Fundamentals of Final Control Elements
Fundamentals of Final Control Elements
Helen Beecroft
Ken MacDonald
Extracted from
Fundamentals of Industrial Control, 2nd Edition
Copyright 2005
ISA – The Instrumentation, Systems, and Automation Society
This file is copyright protected and no authorization is granted for resale or distribution.
Original purchaser is authorized to print one copy for personal use.
4
Final Control
Elements
The final control element is that portion of the loop that directly changes the
value of the manipulated process variable. A control loop that includes the very
best in field transmitters and a state-of-the-art DCS system cannot compensate for
a control valve that is misapplied or a low-tier design that results in a high process
variability. Any final control element, such as a valve, positioner, damper, or me-
tering pump, is merely another block in a process control loop. The main function
of any block in a loop is to transfer energy with respect to time. The energy trans-
fer block that represents a control valve has a pronounced characteristic of gain
and phase lag and is as important as any other energy transfer block, with the ex-
ception, perhaps, of the controller. Final control elements include valves, damp-
ers, louvers, governors, pumps, feeders, and variable resistors.
There are endless applications for control valves, and the number of actuator-
valve combinations is enormous. For this reason, we make no attempt here to
cover all the possible applications and combinations of control valves. However,
there are many sources of information on control valves, including ISA and the
valve manufacturers.
1
Final Control Elements
2
Control Valves and Actuators—An Introduction
of 100:1, butterfly valves between 10:1 and 20:1, and Saunders (patented) and
pinch valves as low as 5:1. The operating or installed rangeability may be defined
as the relationship between rangeability and pressure drop. It is mathematically
expressed by:
q 1 ∆P 2
R = ----- -------------- (4-1)
q 2 ∆P
1
where:
R = rangeability, dimensionless
q1 = maximum flow, gpm
q2 = minimum flow, gpm
∆P1 = pressure drop, psi, at maximum flow
∆P2 = pressure drop, psi, at minimum flow
3
Final Control Elements
4
Control Valves and Actuators—An Introduction
5
Final Control Elements
DOUBLE-PORT VALVES
Double-port valves are valves in which balanced forces act on the plugs (one
force upward and one downward). Generally, they have higher flow capacities
and require less stem force to operate than do single-port valves of the same size.
Most of the problems encountered with the double-port valves result from misap-
plication or their use in a dirty flow medium. They are frequently specified for
sizes larger than two inches. Many double-ported bodies are reversible, so the
valve plug can be installed as either “push down to open” or “push down to
close.”
Figure 4-4 illustrates a double-ported valve.
CAGE-GUIDED VALVES
Double-port cage-guided valves are valves that have balanced forces acting
on the plugs (one force upward and one downward). Generally, they have higher
flow capacities and require less stem force to operate than do single-port valves of
the same size. Like double-port valves, most of the problems encountered with the
cage-guided valves result from misapplication or application in a dirty flow me-
dium. They are frequently specified for sizes larger than two inches. Also like
double-ported bodies, many cage-guided valves are reversible, so the valve plug
can be installed as either “push down to open” or “push down to close.” Figure
4-5 illustrates a cage-guided valve.
THREE-WAY VALVES
A three-way valve has three openings and is designed to blend (mix) or to di-
vert (split) flow. It can replace two straight-through valves in many applications.
In blending service, there are two inlet ports and one outlet, whereas in diverting
service there are two outlets and one inlet. Total flow is proportioned between the
two inlets or the two outlets, so flow is constant through the single common port
in either service. Most three-way valves require powerful actuators because of un-
balanced forces that act on the plug. A schematic diagram of their operation is
shown in Figure 4-6.
6
Control Valves and Actuators—An Introduction
SPLIT-BODY VALVES
The split-body design generally used in the chemical industry is essentially a
streamlined version of the single-port valve, except that the body is split in two
halves and bolted together. Its construction minimizes erosion effects, allows
parts to be replaced easily, and is relatively inexpensive. Figure 4-7 depicts a split-
body valve.
ANGLE VALVES
Angle valves are often used in pressure and level control systems. Angle
valves are usually single-ported and are often selected where space is at a pre-
mium. They are also suitable for applications that require high pressure drops or
where the effects of turbulence, cavitation, flashing, or impingement present prob-
lems. Several designs of angle valves are available, all with good control charac-
teristics, high rangeabilities, and high pressure and temperature ratings. They can
be removed from the line with ease and can handle sludges and erosive materials.
Figure 4-8 shows an angle valve.
NEEDLE VALVES
A valve design that belongs to the same category as globe valves is the needle
valve. Its application is high pressure processes that require small flows and high
rangeabilities. The design of this valve is useful for pilot plant facilities, for con-
7
Final Control Elements
trol of liquid catalyst or additive flows to various processes, for pressure letdown
services to analytical instruments, and in cryogenic gas plants as a Joule-Thomson
valve (to create a Joule-Kelvin effect).
BALL VALVES
A true ball valve is seldom used as a control valve because of the poor throt-
tling capability entailed by its high-friction designs. Thus, other variations of ball-
type designs are selected instead, for example, the partial ball (V-notched) body
design.
The partial ball (V-notched) construction is similar to a conventional ball
valve, except that it has a patented, contoured V-notch in the ball. The V-notch
produces an equal-percentage flow characteristic. These control valves have good
rangeability, control, and shutoff capability. They are widely used in the paper in-
dustry (thermo-mechanical pulp process), chemical plants, sewage treatment
plants, the power industry, and petroleum refineries. See Figure 4-9 for details.
ECCENTRIC DISC VALVES
This valve belongs to the category of ball valves. It is also called an eccentric
rotary stem valve by some manufacturers. A spherically faced plug segment,
8
Control Valves and Actuators—An Introduction
eccentrically mounted, rotates 50 degrees to the in-line seat ring. The eccentric
disc valve may directly replace conventional globe valve designs. It can also be
considered a cheaper alternative to the globe valve where process applications
warrant it. This type of control valve can handle fluid with temperatures to 540°C
(1000°F). A splined-shaft, actuator-lever connection prevents lost motion and im-
proper positioning of the plug. Because of its high pressure recovery factor, the ec-
centric disc valve can be used as a possible solution for cavitation. It should be
noted that the plug construction of this type of valve requires that the process flu-
ids be relatively clean. It would, therefore, be unsuitable for applications such as
stock services in the paper industry. Figure 4-10 shows a section of this valve de-
sign.
BUTTERFLY VALVES
The butterfly valve may be of the wafer type, in which the disc rotates to the
open position in the adjacent pipe, or it may be of the bulkier, double-flanged cyl-
inder type. A butterfly valve consists of a shaft-supported vane or disc that is ca-
pable of rotating within a cylindrical body. Butterfly valves have large capacity,
which is why they are sometimes substituted for globe valves in large-diameter
pipes. They may be selected for slurry and entrained-liquid applications. Gener-
ally, butterfly valves have little tendency to cause significant pressure drop in a
line. This has a negative aspect in that it can lead to poor control.
