Stokes' Law

Settling Velocity •  the drag on a spherical particle in a fluid is described by Stokes' Law for
the following conditions:
(Deposition) –  fluid is a Newtonian incompressible fluid duk/dxk=0
–  gravity is negligible g=0
–  flow is creeping flow, i.e. Re<<1 duk/dxk=0
–  steady-state flow duj/dt=0
•  Navier-Stokes Equation # ∂u ∂u & ∂p ∂ 2uj
–  Bird, Stewart and Lightfoot, 1960 ρ % j + uk j ( = +µ + ρgj
•  for j=1, 2, 3...
$ ∂t ∂xk ' ∂x j ∂xk ∂xk
–  here we will neglect gravity so that the last term is dropped, and we will make
dimensionless using characteristic velocity u0 and length l
•  where Re=ρul/µ=(inertial fluid forces)/(viscous fluid forces)
•  l=diameter # ∂u * ∂u * & ∂p * ∂ 2u*j
1
•  ρ=density ρ % j + uk* *j ( = * +
•  µ=ρυ=fluid viscosity $ ∂t ∂xk ' ∂x j Re ∂xk* ∂xk*
•  u=mean speed of the undisturbed flow upstream of the body

Navier-Stokes Equation Drag

•  drag force consists of 2 components 2π π
–  normal force - pressure on the solid acting
•  Stokes' solution with the perpendicularly to the surface at each point on ( )
Fn = ∫ ∫ −p r =R cosθ R2p sin θdθdφ
0 0
p

the surface of the sphere; integrating around the

assumptions: ∂p ´ 1 ∂ u = 2πµRpu∞
* 2 *
j
∂u
* =
∂x j* Re ∂xk*∂xk*
sphere the normal force at any point (-pcosθ),
* k
–  u ∂x = 0
k * the total normal force becomes
k 2π π
–  tangential force - shear stress caused by the
–  infinite medium velocity gradient in the vicinity of the surface Ft = ∫∫( )
τ rθ r= R p sin θ R2p sin θdθdφ

–  rigid sphere = 6πµRpu∞ 0 0

= 4π µRpu∞
•  Fdrag=Fn+Ft
–  no slip at the surface of the –  if gravity≠0 then
sphere 2
3 # µu & # R &
p = p0 − % ∞ ( % p cos θ
–  Ftotal=Fdrag+Fbuoyant π D3p ρg
2 $ Rp ' $ r ' –  if flow and gravity directions coincide then Fbuoyant =
•  so that in spherical ) 3 $ R ' 1 $ R ' 3,
6
uθ = u∞ +1 − & p − & p . sin θ
coordinates we get the * 4% r ( 4% r ( - •  for Re~1, inertial forces increase the drag force
predicted by Stokes’ law
following velocities ( 3 # R & 1 #R &3+
ur = u∞ *1− % p + % p - cosθ
) 2$ r ' 2 $ r ' ,

•  examples of Reynolds numbers of particles of

varied diameters in air at p=1 atm, T=20˚C.
Dp (µm) Re
20 0.02
•  for particles in any range of Reynolds number
we can describe the drag force in terms of an 60 0.4
empirical coefficient and particle projected area
(Ap): 100 2
–  any shape Fdrag=CDApρ(u2/2)
–  spherical particles Fdrag=πCDDp2ρu2/8
300 20
Eq. 9.31

•  with drag coefficient is given by

CD=24/Re Re<0.1
=(24/Re)[1+3Re/16+9Re2ln(2Re)/160] 0.1<Re<2
=(24/Re)[1+0.15Re0.687] 2<Re<500
=0.44 {Stokes' Law} 500<Re<2x105

1
 •  force balance on the particle
mp
dv
dt
= ∑ Fi Diffusivity
i
•  let the applicable forces be gravity
and drag dv 3πµDp
–  assume Re<0.1 such that CD=24/ mp = mp g + (u − v )
Re dt Cc
•  binary diffusivity
•  characteristic relaxation time, τ –  using the Chapman-
–  time scale required for the
dv Enskog theory and the
approach to steady motion
τ + v = u − τg hard-sphere approximation
dt –  DAB = (λAB cA)(3π/32)(1+z)
gas A (carrier fluid) molecule
•  terminal velocity of the particle in gas B (second vapor) molecule
this fluid, vt, where the particle has [cm2 sec-1]
reached steady state particle
for unit density spheres in air at 20oC
Dp (µm) τ (sec) vt (m sec-1)

0.1 9.2x10-8 9.0x10-7 cf. Eq. 9.12, 9.13

mpCc
v t = −τg τ=
3πµDp
1.0 3.6x10-6 3.5x10-5
10.0 3.1x10-4 3.0x10-3

Settling Velocity
•  terminal velocity of the
particle in this fluid, vt,
where the particle has
reached steady state

for unit density spheres in air at 20oC

Dp (µm) τ (sec) vt (m sec-1)

