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Fundamentals of Final Control Elements

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Fundamentals of Final Control Elements

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Fundamentals of

Final Control Elements

Helen Beecroft
Ken MacDonald

Extracted from
Fundamentals of Industrial Control, 2nd Edition
Copyright 2005
ISA – The Instrumentation, Systems, and Automation Society

This file is copyright protected and no authorization is granted for resale or distribution.
Original purchaser is authorized to print one copy for personal use.
4
Final Control
Elements

The final control element is that portion of the loop that directly changes the
value of the manipulated process variable. A control loop that includes the very
best in field transmitters and a state-of-the-art DCS system cannot compensate for
a control valve that is misapplied or a low-tier design that results in a high process
variability. Any final control element, such as a valve, positioner, damper, or me-
tering pump, is merely another block in a process control loop. The main function
of any block in a loop is to transfer energy with respect to time. The energy trans-
fer block that represents a control valve has a pronounced characteristic of gain
and phase lag and is as important as any other energy transfer block, with the ex-
ception, perhaps, of the controller. Final control elements include valves, damp-
ers, louvers, governors, pumps, feeders, and variable resistors.

Control Valves and Actuators—An Introduction

A control valve is the most widely used final control element in a process
plant. It is defined as a final controlling element through which a fluid passes that
adjusts the size of the flow passage in response to a signal from a controller direct-
ing it to modify the fluid’s rate of flow.
A control valve consists of two distinct parts:
(1) The valve body, which is installed in a pipe and whose end connections
are screwed, flanged, or welded.
(2) The valve actuator, which supplies the force required to drive the valve.

There are endless applications for control valves, and the number of actuator-
valve combinations is enormous. For this reason, we make no attempt here to
cover all the possible applications and combinations of control valves. However,
there are many sources of information on control valves, including ISA and the
valve manufacturers.

Control Valve Functions

The functional properties of control valves are those that involve the type of
control that will result from the multiplication of the energy transfer functions that
make up a loop. Since pneumatic control valves account for the majority of final
control elements in the process industry, this chapter focuses on the fundamentals
of pneumatic control valves. In any case, the energy transfer function may be con-
sidered to be independent of whether a control block is electronically or pneumat-

1
Final Control Elements

ically actuated. Functional valve properties include deadband (backlash, stiction),

size, speed of response, flow characteristic, and rangeability.
DEADBAND
Deadband is the range through which an input can be varied without initiating
an observable response. For example, in a diaphragm-actuated control valve,
deadband is the amount the diaphragm pressure can be changed without causing
the valve stem to move. It is usually expressed as a percentage of diaphragm pres-
sure span. Backlash and stiction behavior is caused by mechanical tolerances and
friction in the control valve-positioner-actuator-linkage system. The resulting
limit cycles can only be corrected by reducing these. They cannot be addressed
through loop tuning.
SPEED OF RESPONSE
This is a function of the volume of air that is required to produce any desired
pressure on the diaphragm of a valve actuator. To a lesser extent, speed of re-
sponse depends on the friction between the valve stem and packing, the bushings
in the valve (rotary) body and actuator, and the seal to rotary element.
FLOW CHARACTERISTIC
This is the relationship between flow through the valve and the position of the
valve stem as it varies from 0 to 100 percent of travel. Flow characteristic is an
important term and should always be designated as either inherent flow character-
istic or installed flow characteristic. Inherent flow characteristic is the flow char-
acteristic that is obtained with a constant pressure drop across the valve. Installed
flow characteristic is the flow characteristic that is obtained when pressure drop
across the valve varies as dictated by flow and related conditions in the system in
which the valve is installed. Most control valves used in the process industry have
one of three flow characteristics: linear, equal percentage, or quick-opening (see
Figure 4-1).
Linear describes an inherent flow characteristic that can be represented ide-
ally by a straight line on a rectangular plot of flow versus percentage of rated
valve stem travel. A linear valve gives approximately equal increments of flow
per increment of valve stem travel at a constant pressure drop.
Equal Percentage describes an inherent flow characteristic that for equal in-
crements of rated travel will ideally give equal percentage changes of the existing
flow.
Quick-opening describes an inherent flow characteristic in which there is
maximum flow with minimum travel. A quick-opening valve has an approxi-
mately straight-line characteristic near its seat (from zero to about 60 percent flow
at 30 percent travel). Beyond this point, flow increases too rapidly with valve
opening for the quick-opening characteristic to be useful in a flow-proportioning
application.
These characteristics are theoretical and assume that the pressure drop across the
valve is constant (or that the total loop pressure is across the valve), which is not
the normal case. Usually, the pressure drop decreases with increasing flow, mak-
ing the installed characteristic quite different from the theoretical. Equal percentage
valves tend to become linear, linear valves lean toward quick-opening, and quick-opening
valves become useless except for on-off service.
RANGEABILITY
This is the ratio of maximum controllable flow to minimum controllable flow.
It may also be defined as the ratio of maximum to minimum usable sizing coeffi-
cient. Sometimes it is referred to as inherent rangeability. The rangeability of
globe valves varies generally from 30:1 to 50:1, V-notched ball valves in excess

2
Control Valves and Actuators—An Introduction

Figure 4-1. Valve Flow Characteristics

(Courtesy of Fisher Controls International, Inc.)

of 100:1, butterfly valves between 10:1 and 20:1, and Saunders (patented) and
pinch valves as low as 5:1. The operating or installed rangeability may be defined
as the relationship between rangeability and pressure drop. It is mathematically
expressed by:

q 1 ∆P 2
R = ----- -------------- (4-1)
q 2 ∆P
1

where:
R = rangeability, dimensionless
q1 = maximum flow, gpm
q2 = minimum flow, gpm
∆P1 = pressure drop, psi, at maximum flow
∆P2 = pressure drop, psi, at minimum flow

Selecting Control Valves

Valve selection is based on many considerations in addition to controllability.
Materials of construction, tight shutoff, cost, and special features such as split- A double-seated (cage-
body or sanitary construction also play a role in valve selection. guided) valve will have
greater capacity than a
Process conditions, fluid type, and the effect of piping and control system de- single-seated valve of the
sign are other criteria that also need to be considered when selecting valves. Refer same size, but tight shutoff
to Figure 4-2 for an example of a valve specification form filled in with typical in- may be sacrificed.
formation.
When considering valve selection from the point of view of control, apply the
following rules of thumb:
• For simple processes, valve characteristics are relatively unimportant.
• If the required flow range is 3:1 or less, there is little difference between
linear and equal percentage valves. If the flow range is 8:1 or more, linear
valves are preferred.
• If the pressure drop across the valve varies more than about 2:1 or 3:1
with the valve opening, equal percentage is probably the better choice,
even if linear is the desired theoretical characteristic.

3
Final Control Elements

Specification Forms for Process Measurement and Control

ISA S20 Instruments, Primary Elements and Control Valves

Figure 4-2. Completed Valve Specification Form for Typical Application

4
Control Valves and Actuators—An Introduction

• If the valve is oversized, the equal percentage characteristic will allow

somewhat better control because an oversized linear valve will require a
lower controller gain at the operating point.
• For flow control in which the primary element is an orifice plate or other
differential pressure device, use a linear valve if the pressure drop across
the valve decreases with the valve opening.

Valve Body Designs

A valve body is a housing for internal parts that have inlet and outlet flow
connections. It includes a bonnet assembly, a bottom flange (if used), and trim el-
ements. The trim includes the valve plug, which opens, closes, or partially ob-
structs one or more ports. Many styles of control valve bodies have been
developed through the years. Some have found wide application, while others
have been designed to meet specific service conditions and are used less fre-
quently. The following sections describe some of the more popular control valve
body designs in use today.
GLOBE VALVES
Globe valves are the most common type in use today. They are divided into
several groups such as single-port, double-port, and three-way. Split-body and an-
gle valves are special types of globe valves. A globe valve is a valve design that
has a linear-motion, flow-controlling member with one or more ports normally
distinguished by a globular-shaped cavity around the port region.
SINGLE-PORT VALVES
Single-port valves are simple in construction and are the most commonly used
body style. They are frequently selected for sizes two inches and smaller; how-
ever, they may also be used in four- to eight-inch sizes with high-thrust actuators.
Figure 4-3 shows a typical single-port globe valve.
The simplicity of this valve can be deceiving. Because the flow usually enters
beneath the seat and tends to open the plug from the seat, a well-designed actuator
must be selected that will close the valve against any line pressure. These unbal-
anced forces acting on the plug make the globe valve less suitable than others for
some applications.

Figure 4-3. Typical Single-Port Globe Valve

5
Final Control Elements

DOUBLE-PORT VALVES
Double-port valves are valves in which balanced forces act on the plugs (one
force upward and one downward). Generally, they have higher flow capacities
and require less stem force to operate than do single-port valves of the same size.
Most of the problems encountered with the double-port valves result from misap-
plication or their use in a dirty flow medium. They are frequently specified for
sizes larger than two inches. Many double-ported bodies are reversible, so the
valve plug can be installed as either “push down to open” or “push down to
close.”
Figure 4-4 illustrates a double-ported valve.

Figure 4-4. Typical Double-Ported Valve

CAGE-GUIDED VALVES
Double-port cage-guided valves are valves that have balanced forces acting
on the plugs (one force upward and one downward). Generally, they have higher
flow capacities and require less stem force to operate than do single-port valves of
the same size. Like double-port valves, most of the problems encountered with the
cage-guided valves result from misapplication or application in a dirty flow me-
dium. They are frequently specified for sizes larger than two inches. Also like
double-ported bodies, many cage-guided valves are reversible, so the valve plug
can be installed as either “push down to open” or “push down to close.” Figure
4-5 illustrates a cage-guided valve.
THREE-WAY VALVES
A three-way valve has three openings and is designed to blend (mix) or to di-
vert (split) flow. It can replace two straight-through valves in many applications.
In blending service, there are two inlet ports and one outlet, whereas in diverting
service there are two outlets and one inlet. Total flow is proportioned between the
two inlets or the two outlets, so flow is constant through the single common port
in either service. Most three-way valves require powerful actuators because of un-
balanced forces that act on the plug. A schematic diagram of their operation is
shown in Figure 4-6.

6
Control Valves and Actuators—An Introduction

Figure 4-5. Typical Double-Ported Cage-Guided Valve

Figure 4-6. Three-Way Mixing and Diverting Valve Operations

SPLIT-BODY VALVES
The split-body design generally used in the chemical industry is essentially a
streamlined version of the single-port valve, except that the body is split in two
halves and bolted together. Its construction minimizes erosion effects, allows
parts to be replaced easily, and is relatively inexpensive. Figure 4-7 depicts a split-
body valve.
ANGLE VALVES
Angle valves are often used in pressure and level control systems. Angle
valves are usually single-ported and are often selected where space is at a pre-
mium. They are also suitable for applications that require high pressure drops or
where the effects of turbulence, cavitation, flashing, or impingement present prob-
lems. Several designs of angle valves are available, all with good control charac-
teristics, high rangeabilities, and high pressure and temperature ratings. They can
be removed from the line with ease and can handle sludges and erosive materials.
Figure 4-8 shows an angle valve.
NEEDLE VALVES
A valve design that belongs to the same category as globe valves is the needle
valve. Its application is high pressure processes that require small flows and high
rangeabilities. The design of this valve is useful for pilot plant facilities, for con-

7
Final Control Elements

Figure 4-7. Split-Body Control Valve

Figure 4-8. Angle Valve with Split-Body Construction

trol of liquid catalyst or additive flows to various processes, for pressure letdown
services to analytical instruments, and in cryogenic gas plants as a Joule-Thomson
valve (to create a Joule-Kelvin effect).
BALL VALVES
A true ball valve is seldom used as a control valve because of the poor throt-
tling capability entailed by its high-friction designs. Thus, other variations of ball-
type designs are selected instead, for example, the partial ball (V-notched) body
design.
The partial ball (V-notched) construction is similar to a conventional ball
valve, except that it has a patented, contoured V-notch in the ball. The V-notch
produces an equal-percentage flow characteristic. These control valves have good
rangeability, control, and shutoff capability. They are widely used in the paper in-
dustry (thermo-mechanical pulp process), chemical plants, sewage treatment
plants, the power industry, and petroleum refineries. See Figure 4-9 for details.
ECCENTRIC DISC VALVES
This valve belongs to the category of ball valves. It is also called an eccentric
rotary stem valve by some manufacturers. A spherically faced plug segment,

8
Control Valves and Actuators—An Introduction

Figure 4-9. Ball Valve with V-Notch

(Courtesy of Fisher Controls International, Inc.)

eccentrically mounted, rotates 50 degrees to the in-line seat ring. The eccentric
disc valve may directly replace conventional globe valve designs. It can also be
considered a cheaper alternative to the globe valve where process applications
warrant it. This type of control valve can handle fluid with temperatures to 540°C
(1000°F). A splined-shaft, actuator-lever connection prevents lost motion and im-
proper positioning of the plug. Because of its high pressure recovery factor, the ec-
centric disc valve can be used as a possible solution for cavitation. It should be
noted that the plug construction of this type of valve requires that the process flu-
ids be relatively clean. It would, therefore, be unsuitable for applications such as
stock services in the paper industry. Figure 4-10 shows a section of this valve de-
sign.