As good as they seem, butterfly valves are not the answer to all final control ele-
ment problems. Their rangeability is poor, for example. A pneumatic actuator usu-
ally does not have the power to hold the vane exactly in the desired position. As the
valve is opened, forces that are caused by the flow will decrease, whereas the force re-
9
Final Control Elements
quired by the actuator to rotate the shaft will increase since the force is not always at right
angles to the shaft arm.
The basic design of the butterfly valve has been improved upon by a valve
manufacturer who added a “fish tail” to the trailing edge of the disc. This retards
the flow at low opening angles and controls the flow at high angles where the nor-
mal disc edge has been shadowed by the hub. Figure 4-11 shows a schematic of a
typical wafer-type butterfly valve.
10
Control Valves and Actuators—An Introduction
FLEXIBLE
DIAPHRAGM
WEIR
GATE VALVES
Knife gate valves are used for both on-off and throttling applications. They
consist of a cast body and a gate, which is a beveled, knifelike component that
slides up and down and pushes aside or cuts through solids in the flow stream.
This feature makes these valves suitable for many applications in the pulp and pa-
per industry. The seat may be either metal or resilient, but the metal seat is more
suitable if tight shutoff is required. A variation of the gate, a V-port design, is
somewhat advantageous for throttling control of thick slurries such as paper stock.
However, the valve’s reliability may be compromised because of the potential for
high friction and sloppy linkage. In applications involving high consistencies and
in which the valve size is beyond that of a V-ball design, this V-port design gate
valve may be an alternative to consider. The V-port orifice is maintained from
open to closed to prevent bridging or plugging and to assure maximum control
accuracy. Figure 4-13 shows a typical knife gate valve.
11
Final Control Elements
Pressure Differential
The design pressure drop across a valve is often referred to as a percentage of
the pressure drop through the process, exclusive of the valve. Many designers
adopt as a rule that 50 percent of this friction drop should be available as drop
across the valve. Thus, one-third of the total system drop, including all heat ex-
changers, mixing nozzles, piping, and other high-resistance blocks, is assumed to
take place in the control valve.
In most systems, the design should be changed if the pressure drop across the
It is sound practice to keep valves is less than one-third of the total system pressure drop. The amount of pres-
control valve pressure drop sure differential needed for good control is a function of the pressure differential
as low as possible consis-
tent with the fact that a valve across the valve with respect to the drop across the rest of the system. If variations
energy transfer block regu- in flow are small, this ratio may be reduced.
lates by absorbing and giv-
ing up pressure drop to the As the proportion of the system drop across the valve is reduced, it loses its ability
system. to rapidly increase or decrease flow. If the flow resistance is too small a fraction of
the total system resistance, large movements of the valve will cause very small
changes in the flow. The resulting control will be sloppy and slow-responding. If the con-
trol valve is too large a portion of the total resistance in a control system, small move-
ments in the valve will cause large, sudden changes in flow.
γh
∆Pstatic = --------- (4-2)
144
where:
∆Pstatic = static pressure differential, psi
γ = density, lb/ft3
h = difference in elevation, ft
144 = 144 in.2/ft2
12
Pressure Differential
(continued)
13
Final Control Elements
(continued)
Therefore, total friction loss due to piping and fittings is
Calculating P2:
The static loss after the valve is 70 feet; therefore, substituting
again in Equation (4-2),
Equivalent
Item Qty. Pipe Length Total
Cv Factor
Before selecting a control valve type, one must calculate the correct flow co-
efficient, or Cv factor. Other data such as pressure drop across the valve, fluid type
(liquid, gas, steam, or multiphasic), flow capacities, specific gravity, viscosity,
and potential flashing or cavitation conditions may be required in whole or in part
for the calculations. In short, one needs to have a total knowledge of the process in
order to determine the proper valve size and type. Selecting the correct valve size
is based primarily on the Cv factor, an indispensable piece of information found in
every valve manufacturer's catalog.
14
Control Valve Sizing
Valve capacity is the rate of flow through a valve under stated conditions. Its
measurement is the nondimensional flow coefficient Cv expressed by the follow-
ing two equations:
Without reducers:
Q Gf
C v = ------ ----------- (4-3a)
N 1 ∆P
With reducers:
Q Gf
C v = ------------- ----------- (4-3b)
N 1 F p ∆P
where:
Q = volumetric flow rate through the valve, gpm
∆P = pressure differential across the valve, psi
Gf = specific gravity of the fluid
N = numerical constants based on units used
Fp = piping geometry factor
In other words, Cv is the number of gpm of 60°F water that will flow through
a valve with one psi pressure drop. Rated Cv (also referred to as the manufacturer's
Cv) is the value of Cv at the rated full-open position of the valve.
Viscosity becomes of great importance in valve flow Cv calculations when han-
dling highly viscous liquids. For liquids below 100 ssu (Saybolt seconds univer-
sal), no corrections are required. The correction factor R of the viscosity effect can
be found in nomographs supplied by most valve manufacturers.
Critical Flow
Every valve or flow orifice exhibits some degree of pressure recovery down-
stream (at the vena contracta) of the principle restriction. Whenever the static
pressure at the vena contracta is lowered to the vapor pressure of a liquid medium
or the critical pressure of a gas causes sonic velocity, no further flow will be ob-
tained as the valve outlet pressure decreases. In other words, a further increase in
pressure drop (with the inlet pressure remaining constant) produces no further in-
crease in flow. This can otherwise be defined as choked flow, which is a condition
of critical flow.
Cavitation
For liquid service, the vapor pressure may be reached at the vena contracta.
This will cause localized flashing, that is, some liquid will remain in the vapor Cavitation will be at its worst
phase (flashing), and the bubbles formed in this region will collapse or implode at minimum flow with maxi-
mum supply pressure and
downstream as the pressure rapidly increases. This causes cavitation, which phys- minimum outlet pressures.
ically damages the valve trim, body, or downstream. The collapsing bubbles can
result in localized pressures of up to 100,000 psi. Figure 4-15 illustrates these phe-
nomena for incompressible and compressible fluids.
The critical flow factor, FL , is a dimensionless expression of the ratio of the
Cv , which is obtained under critical conditions such as liquid vaporization or gas
sonic velocity at the vena contracta, and the Cv measured under normal pressure
recovery conditions. For maximum accuracy, FL factors should be obtained from
the valve manufacturer.
15
Final Control Elements
Cavitation exists when the actual pressure drop is greater than the allowable
pressure drop. This condition can be verified by using the equation:
2
∆P allowable = F L ( P 1 – F F P v ) = ∆P actual (4-4)
where:
Two ways to eliminate or
compensate for cavitation ∆Pallowable = allowable differential pressure
are: (1) relocating the valve FL = valve recovery factor (from manufacturer's literature)
to a lower elevation to in- Pv = vapor pressure of liquid at body inlet temperature from manufac-
crease the actual pressure turer's table
differential, and (2) consider-
ing the use of a different type FF = liquid critical pressure ratio factor (determined from manufac-
of valve (one whose valve turer’s tables) or by using the formula where Pc = critical pressure
recovery coefficient FL is of a fluid
higher). A ball valve will have
a higher FL factor than a
butterfly valve, for example.
