1 INTRODUCTION TO PHARMACOGNOSY Evolution

Primitive Man
What is Pharmacognosy? - By trial and error, they have acquired knowledge on
- a scientific discipline. which is primarily concerned with the determining on which plants possessed food, unpalatable,
study of crude drugs obtained from natural sources, such as poisonous or dangerous.
plants, animals, and minerals. Babylonians/Egyptians
- a branch of pharmacy which deals with the basic resources of - They have possessed more understanding on the human
medicines from nature (plant & animal( and their uses as bodies. They are aware of the medicinal effects on the number of
medicaments from ancient times to present day. plants. Written in Papyrus Ebers.
Pharmacognosy Dioscorides
- is the study of medicines derived from natural resources - Wrote “De Materia Medica” in which he describe about 600
- “the study of the physical, chemical, biochemical, and plants known to have medicinal properties. Some were used in
biological properties of drugs, drug substances or potential modern medicines.
drugs or drug substances of natural origin as well as the Galen
search for new drugs from natural sources” - American - He described the method of preparing formulas containing
Society of Pharmacognosy plant and animal drugs. The term “galenical” pharmacy was
originated.
History of Pharmacognosy Modern Medicines
Pharmacognosy (greek) the knowledge of drugs. - From this humble beginnings, medicine and pharmacy
pharmakon - drug gradually emerged along separate paths. Physicians-diagnosed
gnosis - knowledge of the ailment and prescribe the remedy. Pharmacists - collect,
- was introduced and used for the first time by Johann Anton prepare and compound substances.
Schmidt or J.A. Schmidt (1811) and C.A. Seydler (1815),
respectively, to define the branch of medicine or commodity NATURAL PRODUCTS AND SYNTHETIC PRODUCTS
which deals with crude drugs. Natural Products
- It is related to botany and chemistry and it embraces several - To make a "natural" product, the natural resource is not
disciplines: enzymology, genetics, genetics, and quality chemically changed as much.
control. - Glass is a little harder to classify, but could be considered a
natural material. It comes from sand, which has been melted
German Scientists and then cooled. The molecules which make up the glass are
C.A. Seydler - is a medical student of Halle Germany. Coined the still the same as they were in sand.
term Pharmacognosy and wrote his doctoral thesis entitled Synthetic Products
Analectica Pharmacognostica; Father of Pharmacognosy. - Is one in which the starting substances are changed chemically
J.A. Schmidt – used the term Lehrburk de Materia Medica in to produce a material with different
1811, to describe the study of medicinal plants and their characteristic
properties. - To make it, petroleum is processed and chemically changed to
F.A. Fluckiger – described the most comprehensive scope of eventually become plastic. The series of chemical reactions that
pharmacognosy. are used to change natural resources into synthetic products is
called chemical synthesis.
Background
- Beginning of life on earth has always been controversial topic Crude Drugs
and billions of debates have been done on that. But, vegetable or
- A crude drug is any naturally occurring, unrefined substance
plant and animals were existing. derived from organic or inorganic sources such as plant,
- Early mankind is dependent on the nature for health as well as animal, bacteria, organs or whole organisms intended for use
for illness. During acclimatisations with the environment of earth, in the diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of
man learned many things about natural resources (plants and disease in humans or other animals.
animals).
- Crude drugs are vegetable or animal drugs that contain natural
- Epidemics and Pandemics also played an important role in substances that have undergone only the processes of
fastening the process of learning, since many people have died in collection and drying. The term natural substances refers to
the initial stages of research when medicinal properties were not those substances found in nature that have not had man-
known by mankind. made changes made in their molecular structure. They are
- With the passage of time, man distinguished medicinal plant used as medicine for human being and animal, internally and
from those which were poisonous and dietary plants from non- externally for curing disease.
consumable ones.
SOURCES
Plant sources - Senna, Digitalis, Datura, Cascara, Cichona, Clove,
Opium, etc.
Animal sources - cochineal, cantharidin, honey, cod liver oil,
musk, thyroxin, etc.
Marine Sources - sponges, red algae, agar, etc.
Mineral sources - talc, kaolin, kieselguhr, etc.

