (1984).
In linear accelerator, the real beams have to be
[4] T. P. Wangler, K. R. Crandall, R. S. Mills, and M.
considered in some channels. And hence, the nonlinear
Reiser, Relationship between field and rms emittance
field energy of the beam should be calculated in a
in intense particle beams, IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. NS-
surrounding structure. It can be seen clearly, from the Fig.2
32, 2196(1985).
and Fig.3, the nonlinear field energies are not only
[5] I. Hofmann and J. Struckmeier, Generalized three-
dependent of the ratio b/L of the bunch radius and length,
dimensional equations for the emittance and field
but also dependent of the ratio b/a of the bunch and wall
energy of high-current beams in periodic focusing
radius. It is also true for the free energy. Letting the
structures, Part. Acc. 21, 69 (1987).
quantity Un:
[6] T. P. Wangler, P. Lapostolle and A. Lombardi, Space-
charge-induced emittance growth in an elliptical beam
U n = (W − Wu ) Wu . (32)
with a parabolic density distribution, Conference
record of the IEEE 1993 particle Accelerator
Un is a measure of the nonuniformity of the charge density Conference, 93CH3279-7, p.3606.
and represents the field energy which can be converted into [7] M. Reiser, Theory and Design of Charged Particle
particle kinetic energy as the distribution tends to become Beams, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1994.
more homogeneous. And hence it leads the emittance [8] Chen Yinbao, Xie Xi, Space charge effects of
growth. As some examples, taking Wu =Wu,u, and W equals nonuniform density distribution in waveguide, Chinese
to Ww,w, Wp,w, Wg,w, Ww,p, Wp,p, and Wg,p respectively, we Journal of Nuclear Physics, 1979, 1:107-128
obtain Un versus b/a for these distributions as shown in [9] J.Hechtel, The effect of potential beam energy on the
Fig.4. performance of linear beam devices”, IEEE Trans. on
electron devices, 1970, 15:999-1009
3 [10] Chen Yinbao, Nonlinear space charge effects of
bunched beam in linac, China Nuclear Science &
1--Uw,w 2--Uw,p 3--Up,w
4--Up,p 5--Ug,w 6--Ug,p
Technology Report, CNIC-00592, IAE-0100, 1992.
6
2 5
[11] Chen Yinbao, Fu Sinian, Huang Zhibin at el., Space
charge effects of bunched beam with nonuniform
distributions in both longitudinal and transverse
Un
4
3
directions, Chin. J. Nucl. Phys. 1995, 17(1):80.
1
2 [12] Chen Yinbao, Fu Sinian, Huang Zhibin at el., Space
1
charge effects of bunched beam with Gaussian
distribution in linac, Chin. J. Nucl. Phys. 1995,
0 17(2):174.
0.15 0.3 0.45 0.6 0.75 0.9
b/a
Figure 4. Free energy Un versus b/a for some distributions.
757
A HIGH CHARGE, HIGH DUTY FACTOR RF PHOTOINJECTOR FOR
THE NEXT GENERATION LINEAR COLLIDER
E. Colby
Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, MS07, Stanford, CA, 94309 USA
Abstract Table 1: TESLA-500 and TTF Parameters
Parameter TESLA 500 TTF
Testing of the prototype TESLA Test Facility (TTF) Linac Energy 250 GeV 500 MeV
RF photoinjector has been completed, and fabrication of RF Frequency 1300 MHz 1300 MHz
the high duty factor TTF injector is underway. Gradient 25 MeV/m 15 MeV/m
Experimental results from the prototype tests conducted No. Cryomodules ~2500 4
9 9
at Argonne National Laboratory will be presented. Bunch population 5 x 10 5 x 10
1
Engineering design work for the high power TTF gun Energy Spread 0.15 % 0.1%
2
will be discussed together with initial operating Energy Spread 0.1 % 0.2%
3
experience with a Cesium telluride photocathode in short Bunch Length 1 mm 1 mm
(50 microbunch) pulse trains, and long RF pulses (1000 Beam Current 8 mA 8 mA
1
millisecond), conducted at Fermilab . An outline of future Macropulse length 0.8 ms 0.8 ms
advanced accelerator R&D activities at Fermilab will also Injection Energy 20 MeV 20 MeV
20 x 1 µm 20 x 20 µm
4
be presented. Emittances
260 x 60 µm 3.5 mm
5
Beam Size
1 INTRODUCTION Beam Size 50 x 12 µm 0.5 mm
The TeV Superconducting Linear Accelerator (TESLA) is Micropulse spacing 1 µs 1 µs
unique among the world’s linear electron accelerator Macropulse spacing 100 ms 100 ms
1
proposals as the only scheme using superconducting RMS, single bunch
2
radiofrequency (scrf) cavities for acceleration. The RMS, bunch-to-bunch
3
TESLA Test Facility (TTF) is being constructed at the RMS, one-sigma
4
Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron (DESY) to address RMS, one-sigma, normalized
5
engineering and economic questions about the viability of RMS, one-sigma
constructing superconducting electron accelerators at
energies reaching to 0.5 TeV and beyond. Table 1, Once the wakefield and transport studies have been
reproduced from the design report [1], outlines the completed, plans call for replacement of the high charge
parameters of both TESLA-500, a 0.5 TeV collider gun with a low-charge low-emittance photocathode gun
proposed as the first step towards a 5 TeV machine, and for the FEL experiments. A Self-Amplified Spontaneous
the parameters for the TTF. Emission Free Electron Laser (SASE-FEL) will be
Fermilab’s participation in the planning and installed, initially operating in the 100-25 nm range.