Choked flow is reached when the allowable pressure drop equals the actual
pressure drop, which, in turn, is equal to FL 2(P1 – FF Pv). A further increase in
pressure drop will not increase the flow through the valve.
Nomenclature for the FL factor varies from one manufacturer to another. For example:
FL 2 = Km = Fisher Control Valve Recovery Coefficient FL = Cf = Masoneilan Control
Valve Recovery Coefficient. The ISA standard FL factor is used by most other valve
manufacturers.
16
Control Valve Sizing
For noncritical liquid sizing when inlet and outlet reducers are used, the piping
correction factor Fp is applied in Equation 4-5:
2 2 2
d Cv
Fp = 1 – 1.5 1 – ------- ------------ (4-5)
2 2
D 30d
where:
d = valve diameter
D = line diameter
and when only outlet reducers are used, Fp is applied in Equation 4-6:
2 2 2
d Cv
Fp = 1 – 1 – ------- ------------ (4-6)
2 2
D 30d
For critical liquid, gas, or steam sizing, the piping correction factor Fp is re-
placed by FLp, which is the valve reducer correction factor. The piping correction
factor is expressed in Equation 4-7 as:
Cv 2 4 –1 ⁄ 2
1 ----------- d
- 1 – -------
F Lp = ------ + (4-7)
2 2 4
F L 30d D
where:
The FLp factor can best be defined in terms of the critical (allowable) pressure
drop, which is the pressure drop in a valve at which cavitation occurs. The rela-
tionship is described by Equation 4-8 as follows:
2
F Lp
∆P critical = --------- ( P 1 – P v ) (4-8)
Fp
where:
∆Pcritical = pressure drop in a valve at which cavitation exists
FLp = valve reducer correction factor
Fp = piping correction factor
P1 = valve inlet pressure
Pv = vapor pressure
17
Final Control Elements
EFFECT OF VISCOSITY
When flow velocity is very low or when viscosity is high (for liquid flow) the
For some valves, especially result may be laminar rather than turbulent flow (Reynolds number 100). Laminar
those in larger sizes, the flow should be assumed for very low flow rates or very viscous fluids. In these
effect of reducers can be
ignored if the valve is one cases, a correction must be made to the Cv calculation. The case of turbulent flow
standard pipe size smaller is described by Equation 4-9, which shows that flow is directly proportional to the
than the pipe. The effect of pressure drop:
pipe reducers depends upon
the valve design, so the man-
ufacturer’s literature should Qα ∆P (4-9)
be consulted. Note that many
valve manufacturers supply Equation 4-10 describes a quite different situation for laminar flow:
values for FLp, FL, and Fp
actors. Therefore, an alterna-
µQ 2 ⁄ 3
C v = 0.072 --------
tive method for calculation is
(4-10)
to consult their tables for the ∆P
corresponding values.
where:
Q = flow rate, gpm
∆P = pressure drop, psi
µ = viscosity, centipoise
LIQUID SIZING CORRECTION FOR CONSISTENCY
The consistency level of substances such as pulp stock may increase flow re-
sistance through pipes, fittings, and valves. A pulp stock correction factor, FC , is
used in liquid-sizing equations to compensate for these frictional losses. Although
the FC factor is used primarily in pulp and paper suspensions of wood fiber and
water, it may also be used to correct for flow calculations on other fibrous slurries
such as sewage sludge (see Table 4-1).
Mechanical Groundwood
Consistency, % Chemical Stock
Stock
1 1.0 1.0
2 0.97 0.99
3 0.90 0.95
4 0.84 0.92
5 0.80 0.90
where:
Cv = valve flow coefficient
QF = volume rate of flow, gpm
Gf = specific gravity (relative to water, std. temp.)
∆P = pressure drop, psi
FC = pulp stock correction factor
18
Control Valve Sizing
Liquid Sizing
The sizing equations shown here are applicable for most of the valves de-
scribed in this chapter. The basic liquid-sizing equation is as shown in Equation 4-
3 (page 281). The first step is to calculate the required Cv . The pressure drop used
in the equation must be the actual valve pressure drop or allowable differential
pressure drop, whichever is smaller. When solving for critical flow (cavitation or
flashing), Equation 4-3 is modified to become one of the following two equations:
Without reducers:
Q Gf
C v = ------ ------------------------------- (4-12a)
N 1 ∆P
allowable
Q Gf
= ------ -----------------------------------------
N1 2
FL ( P1 – FF Pv )
Q
= ------------ Gf
- ---------------------------------
-
N1 FL ( P – F P )
1 F v
With reducers:
Q Gf
C v = ---------------- ----------------------------- (4-12b)
N 1 F LP P – F P
1 F v
The second step is to consult the manufacturer's catalog and select a valve
with a Cv in the range of the calculated Cv.
Accurate valve sizing for liquids requires the use of the dual coefficients of Cv and
FL. A single coefficient is insufficient to describe both the capacity and the recov-
ery characteristics of the valve.
∆P = K C ( P 1 – F F P v ) (4-13)
Gas Sizing
A sizing procedure for gases can be established that is based on adaptations of
the basic liquid sizing equation. This can be done by introducing conversion fac-
tors that change flow units from liters/minute into cubic meters/hour and by relat-
ing specific gravity in meaningful terms of pressure. Equation 4-14 applies to gas
service:
Q Gg T1 Z
C v = ----------------- --------------------- (4-14a)
N7 P1 Y X
19
Final Control Elements
An example can illustrate typical valve sizing and selection for liq-
uid services.
Given Information:
Application: Condensate recirculation
Fluid: Water
Piping: 8-inch Schedule 40 carbon steel
Service Conditions:
Valve inlet pressure: P1 = 470 psig
Valve pressure drop: ∆P = 200 psi
Fluid specific gravity: Gf = 1
Inlet temperature: T = 83°F and Pv = 0.56 psia
2
Valve FL : 2
FL = 0.3
Flow rate: Q = 5000 gpm
Q Gf
C v = ------- -----------
N 1 ∆P
5000 1
= ------------ -------------
1 200
= 354
2
∆P allowable = F L ( P 1 – F F P v )
= 0.3 [ 485 – ( 0.94 ) ( 0.56 ) ]
= 145 psi
or
Q MT 1 Z
C v = ----------------- ------------------- (4-14b)
N9 P1 Y X
20
Control Valve Sizing
where:
Q = gas flow rate at 14.7 psia and 60°F
T1 = absolute inlet temperature
Z = gas compressibility factor
P1 = upstream pressure (psia)
N = numerical constant based on units
∆P
X = pressure drop ratio, -------
P1
M = gas molecular weight
Gg = gas specific gravity; ratio of gas density at standard conditions
X
Y = gas expansion factor, where Y = 1 – ----------------- and
3F K X T
K
FK = gas specific heat ratio factor (air = 1.0) = ------- and
1.4
XT = pressure drop ratio factor (refer to manufacturer’s table)
Figure 4-16 illustrates a typical curve of flow of gas versus the square root of
the pressure differential, assuming gas flow at a constant P1.
