1

Republic of the Philippines

President Ramon Magsaysay State University
(Formerly Ramon Magsaysay Technological University)
Iba, Zambales, Philippines

GRADUATE SCHOOL
MAED- SOCIAL STUDIES
First Trimester, A.Y. 2020-2021

VISION
The Ramon Magsaysay Technological University shall be a progressive learner-centered research
university recognized in the ASEAN region in 2020.
MISSION
PRMSU shall primarily provide advance and higher professional, technical and special instruction in
various disciplines; undertake research, extension and income generation programs for sustainable
development of Zambales, the Region and the Country.

I. Course Code: SS 304

II. Course Title: PRODUCTION OF INSTRUCTIONAL AND ASSESSMENT

MATERIALS IN SOCIAL STUDIES
III. Course Description
This course provides varied opportunities for students to engage in systematic
planning of instructional and assessment materials aligned with the objectives and
teaching strategies for a given Social Studies content instruction.

IV. Credit: 3

V. Contact Hours per Week: 3 hours (54 Hours)

VI. Place of the Course in the Program: Major

VII. Prerequisite: None

VIII. Course Outcomes:

At the end of the Trimester, the students are able to:
1. Present the principles and other features of effective resources for teaching and
learning Social Studies and History.
2. Deliberate and discuss important and relevant research findings of topics such as
importance of instructional resources, issues on teaching aids/materials, and trends
instructional technologies
3. Prepare and develop instructional materials and visual devices which facilitates
reasoning and understanding of the learners in Social Studies classroom.
4. Distinguish assertions for classroom assessment and modes of assessment.
5. Identify and discuss the principles of highly effective assessment practices and
application of which inside the Social Studies classroom.
6. Present relevant research findings to recognize the principles, characteristics and
advantages of authentic assessment, performance-based assessment and portfolio
assessment.

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 7. Make objective decisions and judgment regarding instruction objectives aligned
with instructional materials preparation and assessment approaches and techniques.
IX. Course Content
Topics Specific Objectives/Course Outcomes Time
Frame
(Hours)
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS PREPARATION and PRODUCTION
1. The Use of Effective Explore and deliberate the different aspects of
Teaching and Resources to achieve effective teaching and learning
Learning Resources process such as: (a) Common Goals of Teaching and
Learning Resources (b) Characteristics of Teaching and
Learning Resources; and (c) Methods of Employing
Resources in the Teaching and Learning Process.
Research Article: Effective Use of Teaching and Learning
Resources by Bušljeta (2013).

2. The Teaching /
Instructional Deliberate of the modern teaching aids to teach Social
Resources Studies from the findings of the research article titled;
Social Studies Teaching Resources in the 21st Century by
2.1 Social Studies David & Vera (2017)

Explore the instructional materials used by teachers in

teaching and learning of History.
2.2 History Sources:
1. Teaching of History
2. An Examination of Strategies Used by History
Teachers in Catering For Students‟ Diversity in the
Teaching and Learning of History in Senior High
Schools in the Cape Coast Metropolis by Bonsu, et al.
(2016)

3. Importance of Distinguish and express view points on the importance

Instructional of instructional aids
Aids/Materials Present significant findings on the importance of
instructional aids specifically visual aids from a research
article titled: Impact of Visual Aids in Enhancing the
Learning Process Case Research: District Dera Ghazi
Khan” by Shabiralyani, Hasan, Hamad & Iqbal (2015);

… and audio-visual aids from a research article titled:

Impact of Audio-Visual (AVs) Resources on Teaching and
Learning in Some Selected Private Secondary Schools in
Makurdi” by Ode (2014).

4. Problems and other Analyze problems/concerns faced by teachers when

Issues in Teaching making and using teaching aids/materials in teaching
Aids/Materials and learning process based from the findings of the
following research articles:
Effects of Instructional Materials on the Teaching And
Learning of Social Studies in Secondary Schools in Oju
Local Government Area of Benue State by Ogaga, et al.
(2016).

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5. Trends in Discuss/Deliberate findings of research study on
Instructional Instructional Technologies in Social Studies.
Technologies Research Articles:
Level of Computer Usage and Literacy in Computer
in Computer – Based Technology Tools in the 21st
Centuries Social Studies Teachers and Students-Irish
Eblacas (2018).

The Challenges of Social Studies Educators for

Effective Teacher Preparation and Implementation of
the Universal Basic Education Programme in
Nigerian Junior Secondary Schools by Meziobi,
Oyeoku & Ezegbe (2012)

ASSESSMENT: OVERVIEW
1. Classroom Explain the concept and role of quality assessment,
Assessment, a measurement and evaluation in the teaching-learning
Review process as well as the recent trends in classroom
assessment.
Source:
Classroom Assessment, a Review (ppt)

2. Principles of Highly Discuss the different principles of highly effective

Effective assessment
Assessment
Express insights on the effects of implementing the
principles of assessment in the Social Studies and the
compelling reasons to assess student learning
Source:
Principles of Highly Effective Assessment (ppt)

Midterm Exam
RESEARCH FINDINGS ON ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION IN SOCIAL Date of
STUDIES/SCIENCES Presentation
1. Relevant Present and analyze the state of assessment and
Researches in evaluation in the Social Studies and Social Science
Assessment and today
Evaluation in the 1. Assessment and Evaluation in Social Studies
Social Classrooms A Question of Balance by John July 25
Studies/Science Myers
2. Evaluation and Assessment in Early Social
Science by Hus & Matjašič (2017)

ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT
2. Performance Based Explain how processes/skills, products and
Assessment performances in Social Studies are assessed using
Performance Based Assessment (PBA)
August 1
Discuss and analyze the characteristics, strengths,
limitations and types of Performance Based
Assessment (PBA)
Source: Performance Based Assessment (ppt)

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3. Relevant Identify and Present empirical/salient findings on
Researches in researches about PBA significant to teaching Social
Performance Based Studies.
Assessment (PBA) 1. Performance-Based Assessment: Some New August 1
Thoughts on an Old Idea by Lai (2011), and
2. Teachers’ Difficulties in Preparation and
Implementation of Performance Task by Metin August 8
(2013)

4. Authentic Describe and discuss the aspects: (a) authentic

Assessment learning and authentic assessment; (b) activities
varying in authenticity; and (c) the difference with
traditional assessment. August 8
Source: Authentic Assessment (ppt)

Identify and Present empirical/salient findings on

researches about Authentic Assessment significant to
teaching Social Studies.
Research Articles:
1. The Effect of Authentic Learning Approach in August 8
Social Studies Teaching on the Academic Success
by Gürgil (2018)
2. Social Studies Teachers’ Knowledge Base in August 15
Authentic Assessment in Selected Senior High
Schools in the Central Region of Ghana by
Bordoh, et al. (2015)

5. Portfolio Relate the concepts and features of portfolio

Assessment assessment as to: (a) Principles Underlying Portfolio
Assessment, (b) Types of Portfolio, (c) August 15
Characteristics, Advantages and Disadvantages
Source: Portfolio Assessment (ppt)

Identify and Present empirical/salient findings on

researches about Portfolio Assessment vital to apply
in teaching Social Studies.
Research Articles:
1. The Use of a Portfolio to Enhance Authentic August 22
Assessment among In-service Student-Teachers’
in Social Studies Education at the University of
Botswana by Mhlauli & Kgosidialwa (2016)
2. Research Results on Portfolio Assessment: August 22
Implications for Teachers Considering Its
Promises and Challenges by Erdoğan &
Yurdabakan (2012)

Final Exam
Total 54

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X. References and Suggested Readings
Alternative Assessment Handouts and PowerPoint Presentations. (2014). College of Education, Central
Luzon State University (CLSU), Munoz, Nueva Ecija.

Bonsu, N.O, Godwin, G., Frimpong, I., Okai, E.K. (2016). An Examination of Strategies Used by History
Teachers in Catering for Students‟ Diversity in the Teaching and Learning of History in Senior High
Schools in the Cape Coast Metropolis. Department of Arts and Social Sciences Education of the Faculty of
Education, University of Cape Coast.

Bordoh, A. Eshun, I. & Quarshie, A.M. (2015). Social Studies Teachers’ Knowledge Base in Authentic
Assessment in Selected Senior High Schools in the Central Region of Ghana. Journal of Social Sciences
and Humanities Vol. 1, No. 3, 2015, pp. 249-257 http://www.aiscience.org/journal/jssh

Bušljeta, R. (2013). Effective Use of Teaching and Learning Resources. Czech-Polish Historical and
Pedagogical Journal, 5/2, 55–69. doi: 10.2478/cphpj-2013-0014

CHED (2014). CHED Handbook on Typology, OBE, and Institutional Sustainability Assessment. Office
of Institutional Quality Assurance and Governance HEDC Building, C.P. Garcia Avenue, U.P. Diliman,
Quezon City, 1101 Philippine
.http://www.ched.gov.ph/wpcontent/uploads/2014/06/Handbook%20on%20Typology%20Outcomes.pdf

Corpuz, B., et al, (2006) Principles of Teaching 2, Lorimar Publishing Inc., Quezon City.

David, E.S. & Vera, E.N. (2017). Social Studies Teaching Resources in the 21st Century. International
Journal of Sociology and Anthropology Research Vol.3, No.4, pp.8-14, August 2017

Dynneson, T. & Gross, R. (1999) Designing Effective Instruction for Secondary Social Studies. Prentice
Hall. USA

Eblacas, I (2018). Level of Computer Usage and Literacies in Computer-Based Technology Tools in 21st
Centuries Social Studies Teacher and Students in Selected Public Secondary School In Zone II Iba
Zambales AY: 2017-2018. International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research (IJSER). Volume 8,
Issue 11, November-2018

Erdoğan, T. & Yurdabakan, I. (2012). Research Results on Portfolio Assessment: Implications for
Teachers Considering Its Promises and Challenges. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323187485

Gürgil, F. (2018). The Effect of Authentic Learning Approach in Social Studies Teaching on the Academic
Success Universal Journal of Educational Research 6(10): 2061-2068, 2018 http://www.hrpub.org DOI:
10.13189/ujer.2018.061002.

Lai, E.R. (2011), Performance-Based Assessment: Some New Thoughts on an Old Idea. Bulletin. May
2011 | Issue 20 www.pearsonassessments.com

Mertler, C.A. (2007). Using Performance Assessment in your Classroom. Unpublished manuscript,
Bowling Greens State University

Metin, M. (2013). Teachers’ Difficulties in Preparation and Implementation of Performance Task.

Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice -13(3) - 1664-1673 ©2013 Educational Consultancy and
Research Center. DOI: 10.12738/estp.2013.3.1452

Meziobi D. I., Oyeoku E. K., Ezegbe B. N. (2012). The Challenges of Social Studies Educators for
Effective Teacher Preparation and Implementation of the Universal Basic Education Programme in
Nigerian Junior Secondary Schools. US-China Education Review B 11 (2012) 947-955

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Mhlauli, M. & Kgosidialwa, K. (2016). The Use of a Portfolio to Enhance Authentic Assessment among
In-service Student-Teachers’ in Social Studies Education at the University of Botswana. Journal of
Education and Human Development September 2016, Vol. 5, No. 3, pp. 84-96. DOI: 10.15640/jehd.
v5n3a10

Moskal, B.M. (2010). Scoring Rubric: What, When and How? Practical Assessment Research and
Evaluation. http://pareonline. net/getvn.asp?v=7&n=3

Myers, J. Assessment and Evaluation in Social Studies Classrooms A Question of Balance.

Ode, E.O. (2014). Impact of Audio-Visual (AVS) Resources on Teaching and Learning in Some Selected
Private Secondary Schools in Makurdi. Impact: International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and
Literature (IMPACT: IJRHAL). Vol. 2, Issue 5, May 2014, 195-202

Ogaga, G.A., Wallace, I. Benson, E. (2016). Effects of Instructional Materials on the Teaching and
Learning of Social Studies in Secondary Schools in Oju Local Government Area of Benue State.
International Journal of Current Research. Vol. 8, Issue, 07, pp.33859-33863, July, 2016

Sampath, K., et al. (2002). Introduction to Educational Technology, Sterling Publishers Private Limited.

Santos–de Guzman, R. (2007) Advanced Methods in Educational Assessment and Evaluation. Lorimar
Publishing Inc.

Shabiralyani, G. Hasan, K.S., Hamad, N. & Iqbal, N. (2015). Impact of Visual Aids in Enhancing the
Learning Process Case Research: District Dera Ghazi Khan. Journal of Education and Practice.
www.iiste.org ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online) Vol.6, No.19, 2015

Vlasta Hus, V. & Matjašič, J. (2017). Evaluation and Assessment in Early Social Science. Universal
Journal of Educational Research 5(4): 664-670, 2017 http://www.hrpub.org DOI:
10.13189/ujer.2017.050415

XI. Teaching – Learning Approaches

1. Lecture and Discussion (on-line)
2. Individual/Group Presentations (on-line)
3. Open Forum (on-line)
4. Use of Multi-media

XII. Course Requirements

1. Attendance
2. Major Examinations
3. Performance Activities
4. Research Proposals
Topics:
4.1. Instructional Materials in Social Studies
4.2. Assessment Materials in Social Studies
5. Compilation of Written Reports
6. Compilation of Assessment Tools
7. Instructional Materials Bank

XIII. Evaluation
Midterm Grade 50%
Final Term Grade 50%
100%

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XIII. Classroom Policies
1. Regular attendance on scheduled classes every Saturdays
2. Participation during class discussion
3. Presentation of reports on scheduled time
4. Submission of all the requirements indicated in the Course Syllabus
5. Take all required examinations (Midterm and Finals)

XIV. Class Schedule: 8:00 to 11:00 AM

XV. Consultation Hour: 11:00 to 12:00 Noon

Prepared by:

MARIE FE D. DE GUZMAN, Ed. D.

Professor V
Subject Facilitator

Noted:

DOMINGO C. EDAÑO, Ed. D.