construction of the TTF has been extensive, including key Ultimately, plans call for a doubling of the linac energy,
contributions to the cryogen handling systems, and modification of the undulator to produce radiation in
cryomodule design, rf input power couplers, and the rf the 20-6nm range [2]. Operation of the high-charge gun,
photocathode electron source for the second phase of the with suitably altered laser parameters, may provide an
TTF testing program. effective interim alternative [3] for the first phase of the
Initially, a conventional thermionic source was used to SASE-FEL studies while the new gun is being
supply low bunch charge (37 pC) bunches to the TTF constructed.
linac at a 216 MHz micropulse repetition rate to provide
the correct beam loading current (8 mA) for rf and 2 INJECTOR DESIGN
transport studies. The thermionic injector will be replaced Two rf photocathode guns have been built, and a third
by an rf photocathode gun capable of delivering the -3
is currently in fabrication: a low duty cycle(<10 ) gun for
TESLA-500 bunch charge (8 nC) at the required single bunch testing, and two high duty factor guns
repetition rate (1 MHz). Higher order mode power incorporating differing methods of water channel
deposited by the bunch wakefields will be studied with fabrication.
the nearly 1 kA beams produced. The design has been described in detail elsewhere [4,5],
with only a brief summary provided here. Electrons are
1
produced from a cesium telluride photocathode (plain
Operated by the Universities Research Association for the U. S. copper in the low duty cycle prototype) which is on the
Department of Energy. Work also supported in part by grants
DE-FG03-ER40796 and W-31-109-ENG-38.
758
Figure 1: Layout of photoinjector components
rear conducting wall of a 25% elongated half cell. A lifetime effects [6], and with long rf pulses (1 ms), but
system of four external solenoids (two focussing and two low duty factor to test for rf breakdown problems;
bucking) provide adjustment of both the strength and • With the high duty cycle gun operated with long
longitudinal profile of the magnetic field used to rf pulses (1 ms) and acceleration provided by a
simultaneously focus and space charge correlation superconducting cavity to study long pulse train operation
compensate (“emittance compensate” [7]) the electron of the injector.
bunch, permitting correlation compensation to be attained
over a wide range of accelerating gradients. The bunch is
accelerated in the low gradient (18 MeV/m) gun structure 3 PROTOTYPE TEST PHASE
of 1.625 cells. The 3.9 MeV electron bunch exits the gun The prototype injector was installed in two steps at the
and drifts approximately half a plasma wavelength to the Argonne Wakefield Accelerator Facility at Argonne
entrance of a superconducting 9-cell booster linac National Laboratory. The gun was assembled with a
(normal conducting for the prototype). short test beamline, to permit direct diagnosis of the beam
In the booster it receives moderate acceleration (15
produced by the gun, then the test beamline was removed
MeV/m) to approximately 18 MeV, and a modest phase-
energy correlation. To preserve the transverse emittances, and the booster linac and pulse compressor installed to
the initial bunch length is 2.2 mm, which is compressed permit testing of the completed injector.
to 1 mm in a dipole chicane (temporal dispersion: Shown in figure 2 below is a slit mask emittance
(φ|dp/p)=2.50 rad) using the phase-energy correlation measurement of the horizontal emittance as a function of
developed in the booster linac, which is run off-crest by the gun solenoid field strength, made at 16.5 MeV. The
some 15-20o. emittance compensation minimum is clearly visible.
An entrance quadrupole doublet and exit triplet permit The energy spectrum of the uncompressed 8 nC bunch
beta function matching to the pulse compressor. At the is shown in figure 3 below.
TTF, several quadrupole doublets and triplets relay the Measurement of the bunch length was done with a
beam from the exit of the pulse compressor to the first Hamamatsu streak camera (C1587 streak tube, 1 ps
cryomodule. At Fermilab’s A0 Photoinjector installation, quoted resolution) examining the Cerenkov radiation
quadrupole triplets will provide an interaction region for a from an aerojel target. Measured pulse lengths generally
variety of advanced accelerator experiments. showed poor pulse compression, which from subsequent
Experimental testing of the injector has been taking simulations of wakefield effects [8] is believed to have
place in three separate phases: arisen from interactions with the irises in the gun and
• With single electron bunches and the low duty booster linac. Electron bunches as short as 12 ps FWHM
factor gun to establish the basic design; were observed, corresponding to a peak current of more
• With short bunch trains (<50 microbunches) and than 850 amperes. Table 2 below outlines the desired,
the cesium telluride photocathode to study cathode predicted and measured parameters for the injector.