At critical flow, P1 – P2 > P2, sonic velocity is reached. Pressure impulses
cannot move upstream against the sonic barrier. Therefore, further changes in
downstream pressure cannot affect the upstream flow. When this occurs, mass
flow rate becomes completely independent of outlet pressure, and only a change
in inlet pressure will affect flow rates. When P2 is less than or equal to 0.5 P1, any
additional decrease in P2 will not increase flow.
Steam Sizing
The equation used when sizing valves for steam service is derived from the gas-
sizing Equation 4-14. The formulae for saturated and superheated steam vary
slightly. The two forms of Equation 4-15 are normally used for saturated steam:
Without reducers:
w
C v = ------------------------------ (4-15a)
N 6 Y XP 1 γ 1
21
Final Control Elements
where:
w = flow, weight basis
N = numerical constant based on units
γ1 = specific weight, upstream conditions
X = pressure drop ratio, DP/P1
P1 = upstream pressure, psia
X
Y = gas expansion factor = and 1 – -----------------
3F K X T
FK = gas specific heat ratio factor = K / 1.4 (air = 1) and
XT = pressure drop ratio factor (refer to manufacturer’s tables for FK
and XT)
With reducers:
w
C v = -------------------------------------- (4-15b)
N 6 F P Y XP 1 γ 1
For superheated steam (below 1000 psig), Equation 4-15 becomes 4-16:
Without reducers:
w ( 1 + 0.0007T SH )
C v = --------------------------------------------
- (4-16a)
N 6 Y XP 1 γ 1
where:
TSH = steam superheat temperature, °F or °C
With reducers:
w ( 1 + 0.0007T SH )
C v = --------------------------------------------
- (4-16b)
N 6 YF P XP 1 γ 1
22
Control Valve Sizing
23
Final Control Elements
The unit of measurement for noise level is the decibel (dB), which is defined
The decibel is generally used as the measure of noise intensity or its force. The decibel is calculated on a loga-
to express a sound power rithmic scale as the ratio between two numerical quantities. This means that a
level relative to a chosen ref-
erence. A sound level in measurement of 100 dB is ten times more intense than 90 dB and one hundred
decibels A-scale (dBA) is a times more intense than 80 dB.
sound pressure level that
has been adjusted according Noise levels greater than 85 dBA can damage one's hearing if one is exposed for a
to the frequency response of prolonged period.
the A-weighting filter net-
work. With reference to valve For a sound level range of 90 - 100 dBA, corrective measures in the process
noise, sound level figures piping give the best results for the 10 - 15 dBA noise reductions that are required
are generally referenced to to bring the noise level down to an acceptable level.
standard conditions such as
those laid out in ISA-75.07- Noise problems can be treated at the source or in the process piping (path). To
1997, Laboratory Measure- treat noise at the source requires that special valves or pressure differential de-
ment of Aerodynamic Noise vices be selected and installed directly at the valve outlet. These accessories re-
Generated by Control duce the total pressure differential, resulting in a total pressure that is reduced in
Valves. steps. This method is applicable for valves where the noise level exceeds 100
dBA. The treatment of noise in the process piping can be divided into the four cat-
egories of distance, transmission loss, dispersion/dissipation, and velocity.
Distance. Locate the valve as far away as possible from plant personnel. The
sound level may be checked by verifying the sound pressure level (SPL) and is
determined using Equation 4-17:
distance (ft)
SPL distance = SPL source – 10 log ---------------------------- (4-17)
3 ft
Velocity. Keep the velocity at a minimum value to reduce the noise level. Line
diffusers at the valve outlet can be used. The pipe should be sized so it does not
exceed a velocity of 300 ft/s.
24
Control Valve Sizing
sign reduces noise and vibrations. However, certain piping accessories are still re-
quired to reduce the noise level.
Equation 4-18, together with Tables 4-2 through 4-4 and Figures 4-17 through
4-21, can be used to predict hydrodynamic noise:
where:
SL = A-weighted sound level (1 m downstream and 1 m from pipe sur-
face)
Cv = actual required flow coefficient
∆P = pressure drop, psi (bar)
t = pipe wall thickness, mm (in.)
Table 4-3. Numerical Constants for Gas and Vapor Flow Equations
Constant Units Used in Equations
N w Q* P, ∆P γ1 T1
N6 2.73 kg/h kPa kg/m3
27.3 kg/h bar kg/m3
63.3 lb/h psia lb/h3
N7 4.17 m3/h kPa K
417 m3/h bar K
1360 scfh psia R
N8 0.948 kg/h kPa K
94.8 kg/h bar K
19.3 lb/h psia R
N9 224 m3/h kPa K
2240 m3/h bar K
7320 scfh psia R
* Q is in cubic feet per hour measured at 14.73 psia and 60°F, or cubic meters per hours measured
at 101.3 kPa and 15.6°C.
25
Final Control Elements
4.0 44.5 39.5 — 31.0 26.0 — 23.0 20.5 31.0 26.0 17.0
6.0 44.5 41.5 — 32.0 26.5 — 23.0 20.0 32.0 26.5 17.5
8.0 47.0 43.0 36.0 33.0 27.0 25.0 22.5 19.5 33.0 27.0 20.0
10.0 46.0 43.5 38.0 33.0 27.0 24.5 22.0 18.5 33.0 29.0 20.0
12.0 46.0 44.0 39.5 33.5 26.5 24.0 21.5 18.0 34.5 30.5 21.5
14.0 47.0 44.5 38.0 33.5 26.5 24.0 22.0 18.5 35.5 32.0 —
16.0 47.5 46.0 39.5 33.0 26.5 23.5 21.5 18.0 37.0 33.0 —
18.0 48.5 47.0 40.5 32.5 26.0 23.0 21.0 17.5 38.0 34.0 —
20.0 48.0 46.0 39.0 33.0 25.5 23.0 20.5 17.0 39.0 35.0 —
24.0 40.5 45.5 40.5 32.5 25.0 22.0 20.0 16.5 40.5 36.5 —
Note: For other schedules compare wall thickness to nearest schedule shown.
26
Control Valve Sizing
AERODYNAMIC NOISE
Aerodynamic noise is the direct result of the conversion of the mechanical en-
ergy of the flow into acoustic energy as the fluid passes through the valve restric-
tion. Equations 4-19 and 4-20 can be used to predict aerodynamic noise.
For all gases except for steam,
SL = SL e + SL P + SL T + SL v + SL g + SL a (4-19)
where:
SL = A-weighted sound level 1 m downstream and 1 m from the pipe
surface, dBA
SLe = acoustical efficiency factor, dBA
SLP = valve inlet pressure factor, dBA
SLT = fluid temperature factor, dBA
SLv = flow capacity factor, dBA
SLg = gas property factor, dBA
SLa = pipe attenuation factor, dBA
SLs = steam temperature factor, dBA
27
Final Control Elements
For steam,
SL = SL e + SL P + SL v + SL a + SL s (4-20)
28
Control Valve Sizing
Aerodynamic noise may be reduced by using trim components that are spe-
cially designed for noise abatement. They are similar to the multistage trims used
for hydrodynamic noise reduction.
Multistage trims should be considered only for clean processes. Saturated steam
with wood fibers, for example, would clog the pores of the trim, thereby eventually
reducing valve capacity and efficiency.