Director, Graduate School

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TOPIC PAGES
Course Syllabus
Table of Contents
 Instructional Resources/Materials in Social Studies
Marie Fe D. De Guzman, EdD. (Professor V)
 The Use of Effective Teaching and Learning Resources
Edleah Grace D. Novera/Paul Bryan B. Badar
 The Teaching/Instructional Resources
Jhem Lynn S. Icban/Jerome Dansalan
 Importance of Instructional Aids/Materials
Venzeil F. Decena/Jeremae T. Eugenio
 Problems and Other Issues in Teaching Aids/Materials
Ramil B. Rabaca
 Trends in Instructional Technologies
Rodrick S. Ramos/Rofer-Jay S. Ferrer
 Classroom Assessment, a Review
Wean Chad Balangon
 Principles of Highly Effective Assessment
Jhem Lynn S. Icban
 Relevant Researches in Assessment and Evaluation in Social
Studies/Science
Edleah GraceD. Novera/Paul Bryan B. Badar
 Performance Based Assessment
Marie Fe D. De Duzman, EdD. (Professor V)
 Relevant Researches in Performance Based Assessment
Wean Chad Balangon
 Authentic Assessment
Jerome Dansalan/Rofer-Jay S. Ferrer/Ramil B. Rabaca
 Portfolio Assessment
Venzeil F. Decena/Rodrick S. Ramos/Jeremae T. Eugenio

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
PREPARATION AND PRODUCTION

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___________________________________________________________________________
TOPIC: INSTRUCTIONAL RESOURCES/MATERIALS IN
SOCIAL STUDIES
PROFESSOR: MARIE FE D. DE GUZMAN, EdD. (Professor V)
PRESENTER: MARIE FE D. DE GUZMAN, EdD. (Professor V)

INSTRUCTIONAL RESOURCES/MATERIALS IN SOCIAL STUDIES

Introduction

Present day Social Studies teachers are encouraged and in fact required to use modern
teaching aids to teach Social Studies in order to make classroom more lively, understandable
and comprehensively to all learners.

Resources/ Materials are aids to teaching and learning which increases the
effectiveness of the teacher. They stimulate interest, simplify, clarify subject matter and
increase understanding, and motivate the learner to learn. They are being used to improve
students’ knowledge, abilities and skills to monitor their assimilation of information, and to
contribute to their overall development and upbringing (Mezieobi, Fubara & Mezieobi,
2008).
The term instructional materials are used in the context to mean all supplies/tools/aids
within the reach of the teacher and the learner, which are employed to facilitate teaching and
learning. It therefore follows that such resources may be human and non-human provided
they facilitate the acquisition and evaluation of knowledge, skills, attitudes, moral and value
(Inyang-Abia, 2014).

Materials are the tools of the teacher, the amusement of the learners and, catalytic
agents that transform interest, curiosity, and experimentation into knowledge and
understanding.

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Basic Types of Instructional Resources/Materials in Social Studies (Learning Policy
Institute, 2020)

Textbook
 Main reference for the entire course usually chosen by the school
 Reflects the minimum learning competencies for specific levels
 Arranged in units or chapters which can be labeled according to themes, topics, skills,
grammar structures or functions depending on the syllabus type followed.
 Contains readings, teaching points, drills, activities, and tasks for every day lessons

Workbook/Skill Book
 Usually accompanies the textbook
 Provides exercises and drills on specific skills in listening, speaking, reading and
writing
 Presents reinforcement and remedial activities to support lessons in the textbooks

Teacher’s Book/ Teacher’s Manual/Teacher’s Guide

 Contains a detailed rationale for textbook and explain the scope and the sequence for
the lessons
 Includes introductory notes on how to use the textbooks, specific objectives for each
lessons and suggested strategies for teaching the lessons
 Provides guidance in planning the lessons from materials to suggested activities

Work Text
 Combines the features of the textbooks and workbooks
 Provides teaching points like those in the textbook
 Reinforces the teaching points with many drills and exercises just like those that
contain an A-Z or practical suggestions for teaching

Reference Book
 Provides general information on various topics
 Includes encyclopedia, dictionary, atlas, manuals, etc.

Multimedia Instructional Materials

 Audio and Visual materials accessible through various media like radio, television
and the computer

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  Also includes interactive courseware on various topics

Reminders for Social Studies Teachers

Many practical outcomes can be achieved when high quality instructional materials and
resources are used as an integral part of classroom instruction. They are selected by teachers
to help achieve specific instructional objectives. Furthermore, the nature of the learner, the
learning process, the subject matter being presented, and the instructional activities being
used all have a bearing on the teachers’ selection of the most appropriate instructional
materials for a given situation.
1. Instructional materials and resources should follow, not dictate learning objectives.
All instructional media should be selected on the bases of the contributions they
would make to the attainment of the learning objectives being sought.
2. Teachers must be thoroughly familiar with the content of all materials and resources
used in instruction. This will enable you to construct meaningful sequences of
instruction.
3. The instructional materials and resources must be appropriate to the teaching formats
being used. Be aware of the strength and limitations of various types of instructional
media.
4. Teachers should select only instructional materials and resources that are consistent
with student capabilities and learning styles. Selected materials should be consistent
with the learners’ levels of comprehension.
5. Instructional materials and resources should be chosen objectively rather on the basis
of the teachers’ personal preference or bias. Be open to using whatever media is
necessary.
6. Instructional materials and resources should be chosen on the basis of their
contributions to the learning outcomes rather than on the basis of the availability or
ease of use.
7. The physical conditions surrounding the utilization of instructional media should be
arranged to enhance results.
8. Instructional materials and resources produced locally by instructors usually make
significant contributions of learning.
9. No one medium is the best for all purposes. Just as there is no “best” way to teach
under all situation, there is no “best” medium of instruction to use at all times.

Research of Cuban (2001) indicated the Psychology of Visual Aids as under:

1% of what is learned is from the sense of TASTE,
1.5% of what is learned is from the sense of TOUCH,

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3.5% of what is learned is from the logic of SMELL,
11% of what is educated is from the logic of HEARING, and
83% of what is learned is from the sense of SIGHT.

Also, people generally remember,

10% of what they READ,
20% of what they HEAR,
30% of what they SEE,
50% of what they HEAR and SEE,
70% of what they SAY, and
90% of what they SAY as they DO a thing.

So, there is no doubt that instructional materials/resources/technical devices have

greater impact and dynamic informative system.

When learners are made to see, hear, feel, smell and even taste, there is a higher
degree of getting them and appreciate subject matter taught.

The more of the senses of the learners the social studies teacher is able to stimulate
and bring to bear on issues taught, the greater would be the attainment of stated objectives in
the learning domains. Materials and resources can effectively be utilized to accomplish this
purpose.

REFERENCES:
Cuban, L. (2001). Computers in the Classroom, Cambridge, M.A. Harvard University Press.
Retrieved from http://www.webpages. uidaho.edu/mbolin/akerele-afolable.htm

Inyang-Abai, E. (2014). Curriculum technologies for basic education: methods, media and
their utilization. Calabar MIFAM Services Nigeria Ltd.

Learning Policy Institute (2020). K-12 resources during coronavirus pandemic

https://districtadministration.com/coronavirus-free-teaching-resources-free-education-
services-covid-19/

Mezieobi, K. A. Fubara, V. R. & Mezieobi, S. A. (2008). Social Studies in Nigeria: Teaching

Methods Instructional Materials and resources. Owarri: Acadapeak Publishers

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TOPIC: THE USE OF EFFECTIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING
RESOURCES
OBJECTIVES: Explore and deliberate the different aspects of Resources to achieve
effective teaching and learning process such as:
a. Common Goals of Teaching and Learning Resources
b. Characteristics of Teaching and Learning Resources; and
c. Methods of Employing Resources in the Teaching and Learning
Process.
PRESENTERS: PAUL BRYAN D. BADAR
EDLEA GRACE D. NOVERA

THE USE OF EFFECTIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING RESOURCES

The growing influence of different media, in particular to Television, Communication on

the Internet and the Internet, as well as the intense advancement of science and technology, is
mirrored in society as a whole, including education.
In the context of classes as an institutionalized form of teaching and learning, teaching
and learning resources could be defined as the instruments of presentation and transmission
of the prescribed educational material. These include, amongst others: images, maps,
photographs, sketches, diagrams, films, written material such as newspaper clippings or
articles from scientific and technical literature
The importance of teaching and learning resources is further evidenced by today’s
textbooks that abound with dynamic and attractive visual material which is used to present
between 40% and 50% of their content. The wide usage of different teaching and learning
resources has its positive and negative sides, and, in order to regulate the latter, it is important
to realize how these resources are utilized in the educational process.

Teaching and Learning Resources

The purpose of utilizing teaching and learning resources in class is to assist the teacher
with the presentation and transmission of educational content and the achievement of
educational objectives, whilst aiding the students in acquiring knowledge and profiling
different abilities and values.
Common Goals of Teaching and Learning Resources
1. Student motivation
2. Developing creativity

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 3. Evoking prior knowledge
4. Encouraging the process of understanding, decoding, organizing and synthesizing the
educational content, logical thinking and reasoning, communication and interaction,
and
5. Contributing to the development of different skills and the acquisition of values of
students, as well as the retention of desirable knowledge, skills and attitudes.

Whether or not these teaching and learning resources will achieve their purpose, role and
numerous duties, it all depends, first and foremost, on their correct use within the educational
process, which is why it is so important to define the basic principles of the aforementioned
process. TASK

To activate, influence
motivation and arouse interest in
AUDITORY students.
AUDIO-
VISUAL
VISUAL
To help clarify, interpret and
compare important concepts,
phenomena and events.

TEACHING To make learning more focused,

AND effective, interesting, vivid,
LEARNING meaningful and imaginative.
RESOURCE
S To promote better
understanding and development
of different skills and attitudes.
ROLE
To promote teacher-student and
PURPOSE student-student communication
and interaction.
Source of
To encourage evoking regained
knowledge To aid in
knowledge and acquiring new
teaching and
Instrument of information.
learning
transmission of process To aid in finding causes and
educational content
reasons

USAGE

Selection and Evaluation

Presentation and 15
Interpretation

Final Evaluation
 As shown in the diagram, regardless of the type of teaching and learning resource and
bearing in mind the process of teaching and learning, we can differentiate between three main
phases of its usage.

1. Selection and Initial Evaluation - Its role is the selection of the most adequate
teaching and learning resource. Several key factors should be taken into account here,
such as:
a) Teaching objectives and tasks. They are the foundation of the teaching process and
serve as a starting point in the selection of teaching and learning resources.
b) The student’s personality. In the teaching process in general, and the selection of
teaching and learning resources in particular, we must always bear in mind that every
student is special and is defined by different physical and psychological qualities,
intellectual development, social skills, interests, abilities and different styles of
learning.
c.) The teacher’s level of education and abilities. If the teacher, as someone who
should lead, direct and monitor the teaching process, has no required knowledge and
skills in order to realize the potential of teaching and learning resources, their role in
the class becomes insignificant.
d) Characteristics of teaching and learning resources. Resources used in teaching
should primarily be stimulating and informative, easily accessible and should
contribute to the clarity and quality of teaching and learning.
e) The school’s level of material-technical equipment. In case the school has no varied
and adequate teaching aids, the presentation of teaching and learning resources will be
largely limited.

2. Presentation and Interpretation. This phase should be directed or managed in such

a way that it encourages the teacher-student and student-student processes of
communication and interaction in three basic steps, namely:
a) The initial analysis of the selected teaching and learning resource. This phase is
based on determining the reasons for the use of said teaching and learning resource in
the teaching process, and determining the resource’s type, its name and the name of
its author, and its source.
b) Collection and classification of the information presented/included/ offered by the
teaching and learning resource relevant to the purposes and tasks of teaching.
c) Synthesizing the gathered information and drawing conclusions.

3. Final Evaluation. Its purpose is the evaluation of the results of selection and
presentation, in other words, the effectiveness of the teaching and learning resource,
in order to gain insight as to the contribution of said resource in achieving the set
goals and in order to eliminate any deficiencies of selection and presentation. As
emphasized previously, each of the phases shown here is necessary in the use of
teaching and learning resources in order to achieve their roles, potential and
accomplish their desirable tasks in the process of teaching and learning, such as

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 motivation, evoking pre-gained knowledge, encouraging communication, interaction
and so on.

Characteristics of Teaching and Learning Resources

Even outside the context of teaching, teaching and learning resources have their own
value and a different impact on individuals. For example, viewing a photograph or painting
can evoke different memories and emotions or encourage creativity in an individual. If the
aforementioned is applied to the teaching process, we might deduce that the goal of using
teaching and learning resources should be directing the reaction, primarily caused by these
resources, towards the achievement of the set goals and objectives of teaching. Amongst the
listed groups of teaching and learning resources, visual teaching and learning resources often
receive precedence in the teaching process. The reasons behind this are their advantages that
especially come into play during their practical use in teaching, specifically:

1. Availability in textbooks
2. Multiplicity
3. The fact that, in most cases, they present the essence of a subject matter related to
the curriculum, and
4. Ease of application.

As cited in the research of Bušljeta, it is proven that visual information retained

effectively to students rather than oral-written practice. The number of visual and learning
resources are numerous, however it is quite important to differentiate or classify them
accordingly.

In the diagram shown above, visual and learning resources can be classify into PICTORIAL
and WRITTEN RESOURCES

PICTORIAL – this includes picture and graphic representations that will aid the teacher in
his/her lesson/s.
Paintings, caricatures, graphic novels, photographs, maps, drawings, timelines,
schematics, tables, charts and diagrams, globes (for Social Study Teachers) are the
most common.
Taking into account the well-known saying that a picture is worth a thousand words
and the fact that students are more motivated and stimulated if their curriculum is

17
 presented graphically, it is not surprising that pictorial resources are considered very
important in the process of teaching and learning.