759
Uncompressed Emittance vs. Solenoid Strength
100 Table 2: Desired (D), predicted (P), and measured (M)
Data Injector II parameters. ‘NM’=not measured.
90
80
Parameter D P M Unit
Normalized Emittance [π mm−mr]
Charge 8 8 8 nC
70
Energy >10 18.3 17 ± 0.2 MeV
60
Energy Spread <500 234 260 ± 200 keV
H. Emittance 20 37 40 ± 7 µm
50 V. Emittance 20 37 Ν.Μ. µm
Bunch Length 1.0 1.6 1.4 ± 0.3 mm
40
Current, Peak 960 600 <850 A
30
20
0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 4 HIGH DUTY CYCLE INJECTOR
Solenoid Setting (f=1.6/s [m])
Figure 2: Horizontal emittance measurement versus gun With experimental evidence accumulating that the
solenoid strength. Error bars are sample variances from basic injector design was sound, work began to design a
ten trials per point. gun capable of sustaining the 1% duty factor (50 kW
average power deposited in approximately a cubic foot)
photocathode gun.
Spectrometer Data with Fit FILE: ’spect−3’
60
Detailed thermo-mechanical simulations were carried
220
240
50 out [9] using Swanson’s Ansys analysis system to
40
260
30
establish that surface temperature rise due to rf pulse
280
300
20
10
heating, peak surface stress levels, average temperature
320
124
x 10
14 16 18 20 22 24
and average stress levels did not exceed the yield strength
2 Mean = 16 MeV
SDev = 0.243 MeV
of OFE copper.
1.8 Q = 13 nC
1.6
1
Q2 = 8 nC
% Sp = 1.52 % Given the long rf pulse length (∆t=1 ms) the expected
thermal diffusion depth in copper is approximately:
Charge [Arb. Units]
1.4
1.2 Data
Fit
1
0.8
0.6
δ = 4α∆t ≈ 0.67m m
0.4
0.2 where α is the linear coefficient of thermal expansion for
0
12 14 16 18 20 22 24
copper. This implies that the deposited power does not
Energy [MeV]
reach the water channels during the rf pulse. Hence, the
Figure 3: Energy spectrum of uncompressed 16 MeV
problem breaks into two parts: the pulsed-heating
beam at exit of injector.
problem, which influences only the material choice and
peak power, and the average power problem, which
Although design values for the injector meet or exceed
controls the water channel placement.
the requirements for the TTF installation, the conditions
Peak surface temperature rise determines the peak
under which the injector was tested were different from
surface stress and the vacuum outgassing, and is
the idealization in the design. Simulation of the injector
approximately:
using a modified version of PARMELA and the measured
dP 1 ∆t
values for the rf structure field balances and the measured ∆T = 2 ≈ 29 o C
spatio-temporal distribution of the laser pulse, but dA ρ C πα ε
where dP/dA is the power flux (30 MW/m ), ρ and cε the
2
excluding wakefield effects shows reasonable
correspondence to the measurements, as listed in table 2 density and specific heat of copper, respectively.
below. Figure 4 below shows the predicted thermal cycling at
As before, quantities are RMS, one-sigma, and the depths of 0.0mm to 4.0mm in 0.5 mm steps, showing the
peak surface temperature rise is ≈28 C, as predicted.
o
emittances are normalized. It is worth noting that the
dominant contributions to the emittance over the design Simulation of the volumetric stress induced by the
values arise primarily from strong transverse surface temperature rise shows that the peak stress of 79.7
filamentation and Gaussian temporal profile of the laser MPa occurs on the iris, where the power density is a
pulse, and from the unbalanced field strengths in the half maximum. This value is comparable to the yield strength
and full cell of the gun. Incomplete pulse compression is for pure copper, 76 Mpa, but as the surface is constrained
seen in simulations [8] to be most likely from wakefield by the underlying bulk material, it is not expected that
effects in the rf structures, which can be compensated surface spalling will occur at an appreciable rate.
effectively by further advancing the phase of the linac.
760
machined after the electron beam weld some 0.080” to
remove the weld fillet and produce a smooth surface for
the high rf fields. This technique succeeded in the low
duty cycle gun, but failed in two subsequent trials,
fracturing open along and across the weld joint, and
succeeded on the third trial with the high duty cycle gun.
The reason for the failures is believed to be higher than
acceptable impurity content in the copper, a problem
worsened by annealing, which concentrates the impurities
at the grain boundaries, giving sites of material weakness
from which cracks can propagate. XDS analysis of the
copper showed elevated levels of oxygen (but below the
ASTM-F68-82 specification) and chlorine.