Service Conditions:
Valve Inlet Pressure: P1 = 2500 psia
Valve Outlet Pressure: P2 = 400 psia
Flow Rate: w = 955 to 62,000 lb/hr
Temperature: T = 668°F
FL = 1; valve has low noise trim
Cv = 14
29
Final Control Elements
Trim Design
Using the shape of plugs or cage windows and seats to obtain the desired flow
Trim is defined as the inter- characteristic is a function of trim design. For example, in a cage-guided globe
nal parts of a valve that are in valve, trim would typically include valve plug, seat ring, cage, stem, and stem pin
flowing contact with the con-
trolled fluid. (see Figure 4-22). A seat is that portion of the seat ring that a valve plug contacts
for closure. The seat ring is a separate piece inserted into a valve body so as to
form a port. The valve plug is a movable part that provides a variable restriction in
a port. Valve flow characteristics are determined primarily by the valve plug
shapes or patterns or by the cage shape of windows.
Stainless steel 316 is frequently used as the material for seats, plugs, guides,
bushings, and other trim parts. Carbon steel or bronze are usually selected for city
water, air, and steam services. Monel™, Hastelloy™, and other alloys are used for
corrosive applications.
Actuators
Control valves may be actuated pneumatically, electrically, hydraulically,
and/ or manually. Of these methods, the pneumatic actuator is the most widely
used. The actuator overcomes forces that are unbalanced as a result of friction, the
weight of moving parts, stem unbalance, and pressure drop across the valve.
Pneumatic Actuators
TYPES
Pneumatic actuators may be the spring-and-diaphragm type or the piston
(springless) type. The spring-and-diaphragm is the most frequently used (see
Figure 4-23).
Diaphragm actuators may be direct or reverse acting. A direct-acting actuator
is designed so that increasing air pressure (20-100 kPa, or 3–15 psig) on top of the
diaphragm moves the stem downward, thus closing a direct-acting valve. This ac-
tuator type is defined as air-to-close or fail-open; loss of air pressure allows the
spring to open the valve.
With a reverse-acting diaphragm actuator, air pressure below the diaphragm
moves the stem up, opposing the spring action. This action is called air-to-open or
fail-closed. Some designs allow the diaphragm to reverse so as to obtain the de-
sired action. Figure 4-24 shows several actuator actions.
30
Actuators
31
Final Control Elements
A reversing pneumatic relay may be substituted for the constant air pressure
regulator. A change in controller output to one side of the diaphragm is transmit-
ted to the relay, which alters the air pressure on the other side of the diaphragm so
the sum of the two pressures is constant.
Pneumatically operated piston actuators provide integral positioner capability
and high stem force output for demanding service conditions. Adaptations of both
spring-and-diaphragm and piston actuators are available for direct installation on
rotary-shaft control valves such as butterfly and V-notch ball valves.
FAIL-SAFE POSITION
An actuator's fail-safe position should always be based upon process safety con-
siderations should the control valve suffer air or electrical failure. The three fail-
safe positions are fail-open, fail-closed, and fail-as-is.
Fail-Open. This action can limit overpressure in a process system that may be
caused by an air or electrical failure. It can permit discharge of gas (steam) or liq-
uid to atmosphere in case of air or electrical failure.
Fail-Closed. This action can limit sudden pressure drops in case of air or elec-
trical failure. It permits the process to be shut down in the case of a leak or a break
in the process line and can prevent toxic gases or liquids from being released to
the atmosphere.
Fail-As-Is. This action allows the actuator to stay in the position it was in at
the moment of air or electrical failure. This action can be used where an air or
electrical failure won't cause undue disturbances in the process. The fail-as-is po-
sition for valves over eight inches in diameter that are installed with piston actua-
tors can also be considered where process conditions are deemed less critical. This
will reduce the need for expensive accessories such as volume tanks, which en-
sure that the valve fails in a certain position.
Certain piston actuators that do not use a spring for fail-safe positioning uti-
lize stored air capacity to meet the valve fail-safe requirements. A lockup valve
and check valve are placed between the air supply line, a storage bottle, and the
actuator or positioner. In case of air supply failure, the check valve will trap air in
the storage bottle, which can then be used to close or open the valve as desired by
selectively loading the actuator piston. This approach to fail-safe design is not as
positive as a spring, but it is sufficient in less critical installations.
ACTUATOR SIZING
Using too large of an actuator adds unnecessary expense and increased re-
sponse time to a control valve. Using an undersized actuator might make it impos-
sible to open the valve or close it completely. However, the process of selecting an
optimally sized actuator for a given control valve application is a broader subject
than can be completely covered here. In general, the actuator must provide suffi-
cient force to stroke the valve plug to the fully closed position with sufficient seat
loading to meet the required leak class criteria. With spring return actuators, the
spring selected must be sized to properly oppose the force provided by the air sup-
ply pressure. To put it simply, sizing an actuator involves solving a problem in
statics. The forces, and the direction in which each force acts, depend on the actu-
ator’s design and the direction of flow through the valve. The free body diagram
in Figure 4-25 illustrates the forces that are involved in achieving static equilib-
rium.
Figure 4-25 depicts a direct-acting (push-down-to-close) valve body with the
flow tending to open the valve plug. The actuator is a reverse-acting, spring-and-
diaphragm construction that is air-to-open (fail-closed). The actuator force avail-
able is the product of the air supply pressure and the area against which that pres-
sure is applied (diaphragm area). Packing friction varies with the stem size,
32
Actuators
packing material, and packing design. The unbalance force is the product of the
force of the flowing medium and the area against which that force is applied (total
port area):
Unbalance force = Shutoff differential pressure x Unbalance area (4-21)
Seat load is usually expressed in pounds per linear inch of port circumference.
The seat load is the product of the port circumference and the pounds-per-linear-
inch force recommended by the valve manufacturer. The actuator force available
must be greater than the sum of the forces that the actuator force must oppose to
achieve static equilibrium.
Electric Actuators
Electrically operated control valves are usually selected where no instrument
air supply is available, such as remote areas of a plant or storage and loading facil-
ities. The type of actuator must be compatible with the electric controller output,
as shown in Table 4-5. Several variations of electric actuators are available.
33
Final Control Elements
The current output section provides a direct current that is proportional to the
required output. This current is derived from a standard PID controller. When
controller power is lost, the valve must return to a safe operating condition.
In the dual-relay output section, the controller switches are interlocked to pre-
vent simultaneously energizing both motor fields. They may be mechanically or
electrically operated in an on-off controller for two-position control. A time-pulse
switch is in the common lead to the motor for floating control. The switches may
be in a controller that has proportional action or PID. On the loss of controller
power, the motor will remain in its last position.
In some situations, an infinite position actuator is operated in a two-position
manner. Typical electric controller output connections are presented in Figure
4-26.
34
Valve Positioners and Accessories
A positioner can be used to (1) provide a split-range valve operation, (2) re-
verse the signal to a valve, (3) overcome forces within a valve caused by friction
or high pressure across the valve, and (4) help bring about fast, accurate control.
