PRINCIPLES AND

METHODS
OF
RESEARCH

Kristell C. Lagarde
January 2020
I. WHAT IS RESEARCH?

 Research is a process of systematic inquiry that entails collection of data;

documentation of critical information; and analysis and interpretation of that
data/information, in accordance with suitable methodologies set by specific
professional fields and academic disciplines.

Research is conducted to evaluate the validity of a hypothesis or an interpretive

framework; to assemble a body of substantive knowledge and findings for sharing
them in appropriate manners; and to generate questions for further inquiries.
(Hampshire College,2020)

Significance of Research

 To gather necessary information

 To make changes

 To improve standard of living for a safer life

 To know the truth

 To explore our history

Qualities of a Good Researcher

 Scientific in Mind

 Seeker of Truth and Knowledge

 Trained and Educated

 Curious and Patient

 Unbiased in Perceptions

Steps in Conducting Research

  Define Research Problem

 Review of Literature

 Formulate Hypothesis

 Prepare the Research Design

 Collect and Analyze Data

 Interpret and Report Writing

8 Hallmarks of Scientific Research

 Purposiveness- research must start with a definite, clear goal and purpose,
must be beneficial.

 Rigor- carefulness during research, process free from biases.

 Testability- hypotheses must be derived from the theories and must be

testable.

 Replicability- results should be supported again and again under similar

circumstances.

 Precision and Confidence- precision refers to the closeness of the findings to

reality or degree of accuracy.

 Objectivity- findings should be based on facts.

 Generalizability- refers to the scope of the applicability of research to the

users.

 Parsimony- the simplicity in explaining the solutions to the problems that

occur.

Obstacles in Conducting Research

 Selecting a Research Topic

 Building a Great Team
 Securing Funding
 Finding a Necessary Content
 Getting Organized
II. THE BROAD PROBLEM AREA
TOPICS: Nature of Information to be Gathered
Definition of Problem Statement
Ethical Issues in Conducting Research
Problem Statement and Methodology

 Nature of Information to be Gathered

 PRIMARY DATA
(interviews: structured or unstructured, observation of people,
questioners, etc.)
 SECONDARY DATA
(company website, published records, etc.)
 MIXED METHODS
(evaluation, corroborating findings, data triangulation or convergence,
etc.)
 QUANTITATIVE DATA
(Experiements, paper-pencil questioners, etc.)
 QUALITATIVE DATA (DESCRIPTIVE OR NOMINAL)
(Document review, observation methods, in-depth interview, etc.)

 Defining Problem Statement

Define as precise, vivid, and succinct statement of a specific topic that
a certain researcher desire to investigate. It should be, RELEVANT,
FEASIBLE, and INTERESTING.

 Ethical Issues in Conducting Research

 Benificence (Doing Good)
 Autonomy(Self-ruled)
 Non-maleficence (Do no Harm)
 Justice (Fairness)
 Veracity (Truth Telling)
 Privacy
 Confidentiality

 Importance of Problem Statement

 It creates importance to the topic
 Establishes interest to the readers
 It focuses the reader’s attention on how the study will add to the
literature
 III. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

A review of related literature is the process of collecting, selecting, and reading books, journals,
reports, abstracts, and other reference materials. The following information may be collected:
 Background information about the problem and related concepts.
 Theories that explain the existence of the problem and the possible connection between
certain factors and the problem
 Data that confirms the existence and seriousness of the problem
 General and specific findings of studies related to the problem
 Recommendations for further study given in related studies

Why Review Literature?