Consequently, another copper billet was purchased
from Hitachi, and a fourth gun body produced, but with
the iris cooling channel machined in from the gun
Figure 4: RF Pulse heating in the gun as a function of
exterior (not through the face of the full cell), and the
time.
channels brazed shut with copper water barriers.
Computation of the outer wall deflection was also
carried out to determine the net cavity detuning that 5 HIGH DUTY CYCLE TESTS
would take place during the RF pulse. The radial Upon completion of the single bunch test at Argonne,
displacement before (lower trace) and after (upper trace) the low duty factor injector was disassembled, transported
the 1 ms rf pulse are shown in figure 5 below. The initial to Fermilab’s A-Zero experimental hall, and reassembled
net deflection corresponds to the “steady state” thermal with a short diagnostic beamline. After brief rf testing to
distribution of the gun. The vertical scale is units of 10 establish that the gun would successfully hold off much
microns, the horizontal is units of cm. An outward longer rf pulses (50 µs), the gun was dismounted and
deflection (by ≈100 microns) of the outer wall close to modified to accept the cesium telluride photocathode. RF
the iris separating the half and full cell indicates the iris conditioning, cathode lifetime and low energy beam
reaches a temperature slightly above the body at steady experiments took place over the ensuing 6 months while
state. the high duty cycle gun was being fabricated.
As the low and high duty cycle guns were in many
respects equivalent for pulsed heating purposes (but not
in average power dissipation) extensive rf conditioning of
the low duty cycle gun was undertaken to discover
limitations of the design. The low duty cycle gun
conditioned unexpectedly well, holding off full klystron
power (3.4 MW) for more than a millisecond with only
occasional breakdown. Conditioning was halted by
damage to the rf window incurred during the study.
Vacuum was observed to rise from a base value in the
-10 -8
10 Torr range to the mid-10 Torr range during the long
rf pulses, indicating that substantial rf conditioning will
be necessary to obtain good vacuum at the full 1% duty
cycle.
Photocathode lifetime was also investigated with the
low duty cycle gun, and is described in detail elsewhere
Figure 5: Outer wall radius change before and after rf in these proceedings [4]. Once vacuum conditions had
pulse. stabilized in the gun and beamline, we obtained 1.0% or
better quantum efficiency from a cesium telluride cathode
Owing to the high heat load in the thin iris separating for more than four months, beginning from an initial QE
the half and full cells of the gun, a cooling channel was value in excess of 10%.
machined into the iris to extract the heat. The low duty Dark current was observed to be substantial (≈4 mA)
cycle gun and first high duty cycle gun had the iris from the low duty factor gun, and when imaged with the
cooling channel machined as an open channel (machined gun solenoid to a screen was seen to be composed of a
in from the full cell side) that was sealed shut by an ring with four or five bright spots on the periphery,
electron beam welded annular cover. The iris face was implicating either (1) the cathode rf choke-joint spring,
761
(2) a sharp but recessed ridge in the cathode hole, (3) In addition, many more applications of the A0 facilities
multipactoring brought on in the cathode-gun gap, have been discussed:
perhaps exacerbated by the choke spring’s silver plating, • Polarized photocathode source development for
or (4) plasma formation, fed with gas by a nearby RF injectors;
suspected virtual leak. The geometric features giving rise • Testing of next generation photoinjector
to (2) and (4) have been eliminated in the high duty cycle structures;
gun, and a plain beryllium copper spring has been used to • Bunched beam stochastic cooling;
reduce or eliminate the cause of (3). • Impedance probing of stochastic cooling
Beam studies with short (10 microbunch) and longer pickup/kicker antennae;
(50 microbunch) pulse trains were undertaken, with the • Beam-beam tune shift neutralization in the
9
results being reported elsewhere in these proceedings . Tevatron.
Limitations of laser pulse energy limited the bunch
charges to a nanocoulomb or less for long pulse trains, 8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
but short pulse trains of high charge bunches were also
I gratefully acknowledge the support of the Fermilab
produced.
Beams Division, under whose direction this work has
The first of the two high duty cycle guns was
been accomplished. Thanks also to the staff of the
completed at the end of April, and has been successfully
Argonne Wakefield Accelerator for their help in
conditioned to accept full power, 1 ms rf pulses, with
conducting the prototype experiments.
results reported in these proceedings [10]. The second
high duty cycle gun should be completed by mid-
September. 9 REFERENCES
[1] D. A. Edwards, Ed., “TESLA Test Facility Linac-
6 OPEN QUESTIONS Design Report”, TESLA 95-01, (1995).
[2] “A VUV Free Electron Laser at the TESLA Test
A number of physics issues remain to be resolved. The Facility at DESY”, TESLA-FEL 95-03, (1995).