The positioner overcomes errors caused by the imbalance of forces on the valve
plug as well as the hysteresis effects of the diaphragm and spring. Applications for
positioners include temperature control, liquid level control, gas flow control, and
mixing and blending. In certain fast systems, such as for liquid pressure control or
liquid flow control, a volume or ratio booster is more advantageous than a posi-
tioner.
From the standpoint of system dynamics, the positioner adds another func-
tional block to the control loop. The effect of this change can be to make the sys-
tem more sensitive. It may also increase the overall response time of the loop.
While this may be desirable in some processes, it could lead to instability.
SPLIT-RANGE OPERATION
Split-range signals (when one common controller signal commands two or
more control valves) are typically used in temperature control applications. For In many control systems, a
example, the temperature in a product storage room might be maintained by a properly sized spring-and-
diaphragm actuator will do
temperature controller that operates both heating and cooling valves. The valves an excellent job without the
would typically have nonoverlapping operating ranges of 3 to 9 psig and 9 to 15 need for either a positioner
psig, respectively. or a booster.
POSITIONER TYPES
The three basic types of positioners are pneumatic, electropneumatic and elec-
trical. In pneumatic positioners (usually 3–15 psig) the positioner translates the
signal into a required valve position and supplies the the valve actuator with the
air pressure needed to move the valve to the correct position. See Figure 4-27.
• In electropneumatic-analog current to pneumatic (I/P) positioners, electri-
cal current (usually 4–20 mA) is used as the input signal rather than air.
These positioners operate much like the pneumatic positioner shown in
Figure 4-28. However, the bellows is replaced by a magnetic motor unit.
• Electropneumatic-digital I/P positioners resemble analog I/P positioners,
except that the conversion of the electronic signal is digital rather than
analog. Digital positioners are categorized into three types:
(1) In the digital noncommunicating type, a current signal (4–20 mA) is
supplied to the positioner, which powers both the electronics and con-
trols the output.
(2) The HART type is the same as the digital noncommunicating type
except that it is also capable of two-way digital communication over
the same wires used for the analog signal.
(3) In the Fieldbus type, an all-digital control signal replaces the analog
control signal. Two-way digital communications can be achieved
over the same wires.
Input signal ranges may be 3–9, 3–15, 6–30, or 9–15 psig for pneumatic posi-
tioners and 1–5, 4–20, and 10–50 mA for electronic devices. Supply pressures
may be up to 100 psig. Most positioners installed today are pneumatic and elec-
tropneumatic, even though the control system may be electronic or direct digital
control. An electropneumatic transducer is used separately or is incorporated into
the positioner to convert the electronic signal into a pneumatic signal. The shift (in
newer installations) toward using analog I/P positioners can lower the installed
cost for the single instrument approach. In older installations, transducers may
35
Final Control Elements
also be mounted on the actuator. For reasons of space and economy, many trans-
ducers may be rack-mounted in field panels.
SMART POSITIONERS
Digital I/P positioners are also known as digital valve controllers or smart po-
sitioners. They differ from analog positioners in their ability to embed software
commands into the memory of the device. This permits the valve to be automati-
cally configured and set up and also provides two-way communication for diag-
nostics and standard control such as PID functionality.
The advantages of using smart positioners are the following:
• Automatic calibration and configuration in place of traditional zero and
spanning produces time and cost savings.
• Online valve diagnostics can be performed, making possible a more pre-
dictive than reactive approach to maintenance.
Figures 4-29a and 4-29b illustrate typical valve/smart positioner installation
and its functionality.
36
Valve Positioners and Accessories
37
Final Control Elements
Figure 4-29b. Digital Valve Controller with Fieldbus Capability. Control functions can be distrib-
uted for optimum performance and cost effectiveness.
(Courtesy of Emerson Process Management)
air to, or bleeding air from, the diaphragm until the valve stem position corre-
sponds to the input air signal, and the positioner is once again in equilibrium.
With a force-balance pneumatic positioner, the controller signal acts on a dia-
phragm, creating a signal force that is opposed by a feedback spring. A temporary
offset in the diaphragm position moves a spool valve, which in turn allows supply
air to flow to the diaphragm of the valve actuator. The resultant stem motion is
sensed by a lever that rotates a cam. This cam displacement is then converted by a
38
Valve Positioners and Accessories
suitable lever arrangement into compression of the feedback spring, which in turn
produces an equivalent force to match the signal level.
The use of a cam to characterize the feedback motion is gaining in popularity. One
advantage it offers is that certain rotary valves that have an unsuitable inherent
characteristic (butterfly valves and ball valves, for example) can be modified so
the characteristic matches the requirements of the system. Note that cam feedback is truly
effective only when the system process loop is slower than the positioner-valve combina-
tion.
Handwheels
One of the principle accessories on automatic control valves is the handwheel.
This is an arrangement that overrides the pneumatic actuator manually in the
event of air failure or during certain maintenance operations. Two types are avail-
able: top-mounted and side-mounted. The top-mounted handwheel is a simple
device that permits the actuator stem to be manually repositioned.
Side-mounted handwheels are usually found on large control valves whose
height would make it inconvenient for the operator to actuate the valve manually
from the topmost part of the valve. This design is more expensive, but one of its
advantages is the ease of maintenance of the actuator itself. It is usually possible
to service and replace the diaphragm while the valve itself is held in position by
the handwheel. The handwheel can also serve the function of a limit stop in either
direction of travel.
Limit Switches
The limit switch is attached to the actuator yoke by a suitable bracket, which
in turn senses the motion of the valve stem through a takeoff arm. Limit switches
can be either single- or multi-throw, and they are used to signal that the valve stem
has reached a predetermined position. Such information on valve opening can be
used to actuate safety or other interlocks.
39
Final Control Elements
Limit Stops
When it is impractical to use the handwheel as a limit stop, other limit stops
can be provided as part of the body assembly. A typical limit stop may be
mounted on the bottom of a globe valve that is guided top and bottom. This stop
consists of an adjustable spindle sealed by a cap. This stop can be adjusted while
the valve is in operation to meet the exact required minimum or maximum set-
tings.
Stem-Position Indicators
Stem-position indicators show the valve’s exact position to operating person-
nel at a remote location. Such valves may be located in unmanned pumping sta-
tions or in a hazardous area closed off to operating personnel (near an atomic
reactor, for example). Remote position indicators can be electrical, with a linear
variable resistor suitably connected to the valve stem. The electrical signal is then
shown on a calibrated panel meter. Another way to indicate stem position re-
motely is with a pneumatic signal. This is a desirable alternative in areas where
there is a risk of explosion. Most pneumatic positioners can be inverted to work as
position transmitters. When properly modified, they will transmit a pneumatic sig-
nal as a function of valve stroke, which is indicated on a calibrated receiver gage.
Airsets
The most common of all accessories is the airset. This is a compact self-con-
tained air pressure regulator with an integral filter and drip valve and a maximum
flow capacity of about 20 scfm of air. This air filter regulator is used to supply
pressurized air to either the positioner or a yoke-mounted controller. Its main
advantage is that it provides a way of setting the individual pressure supply to a
positioner. (Pressures from 20 to 80 psig may be needed to meet the power re-
quirement for a particular valve.) All control valves that use a positioner should
include an airset for two functions. First, it filters plant air so as to prevent the
plugging of small passages that will cause the valve to stop functioning. Second, it
provides a steady-state air supply to the positioner so it can perform optimally and
avoid the process variability that can occur when the plant air supply to the posi-
tioner fluctuates.