Figure 4-10. Eccentric Disc Valve

(Courtesy of Masoneilan/Dresser)

BUTTERFLY VALVES
The butterfly valve may be of the wafer type, in which the disc rotates to the
open position in the adjacent pipe, or it may be of the bulkier, double-flanged cyl-
inder type. A butterfly valve consists of a shaft-supported vane or disc that is ca-
pable of rotating within a cylindrical body. Butterfly valves have large capacity,
which is why they are sometimes substituted for globe valves in large-diameter
pipes. They may be selected for slurry and entrained-liquid applications. Gener-
ally, butterfly valves have little tendency to cause significant pressure drop in a
line. This has a negative aspect in that it can lead to poor control.
As good as they seem, butterfly valves are not the answer to all final control ele-
ment problems. Their rangeability is poor, for example. A pneumatic actuator usu-
ally does not have the power to hold the vane exactly in the desired position. As the
valve is opened, forces that are caused by the flow will decrease, whereas the force re-

9
Final Control Elements

quired by the actuator to rotate the shaft will increase since the force is not always at right
angles to the shaft arm.

The basic design of the butterfly valve has been improved upon by a valve
manufacturer who added a “fish tail” to the trailing edge of the disc. This retards
the flow at low opening angles and controls the flow at high angles where the nor-
mal disc edge has been shadowed by the hub. Figure 4-11 shows a schematic of a
typical wafer-type butterfly valve.

Figure 4-11. Typical Wafer-Type Butterfly Valve

HIGH PERFORMANCE BUTTERFLY VALVES (HPBV)

This valve belongs to the butterfly control valve family. However, it is the last
choice between the main four categories of globe, V-Ball, eccentric disc, and but-
terfly valves. The high-performance butterfly valve rotates 90 degrees to the in-
line seat ring. Typically, this type of valve provides respectable control between a
very limited travel, namely, approximately 28-42 degrees of rotation, because of
its installed process gain characteristics below and above these degrees of rota-
tion. It should be noted that the plug construction of this type of valve requires
that the process fluids be relatively clean. It would, therefore, be unsuitable for ap-
plications such as stock services in the paper industry.
SAUNDERS DIAPHRAGM VALVE
This valve consists of a valve body, bonnet, and flexible diaphragm. Figure
4-12 shows the Saunders patent valve, in which a heavy fabric-reinforced dia-
phragm serves as both a seal and a closure member when it is forced down against
a weir in the body. This type of valve is excellent for slurry and viscous fluid ap-
plications. Although it has a high capacity, it controls poorly and has a low range-
ability because its inherent characteristic is essentially quick-opening. The
Saunders diaphragm valve requires a positioner for any intermediate position be-
tween the extremes. Every Saunders valve requires that somewhat different forces
be used to open and close its diaphragm since both upstream and downstream
pressures try to open it.
PINCH VALVES
Another useful design is the mechanical pinch valve, which is simply a flexi-
ble tube compressed mechanically, pneumatically, or hydraulically. It will handle
very coarse and extremely viscous fluids such as those found in the mining indus-
try. Pinch valves have high capacities but poor control characteristics and low
rangeabilities.

10
Control Valves and Actuators—An Introduction

FLEXIBLE
DIAPHRAGM

WEIR

Figure 4-12. Saunders Patent Valve

GATE VALVES
Knife gate valves are used for both on-off and throttling applications. They
consist of a cast body and a gate, which is a beveled, knifelike component that
slides up and down and pushes aside or cuts through solids in the flow stream.
This feature makes these valves suitable for many applications in the pulp and pa-
per industry. The seat may be either metal or resilient, but the metal seat is more
suitable if tight shutoff is required. A variation of the gate, a V-port design, is
somewhat advantageous for throttling control of thick slurries such as paper stock.
However, the valve’s reliability may be compromised because of the potential for
high friction and sloppy linkage. In applications involving high consistencies and
in which the valve size is beyond that of a V-ball design, this V-port design gate
valve may be an alternative to consider. The V-port orifice is maintained from
open to closed to prevent bridging or plugging and to assure maximum control
accuracy. Figure 4-13 shows a typical knife gate valve.

Figure 4-13. Typical Knife Gate Valve

11
Final Control Elements

Pressure Differential
The design pressure drop across a valve is often referred to as a percentage of
the pressure drop through the process, exclusive of the valve. Many designers
adopt as a rule that 50 percent of this friction drop should be available as drop
across the valve. Thus, one-third of the total system drop, including all heat ex-
changers, mixing nozzles, piping, and other high-resistance blocks, is assumed to
take place in the control valve.
In most systems, the design should be changed if the pressure drop across the
It is sound practice to keep valves is less than one-third of the total system pressure drop. The amount of pres-
control valve pressure drop sure differential needed for good control is a function of the pressure differential
as low as possible consis-
tent with the fact that a valve across the valve with respect to the drop across the rest of the system. If variations
energy transfer block regu- in flow are small, this ratio may be reduced.
lates by absorbing and giv-
ing up pressure drop to the As the proportion of the system drop across the valve is reduced, it loses its ability
system. to rapidly increase or decrease flow. If the flow resistance is too small a fraction of
the total system resistance, large movements of the valve will cause very small
changes in the flow. The resulting control will be sloppy and slow-responding. If the con-
trol valve is too large a portion of the total resistance in a control system, small move-
ments in the valve will cause large, sudden changes in flow.

Friction Losses — Calculating P1 and P2

In flow systems, the pipe is usually one of the major sources of flow resis-
tance. This flow resistance, which is caused by viscous friction, varies as a func-
tion of pipe size, pipe material, and flow rate. Actual flow resistance values have
been determined experimentally and recorded in pump or piping handbooks. Re-
sistance is given as a pressure loss per unit length of pipe as a function of the flow
rate.
The inlet pressure (P1) to a control valve is determined by finding the pressure
If the source is at a higher el- at the source and subtracting all the static and friction losses up to the valve. The
evation than the receiver, the outlet pressure (P2) is calculated by finding the required pressure at the outlet of
static pressure differential is
a gain rather than a loss. the system and adding to it all the friction and static losses between the valve out-
let and the system outlet. Pipe fittings, measurement elements, and manual valves
are also sources of flow resistance. In many handbooks, these resistances are ex-
pressed as being equivalent to a certain length of pipe.
In many flow systems, there are other sources of flow resistance. Heat ex-
changers, filters, and other process equipment all restrict flow and must be ac-
counted for when computing pressure drops in a system. The static pressure losses
or gains must also be considered in flow systems. This static pressure is a result of
changes in potential energy caused by differences in elevation. The static pressure
can be calculated using Equation 4-2:

γh
∆Pstatic = --------- (4-2)
144

where:
∆Pstatic = static pressure differential, psi
γ = density, lb/ft3
h = difference in elevation, ft
144 = 144 in.2/ft2

12
Pressure Differential

Figure 4-14. Calculating P1 and P2

The following example shows how P1 and P2 are determined.

Saturated water (i.e., pressure = vapor pressure) at 35 psia is
pumped to a boiler (see Figure 4-13). The pressure at the inlet of the
boiler is 500 psia. The maximum flow is 600 gpm. The specific gravity of
the water is 0.939 (density is therefore 62.4 × 0.939 = 58.6 lb/ft3). The
system uses six-inch piping for which the friction loss is 1.04 psi per 100
feet of pipe. The pressure loss through the heater is seven psi at full flow.
Preliminary data from the process engineers says that the pump dis-
charge pressure is 532 psig (546.7 psia).
Calculating P1:
Up to the valve, the static loss is 10 feet of water; therefore, substi-
tuting in Equation (4-2),

∆Pstatic = (58.6 × 10)/144 = 4.07 psi

The pressure loss due to piping and fittings is calculated by sum-
ming the equivalent pipe lengths for the fittings and adding the result to
the upstream pipe length of 79 feet.

Item Qty. Equivalent Pipe Total

Length
Check valve 1 63 63
90° elbow 1 8.9 8.9
Tee (thru-flow) 1 3.8 3.8
Gate valve 2 3.2 6.4
Total fittings 82.1 feet
Piping 79.0 feet
Total 161.1 feet

(continued)

13
Final Control Elements

(continued)
Therefore, total friction loss due to piping and fittings is

(161.1 × 1.04)/100 = 1.67 psi

and,
P1 = 546.7 – 1.67 – 4.07 = 540.96 psia

Calculating P2:
The static loss after the valve is 70 feet; therefore, substituting
again in Equation (4-2),

∆Pstatic = (58.6 × 70)/144 = 28.49 psi

The pressure loss due to the heater is given as

∆Pheater = 7.0 psi

The pressure loss due to piping and fittings is calculated by summing
the equivalent pipe lengths for the fittings and adding the result to the
downstream pipe length of 99 feet.

Equivalent
Item Qty. Pipe Length Total

90° elbow 2 8.9 17.8

Tee (thru-flow) 1 3.8 3.8
Gate valve 2 3.2 6.4
Total fittings 28.0 feet
Piping 99.0 feet
Total 127.0 feet

Therefore, total friction loss due to piping and fittings is

127.0 × 1.04/100 = 1.32 psi
and,
P2 = 500.0 + 1.32 + 28.49 + 7.0 = 536.8 psia

It’s usually necessary to calculate friction losses for several flow

rates in order to predict noise and cavitation conditions.

Control Valve Sizing

Cv Factor
Before selecting a control valve type, one must calculate the correct flow co-
efficient, or Cv factor. Other data such as pressure drop across the valve, fluid type
(liquid, gas, steam, or multiphasic), flow capacities, specific gravity, viscosity,
and potential flashing or cavitation conditions may be required in whole or in part
for the calculations. In short, one needs to have a total knowledge of the process in
order to determine the proper valve size and type. Selecting the correct valve size
is based primarily on the Cv factor, an indispensable piece of information found in
every valve manufacturer's catalog.

14
Control Valve Sizing

Valve capacity is the rate of flow through a valve under stated conditions. Its
measurement is the nondimensional flow coefficient Cv expressed by the follow-
ing two equations:
Without reducers:

Q Gf
C v = ------ ----------- (4-3a)
N 1 ∆P

With reducers:

Q Gf
C v = ------------- ----------- (4-3b)
N 1 F p ∆P

where:
Q = volumetric flow rate through the valve, gpm
∆P = pressure differential across the valve, psi
Gf = specific gravity of the fluid
N = numerical constants based on units used
Fp = piping geometry factor
In other words, Cv is the number of gpm of 60°F water that will flow through
a valve with one psi pressure drop. Rated Cv (also referred to as the manufacturer's
Cv) is the value of Cv at the rated full-open position of the valve.
Viscosity becomes of great importance in valve flow Cv calculations when han-
dling highly viscous liquids. For liquids below 100 ssu (Saybolt seconds univer-
sal), no corrections are required. The correction factor R of the viscosity effect can
be found in nomographs supplied by most valve manufacturers.

Critical Flow
Every valve or flow orifice exhibits some degree of pressure recovery down-
stream (at the vena contracta) of the principle restriction. Whenever the static
pressure at the vena contracta is lowered to the vapor pressure of a liquid medium
or the critical pressure of a gas causes sonic velocity, no further flow will be ob-
tained as the valve outlet pressure decreases. In other words, a further increase in
pressure drop (with the inlet pressure remaining constant) produces no further in-
crease in flow. This can otherwise be defined as choked flow, which is a condition
of critical flow.