effect of variation of the solenoid “position” by adjusting [3] J. Rosenzweig, et al, “Charge and Wavelength
the two gun focussing solenoid strengths has not been Scaling of RF Photoinjectors: a Design Tool”, in
experimentally observed, and remains an interesting Proc. Of the IEEE Part. Accel. Conf., Dallas, TX,
exploration of one facet of the space charge correlation p.957-60, (1995).
compensation process. Pulse compression (to 1 mm and [4] W. H. Hartung, et al, “Experience at Fermilab with
below) remains to be thoroughly investigated, both in High Quantum Efficiency Photo-Cathodes for RF
itself, and for its potentially serious effects on the Electron Guns”, in these proceedings, (1998).
transverse phase space. Finally, finding the source and [5] E. R. Colby, Ph.D. Dissertation, UCLA, September
cure for the large dark current observed from the low duty (1997).
[6] E. R. Colby, et al, Fermilab TM-1900, (1994).
cycle gun will be important.
[7] B. E. Carlsten, NIM A285, 313, (1989).
[8] P. Colestock, et al, Fermilab internal document
7 FUTURE RESEARCH AT A-ZERO (1997).
A somewhat modified version of the photoinjector [9] Z. Teng, Fermilab internal document, (1996).
commissioned at DESY will be commissioned at [10] J.-P. Carneiro, et al., “Beam Transport, Acceleration
Fermilab for use in an advanced accelerator R&D and Compression Studies in the Fermilab High-
Brightness Photoinjector,” in these Proceedings,
program. R&D projects which have real resources
(1998).
currently committed are:
• Electro-optically detected wakefield bunch
profile measurement (Ph.D. research of M. Fitch,
University of Rochester);
• Plasma wakefield acceleration experiments in
the under-dense regime (J. Rosenzweig, UCLA, and P.
Colestock, FNAL);
• High-efficiency photocathode material
preparation and lifetime testing in RF cavity environment
(Led by C. Pagani, Istituto Nazionale Di Fisica Nucleare,
Milano)
• Fabrication and testing of superconducting rf
cavities (H. Edwards, FNAL).
762
STATUS OF THE ISAC ACCELERATOR FOR RADIOACTIVE BEAMS
R. Laxdal, R. Baartman, P. Bricault, G. Dutto, R. Poirier, P. Schmor
TRIUMF, Vancouver, Canada
Abstract
The ISAC radioactive beam facility under construction at
TRIUMF includes a 500 MeV proton beam ( A)
impinging on a thick target, an on-line source, a mass-
separator, an accelerator complex, and experimental areas.
The accelerator chain includes a 35 MHz RF Quadrupole
(RFQ) to accelerate beams of from 2 keV/u to
150 keV/u and a post-stripper, 105 MHz variable energy
drift tube linac (DTL) to accelerate ions of to
a final energy from 0.15 to 1.5 MeV/u. The present status
of the accelerator complex will be summarized. In particu-
lar, first rf and beam tests with the RFQ and the fabrication
status of the DTL will be reported.
1 INTRODUCTION
A radioactive ion beam facility with on-line source and lin-
ear post-accelerator is being built at TRIUMF[1]. 1 In brief,
the facility includes a proton beam (I 100 A) from the
TRIUMF cyclotron impinging on a thick target, an on-line
source to ionize the radioactive products, a mass-separator
for mass selection, an accelerator complex and experimen-
tal areas. Beams of keV and will be
delivered to the low energy experimental area. The accel-
erator chain includes a 35 MHz RFQ to accelerate beams
of from 2 keV/u to 150 keV/u and a post strip- Figure 1: The ISAC linear accelerator.
per, 105 MHz variable energy drift tube linac (DTL) to ac-
celerate ions of to a final energy between
0.15 MeV/u to 1.5 MeV/u. The accelerators have several figuration have been successfully completed. In addition
noteworthy features. Both linacs are required to operate the first DTL buncher has been delivered in preparation for
cw to preserve beam intensity. The RFQ, a four vane split- rf tests and the first DTL IH tank is ready for copper plating.
ring structure, has no bunching section; instead the beam is
pre-bunched at 11.7 MHz with a single-gap, pseudo saw-
tooth buncher. The variable energy DTL is based on a 2 LEBT
unique separated function approach with five independent
The low energy beam transport (LEBT) consists of elec-
interdigital H-mode (IH) structures providing the acceler-
trostatic elements; quadrupoles, steering plates and spher-
ation and quadrupole triplets and three-gap bunching cav-
ical bends, that transport the exotic beams from the mass-
ities between tanks providing transverse and longitudinal
separator and stable beams from an off-line ion source
focussing respectively. A layout of the ISAC accelerator
(OLIS) located on the accelerator floor[2]. An electrostatic
chain is shown in Fig. 1.
switchyard allows selection of either the stable or unstable
During 1998 TRIUMF management shifted the priority
beam for acceleration while the other beam can be sent to
in ISAC to the target hall and mass-separator areas. Conse-
the low energy experimental area.
quently progress on the accelerator has slowed somewhat.