Piping the usual plant air supply of perhaps 80 psig directly to the valves could
overstress smaller valve stems or damage receiver bellows in positioners or con-
trollers. Also, instrument air must be clean and moisture-free.
Boosters
Booster relays are essentially air-loaded, self-contained pressure regulators.
They can be classified as (1) volume boosters, (2) ratio relays, and (3) reversing
relays.
Volume boosters multiply the available volume of the air signal. The air regu-
lator sends its output signal to the volume booster instead of directly to the valve.
Volume relays can be used to increase the frequency response of a control valve.
This is sometimes preferable to using positioners on fast control loops. Refer to
Figure 4-30.
Ratio relays multiply or divide the pressure of an input signal. Ratio relays
help in split-ranging applications. For example, a 1:2 ratio relay could change a
3–9 psig controller signal into a 3–15 psig output signal, and another 1:2 ratio re-
lay could change a 9–15 psig controller signal into a 3–15 psig output signal.
Thus, one controller signal of 3–15 psig could operate two valves of 3–15 psig
without overlapping operation of the valves.
40
Reversible Electric Motor Drives
Stepping Motors
Stepping motors are also used as electrical actuators for small-sized valves.
A stepping motor is an electromechanical device that rotates a discrete step angle
when it is energized electrically. The step angle usually is fixed for a particular
motor and thus provides a means for ensuring accurate positioning in a repeatable,
uniform way. Typical step angles vary from 0.72 degrees to 90 degrees. Several
means for energizing stepping motors electrically include DC pulses, square
waves, fixed-logic sequences, and multiple-phase square waves.
Some of the basic design types for stepping motors include solenoid-operated
ratchet, permanent magnet, and variable reluctance. Variations of these basic
types may be combined with gears or hydraulic amplifiers to provide increased-
output-torque stepping motors.
Although most stepping motors can be driven from switches or relays, most drive
circuits incorporate solid-state devices that permit high-powered, fast operation.
Simple drives convert low-level pulses into power pulses or correctly phased
power. More complex drives adjust the power levels to allow the drives to run at very high
rates.
At very low rates, the step movement resembles the classic damped oscilla-
tion curve. Mechanical or electrical damping can be added to modify the curve in
order to provide critical damping. Since stepping motors move in discrete steps,
they do not have the problems related to stability and feedback that are inherent in
most servo devices. Direct digital control in an open-loop mode is possible with
stepping motors. Closed-loop mode may be provided by coupling a pulse feed-
back to the motor.
Solenoid Valves
A solenoid valve consists of an electromagnetic coil and a valve. The electro-
magnetic coil actuates an armature or a valve stem in a magnetic field so as to
control fluid flow. Solenoid valves have an on-off switching option and are actu-
41
Final Control Elements
Types
The four basic types of solenoid valves are (1) two-way, (2) three-way, (3)
four-way, and (4) pilot-operated.
• Two-way solenoid valves have two ports and provide a simple on-off
switching action.
• Three-way solenoid valves have three pipe connections. A typical appli-
cation is for two of the ports to be used to load or unload cylinders or dia-
phragm actuators.
• Four-way solenoid valves are used principally for controlling double-
acting cylinders.
• Pilot-operated solenoid valves apply pressure to a diaphragm or piston, or
they may release pressure, allowing higher upstream pressure to open the
valve. A widely employed device is a small solenoid pilot valve that sup-
42
Electric Motor Drive Control
Constant-Speed Drives
Constant-speed applications have employed induction motors, wound-rotor
motors, and synchronous motors mainly because alternating current is the more
readily available source of electrical power. These AC motors can be started by
full-voltage starters or by reduced-inrush starters. The latter method reduces the
initial drain on the power system. The wound-rotor motor with a secondary con-
trol is also suitable for starting and accelerating a high-inertia load when low in-
rush currents are a requirement. Figure 4-32 shows diagrams of a full-voltage and
a reduced-inrush starter.
These starters may be interlocked with process control devices such as pro-
grammable controllers for sequencing control (a start/stop loop, for example),
limit switches, level, pressure, temperature, flow switches, and safety switches.
The interlock contacts are usually in series with the push-button contacts and are
activated by relays.
43
Final Control Elements
Variable-Speed Drives
Variable-speed drives can use both AC and DC motors. Three major catego-
ries for DC drive systems are: (1) constant-potential with motor-field control, (2)
rotating motor-generator set, and (3) static converter.
Most variable-speed DC motor drives are regulated by a silicon controlled
rectifier (SCR), except for the rotating motor-generator type. A DC motor can be
wired to large, constant-potential DC sources and regulated over a limited speed
range by motor-field control. Very wide speed ranges can be achieved with rotat-
ing motor-generator sets and static SCR conversion technologies that are capable
of providing adjustable armature voltage. Figure 4-33 shows a schematic diagram
of a variable-speed DC drive control using an SCR.
The firing control is the open and close switching activity of the SCR when the AC
voltage passes through zero. One limiting factor in DC motor applications is that
energy is supplied to the rotor of the motor through the commutator. Large
amounts of power must pass from the DC line to the rotor through stationary carbon
brushes that rub against the rotating commutator bars. This energy transfer reduces the
practical top speed and upper voltage rating of large-horsepower DC drives. Such a
method of energy transfer also precludes the application of DC motor drives in erosive
and corrosive environments and in areas where explosive gas is present. The ideal drive
system for such conditions would be a variable-speed AC drive.
44
Electric Motor Drive Control
Metering Pumps
Metering pumps, also known as controlled-volume pumps or proportioning
pumps, are utilized in process control as a final control element. Combining the
functions of a pump, a measuring instrument, and a control valve, they control the
rate at which a volume of fluid is injected into a process. They have inherently
high steady-state accuracy and can be adjusted while in operation.
All three liquid-end designs rely on positive or swept-volume displacement to
meter a wide range of substances. In each case, a metered pulse of fluid results The key to constant, precise
from the combined motion of plunger or diaphragm and the one-way check valves delivery of liquid is the liq-
uid-end of a metering pump.
located at the inlet and discharge ends of the pump. In all three designs, the check There are three basic types
valves operate 180 degrees out of phase to permit the displacement chamber to be of liquid-ends: (1) packed
filled during the suction stroke and to prevent backflow during the discharge plunger, (2) disc diaphragm,
stroke. and (3) tubular diaphragm.
45
Final Control Elements
46
Regulators, Relief Valves, and Other Control Elements
PRESSURE
A pressure-reducing regulator maintains a desired reduced outlet pressure
while providing the fluid flow necessary to satisfy a variable downstream de-
mand. The value at which the reduced pressure is maintained is the outlet pressure
setting of the regulator.