DEFINITION OF TERMS
- The term Natural Substances refers to the substances found in
nature that comprises the whole plants and herbs and anatomic
parts thereof; vegetable saps, extracts, secretions and other
constituent thereof. Whole animals and anatomic parts thereof;
glands and other animal organs, extract, secretions, and other
constituent.
- Crude, as used in relation to natural product, means any - Anise, (Pimpinella anisum), annual herb of the parsley family
product that has not been advanced in value or improve in (Apiaceae), cultivated chiefly for its fruits, called aniseed, the
condition by shredding, grinding, chipping, crushing, distilling, flavour of which resembles that of licorice
evaporating, extracting, artificial mixing with other substances or - Fennel: a plant, Foeniculum vulgare, of the parsley family,
by any other process or treatment beyond what is essential to its having feathery leaves and umbrela of small, yellow flowers;
proper packing and to the prevention of decay. also, fennel seed, the aromatic fruits of this plant, used in
- Derivatives or Extractives, is something that may be extracted. cookery and medicine.
In relation to the crude drugs, the chief principles separated by - Anise: a Mediterranean plant, Pimpenella anisum, of the
various means. Regardless of whether the derivative or parsley family, having loose umbrela of small yellowish-white
extractive is a single substance or a mixture of substances, it is flowers that yield aniseed.
considered chief constituent. - Cubeb or kabab chini is a spice that finds a place in many
- Extraction. is a way to separate a desired substance when it is Indian cuisines. It is often used for its special flavour to spice
mixed with others. It removes only those substances that can be meat and vegetable.
dissolved in the liquid or liquid mixture referred to as the solvent, - Black pepper (Piper nigrum) is a flowering vine in the family
specifically the menstruum. Piperaceae, cultivated for its fruit, known as a peppercorn,
e.g. When boiled in water the root affords a dark extractive which is usually dried and used as a spice and seasoning.
matter, the quantity of extract yielded by the root being used
as a criterion of its quality. What is the difference between rhizome and roots?
The root
- Menstruum. Solvent used for extraction. Ex. Water, Alcohol, - It is derived from the radical and grows towards the soil and
Ether water.
- Marc. The inert fibrous and other insoluble materials remaining - It has no leaves
after extraction; the undissolved proportion of the drug that - No nodes
remains after extraction. - No buds
- Geographic source and habitat. Are the region in which the - No chlorophyll
plant or animal yielding the drug grows. - Apical growing point called root-cap
- Indigenous plants. These are plants growing in native
countries. The rhizome
- Naturalized plants. These are plants growing in foreign land.
- It has nodes and internodes
The growing point covered with scaly leaves and no root cap
PREPARATION OF DRUGS FOR COMMERCIAL MARKET
Collection
Harvesting
Drying
Garbling
Packaging, Storing, and Preservation

Collection
- Collection means procuring the drug from its natural habitat or
natural source. For commercial purposes drugs may be collected
from both cultivated and wild sources or harvested from
cultivated fields. While collecting drugs from wild sources utmost
care must be taken to avoid
- Wrong identification of the source, Rhizomes grow below the surface. Stolons creep along the
- Admixture with similar looking plants, surface.
- Collection from too young or too old or diseased plants.
The collection process affect by some important factors as :
1. Season of the collected plant
2. Plant age
3. Daily weather
4. The stage of the physical maturity of the plant part used

Crude Drug Time of collection

Flowers Should be collected prior to/at

time of pollination

Fruits When fully grown, either fully ripe

(Anise, fennel) or unripe (cubeb,
black pepper)

Roots and Rhizomes In the fall after the vegetative

process ceased

FRUITS
- The so called fennel seeds are actually the fruits of the plant.
This type of fruit is called a schizocarp. Inside each fruit are
the actual tiny seeds.
 Crude Drug Time of collection

Seed When fully matured, ie. when most HARVESTING

of them have ripened and before - Medicinal plants should be harvested during the optimal
the fruits have opened (black season or time period to ensure the production of medicinal
mustard) plant materials and finished herbal products of the best possible
quality.
Bark In the spring before the vegetative - The best time for harvest (quality peak season/time of day)
process begins should be determined according to the quality and quantity of
biologically active constituents rather than the total vegetative
Leaves or flowering When photosynthesis is most
yield of the targeted medicinal plant parts during harvest, care
tops active, time of flowering and
should be taken to ensure that no foreign matter, weeds or toxic
before the maturing of fruit and
plants are mixed with the harvested medicinal plant materials.
seed (belladonna leaf, sage)
-The mode for harvesting varies with the drug being produced
and with the pharmaceutic requirements of the drug.
SEEDS
- Black mustard seeds are so widely used in cuisines from TOOLS FOR HARVESTING
around the world that every serious cook should make an Hand Labour
effort to keep them on hand. Mechanical devices: Pickers, Mowers, Binders
- Brown mustard seeds are somewhat less spicy than black
mustard seeds. While both the black and brown mustard CONDITIONS
varieties are used in Indian cooking, the brown is preferred to - Medicinal plants should be harvested under the best possible
the black in Europe and America since it is possible to conditions, avoiding dew, rain or exceptionally high humidity.
mechanize harvesting. - If harvesting occurs in wet conditions, the harvested material
- It is also cultivated extensively on those two continents. should be transported immediately to an indoor drying facility
White mustard seeds are used to make the bright yellow to expedite drying so as to prevent any possible deleterious
mustard that is traditionally applied to American hot dogs. effects due to increased moisture levels, which promote
- The yellow color comes from the addition of food coloring or microbial fermentation and mould.
turmeric
DEVICES
BARK - Cutting devices, harvesters, and other machines should be kept
- Cinnamon comes from a tree. People use the bark to make clean and adjusted to reduce damage and contamination from
medicine. soil and other materials. They should be stored in an
- Cinnamon bark is used for gastrointestinal (GI) upset, diarrhea, uncontaminated, dry place or facility free from insects, rodents,
and gas. It is also used for stimulating appetite; for infections birds and other pests, and inaccessible to livestock and domestic
caused by bacteria and parasitic worms; and for menstrual animals.
cramps, the common cold, and the flu (influenza).
- Cinnamon bark, as part of a multi-ingredient preparation, is DRYING
applied to the penis for premature ejaculation. - By drying the plant material, one removes sufficient moisture
- In foods, cinnamon is used as a spice and as a flavoring agent to ensure good keeping qualities and to prevent molding, the
in beverages. action of enzymes, the action of bacteria, and chemical or
other possible changes.
- Drying fixes the constituents, facilitates grinding, milling and
converts drug into a more convenient form for commercial
handling.