A review of related literature is a must in research. The following are some of the obvious
reasons;
 It helps the researcher identify and define a research problem
 It helps justify the need for studying a problem.
 It prevents unnecessary duplication of a study
 It can be a source of a theoretical basis for the study
 It enables the researcher to learn how to conceptualize a research problem and
properly identify and operationally define study variables
 It helps formulate and refine research instruments
 It provides lesson for data analysis and interpretation.
What Materials to Review?
 General References
Examples are indexes, reviews and abstracts
 Primary Sources
Examples are researches found on published journals.
 Secondary Sources
Publications where authors cite the works of others. Examples are books, encyclopedias.
Secondary sources are good references for overview of the problem.
Steps in Literature Review
 Review the precise definition of the research problem. Note the key variables specified in
the study objectives and hypothesis.
 Formulate “search terms” (key words or phrases)
Problem: Adolescents’ Perceptions on the Effect of Punishment on Self-Esteem
and Academic Performance”
 Search term: “punishment and learning”, “self-esteem and performance”
 Using indexes of general references, search for relevant primary and secondary sources
guided by the search terms.
 List in a note of index card the bibliographical data of the pertinent information selected
as follows:
a. author
b. title
c. name of publication
d. date of publication (include place and date)
e. pages of the article
 Read the selected reading materials, take note and summarize key points. Prepare a note
card for easy retrieval and classification. In taking note, be as brief as possible but
include all relevant information which you can use in your full review, such as : the
problem, the objectives, and hypotheses, the major findings, and conclusions.
 IV. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Theoretical Framework

A theoretical framework is a collection of interrelated concepts, like a theory but

not necessarily so well worked-out. A theoretical framework guides your research,
determining what things you will measure, and what statistical relationships you will look
for.

Theoretical frameworks are obviously critical in deductive, theory-testing sorts of

studies (see Kinds of Research for more information). In those kinds of studies, the
theoretical framework must be very specific and well-thought out.

There are two reasons why theoretical frameworks are important here.

 First, no matter how little you think you know about a topic, and how
unbiased you think you are, it is impossible for a human being not to have
preconceived notions, even if they are of a very general nature.

 Not knowing what your real framework is can be a problem. The framework
tends to guide what you notice in an organization, and what you don't notice.
In other words, you don't even notice things that don't fit your framework! We
can never completely get around this problem, but we can reduce the problem
considerably by simply making our implicit framework explicit. Once it is
explicit, we can deliberately consider other frameworks, and try to see the
organizational situation through different lenses.

Cases are objects whose behavior or characteristics we study. Usually, the cases are persons. But
they can also be groups, departments, organizations, etc. They can also be more esoteric things
like events (e.g., meetings), utterances, pairs of people, etc.

Variables are characteristics of cases. They are attributes. Qualities of the cases that we measure
or record. For example, if the cases are persons, the variables could be sex, age, height, weight,
feeling of empowerment, math ability, etc. Variables are called what they are because it is
assumed that the cases will vary in their scores on these attributes.

 Two key roles are independent variables and dependent variables. Usually

there is only one dependent variable, and it is the outcome variable, the one
you are trying to predict. Variation in the dependent variable is what you are
trying to explain.

 The independent variables, also known as the predictor or explanatory

variables, are the factors that you think explain variation in the dependent
variable. In other words, these are the causes
 V. ELEMENTS OF A RESEARCH DESIGN
Research Design Definition
Research design is defined as a framework of methods and techniques chosen by a
researcher to combine various components of research in a reasonably logical manner so that
the research problem is efficiently handled. It provides insights about “how” to conduct
research using a particular methodology. Every researcher has a list of research questions
which need to be assessed – this can be done with research design.

An impactful research design usually creates minimum bias in data and increases trust
on the collected and analyzed research information. Research design which produces the
least margin of error in experimental research can be touted as the best.

The essential elements of research design are:

1. Accurate purpose statement of research design

2. Techniques to be implemented for collecting details for research
3. Method applied for analyzing collected details
4. Type of research methodology
5. Probable objections for research
6. Settings for research study
7. Timeline
8. Measurement of analysis

Research Design Characteristics

There are four key characteristics of research design:

Neutrality: The results projected in research design should be free from bias and neutral.
Understand opinions about the final evaluated scores and conclusion from multiple individuals
and consider those who agree with the derived results.

Reliability: If a research is conducted on a regular basis, the researcher involved expects similar
results to be calculated every time. Research design should indicate how the research questions
can be formed to ensure the standard of obtained results and this can happen only when the
research design is reliable.

Validity: There are multiple measuring tools available for research design but valid measuring
tools are those which help a researcher in gauging results according to the objective of research
and nothing else. The questionnaire developed from this research design will be then valid.