Johann Amos Comenius

As already pointed out, today’s discussion of the usage of images in
teaching most often involves the Czech pedagogue Johann Amos
Comenius (Komenský) who, in the 17th century, was the first to draw
attention, in practical terms, to the possibility of arising interest and
motivation in students and facilitating the learning process with the aid of
pictorial representations.
Later empirical studies further demonstrated that the information communicated
visually is remembered a lot faster and retained in the memory longer than that
presented in word or text.

The second group of visual teaching and learning resources, as shown in the diagram,
consists of “written teaching and learning resources”.

These resources are also numerous and can include all kinds of written records, from
scientific and technical texts to poetry and prose. Specifically, written teaching and
learning resources includes:
 Textbooks, manuals, curricula, documents, legal regulations, legal acts,
directives, parts of printed media (dailies, weeklies and monthlies), parts
of scientific works, fiction (novels and short stories), and poetry.

The aforementioned group of visual teaching and learning resources can be classified
bearing in mind the resource’s importance for each class and, in this context, we can
differentiate between “primary and secondary” written teaching and learning
resources.

Primary written teaching and learning resources should primarily include textbooks,
manuals and curricula since they represent the basis of designing, structuring and
managing the teaching process. The inclusion of other written teaching and learning
resources into primary resources depends, first and foremost, on the goals and
objectives of each class.
For example:

When teaching history, historical documents, legal regulations, charters and

legal acts could be considered
primary written teaching and
learning resources, whereas
poems, stories, diaries and
newspapers could constitute
secondary resources.

In contrast, when teaching a mother

tongue, poetry and prose would be the

18
 primary sources, whereas documents, charters and legal acts would constitute
secondary resources.
The second group of teaching and learning is comprised of “auditory teaching and
learning resources”.

Auditory teaching and learning resources

Unlike the visual resources, are not numerous.

Given the general positive effects of music on human frame of mind and
reasoning, as well as its power to indicate different worldviews, political and
social problems
It is clear to see why auditory resources are most often defined as especially
stimulating and motivating learning and teaching resources.
Those auditory teaching and learning resources which can be used effectively in
teaching include audio recordings such as political and other speeches,
testimonies, various types of musical compositions, radio shows, vernacular and
so on.
Audio-visual resources” constitute the third group of teaching and learning resources.
“Audio-visual resources”

Due to the fact these resources are a combination of sound, image and text, they
contribute to a dynamic and lively way of introducing various representations of
events, people and atmospheres into teaching.
Audio-visual teaching and learning resources most often include films and
educational television shows. Educational television shows are those television
shows whose purpose is to deal with and represent the type of content that is
connected to the legally prescribed curriculum.
There are numerous commercial and documentary films covering various topics
that can be effectively used in teaching.
Film is a powerful medium and, as such, it can influence thoughts, emotions and
values, especially in young people, and this is why today an increasing amount of
literature addresses the use of film as a teaching and learning resource.

Despite their positive characteristics, audio-visual and auditory teaching and learning
resources, as opposed to pictorial resources, are not well-represented in the teaching and
learning process. The reason behind this is the fact that their use is conditioned by
several key factors:

1. The teacher’s quality and systematic preparations based on their knowledge

of how to choose their resources, the potential positive or negative effects and
different ways to use auditory and audio-visual teaching and learning
resources.

2. Enough time available for the implementation and content analysis of

auditory and audio-visual teaching and learning resources. It should be noted

19
 that the extensive prescribed curriculum that should be realized within a
single class does not leave enough time to employ auditory and audio-visual
teaching and learning resources fully and effectively.

3. The school’s being well-supplied with adequate space and teaching aids.

Methods of Employing Teaching and Learning Resources in the

Teaching and Learning Process

There is a large number of various and easily accessible teaching materials today,
owing primarily to the internet. However, if these resources are to be used in teaching, it is
necessary to follow the stages of working with teaching and learning resources.

First of which is, as already pointed out, selection and evaluation. Selection and
evaluation are carried out bearing in mind several key factors:

1. Students’ characters and interests.

 No two students are the same and differences such as gained knowledge, cultural
heritage, social position, imagination and affinities influence the way an individual
observes/analyses an individual teaching and learning resource.

 Given the aforementioned differences, a student who once lived in a war-stricken

country is going to approach the interpretation of a photograph of a city or people
destroyed by war different to someone who never experienced such a thing.

2. Characteristics of teaching and learning resources.

 Every resource has its own specific qualities that make it unique and which should be
considered if the resource is to be used in teaching.

For example:
 Factors such as composition, color, presentation and size, should be considered in the
selection of pictorial teaching and learning resources.

 It is also necessary to consider the fact students are going to be demotivated by

pictorial teaching and learning resources which are too complex, too small or
presented in an unclear way.

 The selection of written teaching and learning resources should involve factors such
as clarity, comprehensibility, length of text and the language used, which can be too
complex or unsuitable and therefore inappropriate for students of a certain age.

 On the other hand, when selecting an audio-visual teaching and learning resource,
especially film, we should consider whether its merit lies solely with creating an

20
 experience or if its content is also valuable. To be specific, for the sake of being
attractive and dynamic, some events are often exaggerated in commercial films whilst
others are ignored; irrelevant and false events are inserted, and certain events are
unduly criticized whilst a positive emphasis is put on others with no solid or true
foundation.

3. Using teaching and learning resources can be counterproductive if students fail

to find the meaning of what is being represented by the resource, if they do not
understand it or if they cannot use it independently.

 It should also be noted that certain teaching and learning resources, such as paintings,
photographs, caricatures and films, largely depend on the subjective experience of the
author who conceived and developed them, but they also depend on the experience of
those who “read” them (students or teachers).

 On the other hand, tables, maps, diagrams, laws, legal documents and documentary
films most often communicate scientifically proven facts or results that leave little
room for interpretation by the author and therefore by their “readers”.

4. As a source of knowledge, teaching and learning resources should be helpful in

attaining the various goals and objectives of teaching.
 Nevertheless, what is most often the case is choosing those resources that are related
to the curriculum and which represent the key factors related to a particular moment,
epoch, or a particular central thorny question or problem.

 The role of teaching and learning resources is communicating facts, events and
problems, but we should, at the same time, be careful not to ignore their role in
promoting empathy and creativity in students and the possibility of representing, for
example, the way people lived in a certain age, their worries, prejudices and doubts.

The presented selection and evaluation of teaching and learning resources is the longest
and most demanding step in using the teaching and learning resources. This step is followed
by their presentation and interpretation, the purpose of which is attaining the set goals in
carefully planned steps.

1.The first step in the interpretation of a teaching

and learning resource begins by determining its type
(photograph, painting, drawing, table, document,
film or poem), its source, its name and the name of
its author, analyzing its motives and finally
determining the reasons for its use in the teaching
process.

2.The second step in this interpretation is based on

collecting and classifying the important information
contained in the selected teaching and learning
resource. It is important to use different methods in
this step, such as analysis, critical observation and
evaluation, whilst isolating and emphasizing the kind

21
 of information that contributes to the achievement of the set goals and objectives of
teaching.

3.The last step in the presentation of teaching and learning resources consists of
synthesizing the data collected in the previous step. The aim of synthesizing is to
interconnect the most important presented and interpreted information or partial
information created by the teaching and learning resource, which then leads to new
knowledge, and skills and value profiling. This can be achieved through different
means: through a teacher’s verbal presentation or a student’s independent oral
presentation and/or practical work.

Evaluation represents the final stage of working with teaching and learning resources.
 The purpose of evaluation is to evaluate the effectiveness of a particular teaching and
learning resource in attaining the goals and objectives of teaching; in other words, its
contribution to the processes of understanding, linking and interpreting, developing
desirable skills and adopting certain values of students.

REFERENCE:
Bušljeta, R. (2013). Effective Use of Teaching and Learning Resources. Czech-Polish
Historical and Pedagogical Journal, 5/2, 55–69. doi: 10.2478/cphpj-2013-0014

___________________________________________________________________________
TOPIC: THE TEACHING/ IINSTRUCTIONAL RESOURCES – SOCIAL
STUDIES
OBJECTIVES: Deliberate of the modern teaching aids to teach Social Studies from the
findings of the research article titled; Social Studies Teaching
Resources in the 21st Century by David & Vera (2017)
PRESENTER: JHEM LYNN S. ICBAN

The Teaching/ Instructional Resources – Social Studies

SOCIAL STUDIES TEACHING RESOURCES IN THE 21ST CENTURY
Edinyang Sunday David and Effiom N. Vera

Introduction
Present day social studies teachers are encouraged and in fact required to use modern
teaching aids to teach social studies in order to make classroom more lively, understandable
and comprehensively to all learners.
Social Studies has been conceptualized and taught in a variety of ways. When learners
are made to see, hear, feel, smell and even taste, there is a higher degree of getting them and
appreciate subject matter taught. The more of the senses of the learners the social studies
teacher is able to stimulate and bring to bear on issues taught, the greater would be the
attainment of stated objectives in the learning domains.

22
 Materials and resources can effectively be utilized to accomplish this purpose. Too
often social studies lessons have been described as boring, uninteresting and unchallenging.
This negative and uninspiring state can be turned around through the identification,
collection, preparation and utilization of instructional materials and resources (Ololobou,
2010).
Therefore, it is important for modern day Social Studies teachers to teach Social
Studies with careful selection and use of instructional materials that can be suitably employed
by the teacher at all levels to promote effective teaching and learning. Resources which
enhance effective learning should include the resources that are able to make permanent
impressions on the minds of the learners.
Meaning of Instructional Materials and Resources
The term instructional materials are used in the context to mean all the resources
within the reach of the teacher and the learner, which are employed to facilitate teaching and
learning. It therefore follows that such resources may be human and non-human provided
they facilitate the acquisition and evaluation of knowledge, skills, attitudes, moral and value
(Inyang-Abia, 2004).
Instructional materials serve as channels through which message, information, ideas
and knowledge are disseminated. They can therefore be manipulated, seen, hear, felt or talked
about. They facilitate activities. They are anything or anybody the learner turns to for help in
his learning process (Esu, Enukoha & Umoren; 1998).
Instructional materials are all the objects, things, people and places used to promote
the teaching and learning of social studies. The organized combination and utilization of
materials, facilities, equipment and people ease the presentation of content for the realization
of stated objectives. Jacob (1999) stated that instructional materials are anything and anybody
that can be used by the teacher and learners before, during and after the lesson to facilitate the
achievement of objectives. In other words, instructional materials are devices that facilitate
the transmission, understanding and appreciation of concepts, skills, values and attitudes.

23
 Ema and Ajayi (2004) stated that instructional materials are all the tools, which can be
used by the teacher to provide help and encouragement to learners learning activities. Such
materials bring together man and resources in a systematic co-operation to effectively solve
educational problems.

Categories of Instructional Materials and Resources

The following categories of instructional material and resources by Ofoegbu (2009) are:
1. Resources/Materials, which offer content: for example, charts, graphs, audio recordings,
tools and implements, print materials of all kinds, globes, maps, painting, and resources in the
community.
2. Resources/Materials for presenting content such as audio and video recorders, bulletin
boards, flannel board, slide projectors, computers, television. Another grouping of
instructional materials by Ofoegbu (2009) includes:
a. Human resources: which consist of individuals who provide various services in the
teaching and learning process. They include professionals and non-professionals.
b. Non-human resources: which include physical facilities and instructional materials, which
serve as tools and devices through which stimuli can be passed or obtained.

24
3. Projected and electronic media sub-divided into software and hardware. This group of
materials requires the use of electronic devices.
4. Software materials consist of audiotapes, video tapes, transparencies, slides, filmstrips.
Hardware materials are: audio tape recorders, video tape recorders, Slide projector, film
projector, overhead projector etc.
Social Studies Teaching Resources in the 21st Century
Some instructional resources are best suitable and effective for school children base
on their age and stage developmental. They are often curious and want to use their (primary
stage) sense of touch, vision and smell. Thus, materials such as pictures, charts, tools,
drawings, maps, physical features, models, posters and so on, will be very appropriate to
transmit instruction to them.
At the secondary school level, use of printed materials such as newspapers, textbooks,
photographs, audio-visual materials, globe, and many others will be appropriate for their age,
content for learning and the objectives of teaching the content. Thus, the following are the
break-down of instructional materials to be used in teaching of social studies in schools:
Internet
With the recent development of our country
and the world at large, the internet is one of the best,
fastest and up-to-date source of conveying
information be it in a real-life picture form or in text
(written) form. Social studies teachers can make use
of the internet to search for the most recent
information from all over the world and even make
students search for information themselves from the
internet when available at their schools. This will
help enrich the teacher’s knowledge as well as the
students’ knowledge of the most recent changes and
activities of not only their environments and country
but also the world at large.

 iTunesU, it is the ideal of resources

for educators who want to gain insight into
curriculum being worldwide, get access to
primary resources and find inspiration for
enhancing teaching and learning with
technology. iTunesU is one of the resources
that over 800 universities are having access to
iTunesU sites and nearly half of these
institutions including Stanford, Yale, MIT,
Oxford and UC Berkeley distribute their content publicly on the iTunesU store. In addition,
cultural and education institutions, such as the Library of congress public broadcasting

25
organization and state departments of education, it also contributes to this growing education
content responding.

 Audio-visual materials Radios,

television are very important instructional resources in social studies teaching and learning,
because of the impact of value and impression they have on people (Alaezi, 2009).
Textbooks
Textbooks are reading materials that are basic
material for the social-studies class. The textbook is
in such a way that it organizes the subject matter in a
meaningful and logical way. It provides the starting
point of learning. It develops the skill of identifying
needed information on a variety of issues, persons
and processes. It also stimulates thinking and interest
of pupils. (Ololobou, 2010).