The beam to be accelerated is pre-bunched at 11.7 MHz,
Nonetheless the building is complete and occupancy of the
the third sub-harmonic of the RFQ frequency, in a single
accelerator floor began in July 1997. In less than a year a
gap, multi-harmonic pseudo-sawtooth pre-buncher. The
source and injection line have been commissioned and ini-
pre-buncher frequency was selected at the request of experi-
tial rf and beam tests with the RFQ in an intermediate con-
menters to give a longer bunch spacing (86 ns), a useful fea-
1 http://www.triumf.ca/isac/lothar/isac.html ture for certain TOF and coincidence rejection techniques.
786
The pre-buncher is positioned 5 m upstream of the RFQ.
The last four quadrupoles upstream of the RFQ match the
beam to the RFQ acceptance.
Installation of the off-line ion source (OLIS) began in
July 97 with first beam extracted in November 97. Commis-
sioning of the LEBT from OLIS to the RFQ followed soon
after. The saw-tooth prebuncher was installed and commis-
sioned with three harmonics in February 98. The fourth
harmonic will be added following an upgrade to the wide
band amplifier. During commissioning the bunched beam
structure was measured with a cone type fast Faraday cup.
Tuning proved relatively straight forward, the phase of each
harmonic was determined with the beam and the amplitudes Figure 3: Beam test results from the RFQ. Shown is the
were set to pre-determined values followed by empirical capture efficiency of a N beam as a function of relative
optimization. vane voltage (solid line). The calculated capture efficiency
is plotted (dashed line) for comparison.
3 RFQ
The 8 m long, 1m 1m ISAC RFQ tank (Fig. 2) houses 19
then eight electrostatic quadrupoles, located inside the RFQ
split ring structures each feeding 40 cm lengths of modu-
tank, transport the beam to a diagnostic station located at the
lated electrode. Both rings and electrodes are water cooled
exit of the RFQ. Signal level measurements of the rf have
to dissipate the expected 100 kW of rf power[3]. The de-
determined a frequency of 35.7 MHz, a shunt impedance of
sign peak voltage between electrodes is 74 kV, with a bore
292 k m and . Power level tests have confirmed
radius of =7.4 mm.
stable operation in cw mode at peak voltage[3]. First beam
The buncher and shaper sections of the RFQ have been was accelerated June 6/98. Since then both N ( )
completely eliminated from the design in favour of a four- and N ( ) have been accelerated testing perfor-
harmonic sawtooth pre-buncher[4]. This not only has the mance at both low and high power with excellent results.
benefit of shortening the structure but also reduces the out- In particular, in the case of N , 80% of the beam was ac-
put longitudinal emittance. These gains are made at the ex- celerated with three harmonics on the pre-buncher in per-
pense of a slightly lower beam capture. We expect 81% fect agreement with PARMTEQ predictions (Fig.3). The
of the beam will be accelerated in the 11.7 MHz buckets beam quality also is as expected. The tests will continue
while 3.5% will be accelerated in the two 35 MHz side- through October 98. The remainder of the rings will then
buckets with 15% of the beam unaccelerated and lost in be installed with the commissioning of the full RFQ in the
the MEBT. fall of 1999.
The initial seven ring segment of the RFQ (2.8 m) has
been installed for an interim rf and beam test[5]. A copper
wall is located just downstream of the seven ring section to
isolate the rf fields. The beam is accelerated to 55 keV/u and 4 MEBT
The beam is stripped in the medium energy beam transport
(MEBT) with a thin carbon foil ( gm/cm ) to boost the
charge state before acceleration in the DTL. The beam from
the RFQ is focussed in three dimensions onto the stripping
foil with quadrupoles and a 105 MHz double gap bunch ro-
tator to minimize emittance growth due to multiple scatter-
ing and energy straggling. A chopper eliminates the small
quantity of beam ( 3%) accelerated in the two 35 MHz
buckets neighbouring the main pulse. After charge selec-
tion the beam is matched into the DTL with quadrupoles
and a 35 MHz re-buncher.
All quadrupoles have been received. A two-gap spiral
re-buncher is presently in development. A model has been
completed to study the mechanical rigidity. The MEBT will
be installed in the summer of 1999 in time to commission
Figure 2: The ISAC 35 MHz RFQ. the full energy RFQ.
787
Table 1: Simulation results showing the beam emittance at
various locations in the ISAC accelerator chain. The values
quoted enclose 98% of the particles.