Cavitation
For liquid service, the vapor pressure may be reached at the vena contracta.
This will cause localized flashing, that is, some liquid will remain in the vapor Cavitation will be at its worst
phase (flashing), and the bubbles formed in this region will collapse or implode at minimum flow with maxi-
mum supply pressure and
downstream as the pressure rapidly increases. This causes cavitation, which phys- minimum outlet pressures.
ically damages the valve trim, body, or downstream. The collapsing bubbles can
result in localized pressures of up to 100,000 psi. Figure 4-15 illustrates these phe-
nomena for incompressible and compressible fluids.
The critical flow factor, FL , is a dimensionless expression of the ratio of the
Cv , which is obtained under critical conditions such as liquid vaporization or gas
sonic velocity at the vena contracta, and the Cv measured under normal pressure
recovery conditions. For maximum accuracy, FL factors should be obtained from
the valve manufacturer.

15
Final Control Elements

Cavitation exists when the actual pressure drop is greater than the allowable
pressure drop. This condition can be verified by using the equation:

2
∆P allowable = F L ( P 1 – F F P v ) = ∆P actual (4-4)

where:
Two ways to eliminate or
compensate for cavitation ∆Pallowable = allowable differential pressure
are: (1) relocating the valve FL = valve recovery factor (from manufacturer's literature)
to a lower elevation to in- Pv = vapor pressure of liquid at body inlet temperature from manufac-
crease the actual pressure turer's table
differential, and (2) consider-
ing the use of a different type FF = liquid critical pressure ratio factor (determined from manufac-
of valve (one whose valve turer’s tables) or by using the formula where Pc = critical pressure
recovery coefficient FL is of a fluid
higher). A ball valve will have
a higher FL factor than a
butterfly valve, for example.

Figure 4-15. Critical Flow for Fluids

(Courtesy of Masoneilan/Dresser)

Choked flow is reached when the allowable pressure drop equals the actual
pressure drop, which, in turn, is equal to FL 2(P1 – FF Pv). A further increase in
pressure drop will not increase the flow through the valve.
Nomenclature for the FL factor varies from one manufacturer to another. For example:
FL 2 = Km = Fisher Control Valve Recovery Coefficient FL = Cf = Masoneilan Control
Valve Recovery Coefficient. The ISA standard FL factor is used by most other valve
manufacturers.

Flashing exists when P2 (valve outlet pressure) is less than or equal to Pv

(fluid vapor pressure).

EFFECT OF PIPE REDUCERS

Control valves are often smaller than the pipe size for many applications, so
the size of the pipe entering and leaving the valve must be reduced. Using pipe
reducers diminishes valve capacity because they create additional pressure drop.

16
Control Valve Sizing

For noncritical liquid sizing when inlet and outlet reducers are used, the piping
correction factor Fp is applied in Equation 4-5:

 2 2 2
d   Cv 
Fp = 1 – 1.5  1 – -------  ------------ (4-5)
2 2
 D   30d 

where:
d = valve diameter
D = line diameter

and when only outlet reducers are used, Fp is applied in Equation 4-6:

 2 2 2
d   Cv 
Fp = 1 –  1 – -------  ------------ (4-6)
2 2
 D   30d 

For critical liquid, gas, or steam sizing, the piping correction factor Fp is re-
placed by FLp, which is the valve reducer correction factor. The piping correction
factor is expressed in Equation 4-7 as:

Cv  2  4  –1 ⁄ 2
1  ----------- d
-  1 – -------
F Lp = ------ +  (4-7)
2 2 4
F L  30d   D 

where:

FL = valve critical flow factor = P 1 – P 2 ⁄ P 1 – P vc

FLp = combined pressure recovery and piping geometry factor
Cv = valve flow coefficient
d = valve size, inches
D = line size, inches
Pvc = pressure at the vena contracta

The FLp factor can best be defined in terms of the critical (allowable) pressure
drop, which is the pressure drop in a valve at which cavitation occurs. The rela-
tionship is described by Equation 4-8 as follows:

2
 F Lp
∆P critical =  --------- ( P 1 – P v ) (4-8)
 Fp 

where:
∆Pcritical = pressure drop in a valve at which cavitation exists
FLp = valve reducer correction factor
Fp = piping correction factor
P1 = valve inlet pressure
Pv = vapor pressure

17
Final Control Elements

EFFECT OF VISCOSITY
When flow velocity is very low or when viscosity is high (for liquid flow) the
For some valves, especially result may be laminar rather than turbulent flow (Reynolds number 100). Laminar
those in larger sizes, the flow should be assumed for very low flow rates or very viscous fluids. In these
effect of reducers can be
ignored if the valve is one cases, a correction must be made to the Cv calculation. The case of turbulent flow
standard pipe size smaller is described by Equation 4-9, which shows that flow is directly proportional to the
than the pipe. The effect of pressure drop:
pipe reducers depends upon
the valve design, so the man-
ufacturer’s literature should Qα ∆P (4-9)
be consulted. Note that many
valve manufacturers supply Equation 4-10 describes a quite different situation for laminar flow:
values for FLp, FL, and Fp
actors. Therefore, an alterna-
µQ 2 ⁄ 3
C v = 0.072  --------
tive method for calculation is
(4-10)
to consult their tables for the  ∆P 
corresponding values.

where:
Q = flow rate, gpm
∆P = pressure drop, psi
µ = viscosity, centipoise
LIQUID SIZING CORRECTION FOR CONSISTENCY
The consistency level of substances such as pulp stock may increase flow re-
sistance through pipes, fittings, and valves. A pulp stock correction factor, FC , is
used in liquid-sizing equations to compensate for these frictional losses. Although
the FC factor is used primarily in pulp and paper suspensions of wood fiber and
water, it may also be used to correct for flow calculations on other fibrous slurries
such as sewage sludge (see Table 4-1).

Table 4-1. Pulp Stock Correction Factor FC for Different % Consistencies

Mechanical Groundwood
Consistency, % Chemical Stock
Stock

1 1.0 1.0
2 0.97 0.99
3 0.90 0.95
4 0.84 0.92
5 0.80 0.90

To determine the effective corrected Cv of an existing valve, multiply the standard

published Cv by the FC factor:
Gf
Q F -----------
∆P
C v = -------------------- (4-11)
FC

where:
Cv = valve flow coefficient
QF = volume rate of flow, gpm
Gf = specific gravity (relative to water, std. temp.)
∆P = pressure drop, psi
FC = pulp stock correction factor

18
Control Valve Sizing

Liquid Sizing
The sizing equations shown here are applicable for most of the valves de-
scribed in this chapter. The basic liquid-sizing equation is as shown in Equation 4-
3 (page 281). The first step is to calculate the required Cv . The pressure drop used
in the equation must be the actual valve pressure drop or allowable differential
pressure drop, whichever is smaller. When solving for critical flow (cavitation or
flashing), Equation 4-3 is modified to become one of the following two equations:
Without reducers:

Q Gf
C v = ------ ------------------------------- (4-12a)
N 1 ∆P
allowable

Q Gf
= ------ -----------------------------------------
N1 2
FL ( P1 – FF Pv )

Q
= ------------ Gf
- ---------------------------------
-
N1 FL ( P – F P )
1 F v

where ∆Pallowable is as defined in Equation 4-4.

With reducers:

Q Gf
C v = ---------------- ----------------------------- (4-12b)
N 1 F LP P – F P
1 F v

The second step is to consult the manufacturer's catalog and select a valve
with a Cv in the range of the calculated Cv.
Accurate valve sizing for liquids requires the use of the dual coefficients of Cv and
FL. A single coefficient is insufficient to describe both the capacity and the recov-
ery characteristics of the valve.

It is appropriate to use the additional cavitation index factor KC (coefficient of

incipient cavitation) when sizing high recovery valves that may develop damaging
cavitation at pressure drops well below the level of choked flow.
The pressure differential for incipient cavitation is calculated using the fol-
lowing equation:

∆P = K C ( P 1 – F F P v ) (4-13)

Gas Sizing
A sizing procedure for gases can be established that is based on adaptations of
the basic liquid sizing equation. This can be done by introducing conversion fac-
tors that change flow units from liters/minute into cubic meters/hour and by relat-
ing specific gravity in meaningful terms of pressure. Equation 4-14 applies to gas
service:

Q Gg T1 Z
C v = ----------------- --------------------- (4-14a)
N7 P1 Y X

19
Final Control Elements

An example can illustrate typical valve sizing and selection for liq-
uid services.
Given Information:
Application: Condensate recirculation
Fluid: Water
Piping: 8-inch Schedule 40 carbon steel
Service Conditions:
Valve inlet pressure: P1 = 470 psig
Valve pressure drop: ∆P = 200 psi
Fluid specific gravity: Gf = 1
Inlet temperature: T = 83°F and Pv = 0.56 psia
2
Valve FL : 2
FL = 0.3
Flow rate: Q = 5000 gpm

From Equation (4-3), calculate the Cv to determine the valve size:

Q Gf
C v = ------- -----------
N 1 ∆P
5000 1
= ------------ -------------
1 200

= 354

Preliminarily, a 6-inch ball valve is chosen with a manufacturer’s

Cv = 1040.
At 70% opening, the manufacturer’s Cv = 450.
The next step is to check for cavitation using Equation (4-4). Taking
FF = 0.94 and Pv = 0.56 psia at 83°F gives

2
∆P allowable = F L ( P 1 – F F P v )
= 0.3 [ 485 – ( 0.94 ) ( 0.56 ) ]
= 145 psi

Because ∆Pactual = 100 psi > ∆Pallowable, there is cavitation.

Having found that a ball valve cavitates at the given service condi-
tions, consider now a globe valve, which has a higher pressure recovery
factor. Since the process fluid is clean, using a globe valve is not a prob-
lem. For a 6-inch globe valve, FL2 = 0.5. Substituting this value in Equa-
tion (4-4) gives a ∆Pallowable = 242 psi > ∆Pactual. From this, it can be
deduced that cavitation no longer is evident.

Q MT 1 Z
C v = ----------------- ------------------- (4-14b)
N9 P1 Y X

20
Control Valve Sizing

where:
Q = gas flow rate at 14.7 psia and 60°F
T1 = absolute inlet temperature
Z = gas compressibility factor
P1 = upstream pressure (psia)
N = numerical constant based on units
∆P
X = pressure drop ratio, -------
P1
M = gas molecular weight
Gg = gas specific gravity; ratio of gas density at standard conditions
X
Y = gas expansion factor, where Y = 1 – ----------------- and
3F K X T
K
FK = gas specific heat ratio factor (air = 1.0) = ------- and
1.4
XT = pressure drop ratio factor (refer to manufacturer’s table)

Figure 4-16 illustrates a typical curve of flow of gas versus the square root of
the pressure differential, assuming gas flow at a constant P1.
At critical flow, P1 – P2 > P2, sonic velocity is reached. Pressure impulses
cannot move upstream against the sonic barrier. Therefore, further changes in
downstream pressure cannot affect the upstream flow. When this occurs, mass
flow rate becomes completely independent of outlet pressure, and only a change
in inlet pressure will affect flow rates. When P2 is less than or equal to 0.5 P1, any
additional decrease in P2 will not increase flow.

Figure 4-16. Critical Flow for Gases

(Courtesy of Masoneilan/Dresser)

Steam Sizing
The equation used when sizing valves for steam service is derived from the gas-
sizing Equation 4-14. The formulae for saturated and superheated steam vary
slightly. The two forms of Equation 4-15 are normally used for saturated steam:

Without reducers:
w
C v = ------------------------------ (4-15a)
N 6 Y XP 1 γ 1

21
Final Control Elements

where:
w = flow, weight basis
N = numerical constant based on units
γ1 = specific weight, upstream conditions
X = pressure drop ratio, DP/P1
P1 = upstream pressure, psia
X
Y = gas expansion factor = and 1 – -----------------
3F K X T
FK = gas specific heat ratio factor = K / 1.4 (air = 1) and
XT = pressure drop ratio factor (refer to manufacturer’s tables for FK
and XT)

With reducers:

w
C v = -------------------------------------- (4-15b)
N 6 F P Y XP 1 γ 1

For superheated steam (below 1000 psig), Equation 4-15 becomes 4-16:

Without reducers:

w ( 1 + 0.0007T SH )
C v = --------------------------------------------
- (4-16a)
N 6 Y XP 1 γ 1

where:
TSH = steam superheat temperature, °F or °C
With reducers:

w ( 1 + 0.0007T SH )
C v = --------------------------------------------
- (4-16b)
N 6 YF P XP 1 γ 1

Valve Noise Calculations and Reductions

CONTROL VALVE NOISE
Fluid velocity in a process line can be a major source of noise, which can
cause both vibration and mechanical damage to valve and piping. Noise problems
can be attributed to (1) high pressure at the valve inlet, (2) elevated liquid flow,
and (3) high pressure differential across the valve. Specific sources of control
valve noise are: (1) mechanical vibrations, (2) hydrodynamic noise caused by
flashing or cavitation, and (3) aerodynamic noise. Flashing damage is very
smooth, while cavitation damage is very pitted. Also, if the flow going through
the valve sounds like gravel then cavitation is present. Flashing sounds more like
a soft swishing and is always at 85 dBA or less noise level.