Graphics or Two-Dimensional Materials

Charts are used graphically to illustrate various steps in the introduction process.
Chart such as flip charts, strip charts, time and sequence charts etc. and graphs such as
pictorial graphs, simple bar graphs, maps, atlases, cartoons, comics, posters billboards are all
two-dimensional materials in which they represent information in order to give out a vivid
visual impression of the information been conveyed to the learner and to simplify complex
ideas and concepts. (Mezieobi, 2008). These materials are ideal for school students
considering their age, development abilities and capabilities.

Improvised Materials

26
 The National Teachers Institute (2006), defined improvisation as the making of
substitute from local materials when the real or original equipment is not available. In other
words, improvisation is the act of designing and producing instructional materials from
locally available resources by the teacher and utilizing such materials to facilitate effective
instruction in the classroom.
Improvised materials might include motivation models of an airplane, wall clock, or
bird using cardboard sheets, sticks, carton etc. Other methods of improvisation could be paper
pulp making, clay molding, dry or wet mounting and many others. Improvised teaching
materials facilitate teaching and learning activities in social studies class. It helps to make the
lesson real to the students; it creates opportunity for the students to participate in the

provision of teaching materials and help develop their skills of creativity and manipulation.
(Ololobou, 2010).
Maps and Charts
Charts are visual aids that can be seen but not heard. Maps are made to represent and
present different data according to the needs of prospective users. There are several types of
maps that can be commonly used in schools. They are World map, which is designed to
provide opportunity for a number of students to study geographical locations and data. Atlas
outline maps that a teacher can reproduce by duplicating it or tracing it.

27
 Library
Library is a good source of getting information of every kind. A library is normally a
building or a room containing a collection of books and periodicals for use by the public or
the members of an institution. (Concise Oxford English Dictionary)
A social studies teacher can make the best out of the library by perhaps organizing
study trips to the library to mobilize learners to assist in the collection of some materials and
participate in making the materials that can be kept at the library for use.

Community Resources
Community resources are those persons, places and institutions which desirable
enrich social studies teaching and learning, deepen the social studies content and widen the
horizon of learners. (Mezieobi,2008)

The community has both human and non-human resources. The human resources are
persons with vast knowledge and skills, which can be utilized to enrich the classroom
learning experiences. Professionals and non-professionals like Doctors, lawyers, professors,

28
Chiefs or Oba’s non-human resources include places such as government agencies, physical
features, transportation facilities, and historical sites etc.
Classification of Instructional Materials
* Print materials *Non-Print Materials*Community resources- Textbooks- Teachers
guides Supplementary readers Electrically Operated Non-Electrically Human, NonHuman-
Magazines - Computer Operated - Professionals- Place of - Newspapers - Slide - Charts -
Non -interests Dictionary - Radio - Models Professionals- Physical- Encyclopedia -
Television – Posters features- Poems - Overhead Projector - Graphics- Maps - Films -
Games- Short stories - Film projector - Pictures- Pamphlets - Tape recorder - Globe- Bulletin
- video tapes – Printings. Film strips - Flannel board- Real Objects (Ololobou, 2010).
Utilization of some common instructional materials
According to Ololobou, (2010) social studies teachers need to exhibit skill and
understanding in the use of some instructional materials for maximum results. The practical
use of a few would be described below:
Print Materials
These are also referred to as reading materials. Individuals go through them to gather
information about people, places, processes and events. In the class, they can be used to
provoke general class discussions or raise issues for in depth class analysis. The class
textbook is a basic material for the social studies class. However, the nature of social studies
requires broad and current knowledge.
Therefore, the teacher needs to expose the learners to other print materials such as
encyclopedia, new magazines, pamphlets, poems, supplementary readers. In using them,
teacher should not turn the class into a reading session even though developing reading skills
is important. These materials should be used to:
a) Provide organized subject matter for learners to study.
b) Develop the skill of identifying needed information on a variety of issues
person and processes.
c) Solve identified group problems to suggest rational solutions.
d) Stimulate thinking and interest

Recommendations
The following recommendations are very important for all social studies teachers to
effectively transmit social studies in the 21st century:

1. The use of most of these resources especially the electrically operated materials
require skills to operate and maintain the equipment. Mass training of social studies
teachers in this area will be quite beneficial.
2. There is the need for governments at all levels to set-aside certain percentage of their
annual spending on education for the procurement and maintenance of instructional
materials.
3. School authorities should encourage social studies teachers with adequate financial
and moral support to improvise instructional materials using available local resources.

29
 4. Adequate time should be allocated to social studies teachers to enable them
effectively utilize arrays of community resources available to promote effective
teaching and learning in the 21st century.
Conclusion
Social studies teachers should take into cognizance the modern teaching aids to
facilitate learning in order to achieve the goal of 21st century and lessons objectives, the age,
maturity, ability of the learners, relevance of the material among other considerations so as
not to be carried away by the beauty and physical appearances of the materials.
Also create awareness of current matters of national and international importance.
However, for these purposes to be achieved the social studies teacher must ensure that the
content of such materials is authentic and accurate, suitable to the learners and cultural
environment, free form distortions and bias.
Furthermore, materials should be checked for good illustrations, clear prints and
durability. More importantly, social studies teachers should combine the use of reading
materials with other categories of materials to practically illustrate and demonstrate processes
of social studies teaching resources in the 21st century.

REFERENCE:
David, E.S. & Vera, E.N. (2017). Social Studies Teaching Resources in the 21st Century.
International Journal of Sociology and Anthropology Research Vol.3, No.4, pp.8-14, August
2017

30
___________________________________________________________________________
TOPIC: THE TEACHING/INSTRUCTIONAL RESOURCES-
HISTORY
OBJECTIVE/S: Explore the instructional materials used by teachers in teaching
and learning history.
RESEARCH ARTICLE: An Examination of Strategies Used by History Teachers in
Catering for Students‟ Diversity in the Teaching and Learning
of History in Senior High Schools in the Cape Coast
Metropolis by Bonsu, et al. (2016)
PRESENTER: JEROME DANSALAN

DIVERSITY: Meaning and Types of Students’ Diversity

According to Merriam-Webster’s dictionary (1961), diversity is the condition of
having or being composed of people with different characteristics in a group or organization
thus the state of having people who are of different races, sex, age, abilities, disabilities, or
different cultures in a group or organization. Diversity is a satisfying mix of ideas, cultures,
races, genders, economic statuses, abilities and other characteristics necessary for promoting
growth and learning among a group. Diversity can be measured across many variables -- age,
race, sex, economics, geography, abilities, disabilities, religion, philosophy; a mixture of
cultures, ethnicities, racial backgrounds, political views and ideals.

TEACHING METHODS: Meaning and types of teaching methods used by history

Lecture
teachers in catering
Methodstudents’ diversity.
for
Feild Trip Discussion
Method Method
Teaching
Brain Methods Question
Storming used by and Answer
History Method
Dramatizati Teacher
Discovery
on Method
Role Play

According to Tamakloe, Amadahe and Atta (2005): Teaching methods are the
important media use by teachers in catering for diverse students in order to realise the
objectives of a lesson. Colin (1969) posits that teachers should not be content with one sound
method, but 9 should constantly seek new methods that are likely to interest all our students
and at the same time be more effective in imparting knowledge. It is stipulated in the Senior

31
High School syllabus that the following methods be used in the teaching of history in order to
cater for the differences among students: discussion, question and answer, lecture, project
method, brainstorming, field trip and debates (GES 2010).

LECTURE METHOD. One method of teaching used by history teachers in catering for
students‟ diversity is the lecture method. The lecture method is seen as a one-way
communication in which knowledge, values, skills and attitude are passed from the teacher to
the learners. This makes Crookall (1975) classify the lecture method as a bad way of teaching
history. However, according to some scholars like Oppong (2009), the method is one of the
most efficient methods for presenting many facts and ideas in a relatively short time. A good
lecture method provides students with an insight into the art of writing easy. The use of this
method caters for students who are shy in nature and may not want to talk in class.

DISCUSSION METHOD. Another method use by history teachers in catering for diversity
among students is the discussion method. According to Aggarwal (1983), discussion method
is “a thoughtful consideration of the relationships involved in a topic or problem under study.
It is concerned with the analysis, comparison, evaluations and conclusion of these
relationships” (p.104). The discussion helps students to acquire skills in self-expression and
reflective thinking skills. In spite of these, the discussion method must not always be used
because it is time consuming. This method often caters for students who are active learners
and would always want to partake in the teaching and learning process.

QUESTION AND ANSWER METHOD. Teachers also use the question-and-answer

method to cater for the differences that exist among students. This method is known to be 10
associated with the Greek philosopher, Socrates. The question-and-answer method is an
instructional procedure where a teacher explores the implications of students‟ position, to
stimulate rational thinking and illuminate ideas (Oppong, 2009). Teachers often use it to help
learners who need improvement in the classroom since by soliciting answers to key questions
the teacher gains some insight into the class progress.

DISCOVERY METHOD. In order to cater for some group of students in the history
classroom teachers use the discovery method. According to Mayers (2003), the discovery
method is a technique that inspires students to take an active role in the teaching and learning
process by answering a series of questions or solving problems designed to introduce a
general concept formation. This method caters for students who have problem with
memorization since this method promotes understanding and does not call for memorization.
Again, it helps students who have low reasoning ability to develop their reasoning ability.

ROLE PLAY. Role play method is also used by teachers in teaching students who have
various differences. According to Manoron and Pollock (2006), is a teaching method that
involves learners actively in the teaching and learning process by enabling them to act as
stakeholders in an imagined or real scenario. Manorom and Pollock (2006), therefore, attest
that the role play technique allows learners to apply concepts and problems that have been
introduced through lectures and readings to a situation that reflects reality.

DRAMATIZATION. Dramatization as a teaching method use by teachers in catering for

students‟ diversity assists students to assume real life situation during lesson delivery. Here,
the topic for the day is put into real life situation where students are asked to perform a
particular task which brings together the meaning of the topic. Dramatization is used to teach

32
historical events which took place at the time when the actors and actresses were not around.
This method 11 helps in eliminating the abstract nature of the history subject. The
dramatization method is use by teachers to cater for students since the event is brought to life.

BRAINSTORMING. Brainstorming is a teaching approach that is used to generate new,

useful, ideas and promoting creative thinking (Cullen, 1998). In brainstorming, the teacher
writes all the responses of the students on the board after which the correct ones are selected
out of the responses provided by the students. This is an appropriate medium for the teaching
of history since the teaching of history has been to develop critical thinkers. This method is
use by teachers to cater for all students since it allows each student to freely express him or
herself due the fact that no answer stated by a student is immediately describe by a teacher as
wrong.

FIELD TRIP METHOD. Nacino-Brown (1982) used the term field trip and explained it as
visits to points of interest outside the classroom such as factories, universities, agriculture
projects and museums. Trips are often planned to places where the students will be able to
see in practice or in reality what they have studied in class. One of the major merits of the
field trip methods is that, they allow students to have a real-world experience. It caters for all
students by giving them the opportunity to visit some places they might not have visited.
Again, it caters for students who are from remote areas by helping them to have access to
some historical places. However, due to the cost, most schools do not embark on field trip.

It can be concluded that history teachers are using different methods in catering
student’s diversity that there is no teaching method without challenges for both students and
teachers, we face difficulties while we are using particular methods. In teaching and learning
history, we must never be contented with one particular method of teaching because of the
differences that exist in the students. We must consider also their interest since it has been a
“boring” subject for some of the students.

TYPES OF MOTIVATION
Also, in motivating the students, Watson (2011) noted that one of the key aspects of
diverse pupil learning is undoubtedly motivation towards learning. We should consider here
are the types of motivation, according to Armstrong (1995), there are two types of motivation
which are used by history teachers in catering for diverse student. These are intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation.

Intrinsic Motivation - Self-generated factor which influence students to behave in a

particular way. Students with intrinsic motivation see the task as enjoyable, interesting, and
worthwhile and seek self-approval for completing assignments and other tasks. When
students set learning or performance goals, work to meet these goals, and hopefully do meet

33
their goals, they generally tend to feel more intrinsically motivated and have a greater sense
of accomplishment. Intrinsic motivation includes hand shaking, praise words or remarks,
applause and citing relevant examples. This type of motivation is morally sound and
communicates the relevance of the content to the student. The intrinsic motivation may be
used in catering for students with learning disabilities.

Extrinsic Motivation - The arousal and maintenance of energy towards a goal as a result of a
reward that is extraneous to the learning process (Armstrong, 1995). Extrinsic motivation is
used more often in schools to cater for students‟ diversity because students get instant
gratification for completing a task. Examples of extrinsic motivation include stickers, giving
of gifts like toffee, biscuits, awards e.g. certificates, books and token economy i.e. money,
verbal recognition from others, studying to get a good grade, special privileges, or it could
be fear of receiving a punishment. In the view of Armstrong, extrinsic reward provides
encouragement and shows the students that the teacher is interested in what they are doing.
However, when the reward or punishment is withdrawn the motivation often disappears.
Again, when the reward or punishment stays the same, the motivation tends to slowly drop
off and often requires a bigger reward as the next motivator.

While both extrinsic and intrinsic motivators may be useful for students of varying
abilities, teachers and parents should try to instill intrinsic motivation in their students,
especially those with learning disabilities and low self-confidence, so that they do not need to
rely on extrinsic motivation to complete tasks.

Teaching and Learning Resources (Audio-visual): Meaning and Types of teaching and
learning resources used by history teachers in catering for students’ diversity.

Meaning of Teaching and Learning Material Types of Teaching and Learning

Resources

According to Owusu-Ansah (2011), there are three types of teaching and learning
materials that cater for individual differences. These resources are audio, visual and audio-
visual materials.

Audio Materials - Teachers in the process of catering for students‟ diversity use audio
materials. These are aids which appeal to the ears of the learner. Dell (1996) defines audio
aids as instruments which are primarily for hearing. “It aids in the production of accurate
pronunciation of words and creates good communication skills”. Examples include
phonograph records, radio, audio cassette, audio compact discs (CD). Tape recorder,
microphone, language laboratory and radio are all audio aids. History teachers use audio aids
to cater for students who visually impaired.