Generalization: The outcome of research design should be applicable to a population and not

just a restricted sample. Generalization is one of the key characteristics of research design.
Types of Research Design

 Qualitative Research Design: Qualitative research is implemented in cases where a

relationship between collected data and observation is established on the basis of
mathematical calculations. Theories related to a naturally existing phenomenon can be
proved or disproved using mathematical calculations. Researchers rely on qualitative
research design where they are expected to conclude “why” a particular theory exists
along with “what” respondents have to say about it.
 Quantitative Research Design: Quantitative research is implemented in cases where it
is important for a researcher to have statistical conclusions to collect actionable insights.
Numbers provide a better perspective to make important business decisions. Quantitative
research design is important for the growth of any organization because any conclusion
drawn on the basis of numbers and analysis will only prove to be effective for the
business.  

Further, research design can be divided into five types –

1. Descriptive Research Design: In a descriptive research design, a researcher is solely

interested in describing the situation or case under his/her research study. It is a theory-based
research design which is created by gather, analyze and presents collected data. By implementing
an in-depth research design such as this, a researcher can provide insights into the why and how
of research.  

2. Experimental Research Design: Experimental research design is used to establish a

relationship between the cause and effect of a situation. It is a causal research design where the
effect caused by the independent variable on the dependent variable is observed.

3. Correlational Research Design: Correlational research is a non-experimental research design

technique which helps researchers to establish a relationship between two closely connected
variables. Two different groups are required to conduct this research design method. There is no
assumption while evaluating a relationship between two different variables and statistical
analysis techniques are used to calculate the relationship between them.

Correlation between two variables is concluded using a correlation coefficient, whose value
ranges between -1 and +1. If the correlation coefficient is towards +1, it indicates a positive
relationship between the variables and -1 indicates a negative relationship between the two
variables.  

4. Diagnostic Research Design: In the diagnostic research design, a researcher is inclined

towards evaluating the root cause of a specific topic. Elements that contribute towards a
troublesome situation are evaluated in this research design method.
 There are three parts of diagnostic research design:

 Inception of the issue

 Diagnosis of the issue
 Solution for the issue

5. Explanatory Research Design: In exploratory research design, the researcher’s ideas and
thoughts are key as it is primarily dependent on their personal inclination about a particular topic.
Explanation about unexplored aspects of a subject is provided along with details about what,
how and why related to the research questions

VI. DATA COLLECTION

Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables of

interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated research
questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes.

The Importance of Ensuring Accurate and Appropriate Data Collection

Regardless of the field of study or preference for defining data (quantitative, qualitative),
accurate data collection is essential to maintaining the integrity of research. Both the
selection of appropriate data collection instruments (existing, modified, or newly developed)
and clearly delineated instructions for their correct use reduce the likelihood of errors
occurring.

Consequences from improperly collected data include

 inability to answer research questions accurately

 inability to repeat and validate the study
 distorted findings resulting in wasted resources
 misleading other researchers to pursue fruitless avenues of investigation
 compromising decisions for public policy
 causing harm to human participants and animal subjects

Methods of Data Collection

1. Observation:

Observation method has occupied an important place in descriptive sociological

research. It is the most significant and common technique of data collection. Analysis of

questionnaire responses is concerned with what people think and do as revealed by what
 they put on paper. The responses in interview are revealed by what people express in

conversation with the interviewer. Observation seeks to ascertain what people think and

do by watching them in action as they express themselves in various situations and

activities.

2. Interview:

Interview as a technique of data collection is very popular and extensively used in

every field of social research. The interview is, in a sense, an oral questionnaire. Instead

of writing the response, the interviewee or subject gives the needed information verbally

in a face-to-face relationship. The dynamics of interviewing, however, involves much

more than an oral questionnaire.

3. Schedule:

Schedule is one of the very commonly used tools of data collection in scientific

investigation. P.V. Young says “The schedule has been used for collection of personal

preferences, social attitudes, beliefs, opinions, behaviour patterns, group practices and

habits and much other data”. The increasing use of schedule is probably due to increased

emphasis by social scientists on quantitative measurement of uniformly accumulated

data.

Schedule is very much similar to questionnaire and there is very little difference

between the two so far as their construction is concerned. The main difference between

these two is that whereas the schedule is used in direct interview on direct observation

and in it the questions are asked and filled by the researcher himself, the questionnaire is

generally mailed to the respondent, who fills it up and returns it to the researcher. Thus

the main difference between them lies in the method of obtaining data.