22
Control Valve Sizing

An example will illustrate typical valve sizing and selection for

steam service.
Given Information:
Application: Temperature control—steam to
HVAC unit
Fluid: Saturated steam
Piping: 3-inch
Service Conditions:
Valve inlet pressure: P1 = 780 kPa(g) = 880 kPa(a)
Valve pressure drop: ∆P = 105 kPa
Flow rate: w = 955 kg/h

At 780 kPa(g), the temperature of steam is 346°F (174°C), and the

specific volume = 3.507 ft3/lb, which is equivalent to a density of 0.0285
lb/ft3 or 4.6 kg/m3 (0.0285 × 16.0184).
Let us assume a preliminary selection of a globe valve for steam
service, since the steam is saturated and without any particles.
Using Equation (4-15), calculate the Cv to determine the valve size:
w
C v = -------------------------------
N 6 Y XP 1 γ 1
From Table 4-1,
N 6 = 2.73
∆P
X = -------
P1
105
= ---------
880
= 0.1
Using values of FK and XT from manufacturer’s literature,
X
Y = 1 – ------------------
3F K X T
0.1
= 1 – ----------------------------------
3 ( 0.94 ) ( 0.68 )
= 0.84
Therefore,
955
C v = --------------------------------------------------------------------------
( 2.73 ) ( 0.84 ) ( 0.1 ) ( 880 ) ( 4.6 )
= 21
A 2-inch globe valve with manufacturer’s Cv of 46 is selected. The
body should be carbon steel, because of steam service. The valve actua-
tor should be fail-closed, because of steam service; therefore, the actua-
tor’s action is indirect, air-to-open, fail-closed.

23
Final Control Elements

The unit of measurement for noise level is the decibel (dB), which is defined
The decibel is generally used as the measure of noise intensity or its force. The decibel is calculated on a loga-
to express a sound power rithmic scale as the ratio between two numerical quantities. This means that a
level relative to a chosen ref-
erence. A sound level in measurement of 100 dB is ten times more intense than 90 dB and one hundred
decibels A-scale (dBA) is a times more intense than 80 dB.
sound pressure level that
has been adjusted according Noise levels greater than 85 dBA can damage one's hearing if one is exposed for a
to the frequency response of prolonged period.
the A-weighting filter net-
work. With reference to valve For a sound level range of 90 - 100 dBA, corrective measures in the process
noise, sound level figures piping give the best results for the 10 - 15 dBA noise reductions that are required
are generally referenced to to bring the noise level down to an acceptable level.
standard conditions such as
those laid out in ISA-75.07- Noise problems can be treated at the source or in the process piping (path). To
1997, Laboratory Measure- treat noise at the source requires that special valves or pressure differential de-
ment of Aerodynamic Noise vices be selected and installed directly at the valve outlet. These accessories re-
Generated by Control duce the total pressure differential, resulting in a total pressure that is reduced in
Valves. steps. This method is applicable for valves where the noise level exceeds 100
dBA. The treatment of noise in the process piping can be divided into the four cat-
egories of distance, transmission loss, dispersion/dissipation, and velocity.
Distance. Locate the valve as far away as possible from plant personnel. The
sound level may be checked by verifying the sound pressure level (SPL) and is
determined using Equation 4-17:

distance (ft)
SPL distance = SPL source – 10 log  ---------------------------- (4-17)
 3 ft 

Transmission loss. Consider increasing the thickness of the piping or adding

acoustical insulation. Acoustical insulation may reduce noise by up to five dBA
for each inch of insulation, but this value decreases proportionally as the insula-
tion thickness increases. In other words, four inches of insulation will reduce the
noise only by approximately seven dBA. For acoustical insulation to be effective,
it must be used throughout the downstream system.

Dispersion/Dissipation. Noise can be dispersed or dissipated by installing a si-

lencer in the line directly downstream of the valve. Note that a silencer may not be
used as a pressure-reducing device.

Velocity. Keep the velocity at a minimum value to reduce the noise level. Line
diffusers at the valve outlet can be used. The pipe should be sized so it does not
exceed a velocity of 300 ft/s.

Types of Noise and Recommended Solutions

MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS
Mechanical vibrations are caused by fluid velocities and/or large flows that
generate turbulence, pressure oscillations, or certain process variables. These vi-
brations may be eliminated by changing the valve plug type or by using a cage-
guided valve, bringing greater stability in the line.
HYDRODYNAMIC NOISE
Hydrodynamic noise is caused by cavitation or flashing and may be reduced
by carefully selecting acoustical insulation, a special valve configuration, or spe-
cial pressure-reducing devices. One could consider using valves that have multi-
stage trims, which are available from a number of manufacturers. Such valves
have bodies that are compatible with those of standard valves, but their inner de-

24
Control Valve Sizing

sign reduces noise and vibrations. However, certain piping accessories are still re-
quired to reduce the noise level.
Equation 4-18, together with Tables 4-2 through 4-4 and Figures 4-17 through
4-21, can be used to predict hydrodynamic noise:

SL = 10 log C v + 20 log ∆P – 30 log ( t ) + 5 (4-18)

where:
SL = A-weighted sound level (1 m downstream and 1 m from pipe sur-
face)
Cv = actual required flow coefficient
∆P = pressure drop, psi (bar)
t = pipe wall thickness, mm (in.)

Table 4-2. Numerical Constants for ISA Liquid Flow Equations

Constant Units Used in Equations
N w Q P, ∆P d, D γ1
N1 0.0865 m3 kPa
0.865 m3 bar
1.00 gpm psia
N4 76000 m3/h mm
17300 gpm in.
N6 2.73 kg/h kPa kg/m3
27.3 kg/h bar kg/m3
63.3 lb/h psia lb/ft3

Table 4-3. Numerical Constants for Gas and Vapor Flow Equations
Constant Units Used in Equations

N w Q* P, ∆P γ1 T1
N6 2.73 kg/h kPa kg/m3
27.3 kg/h bar kg/m3
63.3 lb/h psia lb/h3
N7 4.17 m3/h kPa K
417 m3/h bar K
1360 scfh psia R
N8 0.948 kg/h kPa K
94.8 kg/h bar K
19.3 lb/h psia R
N9 224 m3/h kPa K
2240 m3/h bar K
7320 scfh psia R

* Q is in cubic feet per hour measured at 14.73 psia and 60°F, or cubic meters per hours measured
at 101.3 kPa and 15.6°C.

25
Final Control Elements

Table 4-4. Attenuation Factor SL (Not Equal to TL)

Pipe
Size, Pipe Schedule
In.

5S 10S 20 40 80 100 120 160 STD XS XXS

1.0 35.5 29.0 — 26.5 22.5 — — 18.0 26.5 22.5 13.5

1.5 39.0 32.5 — 28.5 24.5 — — 20.0 28.5 24.5 15.5

2.0 41.5 35.0 — 30.5 26.0 — — 20.0 30.5 26.0 17.0

3.0 42.0 37.0 — 29.5 25.0 — — 20.5 29.5 25.0 16.0

4.0 44.5 39.5 — 31.0 26.0 — 23.0 20.5 31.0 26.0 17.0

6.0 44.5 41.5 — 32.0 26.5 — 23.0 20.0 32.0 26.5 17.5

8.0 47.0 43.0 36.0 33.0 27.0 25.0 22.5 19.5 33.0 27.0 20.0

10.0 46.0 43.5 38.0 33.0 27.0 24.5 22.0 18.5 33.0 29.0 20.0
12.0 46.0 44.0 39.5 33.5 26.5 24.0 21.5 18.0 34.5 30.5 21.5

14.0 47.0 44.5 38.0 33.5 26.5 24.0 22.0 18.5 35.5 32.0 —

16.0 47.5 46.0 39.5 33.0 26.5 23.5 21.5 18.0 37.0 33.0 —
18.0 48.5 47.0 40.5 32.5 26.0 23.0 21.0 17.5 38.0 34.0 —

20.0 48.0 46.0 39.0 33.0 25.5 23.0 20.5 17.0 39.0 35.0 —

24.0 40.5 45.5 40.5 32.5 25.0 22.0 20.0 16.5 40.5 36.5 —

30.0 38.5 45.0 38.5 — — — — — 42.5 38.5 —

36.0 — — 40.0 35.0 — — — — 44.0 40.0 —

Note: For other schedules compare wall thickness to nearest schedule shown.

Figure 4-17. SL Factor for Conventional Valves

(Courtesy of Masoneilan/Dresser)

26
Control Valve Sizing

Figure 4-18. SLP Factor for Valve Inlet Pressure

(Courtesy of Masoneilan/Dresser)

Figure 4-19. SLT Factor for Actual Flow

(Courtesy of Masoneilan/Dresser)

AERODYNAMIC NOISE
Aerodynamic noise is the direct result of the conversion of the mechanical en-
ergy of the flow into acoustic energy as the fluid passes through the valve restric-
tion. Equations 4-19 and 4-20 can be used to predict aerodynamic noise.
For all gases except for steam,

SL = SL e + SL P + SL T + SL v + SL g + SL a (4-19)

where:
SL = A-weighted sound level 1 m downstream and 1 m from the pipe
surface, dBA
SLe = acoustical efficiency factor, dBA
SLP = valve inlet pressure factor, dBA
SLT = fluid temperature factor, dBA
SLv = flow capacity factor, dBA
SLg = gas property factor, dBA
SLa = pipe attenuation factor, dBA
SLs = steam temperature factor, dBA

27
Final Control Elements

Figure 4-20. SLT Factor for Absolute Temperature

(Courtesy of Masoneilan/Dresser)

Figure 4-21. SLS Factor for Steam Superheat

(Courtesy of Masoneilan/Dresser)

For steam,

SL = SL e + SL P + SL v + SL a + SL s (4-20)

28
Control Valve Sizing

Aerodynamic noise may be reduced by using trim components that are spe-
cially designed for noise abatement. They are similar to the multistage trims used
for hydrodynamic noise reduction.
Multistage trims should be considered only for clean processes. Saturated steam
with wood fibers, for example, would clog the pores of the trim, thereby eventually
reducing valve capacity and efficiency.

Acoustical insulation may also be considered for reducing aerodynamic noise.

The following example will help illustrate aerodynamic noise predic-

tion using the graphical method.
Given information:
Fluid: Saturated Steam
Piping: 4-inch Schedule 160

Service Conditions:
Valve Inlet Pressure: P1 = 2500 psia
Valve Outlet Pressure: P2 = 400 psia
Flow Rate: w = 955 to 62,000 lb/hr
Temperature: T = 668°F
FL = 1; valve has low noise trim
Cv = 14

Using Equation (4-20), calculate the total sound pressure level

(SPL):
SPL = SLe + SLP + SLv + SLa + SLs
From Figure 4-15,
SLe = –18, P1 /P2 = 6.25, and FL = 1
From Figure 4-16,
SLP = 68, P1 = 2500 psia
From Figure 4-18,
SLv = 11.5, FL × Cv = 14
From Table 4-4,
SLa = 20.5, pipe = 4 inches, schedule 160
From Figure 4-19,
SLs = 35, T = 668°F
Substituting the above values into Equation (4-20) results in
SPL = 117 dBA

Using a low noise trim recommended by the supplier increases SLe

to –33, thus reducing the noise to 102 dBA. Further reduction in noise
can be achieved by proper pipe insulation upstream and downstream of
the valve.

29
Final Control Elements

Trim Design
Using the shape of plugs or cage windows and seats to obtain the desired flow
Trim is defined as the inter- characteristic is a function of trim design. For example, in a cage-guided globe
nal parts of a valve that are in valve, trim would typically include valve plug, seat ring, cage, stem, and stem pin
flowing contact with the con-
trolled fluid. (see Figure 4-22). A seat is that portion of the seat ring that a valve plug contacts
for closure. The seat ring is a separate piece inserted into a valve body so as to
form a port. The valve plug is a movable part that provides a variable restriction in
a port. Valve flow characteristics are determined primarily by the valve plug
shapes or patterns or by the cage shape of windows.
Stainless steel 316 is frequently used as the material for seats, plugs, guides,
bushings, and other trim parts. Carbon steel or bronze are usually selected for city
water, air, and steam services. Monel™, Hastelloy™, and other alloys are used for
corrosive applications.