Visual Materials - Teachers also use visual aids to cater for diversities in the classroom.
Visual materials are materials that appeal to the sight. Examples of visual aids are flip charts
wall pictures and maps. Wall picture are large pictures which shows a particular
programme. Real objects include “household objects, containers, cloth, food among others
are also visual aids. Teachers use visual aids to cater for students who have hearing
impairment. In the history classroom, some students may be having visual impairment and
teachers in catering for such students use visual aids which communicates the topic in a
visual form to students with such disabilities.

34
Audio- Visual Material - According Tamakloe et al, (2005) audio-visual materials are those,
which cater for both audio and visual perceptions. Teachers use these resources to cater for
all kinds of diversities that exist in the history classroom. These include television, slide
projectors, computers, video and film strips. Audio-visual resource like video, according to
Oppong (2009), makes historical events look real to students and thus reduces the abstract
nature of History. Audio- visual aids often serve to promote understanding and eliminate too
much load on the part of the teacher and rote learning by students in their quest for the goal
of the day. These resources are most important in the teaching and learning of history because
they help to make events that took place long ago look real to students and indeed cater for
students‟ diversity in the history classroom. The use of these resources caters for students
with hearing impairment as well as visual impaired students.

Resource Person - Resource persons are people with expert knowledge in certain specific
areas than teachers. They are often invited to teach certain topics that they are well grounded
in. The use of resource persons in the teaching of history helps make the teaching practical
and efficient since mostly they are practitioners on the field. By inviting an expert from a
particular area of study, there is the probability of the person enlightening the students in a
way that will at the end cater for their differences. From the above writings, it can be
concluded that history teachers in catering for students‟ diversity use different teaching and
learning aids. Teachers must not be content with the use of one material in the teaching and
learning of history. The use of the audio resources alone cannot cater for students who are
having hearing impairment. Also, the use of the visual resources alone cannot cater for
students who are visually impaired.

Methods of Teaching used by history teachers in catering for students’ diversity

 Ragland (2007)
 Class discussion most often to cater for students‟ diversity in the class.
 70% of the practice used by the teachers was lectures.
 Resource person narrative was 5% and historical fiction is also 5%.
 None of them was using field trips and Dramatization as instructional purpose
in catering for students‟ diversity.
 Germanou (2007) in Cyprus
 Lecture and discussion methods of teaching were the most frequently used
methods for teaching used by history teachers in teaching diverse students in
Cyprus secondary education.

REFERENCE:
Bonsu, N.O, Godwin, G., Frimpong, I., Okai, E.K. (2016). An Examination of Strategies
Used by History Teachers in Catering for Students‟ Diversity in the Teaching and Learning
of History in Senior High Schools in the Cape Coast Metropolis. Department of Arts and
Social Sciences Education of the Faculty of Education, University of Cape Coast.

35
TOPIC: IMPORTANCE OF INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS MATERIALS-
IMPACT OF VISUAL AIDS IN ENHANCING THE LEARNING
PROCESS CASE RESEARCH
OBJECTIVE/S: Present significant findings of the research article titled: “Impact of
Visual Aids in Enhancing the Learning Process Case Research:
District Dera Ghazi Khan” by Shabiralvani, Hasan, Hamad and Iqbal
(2015)
PRESENTER: VENZEIL F. DECENA
___________________________________________________________________________

IMPORTANCE OF VISUAL AIDS/MATERIALS

“Impact of Visual Aids in Enhancing the Learning Process Case Research: District Dera
by.Ghazi Khan”

Introduction
Education is necessary for everybody. It is very vital, and those that were deprived of
education may not lead a good life. Teaching and learning are the important element in
education. The teacher uses different approaches substantial in teaching their students. With
the passage of time, altered methods and techniques are entered in the field of education and
teachers use different kind of aids to make learning effective. Visual aids arouse the interest
of learners and help the teachers to explain the concepts easily.

Visual Aids Defined:

 Visual aids are those instructional aids which
are used in the classroom to encourage
students learning process.
 According to Burton “Visual aids are those
sensory objects or images which initiate or
stimulate and support learning”.
 Kinder, S. James; describe visual aids as
“Visual aids are any devices which can be
used to make the learning experience more
real, more accurate and more active”.
 Visual aids are tools that help to make an
issue or lesson clearer or easier to understand
and know (pictures, models, charts, maps,
videos, slides, real objects etc.).
 Visual aids are which that use sense of
vision/sight.

36
For example:
Models and Actual Objects

Charts/Pictures/Maps

Flash Cards

37
Bulletin Board/Chalkboard

38
Slides/Overhead Projector

Most significantly, it has converted a common phenomenon to integrate textbooks

with audio visual aids as additional or supplementary resource for classroom course learning
activities. Visual aids are important in education system.

Research of Cuban (2001) indicated the psychology of visual aids as under:

 1% of what is learned is from the sense of TASTE,
 1.5% of what is learned is from the sense of TOUCH,
 3.5% of what is learned is from the logic of SMELL,
 11% of what is educated is from the logic of HEARING and

39
  83% of what is learned is from the sense of SIGHT.

Also, people generally remember:

 10% of what they READ,
 20% of what they HEAR,
 30% of what they SEE,
 50% of what they HEAR and SEE,
 70% of what they SAY and
 90% of what they SAY as they DO a thing.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RESEARCH

Visual aids are the devices that help the teacher to clarify, establish, and correlate and
coordinate precise conceptions, understandings and appreciations and support him to make
learning more actual, active, motivating, encouraging, significant and glowing.
Following are the significances of our research,
 Every individual has the tendency to forget. Proper use of visual aids helps to retain
more concepts permanently.
 Students can study well when they are inspired properly through different visual aids.
 Visual aids grow the accurate image when the students see and hear properly.
 Visual aids provide complete example for conceptual thinking.
 Visual aids create the environment of interest for the students.
 Visual aids help to increase the vocabulary of the students.
 Visual aids provide direct experience to the students.
The findings of this research are not only useful for teachers teaching in the schools,
but also to the lecturers with allied field.
The findings may be served as guidelines for teachers when implementing visual aids
in teaching, as they want their students to fully concentrate on the lesson, by being aware of
the expectations and needs in literature teaching. When the teachers know how to grab
students’ attention, teachers can provide a friendly and interesting atmosphere for the
students to learn.
This will encourage the students not to just learn by listening and writing what the
teachers told, said and provided in the classroom, but they will find their individual initiative
to read what they learn in order to improve their own understanding towards the lesson.

Furthermore, the implementation of visual aids in teaching is less time consuming. As

a result, the teachers will have more ample time to create enjoyable classroom activities and
conduct an effective teaching and learning process.

SIGNIFICANT FINDINGS
Adequate Teaching/Learning Resources
 The research has shown that high schools in the research areas did not have adequate
teaching/learning resources to enable high school teachers deliver quality education to

40
 their pupils. From this finding it might be concluded that this could be one of the
reasons why such resources might not be used in high schools. Further the research
has shown that high schools under research lacked adequate funding to purchase
teaching/learning resources such as maps, globes and text books for use by teachers
during lessons.

Availability of Teaching/Learning Resources

 It was also seen that in terms of availability of teaching/learning resources, high
schools were grossly under resourced in terms of basic facilities such as text books
and equipment. This scenario has greatly affected teaching and learning for both
teachers and students respectively.
 This research has also shown that visual aids teaching/learning resources such as TV,
CDs computers, recording tapes and radios were not the in some schools and therefore
could not be used by both teachers and students for teaching and learning
respectively.

Access to Teaching and Learning Resources

 The research has also shown that although the majority of the students have access to
teaching and learning resources, schools have only basic tools, which are also not
enough for students and teachers.

School Budget
 The research also found out that most teachers could not improvise teaching/learning
resources for their teaching and did not even borrow some teaching/learning resources
from other schools. From this it can be concluded that high school teachers lacked
time and proper equipment which they could not afford from their school budget.

Lack of Information from Other Sources

 As regards the most popular teaching/learning resources the research revealed that
there were the usual text books, wall charts, atlases and rain gauge. This in itself
shows the seriousness of lack of information for the students and teachers from other
sources.

 This research has also shown that the use of ICT and internet was not yet popular in
high schools. The findings of the research have shown that there are very few teachers
who are trained in the use of ICT, therefore, teachers in high schools are not able to
discuss the types of software packages to be used in teaching in high schools.

School Responsibility
 On the provision of teaching/learning resources, the research revealed that it was the
responsibility of individual schools to make such resources available to both teachers
and students. It is hoped that this research has provided valuable information to other
researchers who would want to further investigate the availability and use of
teaching/learning resources in the Dera Ghazi Khan institutions.

41
CONCLUSION
From this research following conclusions have been drawn;
1. The research concluded that using visuals aids as a teaching method stimulates
thinking and improves learning environment in a classroom.
2. Effective use of visual aids substitutes monotonous learning environments.
3. Students develop and increase personal understanding of the areas of learning when
they experience a successful and pleasant learning in the classroom.
4. Students find visual aids sessions useful and relevant when it has some direct relation
to the course.
5. The present research gave insights on students’ perception and opinions on the use of
visual aids and resources. However, it is also imperative to redirect teachers’
opinions, perceptions, experiences, failures and success while using visual aids
resources.

RECOMMENDATIONS
According to the findings following recommendations are made in this research:
1. Teachers may be giving importance to the student’s opinion regarding the visual aids
understanding.

2. The school, college and university administration authority must share the opinions of
the students regarding the usage of visual aids that will be helpful in enhancing the
learning system.

3. Refresher courses, workshops and conferences may be arranged for the teachers for
improving their skills of using visual aids to the needs of students.

4. There is need for the Ministry of Education to mount periodic training sessions for
teachers who are already in the field to be retrained on recent discovery regarding the
use of teaching/learning resources in teaching lessons in high schools of Dera Ghazi
Khan.

5. The Ministry of Education should appeal to non-governmental organizations, the

private sectors, individuals and industries to assist in supplementing and substituting
obsolete educational materials and teaching/learning aids like audio and visual
materials and software packages.

6. There is need for teachers in the field to have a forum for meeting periodically to
assess the effectiveness of their teaching using the methods of instructional and
educational technology as applicable to the organization of the content of the school
syllabuses at high schools, colleges and university of Dera Ghazi Khan.

7. The research has further shown that the type of teaching/learning resources mostly
used by high school teachers were text books which they continued to rely heavily on

42
 for their teach. This research therefore, recommends that high school teachers should
be exposed to modern use of other teaching resources such as audio and visual aids,
computers, photographic materials such as film strips slides, photographs, flat pictures
and internet. This should be facilitated by the government through the Districts
offices.

8. The personality of a teacher is a symbol for his students so the teachers may be
tackled the students carefully and wisely.

REFERENCE:
Shabiralyani, G. Hasan, K.S., Hamad, N. & Iqbal, N. (2015). Impact of Visual Aids in
Enhancing the Learning Process Case Research: District Dera Ghazi Khan. Journal of
Education and Practice. www.iiste.org ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online)
Vol.6, No.19, 2015

43
 R
___________________________________________________________________________
TOPIC: IMPORTANCE OF INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS/MATERIALS
OBJECTIVES:
1.Distinguish and express view points on the importance of
instructional aids.
2.Present significant findings on the importance of instructional aids
specifically visual aids from a research article titled: Impact of Audio-
Visual (AVs) Resources on Teaching and Learning in Some Selected
Private Secondary Schools in Makurdi” by Ode (2014)
PRESENTER: JEREMAE TORRES EUGENIO

Impact of Audio-Visual (AVs) Resources on Teaching and Learning in

Some Selected Private Secondary Schools in Makurdi”
by Ode (2014)

INTRODUCTION
 Teaching and learning processes are very crucial at all levels of educational
development. If well planned and directed, they are the keys to success and progress
of an individual. Therefore, best methods have to be used in order to enhance
effective teaching and learning.
 Audiovisual resources according to Dike (1989) do not only increase the motivation
of the teachers and learners; they add clarity to the topic taught and make learning
more interesting
 Permanent learning according to Njoku (1980) is the goal of education in that the
learners should be able to retain what is taught. Audiovisual materials make learning
more permanent since they appeal to more than one sense.
 Research by Ode and Omokaro (2007) revealed that learners retain most of what they
hear, see and feel than what they merely hear. This concept bears credence to the old
Chinese adage which says ‘what I hear I forget what I see I remember and what I do I
know.
 A visual instruction encourages the use of audiovisual resources to make abstract
ideas more concrete to the learners.
 Educators have come to realize that the most effective teaching and learning take
place when an individual has direct experience with the subject under study, in order
wise, learners learn best by doing

RESULTS OF THE FINDINGS

44
 The data on table one above shows the responses on the types of audiovisual
resources used in teaching and learning in the selected secondary schools in Makurdi
metropolis. From the table above, the results show that one hundred respondents representing
85% of the totalrespondents used filmstrips in their respective schools for teaching and
learning, 84 respondents representing 70% used microforms, and 77 respondents representing
64% used slides, 101 respondents representing 84% used transparencies while 115
respondents representing 96% used projected opaque materials.
The same significant responses and their corresponding percentage responses could be
observed in all other item statements and this indicates that the respondents absolutely agreed
that all the item descriptions (1-13) were used in teaching and learning in their respective
schools. In the overall item statements, it could be observed that the number of ‘yes
respondents’ awesomely over-shadowed the ‘No respondents’ with their insignificant
percentage rate of less than 40%, which were statistically of no consequence to be reckoned
with. This has therefore, answered the research question that all the audiovisual materials
listed in item descriptions were used in teaching and learning in the selected secondary
schools in Makurdi metropolis.