Position Transverse Longitudinal
( m) ( m) ( % ns) ( keV/u ns)
Figure 4: Schematic drawing of the ISAC variable energy LEBT 50 0.1 DC DC
separated function DTL. Five IH tanks (A) provide accel- After RFQ 5 0.1 0.33 0.5
eration at 0 synchronous phase, three triple gap spiral res- After Foil 10 0.2 0.45 0.67
onators (B) provide longitudinal focus ( ) and Before DTL 11 0.22 0.50 0.74
quadrupole triplets (C) provide transverse focus. After DTL 11 ( ) 0.22 0.5 ( ) 0.74
5 DRIFT TUBE LINAC
7 FUTURE PLANS - ISAC2
A schematic drawing of the DTL is shown in Fig. 4. The
separated function design [6] offers the flexibility and beam TRIUMF is currently preparing a new five year plan re-
quality of a super-conducting linac but at a reduced cost and questing additional funding from the Canadian Government
complexity. To achieve a reduced final energy the higher for the period beginning in April 2000. A major element of
energy IH tanks are turned off and the voltage and phase in this plan includes an upgrade of the ISAC facility, ISAC2,
the last operating tank are varied. The three-gap split ring to permit acceleration of radio-active ion beams up to en-
cavities are adjusted to maintain longitudinal bunching. In ergies of at least 6.5 MeV/u for masses up to 150[8]. In
this way the whole energy range can be covered with 100% brief the proposed acceleration scheme would use the exist-
transmission and no longitudinal emittance growth. ing RFQ with the addition of an ECR charge state booster
Fabrication of the first IH tank and the first split-ring to achieve the required charge to mass ratio ( )
buncher are proceeding in advance of the bulk of the DTL for masses up to 150. A new room temperature drift tube
in order to get experience with the fabrication techniques. linac would accelerate the beam from the RFQ to 400 keV/u
The stems and ridges of the first tank have been received. where the beam could be more efficiently stripped to give a
They are both fabricated from solid copper. The completed charge to mass ratio greater than 1/7 for the full mass range.
tank is being copper plated prior to final assembly. Power This beam would then be accelerated by a linac consist-
tests are scheduled for the fall. ing of many short superconducting cavities. The design is
The first DTL buncher[7], a split-ring three gap struc- compatible with staging scenarios that achieve beams up to
ture operating at 105 MHz, has been designed and fabri- 5 MeV/u and up to 60 as early as 2003 albeit with re-
cated at INR-RAS Troitsk and has been delivered to TRI- duced ion intensity compared to the completed facility.
UMF for power level tests. The fabrication of the remain-
der of the cavities will proceed after the acceptance tests are 8 REFERENCES
complete. The quadrupole triplets have been specified and [1] P. Schmor, et al, “The High Intensity Radioactive Beam Fa-
are presently in design. Commissioning of the DTL is ex- cility at TRIUMF”, Proceedings of the 1998 European Part.
pected in the middle of 2000. Acc. Conf., Stockholm, to be published.
[2] R. Baartman, J. Welz, “60 keV Beam Transport Line and
6 BEAM QUALITY Switchyard for ISAC”, Proceedings of the 1997 Part. Acc.
Conf., Vancouver, 1997.
The beam from the source is expected to have a transverse [3] R. Poirier, et al, “RF Tests on the Initial 2.8m of the 8m Long
emittance no larger than m corresponding at ISAC RFQ at TRIUMF”, these proceedings.
2 keV/u to a normalized emittance of m.
[4] S. Koscielniak, et al, “Beam Dynamics Studies on the ISAC
The expected transverse and longitudinal emittances at var- RFQ at TRIUMF”, Proceedings of the 1997 Part. Acc. Conf.,
ious locations in the accelerator chain are shown in Table 6. Vancouver, 1997.
The values quoted enclose 98% of the particles. Note the ef-
[5] R.E. Laxdal, et al, “First Beam Test with the ISAC RFQ”,
fect of multiple scattering and energy straggling in the strip- these proceedings.
ping foil and the small emittance growth in the MEBT re-
[6] R.E. Laxdal, et al, “A Separated Function Drift Tube Linac
buncher. The transverse acceptance of the RFQ and DTL
for the ISAC Project at TRIUMF”, Proceedings of the 1997
are large enough that no emittance increase is expected dur- Part. Acc. Conf., Vancouver, 1997.
ing acceleration. The technique of pre-bunching the beam
[7] Y. Bylinsky, et al, “A Triple Gap Resonator Design for the
entering the RFQ and eliminating the bunching and shaping
Separated Function DTL at TRIUMF”, Proceedings of the
section in the RFQ gives a very compact beam in longitu- 1997 Part. Acc. Conf., Vancouver, 1997.
dinal phase space. The longitudinal acceptance of the DTL
[8] R. Baartman, et al, “Long Range Plan Proposal for an Exten-
and flexibility of the design are such that not more than 10%
sion to ISAC”, these proceedings.
emittance growth is expected over the whole energy range.