Figure 4-22. Characterized Cages for Globe-Style Valve Bodies

(Courtesy of Fisher Rosemount)

Actuators
Control valves may be actuated pneumatically, electrically, hydraulically,
and/ or manually. Of these methods, the pneumatic actuator is the most widely
used. The actuator overcomes forces that are unbalanced as a result of friction, the
weight of moving parts, stem unbalance, and pressure drop across the valve.

Pneumatic Actuators
TYPES
Pneumatic actuators may be the spring-and-diaphragm type or the piston
(springless) type. The spring-and-diaphragm is the most frequently used (see
Figure 4-23).
Diaphragm actuators may be direct or reverse acting. A direct-acting actuator
is designed so that increasing air pressure (20-100 kPa, or 3–15 psig) on top of the
diaphragm moves the stem downward, thus closing a direct-acting valve. This ac-
tuator type is defined as air-to-close or fail-open; loss of air pressure allows the
spring to open the valve.
With a reverse-acting diaphragm actuator, air pressure below the diaphragm
moves the stem up, opposing the spring action. This action is called air-to-open or
fail-closed. Some designs allow the diaphragm to reverse so as to obtain the de-
sired action. Figure 4-24 shows several actuator actions.

30
Actuators

The diaphragm is usually made of rubber or neoprene with a fabric insert.

Most of the diaphragm’s area is firmly clamped in a diaphragm plate. The spring
is usually high-temper alloy steel with parallel ground and squared ends that are
designed for linear changes in stress throughout its working range. The spring has
two functions: diaphragm return and diaphragm position. The diaphragm plate
against which the spring butts is rigidly fastened to the stem.

Figure 4-23. Spring and Diaphragm Actuator

Figure 4-24. Direct- and Reverse-Acting Actuators

The springless or piston actuator is for use in high-pressure and high-pres-

sure-differential conditions that exceed those in which the spring-and-diaphragm
actuator gives accurate service. One side of the diaphragm is “cushioned” with
constant air pressure from an air pressure regulator. This, in effect, takes the place
of the spring. The type of valve body and the desired action will determine which
side of the diaphragm is to be cushioned. The amount of pressure applied to the
controller output side of the diaphragm will depend on the energy transfer func-
tion of the controller.

31
Final Control Elements

A reversing pneumatic relay may be substituted for the constant air pressure
regulator. A change in controller output to one side of the diaphragm is transmit-
ted to the relay, which alters the air pressure on the other side of the diaphragm so
the sum of the two pressures is constant.
Pneumatically operated piston actuators provide integral positioner capability
and high stem force output for demanding service conditions. Adaptations of both
spring-and-diaphragm and piston actuators are available for direct installation on
rotary-shaft control valves such as butterfly and V-notch ball valves.
FAIL-SAFE POSITION

An actuator's fail-safe position should always be based upon process safety con-
siderations should the control valve suffer air or electrical failure. The three fail-
safe positions are fail-open, fail-closed, and fail-as-is.

Fail-Open. This action can limit overpressure in a process system that may be
caused by an air or electrical failure. It can permit discharge of gas (steam) or liq-
uid to atmosphere in case of air or electrical failure.
Fail-Closed. This action can limit sudden pressure drops in case of air or elec-
trical failure. It permits the process to be shut down in the case of a leak or a break
in the process line and can prevent toxic gases or liquids from being released to
the atmosphere.
Fail-As-Is. This action allows the actuator to stay in the position it was in at
the moment of air or electrical failure. This action can be used where an air or
electrical failure won't cause undue disturbances in the process. The fail-as-is po-
sition for valves over eight inches in diameter that are installed with piston actua-
tors can also be considered where process conditions are deemed less critical. This
will reduce the need for expensive accessories such as volume tanks, which en-
sure that the valve fails in a certain position.
Certain piston actuators that do not use a spring for fail-safe positioning uti-
lize stored air capacity to meet the valve fail-safe requirements. A lockup valve
and check valve are placed between the air supply line, a storage bottle, and the
actuator or positioner. In case of air supply failure, the check valve will trap air in
the storage bottle, which can then be used to close or open the valve as desired by
selectively loading the actuator piston. This approach to fail-safe design is not as
positive as a spring, but it is sufficient in less critical installations.
ACTUATOR SIZING
Using too large of an actuator adds unnecessary expense and increased re-
sponse time to a control valve. Using an undersized actuator might make it impos-
sible to open the valve or close it completely. However, the process of selecting an
optimally sized actuator for a given control valve application is a broader subject
than can be completely covered here. In general, the actuator must provide suffi-
cient force to stroke the valve plug to the fully closed position with sufficient seat
loading to meet the required leak class criteria. With spring return actuators, the
spring selected must be sized to properly oppose the force provided by the air sup-
ply pressure. To put it simply, sizing an actuator involves solving a problem in
statics. The forces, and the direction in which each force acts, depend on the actu-
ator’s design and the direction of flow through the valve. The free body diagram
in Figure 4-25 illustrates the forces that are involved in achieving static equilib-
rium.
Figure 4-25 depicts a direct-acting (push-down-to-close) valve body with the
flow tending to open the valve plug. The actuator is a reverse-acting, spring-and-
diaphragm construction that is air-to-open (fail-closed). The actuator force avail-
able is the product of the air supply pressure and the area against which that pres-
sure is applied (diaphragm area). Packing friction varies with the stem size,

32
Actuators

packing material, and packing design. The unbalance force is the product of the
force of the flowing medium and the area against which that force is applied (total
port area):
Unbalance force = Shutoff differential pressure x Unbalance area (4-21)
Seat load is usually expressed in pounds per linear inch of port circumference.
The seat load is the product of the port circumference and the pounds-per-linear-
inch force recommended by the valve manufacturer. The actuator force available
must be greater than the sum of the forces that the actuator force must oppose to
achieve static equilibrium.

Figure 4-25. Forces Involved in Static Equilibrium

Electric Actuators
Electrically operated control valves are usually selected where no instrument
air supply is available, such as remote areas of a plant or storage and loading facil-
ities. The type of actuator must be compatible with the electric controller output,
as shown in Table 4-5. Several variations of electric actuators are available.

Table 4-5. Electric Controller Output Compatibility

Output Section Actuator

Single-relay output section Relay, solenoid, or two-position actuator

Current output section and feedback Variable-speed motor internal controlled drive,
electropneumatic converter, SCR
Dual-relay output section including provisions for Reversible electric motor
direct position feedback from the drive

The switch of the single-relay output section may be mechanically or electri-

cally operated in an on-off controller. It may be double-throw with or without
deadband between the open and closed circuits. The switch may be operated by a
proportional-plus-integral action controller that varies the ratio of the open to
closed time of a continuously pulsed relay. Because loss of controller power de-
energizes a relay, an open relay contact must correspond to a safe operating condi-
tion.

33
Final Control Elements

The current output section provides a direct current that is proportional to the
required output. This current is derived from a standard PID controller. When
controller power is lost, the valve must return to a safe operating condition.
In the dual-relay output section, the controller switches are interlocked to pre-
vent simultaneously energizing both motor fields. They may be mechanically or
electrically operated in an on-off controller for two-position control. A time-pulse
switch is in the common lead to the motor for floating control. The switches may
be in a controller that has proportional action or PID. On the loss of controller
power, the motor will remain in its last position.
In some situations, an infinite position actuator is operated in a two-position
manner. Typical electric controller output connections are presented in Figure
4-26.

Figure 4-26. Typical Electric Controller Outputs

Valve Positioners and Accessories

Positioners
The function of a valve positioner is to sense both the instrument signal (con-
troller output) and the valve stem position, and from these measurements to en-
sure that the valve position is always directly proportional (or related in a known
way) to its controller output signal. A positioner may be considered as a closed-
loop controller that has the instrument signal as input, output to the actuator, and
feedback from the valve stem position. The positioner must be mounted some-
where on the control valve in order to be able to measure the stem position.

34
Valve Positioners and Accessories

A positioner can be used to (1) provide a split-range valve operation, (2) re-
verse the signal to a valve, (3) overcome forces within a valve caused by friction
or high pressure across the valve, and (4) help bring about fast, accurate control.
The positioner overcomes errors caused by the imbalance of forces on the valve
plug as well as the hysteresis effects of the diaphragm and spring. Applications for
positioners include temperature control, liquid level control, gas flow control, and
mixing and blending. In certain fast systems, such as for liquid pressure control or
liquid flow control, a volume or ratio booster is more advantageous than a posi-
tioner.
From the standpoint of system dynamics, the positioner adds another func-
tional block to the control loop. The effect of this change can be to make the sys-
tem more sensitive. It may also increase the overall response time of the loop.
While this may be desirable in some processes, it could lead to instability.
SPLIT-RANGE OPERATION
Split-range signals (when one common controller signal commands two or
more control valves) are typically used in temperature control applications. For In many control systems, a
example, the temperature in a product storage room might be maintained by a properly sized spring-and-
diaphragm actuator will do
temperature controller that operates both heating and cooling valves. The valves an excellent job without the
would typically have nonoverlapping operating ranges of 3 to 9 psig and 9 to 15 need for either a positioner
psig, respectively. or a booster.

POSITIONER TYPES
The three basic types of positioners are pneumatic, electropneumatic and elec-
trical. In pneumatic positioners (usually 3–15 psig) the positioner translates the
signal into a required valve position and supplies the the valve actuator with the
air pressure needed to move the valve to the correct position. See Figure 4-27.
• In electropneumatic-analog current to pneumatic (I/P) positioners, electri-
cal current (usually 4–20 mA) is used as the input signal rather than air.
These positioners operate much like the pneumatic positioner shown in
Figure 4-28. However, the bellows is replaced by a magnetic motor unit.
• Electropneumatic-digital I/P positioners resemble analog I/P positioners,
except that the conversion of the electronic signal is digital rather than
analog. Digital positioners are categorized into three types:
(1) In the digital noncommunicating type, a current signal (4–20 mA) is
supplied to the positioner, which powers both the electronics and con-
trols the output.
(2) The HART type is the same as the digital noncommunicating type
except that it is also capable of two-way digital communication over
the same wires used for the analog signal.
(3) In the Fieldbus type, an all-digital control signal replaces the analog
control signal. Two-way digital communications can be achieved
over the same wires.

Input signal ranges may be 3–9, 3–15, 6–30, or 9–15 psig for pneumatic posi-
tioners and 1–5, 4–20, and 10–50 mA for electronic devices. Supply pressures
may be up to 100 psig. Most positioners installed today are pneumatic and elec-
tropneumatic, even though the control system may be electronic or direct digital
control. An electropneumatic transducer is used separately or is incorporated into
the positioner to convert the electronic signal into a pneumatic signal. The shift (in
newer installations) toward using analog I/P positioners can lower the installed
cost for the single instrument approach. In older installations, transducers may

35
Final Control Elements

Figure 4-27 Valve Positioners

also be mounted on the actuator. For reasons of space and economy, many trans-
ducers may be rack-mounted in field panels.
SMART POSITIONERS
Digital I/P positioners are also known as digital valve controllers or smart po-
sitioners. They differ from analog positioners in their ability to embed software
commands into the memory of the device. This permits the valve to be automati-
cally configured and set up and also provides two-way communication for diag-
nostics and standard control such as PID functionality.
The advantages of using smart positioners are the following:
• Automatic calibration and configuration in place of traditional zero and
spanning produces time and cost savings.
• Online valve diagnostics can be performed, making possible a more pre-
dictive than reactive approach to maintenance.
Figures 4-29a and 4-29b illustrate typical valve/smart positioner installation
and its functionality.