4. Questionnaire:
 Questionnaire provides the most speedy and simple technique of gathering data

about groups of individuals scattered in a wide and extended field. In this method, a

questionnaire form is sent usually by post to the persons concerned, with a request to

answer the questions and return the questionnaire.

5. Projective Techniques:

The psychologists and psychiatrists had first devised projective techniques for the

diagnosis and treatment of patients afflicted by emotional disorders. Such techniques are

adopted to present a comprehensive profile of the individual’s personality structure, his

conflicts and complexes and his emotional needs. Adoption of such techniques is not an

easy affair. It requires intensive specialized training.

6. Case Study Method:

According to Biesanz and Biesenz “the case study is a form of qualitative analysis

involving the very careful and complete observation of a person, a situation or an

institution.” In the words of Goode and Hatt, “Case study is a way of organizing social

data so as to preserve the unitary character of the social object being studied.” P.V. young

defines case study as a method of exploring and analyzing the life of a social unit, be that

a person, a family, an institution, cultural group or even entire community.

VII. MEASUREMENT
Types of Data & Measurement Scales: Nominal, Ordinal, Interval and Ratio
 Nominal

Nominal scales are used for labeling variables, without any quantitative value.

“Nominal” scales could simply be called “labels.”  Here are some examples, below.
Notice that all of these scales are mutually exclusive (no overlap) and none of them have
any numerical significance.  A good way to remember all of this is that “nominal” sounds
a lot like “name” and nominal scales are kind of like “names” or labels.

 Ordinal

With ordinal scales, the order of the values is what’s important and significant,
but the differences between each one is not really known.  Take a look at the example
below.  In each case, we know that a #4 is better than a #3 or #2, but we don’t know–and
cannot quantify–how much better it is.  For example, is the difference between “OK” and
“Unhappy” the same as the difference between “Very Happy” and “Happy?”  We can’t
say.

Ordinal scales are typically measures of non-numeric concepts like satisfaction,

happiness, discomfort, etc.

“Ordinal” is easy to remember because is sounds like “order” and that’s the key to
remember with “ordinal scales”–it is the order that matters, but that’s all you really get
from these.
 Interval

Interval scales are numeric scales in which we know both the order and the exact
differences between the values.  The classic example of an interval scale
is Celsius temperature because the difference between each value is the same.  For
example, the difference between 60 and 50 degrees is a measurable 10 degrees, as is the
difference between 80 and 70 degrees.

Interval scales are nice because the realm of statistical analysis on these data sets
opens up.  For example, central tendency can be measured by mode, median, or mean;
standard deviation can also be calculated.

Like the others, you can remember the key points of an “interval scale” pretty
easily. “Interval” itself means “space in between,” which is the important thing to
remember–interval scales not only tell us about order, but also about the value between
each item.

 Ratio

Ratio scales are the ultimate nirvana when it comes to data measurement scales
because they tell us about the order, they tell us the exact value between units, AND they
also have an absolute zero–which allows for a wide range of both descriptive and
inferential statistics to be applied. Good examples of ratio variables include height,
weight, and duration.

Ratio scales provide a wealth of possibilities when it comes to statistical analysis.

These variables can be meaningfully added, subtracted, multiplied, divided (ratios).
Central tendency can be measured by mode, median, or mean; measures of dispersion,
 such as standard deviation and coefficient of variation can also be calculated from ratio
scales.

VIII. SAMPLING
In research terms a sample is a group of people, objects, or items that are taken
from a larger population for measurement. The sample should be representative of the
population to ensure that we can generalise the findings from the research sample to the
population as a whole.
 What is the purpose of sampling?
To draw conclusions about populations from samples, we must use inferential
statistics, to enable us to determine a population’s characteristics by directly
observing only a portion (or sample) of the population. We obtain a sample of the
population for many reasons as it is usually not practical and almost never
economical.
 There would also be difficulties measuring whole populations because: -
• The large size of many populations
• Inaccessibility of some of the
• Destructiveness of the observation
• Accuracy and sampling
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