A direct-operated pressure-reducing regulator, as shown in Figure 4-38,
senses the downstream pressure through either an internal pressure tap or an exter-
nal control line. This downstream pressure opposes a spring that moves the dia-
47
Final Control Elements
phragm and the valve plug so as to change the size of the flow path through the
regulator. Adding a pilot to a regulator provides a two-path control system. The
main valve diaphragm responds quickly to downstream pressure changes, causing
an immediate correction in the main valve plug position. The pilot diaphragm re-
sponds simultaneously, diverting some of the reduced inlet pressure to the other
side of the main valve diaphragm so as to control the final positioning of the main
valve plug. See Figure 4-38.
FLOW
A self-contained flow regulator or differential pressure-reducing regulator
maintains a pressure difference between two locations in the pressure system. The
value at which the pressure difference is maintained is the differential pressure
setting of the regulator.
As shown in Figure 4-39, a differential pressure-reducing regulator has two
pressure taps. Output pressure from a remote-mounted instrument or a pressure
loader is applied to the top of the main diaphragm through an external pressure
tap. The outlet or control pressure is applied to the bottom side of the diaphragm
through an external pressure tap.
In some differential pressure-reducing regulators, this control pressure is ap-
plied to the bottom side of the diaphragm through an internal pressure tap. The
differential pressure is applied to a spring-and-diaphragm mechanism that moves
the valve plug so as to change the size of the flow path through the regulator.
TEMPERATURE
The temperature regulator is a self-contained control device that consists of a
primary detection element or bulb, a measuring element or actuator, a reference
input adjustment, and a final control element or valve. As with pressure regula-
tors, there are direct-operated and pilot-operated devices.
With the direct-operated temperature regulator, the components of the actua-
tor (bellows, diaphragm) are connected directly to the valve plug, thus developing
the force and travel necessary to open and close the valve. Direct-operated tem-
perature regulators generally have a more simplified construction and operation
than the pilot-operated type and are less expensive.
In the pilot-operated type, the actuator moves a pilot valve (internal or exter-
nal). The pilot controls the amount of pressure from the fluid through the valve to
a piston or diaphragm, which in turn develops power and thrust to position the
48
Regulators, Relief Valves, and Other Control Elements
main valve plug. Pilot-operated temperature regulators have smaller bulbs, faster
response, and higher proportional gain. They can also handle higher pressures
through the valve.
Temperature regulators may be either self-contained or remote-sensing. Self-
contained regulators contain the entire thermal actuator within the valve body, the
actuator being part of the primary detecting element. They can sense only the tem-
perature of the fluid flowing through the valve. The regulator regulates the fluid
temperature by regulating the fluid's flow.
In remote-sensing regulators, the bulb is connected to the thermal actuator by
flexible capillary tubing. This construction allows them to sense and regulate the
temperature of a fluid aside from that of the fluid flowing through the valve. This
type of regulator, although frequently lower in cost, is limited in application to
such uses as regulating the temperature of water or some other type of coolant.
Valve action (direct or reverse) is selected as a function of the process. Direct
action is used for heating control. The direct-acting valve reduces the flow of the
heating medium on temperature rise. The reverse-acting regulator is generally
used for cooling control to increase the flow of coolant on rising temperature.
The mixing of two media at different supply temperatures to control the
mixed temperature is accomplished with three-way valves.
Bronze and cast iron are standard construction materials for the body of regu-
lators. Composition discs are used for tight shutoff on low pressure or temperature
applications.
Dampers
Dampers may be used to control the flow of gases and vapors as well as sol-
ids, or to throttle the capacity of fans and compressors. Dampers are suitable for
controlling large flows at low pressure where high control accuracy is not a re-
quirement. They are usually larger in size compared to control valves and, there-
fore, are restricted to lower operating and shutoff pressures. Typical applications
include control of air conditioning systems and furnace draft.
TYPES OF DAMPERS
Two quality levels of dampers are available: (1) commercial, which are used
primarily for HVAC (heating, ventilating, and air conditioning) applications, and
(2) industrial, which are used in process control to handle higher pressures, tem-
peratures, and corrosive vapors.
Dampers are classified as to type of construction, namely, louvered, guillo-
tine, butterfly, and iris.
49
Final Control Elements
DAMPER ACTUATORS
Damper actuators may be manual, electric, hydraulic, or pneumatic. Standard
spring ranges include spans of 3–7, 5–10, or 8–13 psig. Actuators may be pro-
vided with positioners, which assure more accurate throttling.
50
Regulators, Relief Valves, and Other Control Elements
Limit switches can be installed so as to detect blade angles when remote indi-
cation of damper status is desired.
DAMPER CHARACTERISTICS
Just as with valves, dampers have inherent and installed characteristics.
Though this fact is commonly discussed with respect to valves, for some reason it
is nearly ignored with respect to dampers. As a result, dampers tend to be over-
sized, which makes control more difficult.
Refer to Figure 4-43 for the installed characteristics of parallel-blade and op-
posed-blade dampers.
51
Final Control Elements
52
Regulators, Relief Valves, and Other Control Elements
or
W
A = -----------------
P 1 K SH
where:
W = flow rate (lbs/hr)
A = effective discharge area (sq. inches)
P1 = upstream pressure (psia). This is the set pressure multiplied by
1.03 or 1.10 plus the atmospheric pressure
53
Final Control Elements
Note that terms used synonymously with safety valve are safety relief valve
and pressure relief valves.
RUPTURE DISCS
A rupture disc consists of a thin metal diaphragm held between flanges. Its
purpose is to fail at a predetermined pressure, and it serves essentially the same
purpose as a pressure relief valve. Rupture discs are fabricated from carefully
selected pieces of metal. They have defined limitations that are basic to their
ultimate tensile or compressive strength and to resistance to creep, fatigue, or
corrosion.
Rupture discs are categorized into solid metal, composite, reverse-buckling,
and shear types.
The construction materials for rupture discs are usually stainless steel, copper,
nickel, aluminum, Monel™, Inconel™, and sometimes titanium and tantalum.
They must be made out of metal foils and sheets that are in a soft annealed condi-
tion.
Summary
Selecting control valves properly is critical to satisfactory process control, and
it should be undertaken with great care. Table 4-6 provides a summary of the glo-
bal characteristics that designers can use as a guide when matching a valve type to
an application.
Camflex
Single Double Cage Three Split Butterfly
Key Features Angle Y General Ball HPBV
Seat Seat Trim Way Body Valve
Purpose
Capacity 1 1.1 1.2 1 to 2 1.5 0.7 1 1.3 3 3.2 2
Shutoff % 0.01 0.5 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 1.0 Drop
Rated Cv Class Class II Class Class Class I Tight
IV IV IV
or III
Cv Ratio 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 100 100 25 100
Rangeability
Cavitation S G G S P S P S S S S
Noise S G G S P S S S P P P
High Pressure S G E S S P S S P P S
High ∆P
High Temperature S S E S S S S G P P S
Low Temperature
Erosion/Slurry S S P G S S G G S P P
Corrosion S S P S S S G G S S S
Maintenance G S S S S S E G G G G
Cost 1.0 1.06 1.12 1.2 1.5 1.8 0.97 0.83 0.73 0.4 0.5
Note: Single seat is the base.
E = excellent, G = good, S = satisfactory, P = poor
54
Bibliography
Bibliography
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Inc., 1981.
55
Final Control Elements
56