36
Valve Positioners and Accessories

Figure 4-28. Electropneumatic Valve Positioners

BASIC POSITIONER DESIGNS

There are two basic designs for positioners: motion-balance (two-stage posi-
tioner) and force-balance (spool-type positioner). In the motion-balance type, the
stem motion is compared directly with a similar motion produced by a bellows
that is expanded by the air signal. Force-balance means that the feedback derived
from the valve position provides a force to balance the controller signal that is act-
ing on an input diaphragm or bellows. See Figure 4-27, which shows schematics
of both designs.
In a motion-balance pneumatic positioner, the input signal from a controller
or a transducer goes to the bellows. A beam is fixed to the bellows at one end and,
through linkage, to the valve stem at the other end. A relay nozzle forms a flapper-
nozzle arrangement with the beam. As the bellows moves in response to a
changed control signal, the flapper-nozzle arrangement moves. This either admits

37
Final Control Elements

Figure 4-29a. Digital Valve Controller on Rotary Actuator

(Courtesy of Emerson Process Management)

Figure 4-29b. Digital Valve Controller with Fieldbus Capability. Control functions can be distrib-
uted for optimum performance and cost effectiveness.
(Courtesy of Emerson Process Management)

air to, or bleeding air from, the diaphragm until the valve stem position corre-
sponds to the input air signal, and the positioner is once again in equilibrium.
With a force-balance pneumatic positioner, the controller signal acts on a dia-
phragm, creating a signal force that is opposed by a feedback spring. A temporary
offset in the diaphragm position moves a spool valve, which in turn allows supply
air to flow to the diaphragm of the valve actuator. The resultant stem motion is
sensed by a lever that rotates a cam. This cam displacement is then converted by a

38
Valve Positioners and Accessories

suitable lever arrangement into compression of the feedback spring, which in turn
produces an equivalent force to match the signal level.
The use of a cam to characterize the feedback motion is gaining in popularity. One
advantage it offers is that certain rotary valves that have an unsuitable inherent
characteristic (butterfly valves and ball valves, for example) can be modified so
the characteristic matches the requirements of the system. Note that cam feedback is truly
effective only when the system process loop is slower than the positioner-valve combina-
tion.

The most important characteristic of a good positioner used to reduce process

variability is that it be a high-gain device.
Gain is the ratio of the magnitude of the output change of a device to the mag-
nitude of the input change that caused the output change. It has two components: Process variability is de-
static and dynamic. Static gain is related to the sensitivity of the device to small fined as the precise mea-
surement of tightness of
changes of input signal. Dynamic gain is a function of the frequency or rate of control and is expressed as
change of the input. a percentage of set point.
Force-balance (spool) positioners have a lower sensitivity to small signal
changes. This can increase dead time and overall response time. To increase gain,
spool valves may have enlarged ports and less overlap of ports. This will increase
the dynamic gain but also greatly increase air consumption. Many high-gain spool
valves have static air consumption that is five times that of high-performance two-
stage positioners.
Motion-balance (two-stage) positioners use pneumatic relays that provide
higher gain with minimal air consumption. They are also less subject to fluid con-
tamination.
Digital-based positioners provide dynamic performance that is equal to the
best conventional two-stage pneumatic positioners.
High performance positioners that have both high static and dynamic gain
provide the best overall process variability performance.

Handwheels
One of the principle accessories on automatic control valves is the handwheel.
This is an arrangement that overrides the pneumatic actuator manually in the
event of air failure or during certain maintenance operations. Two types are avail-
able: top-mounted and side-mounted. The top-mounted handwheel is a simple
device that permits the actuator stem to be manually repositioned.
Side-mounted handwheels are usually found on large control valves whose
height would make it inconvenient for the operator to actuate the valve manually
from the topmost part of the valve. This design is more expensive, but one of its
advantages is the ease of maintenance of the actuator itself. It is usually possible
to service and replace the diaphragm while the valve itself is held in position by
the handwheel. The handwheel can also serve the function of a limit stop in either
direction of travel.

Limit Switches
The limit switch is attached to the actuator yoke by a suitable bracket, which
in turn senses the motion of the valve stem through a takeoff arm. Limit switches
can be either single- or multi-throw, and they are used to signal that the valve stem
has reached a predetermined position. Such information on valve opening can be
used to actuate safety or other interlocks.

39
Final Control Elements

Limit Stops
When it is impractical to use the handwheel as a limit stop, other limit stops
can be provided as part of the body assembly. A typical limit stop may be
mounted on the bottom of a globe valve that is guided top and bottom. This stop
consists of an adjustable spindle sealed by a cap. This stop can be adjusted while
the valve is in operation to meet the exact required minimum or maximum set-
tings.

Stem-Position Indicators
Stem-position indicators show the valve’s exact position to operating person-
nel at a remote location. Such valves may be located in unmanned pumping sta-
tions or in a hazardous area closed off to operating personnel (near an atomic
reactor, for example). Remote position indicators can be electrical, with a linear
variable resistor suitably connected to the valve stem. The electrical signal is then
shown on a calibrated panel meter. Another way to indicate stem position re-
motely is with a pneumatic signal. This is a desirable alternative in areas where
there is a risk of explosion. Most pneumatic positioners can be inverted to work as
position transmitters. When properly modified, they will transmit a pneumatic sig-
nal as a function of valve stroke, which is indicated on a calibrated receiver gage.

Airsets
The most common of all accessories is the airset. This is a compact self-con-
tained air pressure regulator with an integral filter and drip valve and a maximum
flow capacity of about 20 scfm of air. This air filter regulator is used to supply
pressurized air to either the positioner or a yoke-mounted controller. Its main
advantage is that it provides a way of setting the individual pressure supply to a
positioner. (Pressures from 20 to 80 psig may be needed to meet the power re-
quirement for a particular valve.) All control valves that use a positioner should
include an airset for two functions. First, it filters plant air so as to prevent the
plugging of small passages that will cause the valve to stop functioning. Second, it
provides a steady-state air supply to the positioner so it can perform optimally and
avoid the process variability that can occur when the plant air supply to the posi-
tioner fluctuates.
Piping the usual plant air supply of perhaps 80 psig directly to the valves could
overstress smaller valve stems or damage receiver bellows in positioners or con-
trollers. Also, instrument air must be clean and moisture-free.

Boosters
Booster relays are essentially air-loaded, self-contained pressure regulators.
They can be classified as (1) volume boosters, (2) ratio relays, and (3) reversing
relays.
Volume boosters multiply the available volume of the air signal. The air regu-
lator sends its output signal to the volume booster instead of directly to the valve.
Volume relays can be used to increase the frequency response of a control valve.
This is sometimes preferable to using positioners on fast control loops. Refer to
Figure 4-30.
Ratio relays multiply or divide the pressure of an input signal. Ratio relays
help in split-ranging applications. For example, a 1:2 ratio relay could change a
3–9 psig controller signal into a 3–15 psig output signal, and another 1:2 ratio re-
lay could change a 9–15 psig controller signal into a 3–15 psig output signal.
Thus, one controller signal of 3–15 psig could operate two valves of 3–15 psig
without overlapping operation of the valves.

40
Reversible Electric Motor Drives

Reversing relays produce a decreasing output signal for an increasing input

signal. Reversing relays are employed when two control valves, one air-to-open
and the other air-to-close, are operated from the same controller. They might also
be used to reverse part of the output pressure from a single-acting positioner to a
double-acting piston actuator.

Reversible Electric Motor Drives

This type of actuator or servomotor is suitable for operating valves, dampers,
and other lever-operated process regulators. Models are available that have
torques ranging from 5 to 75 lb-ft and full-stroke speeds ranging from 10 to 60
seconds. The operating voltage of reversible electric motor drives is usually 120 V
AC, single-phase, 50-60 Hz with a maximum running current of one ampere. A
handwheel is provided for local manual operation. Internal worm gears prevent
back drive caused by unbalanced loads. The linkage may be arranged for charac-
terizing the process regulator. Extra limit switches and feedback transmitters for
complex control applications have to be added.
Actuators that have higher torques are also available. Units that have torques
ranging from 150 to 4,000 lb-ft are designed to operate large valves and dampers.
Their full stroke speeds range from 30 to 300 seconds. Their operating voltage is
220 V AC, 3-phase, 50-60 Hz, and they have a power consumption at full running
load that ranges from 0.5 to 5.0 kVA.

Stepping Motors
Stepping motors are also used as electrical actuators for small-sized valves.
A stepping motor is an electromechanical device that rotates a discrete step angle
when it is energized electrically. The step angle usually is fixed for a particular
motor and thus provides a means for ensuring accurate positioning in a repeatable,
uniform way. Typical step angles vary from 0.72 degrees to 90 degrees. Several
means for energizing stepping motors electrically include DC pulses, square
waves, fixed-logic sequences, and multiple-phase square waves.
Some of the basic design types for stepping motors include solenoid-operated
ratchet, permanent magnet, and variable reluctance. Variations of these basic
types may be combined with gears or hydraulic amplifiers to provide increased-
output-torque stepping motors.
Although most stepping motors can be driven from switches or relays, most drive
circuits incorporate solid-state devices that permit high-powered, fast operation.
Simple drives convert low-level pulses into power pulses or correctly phased
power. More complex drives adjust the power levels to allow the drives to run at very high
rates.

At very low rates, the step movement resembles the classic damped oscilla-
tion curve. Mechanical or electrical damping can be added to modify the curve in
order to provide critical damping. Since stepping motors move in discrete steps,
they do not have the problems related to stability and feedback that are inherent in
most servo devices. Direct digital control in an open-loop mode is possible with
stepping motors. Closed-loop mode may be provided by coupling a pulse feed-
back to the motor.

Solenoid Valves
A solenoid valve consists of an electromagnetic coil and a valve. The electro-
magnetic coil actuates an armature or a valve stem in a magnetic field so as to
control fluid flow. Solenoid valves have an on-off switching option and are actu-

41
Final Control Elements

Figure 4-30. Volume Booster Design and Installation

ated by electric signals from remote locations. They accomplish in a pneumatic or

liquid system what an electrical relay accomplishes in an electrical system. They
are frequently used in conjunction with control valves to open or close the valve at
predetermined conditions or limits.
When electrical power is supplied to the electromagnet, a magnetic field is
created that causes the plunger to be positioned in the solenoid coil. The plunger is
connected to a valve disc that opens or closes the orifice, depending on whether
the valve is energized-to-open or energized-to-close. See Figure 4-31.

Types
The four basic types of solenoid valves are (1) two-way, (2) three-way, (3)
four-way, and (4) pilot-operated.
• Two-way solenoid valves have two ports and provide a simple on-off
switching action.
• Three-way solenoid valves have three pipe connections. A typical appli-
cation is for two of the ports to be used to load or unload cylinders or dia-
phragm actuators.
• Four-way solenoid valves are used principally for controlling double-
acting cylinders.
• Pilot-operated solenoid valves apply pressure to a diaphragm or piston, or
they may release pressure, allowing higher upstream pressure to open the
valve. A widely employed device is a small solenoid pilot valve that sup-

42
Electric Motor Drive Control

Figure 4-31. Schematic of a Solenoid Valve

plies pressure to a diaphragm or piston for a wide range of output forces.

Solenoid valves are used either directly to supply signal air to the actuator
or indirectly by blocking the air supply to the positioner.
Solenoid valves are the least expensive form of electrical actuation. They
come in a variety of styles and flow capacities and with explosion-proof housings.
It is usually specified that the valve supplier mount them directly to the diaphragm
case by means of a suitable nipple, although large quantities of solenoid valves are
often gang-mounted in local panels.

Electric Motor Drive Control

Motor controls are usually selected and specified by the electrical engineer.
However, the instrumentation or control engineer and designer should also have
some knowledge of this technology, since some of the process controls are inter-
faced with the motor control center (for example, electric motors used for variable
speed pumps, metering pumps, screw conveyers, belt feeders, and so forth). Elec-
tric motor drives can be classified as constant-speed and variable-speed.

Constant-Speed Drives
Constant-speed applications have employed induction motors, wound-rotor
motors, and synchronous motors mainly because alternating current is the more
readily available source of electrical power. These AC motors can be started by
full-voltage starters or by reduced-inrush starters. The latter method reduces the
initial drain on the power system. The wound-rotor motor with a secondary con-
trol is also suitable for starting and accelerating a high-inertia load when low in-
rush currents are a requirement. Figure 4-32 shows diagrams of a full-voltage and
a reduced-inrush starter.
These starters may be interlocked with process control devices such as pro-
grammable controllers for sequencing control (a start/stop loop, for example),
limit switches, level, pressure, temperature, flow switches, and safety switches.
The interlock contacts are usually in series with the push-button contacts and are
activated by relays.