Table two above shows the responses on the roles of audiovisual resources in teaching
and learning in the selected privately owned secondary schools in Makurdi. As shown on the
table, 120 respondents representing 100% acknowledged the fact that audiovisual resources
make teaching easier and improve learning, again 120 respondents representing 100% agreed
that audiovisual resources stimulate teaching and learning and 120 respondents representing
100% accepted that audiovisual resources provide base learning in sense experience. The
results further indicated that 87 respondents an equivalent of 70% said audiovisual materials
solve educational problems arising from population boom and explosion of human
knowledge, 87 respondents representing 73% agreed that AVs provide sources of information
on every kind of learning thereby removing abstraction in teaching and learning and 100

45
respondents representing 83% acknowledged that audiovisual resources promote better
understanding and so create emotional balance and enable personality value to develop. 80
respondents representing 67% affirmed that AVs expand experience by helping learners to
share experience of other cultures through films, 115 representing 96% agreed that AVs make
individualized learning possible through their programmed instructions while 95 respondents
representing 79% agreed that AVs make learners to develop quick interest
in teaching and learning.

Finally, 63 respondents, an equivalent of 53% affirmed that a combination of AVs

increases and bring about effective learning, 61 respondents representing 51% agreed that
AVs supply concrete basis for conceptual thinking, hence reduces learners’ meaningless word
response. To further investigate the impact of audiovisual resources on teaching and learning,
a hypothesis below was tested

Types of Audiovisual Resources Used for Teaching and Learning

 The data analyzed and presented on research question one revealed that all the
selected private schools in Makurdi were using various types of audiovisual materials
ranging from filmstrips, microforms, slides, transparencies, tape recordings,
flashcards, projected opaque materials, photographs, discs, arts and study prints,
charts, atlases, maps, posters and billboards and realia for teaching and learning.
 The finding of this study is related to the study by Allen (1987) which grouped
audiovisual resources into microforms, filmstrips, slides, photographs, tape
recordings, atlases, transparencies, projected opaque materials.
 The study further emphasized on the need to use those materials because they were
capable of enhancing efficient and effective teaching and learning

The Impact of Audio-Visual Resources on Teaching and Learning

 The outcome of the findings on research question two clearly revealed that the use of
audiovisual resources significantly impacts on the teaching and learning in secondary
schools in Makurdi. It was discovered from the findings that the impact of use of
audiovisual resources on teaching and learning rests on the fact that they stimulate
interest and improve learning.

 Agreeing with this, Dike (1989) opined that audiovisual resources do not only
increase the motivation of the teachers and learners, they add clarity to the
topic taught and make learning more interesting

 The findings also revealed that AVs solve educational problems arising from
population boom and explosion of human knowledge and they provide sources of
information on every kind of learning thereby removing abstraction in teaching and
learning.

 The above finding agrees with Ode& Omokaro (2007) that a visual
instruction encourages the use of audiovisual resources to make abstract ideas
more concrete to the learners. According to this opinion, the teacher’s duty
therefore, is to make learning live, not just something to remember but part of
living experience.

46
  The findings further revealed that the use of audiovisual resources significantly
impact on teaching and learning in that they promote better understanding and so
create emotional balance which gives room to personality development,
they expand experience through films thereby helping students to share experience of
other cultures, make individualized the individualize learning possible through
programmed instruction.

 The above findings significantly bear credence to the study by Balogum

(1976) on the importance of audiovisual materials which emphasized that a
well-chosen AV material will promote better understanding, create emotional
balance and allow learners share experiences of other cultures, and make
individualized learning possible through their programmed instructions; and
provide concrete basis for conceptual thinking hence reducing meaningless
word response by learners

REFERENCE:
Ode, E.O. (2014). Impact of Audio-Visual (AVS) Resources on Teaching and Learning in
Some Selected Private Secondary Schools in Makurdi. Impact: International Journal of
Research in Humanities, Arts and Literature (IMPACT: IJRHAL). Vol. 2, Issue 5, May 2014,
195-202

47
___________________________________________________________________________
TOPIC: PROBLEMS AND OTHER ISSUES IN TEACHING
AIDS/MATERIALS
OBJECTIVE: Analyze problems/concerns faced by teachers when making and using
teaching aids/materials in teaching and learning process based from the
findings of the following research article: Effects of Instructional
Materials on the Teaching and Learning of Social Studies in
Secondary Schools in Oju Local Government Area of Benue State by
Ogaga, et al. (2016).
PRESENTER: RAMIL BASA RABACA

Effects of Instructional Materials on the Teaching and Learning of Social Studies in

Secondary Schools in Oju Local Government Area of Benue State
Ogaga, et al. (2016).

Introduction:
Learning and teaching is the concern of trained teachers. Though learning is a
complex process, it can however, be defined as a change in disposition, a relatively
permanent change in behavior overtime and this is brought about by experience. Learning can
occur as a result of newly acquired skill, knowledge, perception, facts, principles, new
information at hand etc. (Adeyanju, 1997). Learning can be reinforced with instructional
materials of different variety because they stimulate, motivate and as well as arrest learners’
attention for a while during the instruction process. Instructional materials are learning aids
and devices through which teaching and learning are done in schools. According to Akamobi,
(1998) instructional materials are those materials used in classroom or workshops for
instruction or demonstration purpose by students and teachers. Chauha (1973) saw them as
actual equipment used as “hands on” process by learners in order to develop the degree of
skills sought by the course of requirement. Examples of instructional materials include
visual- aids, audio aids, audio-visual aids, real object and many others. The visual aids in
form of wall charts illustrated pictures, pictorial materials, textbooks etc. thus audio
instructional materials refer to those that make use of the sense of hearing only like the radio,
audio tape recorder etc. an audio-visual instructional material therefore is a combination of
devices which appeals to the sense of both hearing and seeing such as television, motion
pictures and computers. From the above definitions of instructional materials, we may gather
that social studies as an area of education deals with instructional problems and solutions
through the use of various visual, audio and audio-visual materials and equipment. There is
the problem of inadequate preparation of teachers to carry out reading instruction (Bello,
1980). This inadequacy translates in poor reading performance in social studies and by
implication other subject areas. Students in our various secondary schools equally lack the
basic textbooks and other important materials that will support them in the learning of social
studies at that level. Teaching social studies without relevant instructional materials leads to
poor performance in other subjects.

Instructional materials facilitate teaching and learning activities and consequently, the
attainment of the lesson objectives. However, this depends on the adequacy and
appropriateness of materials so selected. This in effect, means that learning resources are not
48
selected haphazardly (Jiya, 1993). Indeed, instructional materials to be used should be
carefully selected by the teachers. Brunner, (1961) in Mustapha (2005) also emphasized that
oral reports require visual aids and improvisation. Improvisation is the art of providing the
alternative or next to real thing when the real thing is not available or difficult to come by. It
is therefore important that teachers of social studies use teaching aids or improvise to make
learning easy, enjoyable and permanent. They is therefore, great need for the teachers of
social studies who want to be effective at their work to be able to use all available
instructional materials as well as improvise where they are not readily available. The obvious
facts remain that people remember those they have seen, touched and even played with. The
primary task of teaching is to facilitate effective learning and understanding of the content
materials (shoji, 2005). Instructional materials which appeal to all learners’ understanding of
the language phenomena should be encouraged for use in our schools.

Purpose of Study:

This study focuses primarily on the effect of instructional materials on the teaching
and learning of social studies in secondary schools in Oju local government Area of Benue
state. Specifically, the study set out to achieve the following objectives.

1.To determine the effect of instructional material on students performing in social studies.
2.To find out why secondary schools teachers find it difficult to select relevant instructional
material toward the teaching and learning of social studies.
3.To find out to what extent instructional materials are available in teaching and learning of
social studies.
4.To determine the possible way of improving the instructional materials that will facilitate
the teaching and learning of social studies.

Research Questions:
1.To what extent would the use of instructional material influence the students’ performance
in the teaching and learning of social studies?
2.To what extent would the selection of relevant materials influence the teaching and learning
of social studies?
3.To what extent are instructional materials available to students of social studies in Oju
Local
Government area of Benue State?
4.To what extent do teachers improvise instructional materials to facilitate the teaching and
learning of Social Studies.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Research Question 1: To what extend would the use of instructional materials influence a
students’ performance in the teaching and learning of social studies.

Table 1. Performance response of influence of instructional materials on student’s

performance on the teaching and learning of social studies

49
 From the result of Table 1, 40% teachers and 3% of students strongly agree that
instructional materials have significant influence on the teaching and learning of social
studies, 36% and 63% also agree, 16% and 45% disagree, while 8% and 4% strongly
disagree. From the result the high percentage of both teachers and students indicate positive
responses, hence instructional materials have significant influence on teaching and learning
of social studies in Oju local government area Benue state.

Research Question 2: To what extent would the selection of relevant materials influence the
teaching and learning of social studies?

Table 2. Percentage response of selection of relevant materials on teaching and learning

of social studies

From Table 2: The result shows that 80% of teachers and 73% of students agree that
selection of relevant materials significantly influence the teaching and learning of social
studies, 20% and 20% respectively agree, also0% and 5% disagree while 0% and 1% strongly
disagree.
Hence, the largest percentage agrees with the research question. It is therefore
concluded that selection of relevant materials influences the teaching and learning of social
studies in Oju local government area Benue state.

Research Question 3: To what extends are instructional materials available to students of

social studies in Oju local government area Benue state.
Table 3. Availability of instructional materials in Oju local government area

50
 The result in table 3 reveals that 8% of students strongly agree that instructional
materials are available in Oju schools, 4% and 17% respectively also agree, 5% and 28%
disagree while 68% and 47% strongly disagree with the research question. Hence the highest
percentage disagree and indicate negative responses, it means instructional materials are not
found in most secondary schools in Oju.

Research Question 4: to what extend do teachers improvise instructional materials to

facilitate the teaching and learning of social studies?

Table 4. Improvisation of instructional materials

The result from table 4 shows that 405 of teachers and 3% of students strongly agree
that teachers improvise instructional materials to facilitate the teaching and learning of social
studies, 8% and 48% also agree, 16% and 40% disagree while 36% and 53% strongly
disagree with it. From the analysis, teachers show positive response while students show
negative response. It may be that teachers want to protect their image but since students are at
the receiving end, it is concluded that teachers do not necessarily improvise instructional
materials to facilitate the teaching and learning of social studies.

TESTING OF HYPOTHESES

Hypothesis 1: There is no significant relationship between the use of instructional materials

and the overall performance of student in the teaching and learning of social studies.

Table 5. Chi-square test of relationship between the use of instructional and students
performance in the teaching and learning of social studies

Result from table 5 reveal that the calculated chi-square of 11.1 is greater than the
critical value of 7.82 with 3 degree of freedom at 0.05 level of significance. Hence the null-
hypothesis which states that there is no significant relationship between the use of

51
instructional material at the overall performance of students in the teaching and learning of
social studies is rejected. Meaning that the use of instructional materials has significant
relationship between the overall performances of the students in the teaching and learning of
social studies.

Hypothesis 2: There is no significant relationship between the selection of relevant materials

and the usage in the teaching and learning of social studies.

Table 6. Chi-square test of selection of instructional materials and its usage in teaching
and learning of social studies

Cal X2 critical df level of decision

Value sign
34.15 .82 3 0.05 rejected
Result from table 6 shows that the calculated chi-square of 34. 15f is greater than the
chi-square critical at 3 degree of freedom at 0.05 level of significance. Hence the null-
hypothesis which states that there no significant relationship between the selection of relevant
materials and their usage in teaching and learning of social studies is rejected. Meaning the
selection of relevant materials and their usage have significant relationship between the
teaching and learning of social studies.

Hypothesis 3: There is no significant relationship between availability of instructional

materials and effective implementation in the teaching and learning of social studies.

Table 7. Chi-square test of relationship between the availability of instructional

materials and effective teaching and learning of social studies

Result from table 7 shows that the calculated chi-square value of 11.5 is greater than
the critical value of 7.82 with 3 degree of freedom at 0.05 level of significant relationship
between the availability of instructional materials and effective teaching and learning of
social studies is rejected. Meaning that availability of instruction materials has significant
relationship with effective teaching and learning of social studies.

Hypothesis: 4. There is no significant relationship in the teaching aids improvised by the

teacher.

Table 8. Chi square test of relationship between improvised by the teacher and learning
of social studies

Result from Table 8 shows that the calculated chi-square of 13.4 is greater than the
critical values of 7.82 with 3 degree of freedom at 0.05 level of significant . Hence the null-
hypothesis which states that there is no significant relationship in the teaching and learning of
social studies where there are no teaching aids improvised is rejected. Meaning that there is

52
significant relationship in the learning of social studies when teachers improvise where
original ones are not available.

Conclusion:
It is generally agreed that instructional material and their usage have profound
influence on student academic performance and achievement. The research however set to
find out the effect of instructional material on teaching and learning of social studies in Oju
local government area of benue state. From the result of the analysis, it is therefore concluded
that the selection of relevant instructional material, available and the ability of teachers to
improvise all hard significant relationship between teaching and learning of social studies. It
is in this regard that the researcher draws the attention of the teachers, proprietors, principals
as well as government to take priority in the provision of instructional materials since they
boost student performances.

Recommendations:

Based on the finding of the study, the following recommendations have been made;

1.The government and the school heads should ensure that instructional materials are
available
in schools.
2.In selecting instructional materials, the teachers should ensure that the material selected is
commensurate to the topic and age level of the students.
3.Secondary schools administrators should encourage classroom teachers to improvise and
use
instructional materials in secondary schools.
4.Workshops, conferences, seminars, etc. should be organized on how to use instructional
materials in secondary schools.