788
THE SCHERM SPACE CHARGE ROUTINE - LIMITATIONS
AND SOLUTIONS
P. Lapostolle*, J.M. Lagniel, S. Nath**, N. Pichoff, E. Tanke***, S. Valero
CEA/DSM/DAPNIA/SEA,
* Consultant, SEA/CEA, Saclay,
** On sabbatical from LANL, Los Alamos, NM, USA,
*** PS Division CERN, CH-1211, Geneva 23, Switzerland.
manner. Using the studies of Cesaro on the divergent
Abstract
series, Fejer (~1890) presented solutions to such
The SCHERM space charge routine reported in the problems. Here, one represents, for simplification, the
1996 linac conference is based on a representation of the process in one dimension, which can be extended in 3
charge density distribution in a bunch with an Hermite dimensions. Among the two representations of the m-
series expansion. Approximate values of the field order Hermite series expansion Sm(x) of the function f(x),
components are deduced from the properties of the only the expression proposed in [1,3], converges to zero,
Hermite functions. First applications of the method for the when x goes to infinity, and as such can be used for the
180 mA CERN proton linac showed promising results, charge density distribution representation as:
P
however the method has shown its limitations when it was [
tested in a periodic accelerating channel (6 MeV to 100 6 P ( [) = ∑
Q =
$ Q ⋅ + Q ( [) ⋅ H[S − .
(1)
MeV) with highly tune-depressed beams. Problems
underlying the approach are discussed, and solutions are
proposed. For functions f without Gaussian appearance (meaning
continuous functions decreasing to zero at the infinity
more rapidly that any power of 1/|x|), Sm usually does not
1 INTRODUCTION
converge uniformly to f when m increases. However Sm
A new type of approach for the space charge always minimises the quadratic means square Im :
∫ (I ([) − 6 ([)) ⋅ G[ .
computation, without the need of a strict symmetry has +∞
been reported in [1]. It is based on the 3-dimensional ,P = P (2)
−∞
representation of the charge density distribution with a
Hermite-series expansion. Approximated values of the Due to eq. (2), the Hermite series in eq. (1) oscillates
field components were deduced in order to be good in the around the function f(x) (Weisstrass Minimax theorem). If
bunch core where most of the particles lie. The method Sm converges uniformly to f, these oscillations disappear
had been successfully applied at the 180 mA CERN when m increases to infinity. As the value of m is always
proton linac beam. Results compared very well with those limited, Sm can have a random behaviour with unexpected
computed with SCHEFF for this beam. Emboldened by effects when the function f(x) changes during the
the initial success, we applied this approach to a periodic computation. Moreover, if Sm does not converge
channel with highly tune-depressed beam. This exercise uniformly to f, these oscillations are amplified with
has revealed underlying limitation of the method. These increasing m. This problem can be circumvented with the
limits are found to be purely mathematical in origin and Cesaro-Fejer transformation. Here, one replaces the
lie with the limitations of Hermite-series expansion of the Hermite series Sm(x) by the Cesaro-Fejer series σP [ :
charge density distribution and the field components. P
Solutions for circumventing these difficulties are
proposed in this article.
σ P ([) = ∑
P + Q =
6 Q ( [) . (3)
2 PROBLEMS WITH SERIES According to the Theorem of Cesaro, if the limit f(x)
REPRESENTATION exists, the Cesaro-Fejer series in eq. (3), converges
uniformly to f(x), when m increases. The unexpected
The difficulties with series representation had been oscillations are attenuated. An example can be seen in
reported at the end of the eighteenth century. Dirichlet had figure 1.
shown (~1870) that the Fourier-series expansion of some As presented in ref.[1], the local charge density
class of functions does not always converge uniformly expressed in terms of Hermite-series polynomial is given
(e.g. Gibbs phenomena). Moreover, when they converge by:
uniformly, they oscillate around the function in a random
845
X +Y +Z representation seems to introduce a diffusion like effect
( )
ρ [ \ ] = H[S −
⋅
(or more precisely a stochastic coupling effect between
. (4) directions) adding to the transverse emittance growth.
∑∑∑$
L M N
LMN ⋅ + L (X) ⋅ + M (Y) ⋅ + N (Z )
with :
D
1
T
∑ + (X )⋅ + (Y )⋅ + (Z ) (5)
K
W
$ LMN = ⋅ Z E
(π) L M N DEF
R
L Q M Q N Q U
J
Q = H
F
Q
D
W
W
L
P
where u=x/a, v=y/b, w=z/c, a, b and c are the rms size (
D
:LWKRXW&HVDUR)HMHU
of the bunch in the x, y and z directions respectively and WUDQVIRUPDWLRQ
:LWK&HVDUR)HMHU
E
N is the number of particles. WUDQVIRUPDWLRQ
(OHPHQWQXPEHU
F
D I [ Figure 2 : Transverse emittance growth in a periodic
E E accelerating channel (6.7 MeV to 100 MeV) with a highly
6 [ tune-depressed beam. The results are obtained from the
F σ [ simple Hermite series expansion (a), and from the Cesaro-
I [
D Fejer transformation (b).
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