43
Final Control Elements

Figure 4-32. Constant-Speed AC Motor Control Diagram

Variable-Speed Drives
Variable-speed drives can use both AC and DC motors. Three major catego-
ries for DC drive systems are: (1) constant-potential with motor-field control, (2)
rotating motor-generator set, and (3) static converter.
Most variable-speed DC motor drives are regulated by a silicon controlled
rectifier (SCR), except for the rotating motor-generator type. A DC motor can be
wired to large, constant-potential DC sources and regulated over a limited speed
range by motor-field control. Very wide speed ranges can be achieved with rotat-
ing motor-generator sets and static SCR conversion technologies that are capable
of providing adjustable armature voltage. Figure 4-33 shows a schematic diagram
of a variable-speed DC drive control using an SCR.

Figure 4-33. SCR Power-Conversion Variable-Speed DC Drive System

The firing control is the open and close switching activity of the SCR when the AC
voltage passes through zero. One limiting factor in DC motor applications is that
energy is supplied to the rotor of the motor through the commutator. Large
amounts of power must pass from the DC line to the rotor through stationary carbon
brushes that rub against the rotating commutator bars. This energy transfer reduces the
practical top speed and upper voltage rating of large-horsepower DC drives. Such a
method of energy transfer also precludes the application of DC motor drives in erosive
and corrosive environments and in areas where explosive gas is present. The ideal drive
system for such conditions would be a variable-speed AC drive.

44
Electric Motor Drive Control

Many combinations of variable-speed AC drives are available, especially

some types with the latest solid-state technology, such as power transistors, gate
turn-off thyristors, and microprocessors. The following classification of variable-
speed AC drives shows how many possibilities exist:
(1) Adjustable voltage with wound-rotor motor.
(2) Adjustable voltage with high-slip induction motor.
(3) Adjustable frequency by:
• Rotating DC/AC motor-generator set with induction motor.
• Static converter/inverter with induction motor.
• Static cyclo-converter with induction motor.
(4) Synchronous motor adjustable-frequency drive.
(5) Induction motor with eddy current coupling.
(6) Induction motor with mechanical transmission.

Figure 4-34 shows a schematic diagram of a static SCR converter/inverter,

power-conversion type, adjustable-frequency AC drive system.
In this system, constant-frequency AC power first is converted into constant-
voltage DC power by means of a static rectifier. This DC power, in turn, is
inverted into an adjustable-frequency power supply by means of static logic
circuitry (microprocessor).

Figure 4-34. Adjustable Frequency AC Drive System

Metering Pumps
Metering pumps, also known as controlled-volume pumps or proportioning
pumps, are utilized in process control as a final control element. Combining the
functions of a pump, a measuring instrument, and a control valve, they control the
rate at which a volume of fluid is injected into a process. They have inherently
high steady-state accuracy and can be adjusted while in operation.
All three liquid-end designs rely on positive or swept-volume displacement to
meter a wide range of substances. In each case, a metered pulse of fluid results The key to constant, precise
from the combined motion of plunger or diaphragm and the one-way check valves delivery of liquid is the liq-
uid-end of a metering pump.
located at the inlet and discharge ends of the pump. In all three designs, the check There are three basic types
valves operate 180 degrees out of phase to permit the displacement chamber to be of liquid-ends: (1) packed
filled during the suction stroke and to prevent backflow during the discharge plunger, (2) disc diaphragm,
stroke. and (3) tubular diaphragm.

45
Final Control Elements

The powered drive unit may be either an AC or DC motor. Through an SCR

unit, the speed of the metering pump can be automatically varied in proportion to
changes in process line flow so as to maintain a fixed ratio of chemical additive to
the process line flow. A controller may also transmit a signal to automatically re-
set the stroke length of the pump by using a stroke adjustment actuator. Figure
4-35 shows an application of a metering pump.
In this example, both flow and pH values are measured, but only the pH value
is controlled. The motor speed depends upon the flow rate, and the stroke adjust-
ment is a function of the pH value. The example in Figure 4-35 is indicative of the
additional applications where a variable-speed motor drive may be used as final
control element.

Figure 4-35. pH Control and Additive Metering

Regulators, Relief Valves, and Other Control Elements

Regulators
A regulator is a self-contained device that performs all the control functions
One of the simplest of auto- necessary to maintain a constant, reduced downstream pressure, flow, level, or
matic process controllers is temperature. All the energy required to operate it is derived from the controlled
the regulator valve.
system.
In general, regulators are simpler than the alternative: a control valve with its
external power sources and transmitting and controlling instruments.
All regulators, whether they are used for pressure, level, or flow control, are
either direct-operated or pilot-operated. Direct-operated regulators are adequate
for narrow-range control and situations where the allowable change in outlet pres-
sure can be 10 to 20 percent of the outlet pressure setting. Pilot-operated regula-
tors are preferred for broad-range control or where the allowable change in outlet
pressure must be less than 10 percent of the outlet pressure setting. They are also
commonly used when a regulator application requires that a set point be adjusted
remotely. Figure 4-36 compares regulator and control valve characteristics.
LEVEL
Level regulators are used to maintain liquid level within a tank. A complete
level regulator consists of a float as a sensing element, an actuator, and a valve
body. A level regulator may be an integral unit assembled from a ball float sensor,
a level actuator, and a valve. Figure 4-37 shows different types of level regulators.

46
Regulators, Relief Valves, and Other Control Elements

Figure 4-36. Regulator versus Control Valve

(Courtesy of Fisher Controls International, Inc.)

Figure 4-37. Level Regulators

(Courtesy of Fisher Controls International, Inc.)

PRESSURE
A pressure-reducing regulator maintains a desired reduced outlet pressure
while providing the fluid flow necessary to satisfy a variable downstream de-
mand. The value at which the reduced pressure is maintained is the outlet pressure
setting of the regulator.
A direct-operated pressure-reducing regulator, as shown in Figure 4-38,
senses the downstream pressure through either an internal pressure tap or an exter-
nal control line. This downstream pressure opposes a spring that moves the dia-

47
Final Control Elements

phragm and the valve plug so as to change the size of the flow path through the
regulator. Adding a pilot to a regulator provides a two-path control system. The
main valve diaphragm responds quickly to downstream pressure changes, causing
an immediate correction in the main valve plug position. The pilot diaphragm re-
sponds simultaneously, diverting some of the reduced inlet pressure to the other
side of the main valve diaphragm so as to control the final positioning of the main
valve plug. See Figure 4-38.

Figure 4-38. Pressure Regulators

(Courtesy of Fisher Controls International, Inc.)

FLOW
A self-contained flow regulator or differential pressure-reducing regulator
maintains a pressure difference between two locations in the pressure system. The
value at which the pressure difference is maintained is the differential pressure
setting of the regulator.
As shown in Figure 4-39, a differential pressure-reducing regulator has two
pressure taps. Output pressure from a remote-mounted instrument or a pressure
loader is applied to the top of the main diaphragm through an external pressure
tap. The outlet or control pressure is applied to the bottom side of the diaphragm
through an external pressure tap.
In some differential pressure-reducing regulators, this control pressure is ap-
plied to the bottom side of the diaphragm through an internal pressure tap. The
differential pressure is applied to a spring-and-diaphragm mechanism that moves
the valve plug so as to change the size of the flow path through the regulator.
TEMPERATURE
The temperature regulator is a self-contained control device that consists of a
primary detection element or bulb, a measuring element or actuator, a reference
input adjustment, and a final control element or valve. As with pressure regula-
tors, there are direct-operated and pilot-operated devices.
With the direct-operated temperature regulator, the components of the actua-
tor (bellows, diaphragm) are connected directly to the valve plug, thus developing
the force and travel necessary to open and close the valve. Direct-operated tem-
perature regulators generally have a more simplified construction and operation
than the pilot-operated type and are less expensive.
In the pilot-operated type, the actuator moves a pilot valve (internal or exter-
nal). The pilot controls the amount of pressure from the fluid through the valve to
a piston or diaphragm, which in turn develops power and thrust to position the

48
Regulators, Relief Valves, and Other Control Elements

Figure 4-39. Differential Pressure Regulator

(Courtesy of Fisher Controls International, Inc.)

main valve plug. Pilot-operated temperature regulators have smaller bulbs, faster
response, and higher proportional gain. They can also handle higher pressures
through the valve.
Temperature regulators may be either self-contained or remote-sensing. Self-
contained regulators contain the entire thermal actuator within the valve body, the
actuator being part of the primary detecting element. They can sense only the tem-
perature of the fluid flowing through the valve. The regulator regulates the fluid
temperature by regulating the fluid's flow.
In remote-sensing regulators, the bulb is connected to the thermal actuator by
flexible capillary tubing. This construction allows them to sense and regulate the
temperature of a fluid aside from that of the fluid flowing through the valve. This
type of regulator, although frequently lower in cost, is limited in application to
such uses as regulating the temperature of water or some other type of coolant.
Valve action (direct or reverse) is selected as a function of the process. Direct
action is used for heating control. The direct-acting valve reduces the flow of the
heating medium on temperature rise. The reverse-acting regulator is generally
used for cooling control to increase the flow of coolant on rising temperature.
The mixing of two media at different supply temperatures to control the
mixed temperature is accomplished with three-way valves.
Bronze and cast iron are standard construction materials for the body of regu-
lators. Composition discs are used for tight shutoff on low pressure or temperature
applications.

Dampers
Dampers may be used to control the flow of gases and vapors as well as sol-
ids, or to throttle the capacity of fans and compressors. Dampers are suitable for
controlling large flows at low pressure where high control accuracy is not a re-
quirement. They are usually larger in size compared to control valves and, there-
fore, are restricted to lower operating and shutoff pressures. Typical applications
include control of air conditioning systems and furnace draft.

TYPES OF DAMPERS
Two quality levels of dampers are available: (1) commercial, which are used
primarily for HVAC (heating, ventilating, and air conditioning) applications, and
(2) industrial, which are used in process control to handle higher pressures, tem-
peratures, and corrosive vapors.
Dampers are classified as to type of construction, namely, louvered, guillo-
tine, butterfly, and iris.

49
Final Control Elements

• Louvered, or multiblade, dampers consist of two or more rectangular

vanes that are mounted on shafts one above the other and interconnected
so as to rotate together. The vanes are operated by an external lever that
can be positioned manually, pneumatically, or electrically. These dampers
may be parallel-blade or opposed-blade. See Figure 4-40.

Figure 4-40. Louvered Dampers

(From Lipták, B., Instrument Engineer’s Handbook, Chilton Book Co., 1985)

• Guillotine or slide-gate dampers are similar in principle to knife-gate

valves.
• Butterfly dampers are similar in principle to butterfly valves.
• Radial-vane dampers are used on blowers and fans. The damper consists
of a number of radial vanes arranged so as to rotate about their radial axis.
This type of damper has a high leakage rate. See Figure 4-41.
• Iris dampers are also known as variable-orifice valves. The closure ele-
ment moves within an annular ring in the valve body and produces a cir-
cular flow orifice of variable diameter. Tight shutoff is not possible, and
the maximum allowable differential pressure is 15 psi. Dual valve units
are available that have a common discharge port for blending two
streams. When iris dampers are used for throttling on solids service, they
must be installed in a vertical line. See Figure 4-42.

DAMPER ACTUATORS
Damper actuators may be manual, electric, hydraulic, or pneumatic. Standard
spring ranges include spans of 3–7, 5–10, or 8–13 psig. Actuators may be pro-
vided with positioners, which assure more accurate throttling.

50
Regulators, Relief Valves, and Other Control Elements

Figure 4-41. Radial-Vane Damper

(From Lipták, B., Instrument Engineer’s Handbook, Chilton Book Co., 1985)

Figure 4-42. Iris Damper

(From Lipták, B., Instrument Engineer’s Handbook, Chilton Book Co., 1985)

Limit switches can be installed so as to detect blade angles when remote indi-
cation of damper status is desired.

DAMPER CHARACTERISTICS
Just as with valves, dampers have inherent and installed characteristics.
Though this fact is commonly discussed with respect to valves, for some reason it
is nearly ignored with respect to dampers. As a result, dampers tend to be over-
sized, which makes control more difficult.
Refer to Figure 4-43 for the installed characteristics of parallel-blade and op-
posed-blade dampers.

51
Final Control Elements

According to one control manufacturer, research in damper characteristics has

established that, to achieve linear performance between measured variable and
air flow, the proper static split between a wide open damper and the rest of the sys-
tem is 5 to 10 percent for opposed-blade dampers and 20 to 30 percent for parallel-blade
dampers. These important numbers are supported by the intuitive picture presented by
Figure 4-44.

Figure 4-44. Oversized Damper Phenomenon

(Courtesy of Honeywell, Inc.)