REFERENCE:
Ogaga, G.A., Wallace, I. Benson, E. (2016). Effects of Instructional Materials on the
Teaching and Learning of Social Studies in Secondary Schools in Oju Local Government
Area of Benue State. International Journal of Current Research. Vol. 8, Issue, 07, pp.33859-
33863, July, 2016
z

53
___________________________________________________________________________
TOPIC: TRENDS IN INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES
OBJECTIVE: Discuss/Deliberate findings of research study on Instructional
Technologies in Social Studies.
RESEARCH ARTICLE: Level of Computer Usage and Literacy in Computer in
Computer – Based Technology Tools in the 21st Centuries
Social Studies Teachers and Students-Irish Eblacas (2018).
PRESENTER: RODRICK S. RAMOS

Level of Computer Usage and Literacy in Computer in Computer – Based Technology

Tools in the 21st Centuries Social Studies Teachers and Students
Irish E. Eblacas

INTRODUCTION

The processes of integrating technology into classroom work has emerged as a

significant focus of study in educational research. The growing number of technology
projects implemented in schools has motivated interest in this trend. Many countries
recognize the increasing role of technology in children’s lives. They emphasize the
development of technology-integrated curricula that are developmentally appropriate for
young children and that help to bridge young children’s digital experiences at home and in
school (Fleer H. Poor, “A Hypertext History of Multiuser Dimensions”). Because of the rapid
development of technologies, they have changed children’s lives and ways of learning,
particularly in the past ten years (Yelland, 2011). Researchers have urged a rethinking of the
roles of technology in young children’s development and consequently the development of
learning theories and curricula that meet the needs of contemporary children (DeSeCo/Ocde,
2006).
Today, information and communications technologies (ICTs) infiltrate classrooms
around the world at an exceedingly rapid pace. As society and technology change, so does
literacy. Because technology has increased the intensity and complexity of literate
environments, the 21st century demands that literate person possess a wide range of abilities
and competencies.

54
 The term 21st century skills, literacy is generally used to refer to certain core
competencies such as collaboration, digital literacy, critical thinking, and problem – solving
that advocates believe schools need to teach to help students thrive in today’s world.
According to Udo (2010), possessing a competence means that, one not only possesses the
component resources, but also is also able to mobilize such resources properly and to
orchestrate them, at an appropriate time, in a complex situation.
The application of ICT in the school subjects is to make learners learn better and
teacher to teach well, it is not a hindrance to teacher–student (pupils) relationship was
observed (Shields, 2013). It rather ensures transactional instructional communication where
the teacher manages the human materials, time and space to make sure that instructional
events.
The use of information and communication technology as a tool for enhancing
students’ learning, teachers’ instruction, and as catalyst for improving access to quality
education in formal and non-formal settings has become a necessity. This research was
conducted to recognize the importance of new technologies improving the content of Social
Studies lessons. Hence, teachers and students’ level of competence and literacy in the use of
web-based technology is vital. The researcher believed that any teacher who has the interest
of his students at heart is bound to think of the ways and means he will employ to make his
teaching and learning process effective and interesting to the students. Teaching at any level
requires that the students be exposed to some form of stimulation such as the use of
instructional resources and the most advanced materials for teaching s particular discipline. It
is envisaged that educators will see utilization of technology in education as a major teaching
and learning device across all educational institution. With its power of interactivity,
multimedia and communication, the computer and web based technology proves an excellent
tool for Social Studies education.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Table 1 shows the summary on the perception of the teacher and student -respondents on the
Frequency of Utilization of the Computer-Based Technology.

For the result on the teacher-respondents, Microsoft Word gained an overall weighted
mean (OWM) of 4.48. The computed grand mean of the utilization of the Computer Based
Technology was 4.28 with descriptive equivalent of Always.

For the result on the student-respondents, Internet Application gained an overall

weighted mean (OWM) of 3.67. The computed grand mean of the utilization of the Computer
Based Technology was 3.44 with descriptive equivalent of Often.

55
 The finding is consistent with the result on the level of literacy of
teachers in Microsoft Word indicating that teachers are excellent in typing and
editing text and saving a document/file.

Moreover, present result supports according to Danner et al. (2013) report that the
teacher-participants from time to time use word processing to prepare tools and techniques
for students’ evaluation; build question banks, prepare tests, evaluate scripts (answersheets).
Yusuf & Balogun cited from Chai et. al (2008) report that 50 percent are fully are regular and
confident user of Microsoft Word applications/operations open a new document in word and
save it, and use simple editing (e.g. bold, italics, centering, font size, etc.); and they can and
always print to various networked printers (OECD, 2007).

The students assessed they often utilized saving a document/file, correcting a spelling
and grammar and typing and editing text in Social Studies classroom. Further, there have
been many instances that the students are given opportunities to work on their tasks and other
requirements in Social Studies in which the abovementioned Microsoft features and
applications are often utilized/applied by the respondents. Moreover, the result can be
attributed on finding in Table 1 regarding level of literacy of students in Microsoft Word,
indicating that they do well in typing and editing text and saving a document/file, hence
frequently utilized. The frequency of Microsoft Word use of European students on computers
in school varies widely and that this is, naturally, related to the amount of computers in the
school (Bhalla, 2014). Yusuf & Balogun’s cited from Chai et. al (2008) student-respondents
frequently can save a document in various file formats including HTML and I can save text
and images from web pages.

Table 2 shows the summary of perception of the teacher and student -respondents on the
Level of Computer Literacies of the Computer-Based Technology.

For the result on the teacher-respondents, Microsoft Word gained an overall weighted
mean (OWM) of 4.46 (Excellent, rank 1). The computed grand mean of the Level of
Computer Literacies on Computer-Based Technology was 4.31 with descriptive equivalent of
Excellent.
For the result on the student-respondents, Internet Application gained an overall
weighted mean (OWM) of 3.75 (Very Good, rank 1). The computed grand mean of the Level
of Computer Literacies on Computer-Based Technology was 3.5 with descriptive equivalent
of Very Good.

56
 The Social Studies teachers assessed they always utilized the saving of back-up copy
of worksheet feature of Microsoft Excel. This result signifies that the teachers always practice
saving their excel files most especially files that contain pertinent information/records of their
students (e.g., quarter grades, demographic profile, attendance record, etc.) and also their own
personal files/records.
Moreover, the teachers also perceived always utilizing the Microsoft Excel features of
inserting a blank cell/row/column and creating/inserting a new worksheet. This result can be
attributed from the finding in Table 11 (Teachers’ Perception of Level of Literacy) indicating
that they are outstanding primarily in creating and inserting a new worksheet and inserting a
blank cell, row and column. Hence, these features are always utilized. Moreover, the teacher
participants use Microsoft Excel to store standardized test results, grades, and monitor student
progress; record keeping, students’ attendance, assignments, grades, profiles (Granito &
Chernobilsky, 2012); and the use spreadsheet package very well and to spreadsheet to make
predictions (Chai, 2008).
This result signifies that there are many instances of its usage in facilitating AP
lessons. The result can be due to their perception (Table 2) that they are very good in creating
and inserting a new worksheet, hence often utilized. Further, the participants use computer
applications like spreadsheets, worksheets, charts and publisher software for preparation of
report/assignment/presentation (Granito & Chernobilsky, 2012). Students are very critical,
notably in features the research would hope to be utilized more, such as spreadsheets or use
of the internet to look up information (Danner, 2013).
Table 3 shows the Analysis of Variance result on the frequency of utilization of computer-
based technology such as Microsoft word, Microsoft excel, Microsoft PowerPoint, Internet
Application, and Projector when grouped according to Profile Variables.

57
 Results revealed that whether the teachers vary as regard to sex, position, and length
of service, there exist similarity of perception on the frequency of utilization of
ComputerApplication Software-Microsoft Word when used to facilitate lessons in Social
Studies. However, the significant value for age (0.05) was equal to (0.05) alpha level of
significance. Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected.
There is highly significant difference of perception on the frequency of utilization of
Microsoft Word by the Social Studies teachers when attributed to age. The teachers who
belong to different age groups manifest differences of perception and knowledge on the
frequency of utilization of Microsoft Word in Social Studies instruction. The increased
familiarity with Microsoft Applications like Word by teachers to turn their interest in the
pedagogical use of technology (rather than its operational issues) was significantly associated
to teacher’s age (Granito & Chernobilsky, 2012). On other hand, the usage competence of
computers and its applications significantly differ among teachers who also differ as to age,
experiences and orientations and change processes do not occur rapidly and were not easily
achieved (Ilomaki, 2008).
For the result on Internet Application, the significant values for age (0.34) was higher
than (0.05) alpha level of significance. Therefore, there is no significant difference on the
perception on the frequency of utilization of Internet Application when attributed to profiles
age. Results revealed that whether the teachers belong to different age brackets there exist
similarity of perception on the frequency of utilization of Internet Application when used to
facilitate lessons in Social Studies. However, the significant value for length of service
(0.00), sex (0.04), position (0.01) and were lower than (0.01) and (0.05) alpha level of
significance. Therefore, there is highly significant difference of perception on the frequency
of utilization of Internet Application by the Social Studies teachers when attributed to length
of service and a significant difference of perception as to sex and position.
Results revealed that the teachers who vary as regard to length of service, sex and
academic position, there exist difference of perceptions on the frequency of utilization of
Internet Application when used to facilitate lessons in Social Studies. Teachers differ in their
age and gender, both of which are essential factors behind Internet Application use
(Dauvarte, 2015). It has found that the systematic improvement of the necessary competences
in ICT like usage of Internet Application and other computer software was found to have
statistical significant difference as to teachers’ position at school and the rendered service
(Hsin et al. 2014). On the other hand, the need to facilitate the direct use of ICT in students’
learning activities within the classroom situation vary significantly when attributed to
educators’ sex, other designation at school and educational qualification (Chai, 2008).
On the other hand, the results on Microsoft Excel, Microsoft PowerPoint, and
Projector were all not significant difference when attributed to age, sex, position, and length
of service profile. Results revealed that whether the teachers vary as regard to profile
variables, there exist similarity of perception on the frequency of utilization of Projector
when used to facilitate lessons in Social Studies.
On the student’s profile, it revealed that on Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel,
Microsoft PowerPoint, Internet Application, and Projector were all not significant as to sex
while there is highly significant difference as to age. Students differ in their beliefs on the
impact of technology like internet applications in tier social development (Al Shaweesh,

58
2010); while Yusuf & Balogun as cited from (Chai, 2008) found that students age was
determined variable on the unlike understanding and inconsistent usage of ICT application
like internet usage.

Table 4 shows the Analysis of Variance result on the level of literacy in computer-based
technology such as Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel, Microsoft PowerPoint, Internet Application and
Projector when grouped according to Profile Variables.

For the result on Microsoft Word, Microsoft PowerPoint, and Internet Application,
both age and sex were not significant difference on the teacher’s level of technical knowhow
of computer application Software-Microsoft Word, Microsoft PowerPoint, and Internet
Application.
Results revealed that whether the teachers vary as regard to age and sex, there exist
similarity of perception on the level of knowledge Microsoft Word, Microsoft PowerPoint,
and Internet Application when used to facilitate lessons in Social Studies. However, the
significant values for position and length of service were lower than (0.05) alpha level of
significance, therefore, there is a significant difference of the level of literacy in the use of
Microsoft Word, Microsoft PowerPoint, and Internet Application by the Social Studies
teachers when attributed to position and length of service. The teachers who vary as regard to
their academic position and length of service manifest differences on the level of knowledge
and skills in the use of Microsoft Word, Microsoft PowerPoint, and Internet Application in
Social Studies instruction.

59
 Al Shaweesh’s as cited from Meelissen (2010), study revealed that there was a
significant difference in favor of those teachers who participated in training courses related to
computer science and the extent of teachers' mastery for skills in computer. The teachers’
designation and educational qualification were identified as contributing factor of teachers’
performance of the common computer tasks like making presentations/slides as instructional
materials (Danner & Pessu, 2013).
For the result on Projector, only the teacher’ profile as to age has a significant
difference of the level of literacy in the use of Projector by the Social Studies teachers. The
teachers who belong to different age groups manifest differences of perception on the level of
knowledge and skills in the use of Projector in teaching Social Studies lessons. It was
revealed in the study of Rampersad (2011) competence and confidence in using ICT among
teachers were attributed to their exposure and experiences in using ICT, hence will bring
these array of ICT skills to the classroom.
For the result on Microsoft Excel, all teacher’s profile variables revealed that there is
no significant difference on the perception on the level of technical know-how of computer
application software- Microsoft Excel when attributed to profiles age, sex, position and
length of service. Results revealed that the male and female teachers who also vary as regard
to age, position and length of service, there exist similarity of perception on the level of
knowledge of Microsoft Excel when used to facilitate lessons in Social Studies.
On the student’s profile, it revealed that there is a significant difference on the level of
literacy in the use of Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel, Microsoft PowerPoint, Internet
Application, and Projector by the Social Studies students as to age variable. Contrary on the
result, the sex variable has no significant difference in all variables on the level of literacy in
computer – based technology.
Danner & Pessu (2013) found a statistical significant difference in the perceived
competency among students on excel and word processing according to gender and academic
year/level. He also revealed and argued that there was significant difference in the perceived
competency among students on presenting Power Point according to academic year and type
of computer training, perceiving themselves to be most competent in ICT skills. The
student’s competence in ICT usage and integration vary significantly when attributed to the
enlisted assistance of technically skilled, from teachers, peer tutors and teaching assistants
when using technology in the classroom.
Table 5 shows the Pearson r to test the significant relationship between the the Frequency of
Utilization and Level of Literacy in Computer-Based Technology among the Two Groups of
Respondents.