Advantages of drying
✓ Bulk of drugs is loss due to moisture
✓ Handling and Transportation becomes easy
✓ Cost of Transportation becomes less
✓ Packaging is easier - Sand in powdered plant may cause considerable damage to the
✓ Drying fixes the constituents and facilitates grinding and dies and punches of the tablet machine.
milling
PACKAGING STORING & PRESERVATION
Packaging
- The packaging of drugs is dependent upon their final
disposition.
- Packaging should provide protection to the drug as well as
give economy in space.
- Leaf and herb material is usually baled with power balers into
a solid compact mass.
- For overseas shipment, such bales weigh from 100-250
pounds.

Storing
- Most of the crude drugs are stored at a temperature ( 20 – 25
C ) in closed containers for a period of time depending on the
type of these drugs .
- Storage facilities for medicinal drugs should be well aerated,
dry and protected from light, and when necessary be supplied
by air-conditioning and humidity control equipment as well as
facilities that protect against rodents, insects.
- The floor should be tidy, without cracks and easy to clean.
Medicinal materials should be stored on shelves which keep
NATURAL DRYING the material a sufficient distance from the walls; measures
Shade drying - employed when it is desired to retain natural should be taken to prevent the occurrence of pests infestation.
color of the drug. - Continuous in-process quality control measures should be
Sun drying - is adaptable to such drugs that are favorably not implemented to eliminate substandard materials,
affected by sunlight contaminants, foreign matter prior to and during the final
stage
Artificial Drying
- Most acceptable method when temperature control and Preservation of Drugs
ventilation can be monitored. - Proper storage and preservation are important
- Warehouses preferably should be fireproof, unheated, and
Rules in Drying crude drugs rodent-proof
- Sacks and bales reabsorb about 10-112% or more of moisture
Crude Drug Method - The glycosides in digitalis tend to deteriorate when moisture in
the drug reaches 8%
Leaves and other Dried at moderate temperature ie - Oxygen of the air increases oxidation of the constituents of
ground parts 40-60
drugs
Provided that the active principles
are not destroyed at elevated
Methods of prevention of insect attacks
temperature
1. Exposure of the drugs to a temperature of 65℃
Roots and rhizomes Usually sun dried and process 2. The use of methyl bromide (CH3Br)
takes several weeks 3. By he addition of few drops of chloroform (CHCL3) or carbon
tetrachloride (CCl4)
Barks Based on constituents nature one
of any 3 methods (shade, sun, or - Replacement of air by inert gas is sometimes applied
artificial drying) - Drugs, that likely deteriorate because of absorbed moisture
(e.g. digitalis) are packed in moisture-proof cans
Flowers Usually air dried or dried in a - Gums, resins (substances produced by most plants e.g. cedar
mechanical dryer at very low pine, and are mainly composed of expense) and extracts are
temperature shipped in barrels and boxes

Fruits and seeds Usually sun or shed dried

Garbling
- Garbling is the final step in the preparation of a drug.
- It consists of the removal of extraneous matter, such as other
parts of the plant, dirt, and added adulterants.
- This is done, to some extent, during collection but should be
carried out after the drug is dried and before the drug is baled
and packaged.
- The European pharmacopoeia requires that a crude drug
contains no more than 2% of foreign matter.
- In leaf drugs (e.g. senna), an excess of stems must be
removed.
- In some cases particles of iron must be removed with magnets.
- Dirt and sand can often be removed by sifting (sieving) or by
means of currents of air.