Safety Relief Valves

One of the important responsibilities of an instrumentation designer is to en-
sure the safe operation of a process plant. This includes protecting equipment
against failure as a result of overpressure. Overpressure may develop because of
one or more of the following factors:
• Operating failures and errors
• Thermal expansion
• Chemical reactions
• Explosions
• External fires
• Material fatigue
• Power failure
• Automatic control failure
• Cooling failure
Provisions must also be made to dispose safely of the material released by the
operation of the relieving devices.
Codes and recommended practices pertaining to pressure-relieving devices
have been prepared by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
and by the American Petroleum Institute (API) (refer to Section VIII of the ASME
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code and API RP250 and 521).
Pressure-relieving devices are installed for the following reasons:

52
Regulators, Relief Valves, and Other Control Elements

• To provide safety for operating personnel.

• To protect the environment.
• To prevent the destruction of capital investment.
• To prevent material loss.
• To prevent downtime that might result from overpressure.
SAFETY VALVES — DESIGN
A safety valve is an automatic pressure-relieving device that is actuated by the
static pressure upstream of the valve and is characterized by rapid full opening (a
pop action). Safety valves are used for gas or vapor service and also for steam and
air. This action is accomplished by a force-balance system that acts on the closure
of the relieving area (see Figure 4-45). The orifice area of the pressure relief valve
is selected to pass the required flow at specific conditions. This area is closed by a
disc until the set pressure is reached. The contained system pressure acts on one
side of the disc and is opposed by a spring force on the opposite side.

Figure 4-45. Pressure Balance in a Relief Valve

SAFETY VALVES — SIZING

Formulae are available to size safety valves for liquid, gas, and steam ser-
vices. Consider as an example the sizing of a safety valve for steam service. This
formula is extracted from API RP 520, Appendix D:
W = 50AP 1 K SH (4-22)

or
W
A = -----------------
P 1 K SH

where:
W = flow rate (lbs/hr)
A = effective discharge area (sq. inches)
P1 = upstream pressure (psia). This is the set pressure multiplied by
1.03 or 1.10 plus the atmospheric pressure

53
Final Control Elements

KSH = correction factor due to the amount of superheat. For saturated

steam at any pressure, the factor = 1.0.
50 = constant used in API equations; however, Section VIII of the
ASME Power Boiler Code uses a value of 51.5.

Note that terms used synonymously with safety valve are safety relief valve
and pressure relief valves.
RUPTURE DISCS
A rupture disc consists of a thin metal diaphragm held between flanges. Its
purpose is to fail at a predetermined pressure, and it serves essentially the same
purpose as a pressure relief valve. Rupture discs are fabricated from carefully
selected pieces of metal. They have defined limitations that are basic to their
ultimate tensile or compressive strength and to resistance to creep, fatigue, or
corrosion.
Rupture discs are categorized into solid metal, composite, reverse-buckling,
and shear types.
The construction materials for rupture discs are usually stainless steel, copper,
nickel, aluminum, Monel™, Inconel™, and sometimes titanium and tantalum.
They must be made out of metal foils and sheets that are in a soft annealed condi-
tion.

Summary
Selecting control valves properly is critical to satisfactory process control, and
it should be undertaken with great care. Table 4-6 provides a summary of the glo-
bal characteristics that designers can use as a guide when matching a valve type to
an application.

Table 4-6. Quick Reference Valve Selection

Reciprocating Rotary

Camflex
Single Double Cage Three Split Butterfly
Key Features Angle Y General Ball HPBV
Seat Seat Trim Way Body Valve
Purpose
Capacity 1 1.1 1.2 1 to 2 1.5 0.7 1 1.3 3 3.2 2
Shutoff % 0.01 0.5 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 1.0 Drop
Rated Cv Class Class II Class Class Class I Tight
IV IV IV
or III
Cv Ratio 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 100 100 25 100
Rangeability
Cavitation S G G S P S P S S S S
Noise S G G S P S S S P P P
High Pressure S G E S S P S S P P S
High ∆P
High Temperature S S E S S S S G P P S
Low Temperature
Erosion/Slurry S S P G S S G G S P P
Corrosion S S P S S S G G S S S
Maintenance G S S S S S E G G G G
Cost 1.0 1.06 1.12 1.2 1.5 1.8 0.97 0.83 0.73 0.4 0.5
Note: Single seat is the base.
E = excellent, G = good, S = satisfactory, P = poor

54
Bibliography

Bibliography
(1) Albert, Charles A., Industrial Process Control and Automation,
Chapter 3 — “Final Control Elements.” Quebec, Canada: St. Lambert,
1982.
(2) ASHRAE 1991 Applications Handbook, Atlanta, GA: American Society
of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, 1991.
(3) Dezurik, “Gate Valves,” CVS-13 9-75 Bulletin 33.00-1. Sartell, MN:
Dezurik Co. (unit of General Signal).
(4) Fisher Controls, Control Valve Handbook, Emerson Process
Management, 3d ed. Marshalltown, IA: Fisher Controls International,
Inc., 1977.
(5) Fisher Controls, General Catalog 501, Section 7, 5th ed., Marshalltown,
IA: Fisher Controls International, Inc., 1989.
(6) Fisher Controls, Noise Control Manual, Catalog 10: 3-1-3-51,
Marshalltown, IA: Fisher Controls International, Inc., 1984.
(7) Fisher, Fisher-Rosemount Control Valve Catalog (Fisher and Baumann
Control Valves). Marshalltown, IA: Fisher Controls International, Inc.,
2000.
(8) Honeywell Damper Sizing Manual, Form No. 77-0078, Rev. 11-79,
Minneapolis, MN: Honeywell, 1977.
(9) Hutchison, J. W., and A. R. Merwick, eds. ISA Handbook of Control
Valves. Research Triangle Park, NC: ISA - The Instrumentation,
Systems, and Automation Society, 1976.
(10) ISA-51.1-1979, Process Instrumentation Terminology. Research
Triangle Park, NC: ISA - The Instrumentation, Systems, and
Automation Society, 1979.
(11) Lipták, Béla G., Instrument Engineers' Handbook, rev. ed. Radner, PA:
Chilton Book Company, 1985.
(12) Masoneilan/Dresser, Masoneilan Handbook for Control Valve Sizing,
Bulletin OZ 1000E, 7th ed. Houston, TX: Dresser Industries, Inc., 1987.
(13) Masoneilan/Dresser, Masoneilan Noise Control Manual, Bulletin OZ
3000E, 3d ed. Houston, TX: Dresser Industries, Inc., 1984.
(14) Tabachinik, R. L., and L. Kwasik. (SNC Cellulose Inc.) Control Valve
Sizing and Selection Manual. Montreal, Quebec, Canada: Cellulose,
Inc., 1981.

55
Final Control Elements

About the Author

Helen Beecroft has twenty-five years of experience in the development
and design of instrumentation and process controls for application in the ce-
ment industry and a range of other industries. As Electrical and Automation
Director for the Lafarge Corporate Technical Services, Ms. Beecroft is re-
sponsible for developing, managing, and directing major aspects of La-
farge’s North American electrical and automation initiatives. These include
implementing and upgrading factorywide integrated control systems and
manufacturing applications, from specification and procurement through the
design of standards, databases, and graphics to startup, system analysis, and
operator training. A graduate of Concordia University in Montreal, she
earned her Bachelor of Science degree in Physics. She is also an active ISA
member and has been president of the ISA Montreal Section for the past 2
years.
Ken MacDonald has over thirty years of experience in process automa-
tion and the application of control valves in process industries, especially
pulp and paper, chemical, power, and hydrocarbon processes. Mr. Mac-
Donald is a senior account manager and partner with Laurentide Controls
Ltd., the exclusive technical and marketing representative in eastern Canada
(since 1969) of Fisher Control Valve (part of Emerson Process Manage-
ment). He specializes in selecting, applying, and commissioning control
valves for severe service applications as well as in critical loops that require
low process variability for optimum end-product quality. Mr. MacDonald is
a graduate of St. Lawrence College in Cornwall, Ontario, with a degree in
Process Automation Technology.

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Fundamentals of Final Control Elements

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Fundamentals of Final Control Elements

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Fundamentals of

Final Control Elements

Control Valves and Actuators—An Introduction

Control Valve Functions

ically actuated. Functional valve properties include deadband (backlash, stiction),

Figure 4-1. Valve Flow Characteristics

Selecting Control Valves

Specification Forms for Process Measurement and Control

1 Tag No. 710-TV-10305

Figure 4-2. Completed Valve Specification Form for Typical Application

• If the valve is oversized, the equal percentage characteristic will allow

Valve Body Designs

Figure 4-3. Typical Single-Port Globe Valve

Figure 4-4. Typical Double-Ported Valve

Figure 4-5. Typical Double-Ported Cage-Guided Valve

Figure 4-6. Three-Way Mixing and Diverting Valve Operations

Figure 4-7. Split-Body Control Valve

Figure 4-8. Angle Valve with Split-Body Construction

Figure 4-9. Ball Valve with V-Notch

Figure 4-10. Eccentric Disc Valve

Figure 4-11. Typical Wafer-Type Butterfly Valve

HIGH PERFORMANCE BUTTERFLY VALVES (HPBV)

Figure 4-12. Saunders Patent Valve

Figure 4-13. Typical Knife Gate Valve

Friction Losses — Calculating P1 and P2

Figure 4-14. Calculating P1 and P2

The following example shows how P1 and P2 are determined.

∆Pstatic = (58.6 × 10)/144 = 4.07 psi

Item Qty. Equivalent Pipe Total

(161.1 × 1.04)/100 = 1.67 psi

∆Pstatic = (58.6 × 70)/144 = 28.49 psi

∆Pheater = 7.0 psi

90° elbow 2 8.9 17.8

Therefore, total friction loss due to piping and fittings is

It’s usually necessary to calculate friction losses for several flow

Control Valve Sizing

Figure 4-15. Critical Flow for Fluids

Flashing exists when P2 (valve outlet pressure) is less than or equal to Pv

EFFECT OF PIPE REDUCERS

FL = valve critical flow factor = P 1 – P 2 ⁄ P 1 – P vc

Table 4-1. Pulp Stock Correction Factor FC for Different % Consistencies

To determine the effective corrected Cv of an existing valve, multiply the standard

where ∆Pallowable is as defined in Equation 4-4.

It is appropriate to use the additional cavitation index factor KC (coefficient of

From Equation (4-3), calculate the Cv to determine the valve size:

Preliminarily, a 6-inch ball valve is chosen with a manufacturer’s

Because ∆Pactual = 100 psi > ∆Pallowable, there is cavitation.

Figure 4-16. Critical Flow for Gases

Valve Noise Calculations and Reductions

An example will illustrate typical valve sizing and selection for

At 780 kPa(g), the temperature of steam is 346°F (174°C), and the

Transmission loss. Consider increasing the thickness of the piping or adding

Dispersion/Dissipation. Noise can be dispersed or dissipated by installing a si-

Types of Noise and Recommended Solutions

SL = 10 log C v + 20 log ∆P – 30 log ( t ) + 5 (4-18)

Table 4-2. Numerical Constants for ISA Liquid Flow Equations

Table 4-4. Attenuation Factor SL (Not Equal to TL)

5S 10S 20 40 80 100 120 160 STD XS XXS

1.0 35.5 29.0 — 26.5 22.5 — — 18.0 26.5 22.5 13.5

1.5 39.0 32.5 — 28.5 24.5 — — 20.0 28.5 24.5 15.5

3.0 42.0 37.0 — 29.5 25.0 — — 20.5 29.5 25.0 16.0

30.0 38.5 45.0 38.5 — — — — — 42.5 38.5 —

Figure 4-17. SL Factor for Conventional Valves

Figure 4-18. SLP Factor for Valve Inlet Pressure

Figure 4-19. SLT Factor for Actual Flow

Figure 4-20. SLT Factor for Absolute Temperature

Figure 4-21. SLS Factor for Steam Superheat

Acoustical insulation may also be considered for reducing aerodynamic noise.

The following example will help illustrate aerodynamic noise predic-

Using Equation (4-20), calculate the total sound pressure level

Using a low noise trim recommended by the supplier increases SLe

Figure 4-22. Characterized Cages for Globe-Style Valve Bodies

The diaphragm is usually made of rubber or neoprene with a fabric insert.

Figure 4-23. Spring and Diaphragm Actuator

Figure 4-24. Direct- and Reverse-Acting Actuators

The springless or piston actuator is for use in high-pressure and high-pres-