0.1 9.2x10-8 9.0x10-7

1.0 3.6x10-6 3.5x10-5
10.0 3.1x10-4 3.0x10-3

Junge et al., 1961

Summary of Corrections to
Characteristic Length Scales
Stokes' Drag Force
•  Knudsen number - ratio of the length scale of
Factor CD (non-creeping) [part. vel.] Cc or f (non-continuum) [size] molecular motion in the fluid phase to the length
Name Drag coefficient Cunningham correction factor or scale of the particle; this ratio describes how the
friction factor
Relative Factual > FStokes Factual < FStokes fluid "views" the particle, i.e. is the motion
Magnitude governed by the rules of molecules or of
Range Re=ρuDp/µ>0.1 Kn=2λ/Dp≥1
macroscopic objects
Applicable Dp large, u large, ρ large, or µ small Dp small or λ large
Values –  Kn = 2λ/Dp= (fluid "graininess")/(particle radius)
Definition CD=Fdrag/(Apρ(u2/2)) Cc=3πµuDp/Fdrag
•  Mean speed of gas molecules
Correction CD=(24/Re), Re<0.1 Cc=1+Kn[1.257+0.4exp(-1.1/Kn)],
CD=(24/Re)[1+3Re/16+9Re2ln(2Re)/160], or for air at STP c c
0.1<Re<2 Cc=1+(1.257)2λ/Dp, Dp>>λ
CD=(24/Re)[1+0.15Re0.1687]. 2<Re<500 Cc=1+(1.657)2λ/Dp, Dp<<λ
CD=0.44, 500<Re<2x105 c

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 Mean Free Path Regimes of Particle Motion
•  Mean free path of gases
–  mean free path - λair, the average distance traveled between collisions with other •  continuum regime
gas molecules; λAB is the average distance traveled by a molecule of A before it – Kn << 1
encounters a molecule of B (for Z collisions) Dp exceeds λair , so air appears to the ½Dp Dp

λ = c/Z; c = (8kT/πm)0.5 Eq. 9.3, 9.87 particle as a continuum, and the laws of
continuum mechanics apply λair
•  Mean free path in particle evolution processes
•  transition regime λair
coagulation, deposition: diffusion of particles in air, use λair
– Kn ≈ 1
condensation: diffusion of another gas (B) to a particle in air, use λAB λair and Dp are of the same order of Dp
magnitude, so transport is controlled by ½Dp
both continuum mechanics and kinetic
theory λair
•  free molecule regime λair
– Kn >> 1
λair exceeds Dp, so transport controlled by
the kinetic theory of gases Dp
½Dp
λ
λ

λair
λair

Slip Correction Cunningham Correction Factor

•  continuum regime Dp Cc
– Kn << 1 (Kn<0.1) ½Dp ½Dp •  continuum regime (µm)
No slip condition holds λair – Kn << 1 (Kn<0.1) 10.0 1.016
•  transition regime λair
No slip condition holds
– Kn ≈ 1 (0.1<Kn<10) •  transition regime
½Dp
½Dp
1.0 1.164
Slip correction is required
– Kn ≈ 1 (0.1<Kn<10)
•  free molecule regime λair
Slip correction is required 0.1 2.867
λair
– Kn >> 1 (10<Kn) •  free molecule regime
Drag force is smaller than 0.01 22.218
½Dp ½Dp – Kn >> 1 (10<Kn)
predicted by Stokes
Drag force is smaller than
λair predicted by Stokes
λair

How
spherical
are real
particles?

Junge and Gustaffson, 1957 Junge et al., 1961

3
 Particle Size and Deposition Aerosol Composition
•  Chemical composition gives an indication
•  Sizes of particle sources
–  Particle Size Distributions (defining “size”) •  C, N, S contributions to composition
–  How to Calculate Mean Particle Size illustrate role of aerosols in
biogeochemical cycles
•  Microphysics
–  Deposition Velocity (depends on size)
–  How to Calculate Particle Lifetime
–  Bonus: How to Calculate Particle Loss in a Tube

Classification of Pollutants Size Range for Particle Sources

Particle Types and Sizes Particle Type Size Range
•  Fine Particles automotive emissions 0.01 µm to 1 µm
–  less than 2.5 µm Bacteria

in diameter Black Carbon (Soot)

Tobacco Smoke bacteria 0.2 µm to 10+ µm

•  Coarse Particles Viruses
–  greater than 2.5 Gas Molecules tobacco smoke 0.01 µm to 1 µm
µm in diameter
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Particle size (microns)
viruses 0.002 µm to 0.05 µm

Particle Types
and their Removal

Flagan and Seinfeld, 1986