60
 Based from table 5, the computer generated Pearson-r value between the Frequency of
Utilization and Level of Literacy in Computer-Based Technology (Teacher) is 0.824 which
denotes high relationship/correlation. The computer generated sig. value of 0.000 which is
lower than 0.01 Alpha Level of Significance, therefore, the Null Hypothesis is Rejected,
hence, there is highly significant difference on the variables.
There is highly significant relationship between the teachers’ frequency of usage of
Microsoft Word, Excel and PowerPoint, Internet Application and LCD Projector at school to
their knowledge and competence to the above mentioned Computer-Based Technology.
Granito & Chernobilsky (2012) found out that the teachers’ computer competence is a strong
determinant of use of computers by teachers. The competence of teachers in computers may
be an important factor in determining use of computers (Chai et. al 2008).
On the same manner, the computer generated Pearson-r value between the Frequency
of Utilization and Level of Literacy in Computer-Based Technology (Student) is 0.878 which
denotes high relationship/correlation. The computer generated sig value of 0.000 which is
lower than 0.01 Alpha Level of Significance, therefore, the Null Hypothesis is Rejected,
hence, there is highly significant difference on the variables. There is highly significant
relationship between the students’ frequency of utilization and level of competency in
Computer-Based Technology at school.
Results revealed that the students’ frequency of usage of Microsoft Word, Excel and
PowerPoint, Internet Application and LCD Projector had direct and highly significant
relationship to their knowledge and competence to the above mentioned Computer-Based
Technology. Danner & Pessu found a significant relationship in the perceived competency
among students according to the type of computer training they are exposed with. Further,
with those experiences and formal training perceiving themselves to be most competent in
ICT skills.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the findings, the researcher concluded that:
 The Social Studies teacher-respondent is typical female, in her early adulthood,
Teacher I, quite new in the teaching profession and identified projector as the most
commonly used gadget at school.

61
  The student-respondent is typical male, in his adolescent stage and identified projector
as the most commonly used gadget at school.
 The teacher and the student - respondents perceived that Microsoft Word, Microsoft
PowerPoint and Internet Application as always utilized Computer-Based Technology
at school while Microsoft Excel and Projector were often utilized.
 There is highly significant relationship between the frequency of utilization and level
of competency in Computer-Based Technology at school of teachers and of students.
In the light of the foregoing findings and conclusions of the study, the following
recommendations were advanced:
 Take opportunities and occasions to improve and enhance skills and knowledge of
Microsoft Word features.
 Explore Microsoft Excel with the supervisor of expert to further skill and knowledge.
 Seek guidance and direction from expert in the utilization of Microsoft PowerPoint.
 Orient teachers on the importance of maintain an active Internet Application such as
e-mail account.
 Teachers have to be guided by expert in Projector manipulation and operation.
 Conduct training and workshop aimed to be familiar with the technical aspects of
Projector and its operation and upkeep to maximize its usefulness and benefits in
classroom instruction.
 Establish linkage to IT expert group/organization or extension service of an IT
College that can provided computer- and web-based technology trainings for public
secondary school.
 Request funding to local government and non-government organizations to be utilized
for the school’s Faculty Computer-Based Technology training and acquisition of ICT
tools, license applications and maintenance.
 Conduct follow up study that would include a wider scope (e.g., High Schools in
other Zones in the Division of Zambales).
 Conduct a follow up study that would focus on the effect or impact of literacy in
computer-based technology to teachers’ work performance and students’ academic
performance.

REFERENCE:
Eblacas, I (2018). Level of Computer Usage and Literacies in Computer-Based Technology
Tools in 21st Centuries Social Studies Teacher and Students in Selected Public Secondary
School In Zone II Iba Zambales AY: 2017-2018. International Journal of Scientific &
Engineering Research (IJSER). Volume 8, Issue 11, November-2018

62
___________________________________________________________________________
TOPIC: TRENDS IN INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES
OBJECTIVE/S: Discuss/Deliberate findings of research study on Instructional
Technologies in Social Studies.
RESEARCH ARTICLE: The Challenges of Social Studies Educators for Effective
Teacher Preparation and Implementation of the Universal
Basic Education Programme in Nigerian Junior Secondary
Schools by Meziobi, Oyeoku & Ezegbe (2012)
PRESENTER: ROFER-JAY S. FERER

The Challenges of Social Studies Educators for Effective Teacher Preparation and
Implementation of the Universal Basic Education Programme in Nigerian Junior
Secondary Schools
by Meziobi, Oyeoku & Ezegbe

Introduction
The UBE (universal basic education) is one of the boldest attempts in the national
history of educational development to equalize the access to literary education in Nigeria.

The National Policy on Education made social studies a core subject in the junior secondary
schools in Nigeria, with the objectives of inculcating in the learner in integrated forms, basic
skills, values, and attitudes for useful living.

Adamechi and Romaine and Ukeje agreed that the focus of the UBE in junior secondary
schools is to equip the learner with practical, creative skills, values, and ingenuity to become
a functional member of the society. Nwazuoke thought that this is realizable when the social
studies teacher integrates creativity process in the classroom instruction, as a means of
energizing the thought processes of the learners in thinking reflectively about their personal
63
and national problems. It is therefore instructive that social studies teachers should be
adequately trained by teacher preparing institutes of education, the universities and colleges
of education by enriching their social studies teacher education programmes with current
educational reforms and policies, as well as emerging contemporary issues. It is therefore
imperative that effective implementation of social studies instruction in line with vocational
ideals of UBE be focused on equipping the learner with entrepreneurial and creative skills for
productive living. Social studies education classroom instruction ought to be innovative in
exposing the learner to discover knowledge, create ideas, and think scientifically. This is a
veritable process of exposing and preparing the learners to become job creators rather than
job seekers in future.

Ibiam noted that rapid technological changes in the society render most often learned
materials and information in the social studies classroom obsolete if the teacher is not
resourceful to embrace dynamic changes in the society. Furthermore, Maduewesi and Ibiam
observed that educational innovations are not instantly integrated into school curricula at all
levels in Nigeria. Obuh discovered that social studies teachers have not demonstrated high
competence in the use of ITCs (information and communication technologies) in the teaching
of social studies.

The Statement of the Problem

The more teachers who are qualified and well trained the greater the success in achieving
educational reforms (Usman). In addition, Mkpa, Eyibe, Kannoand Ciwar identified effective
social studies teachers as crucial elements in the effective implementation of worthwhile
school curriculum, maintaining that this has to be dependent on the quality of their teacher
preparation, the level of skills teachers is equipped with and that quality basic education
would be elusive without quality social studies teachers and teaching. The reported
instructional lapses in the effective implementation of social studies curriculum, Ukadike and
Iyamu reinforced by Abdulahi , Nwagbo and Achime amongst others, who condemned
social studies teachers over reliance on expository teaching approach instead of the inquiry
approach which promotes learners’ investigative skills and scientific and critical thinking
ability in tackling social problems, is a hindrance to the effective implementation of the social
studies curriculum as to realize the objectives of UBE. To ascertain the present status of
social studies teachers in effective implementation of the UBE programme, this study is
investigating the extent to which social studies teachers are aware of the objectives of the
UBE?

How well are social studies taught to inculcate creative skills in the learner and to what
extent are ICTs used in the teaching of social studies?

The Purpose of the Study

64
 The main purpose of this study was to find out social studies teachers’ instructional
capability for effective implementation of the UBE programme in junior secondary schools in
Orlu education zone of Imo State of Nigeria.

Specifically, the study sought to determine the quality of the teacher preparation
programmes in terms of:
(1) If social studies teachers are aware of the objectives of the quality of the teacher
preparation programme in terms of UBE;
(2)If social studies are taught to inject creative skills in the learner;

(3)The extent of use of ICTs in teaching social studies in junior secondary school in a
UBE programme;

(4)The degree to which social studies teachers are exposed to reforms in the education
industry;

(5)The extent to which the existent social studies curriculum is adequate in realizing

(6)functional education. Research questions are as follows:

(1)To what extent are social studies teachers aware of the objectives of the UBE?

(2)How far are social studies taught to inculcate creative skills in the learner?

(3)To what extent are ICTs used in the teaching of social studies?

(4) To what degree are social studies teachers exposed to reforms in the education
industry in their training?
(5)Is the existing junior secondary school social studies curriculum content adequate to
realize functional education?

Methodology
The design adopted for this study is survey, which is aimed at investigating social
studies teachers’ level of awareness of the objectives and capability of effective
implementation of the UBE programme.
Area of Study
This study was carried out in Orlu education zone of Imo State of Nigeria. Orlu
education zone comprises 10 local government areas, namely, Ideato North, Ideato South,
Njaba, Isu, Nkwerre, Oru East, Oru West, Orsu, Nwangele, and Orlu local government areas.

The Population of the Study

The population of the study consists of all social studies teachers in the Orlu education zone
of Imo State. There are 47 social studies teachers in public junior secondary schools in the

65
Orlu education zone of Imo State. This is contained in a detailed information manual with
specific number of social studies teachers in each of the three education zones of Imo State.

Sample and Sampling Technique

The sample consisted of 20 social studies teachers that were selected based on two
proportionate stratified random sampling techniques. The social studies teachers were
stratified against local government area, in this respect, two social studies teachers were
selected from 10 local government areas comprising the Orlu education zone.

Instrument for Data Collection

The instrument for this study was a structured questionnaire titled “SSTAUO” (social
studies teachers’ awareness of UBE objectives), which was designed to answer the five
research questions. It has 15 items structured on a modified 4-point Likert scale of “SA
(Strongly agree)”, “A (Agree)”, “D (Disagree)”, and “SD (Strongly disagree)” to elicit
information about the research questions.

Method of Data Analysis

Frequencies and percentages were used for the analysis of the data. Data collected were
used to answer the five research questions designed for the study.

Presentation of Results
Research Question 1: To what extent are social studies teachers aware of the objectives
of the UBE?
Sixty percent of the respondents observed that social studies teachers are not adequately
informed of the objectives of UBE, while 70% of the respondents admitted that non-
awareness of the objectives of UBE constitutes a gap in the effective reflection of social
studies instruction in line with the objectives of UBE, 55% of the respondents agreed that
social studies teachers will effectively implement the social studies curriculum, when the
objectives are exposed (see Table 1). The finding is that social studies teachers are not aware
of the objectives of UBE.

Table 1
Showing Teachers Awareness of the Objectives of UBE
S/N Item SA A D SD Total

Social studies teachers are not adequately informed of the

objectives of UBE 12 4 3 1 20

1
(60%) (20%) (15%) (5%) (100%)

Teachers’ inadequate awareness of the objectives of

2 UBE constitute a gap in the effective implementation of 14 2 Nil 4 20

66
 (70%) (10%) (0%) (20%) (100%)

social studies content to reflect the objectives of UBE

Teachers’ awareness is likely to improve the teaching of 11 5 2 2 20

3
social studies to reflect the objectives of UBE (55%) (25%) (10%) (0%) (100%)

Research Question 2: How far is social studies taught to inculcate creative skills?
Based on the findings, 50% of the respondents agreed that social studies is taught in a
manner to inculcate knowledge, values, and skills to address societal problems in the learner,
which is in line with the objectives of UBE in inculcating life-long education. There is a
strong disapproval by 45% respondents that the teaching of social studies does not inspire
skills as questioning, reflective thinking, passing of critical judgment, and analysis of issues
in the learner, which may arise from teacher’s classroom dominance of instruction. Forty
percent of the respondents strongly disagreed that learners are not often exposed to field
study and inquiry projects which are capable of enhancing creative skills in the learner (see
Table 2). The opinion of the findings is that present status of teaching social studies in junior
secondary schools is yet to appreciably inject creative skills in the learner.

Table 2
Showing Social Studies Teachers Capability in Instilling Creative Potentials in the Learner
S/N Item SA A D SD Total

Social studies is taught in a manner that the learner can 10 5 3 2 20

4
address the problems of the society. (50%) (25%) (15%) (10%) (100%)

The teaching of social studies inspires and instills the

5 skills of questioning, thinking, judging, discussion, and 4 5 4 9 20

(20%) (25%) (20%) (45%) (100%)

analysis in the learner.

Students are often exposed to field study and inquiry 4 4 4 8 20

6
projects. (20%) (20%) (20%) (40%) (100%)

Research Question 3: To what extent are ICTs used in the teaching of social studies?
Table 3
Showing Social Studies Utilization of ICTs

S/N Item SA A D SD Total

Social studies teachers effectively utilize ICTs in 1 3 5 11 20

7
teaching social studies. (5%) (15%) (25%) (55%) (100%)

67
 ICTs as the internet, computer, and Websites for 1 1 6 12 20

8 (journals, periodicals, magazines and books) are (5%) (5%) (30%) (60%) (100%)

available in schools for use.

14 3 3 0 20
9 Social studies teachers are willing to be ICT skills.
(70%) (15%) (15%) (%) (100%)

Fifty-five percent of social studies teachers sampled disagreed that ICTs are not
effectively utilized in the teaching of social studies. In addition, 60% of the respondents
disagreed in strong terms that ICT materials are

not available for teaching social studies, only insignificant 5% of the respondents strongly
agreed. Interestingly, 70% of the teachers sampled indicated willingness to be ICT skilled
and compliant (see Table 3). There was no strong disapproval. The result of the finding
established that ICTs materials are not significantly available in schools; teachers do not use
them in teaching social studies as they are not ICT-skilled.

Research Question 4: To what degree are social studies teachers exposed to reforms in
the education industry in their training?

Fifty percent of respondents significantly disagreed that social studies teachers are not
highly exposed to reforms in education. While 40% disagreed that teacher preparatory
institutions adequately expose teacher in training to contemporary education reforms, such as
UBE amongst others. Thirty percent agreed while 20% strongly agreed. Teacher training
institutions should emphasize basic reforms in education as part of the requirement for the
production of effective social studies teachers in this millennium. Seventy-five percent of the
respondents strongly agreed, while 25% agreed that conferences, seminars, and workshops
are avenues to reinforce the objectives of UBE, and there was no opposition to this opinion
(see Table 4).

Table 4
Teacher Preparatory Institutions Adequately Expose Teacher in Training to Contemporary
Education
S/N Item SA A D SD Total

Social studies teachers are highly exposed to reforms in 3 3 4 10 20

10
education. (15%) (15%) (20%) (50%) (100%)

Teachers preparing institutions adequately expose 4 6 8 2

11 teachers in training on contemporary education reforms (20%) (30%) (40%) (10%) (100%)

as UBE amongst others.

Conferences, seminars, workshops, and enrichment of 15 5 0 0

68
12 social studies teacher’s education curricula would (75%) (25%) (0%) (0%) (100%)

further expose teachers to the objectives of UBE.

Research Question 5: Is the existing junior secondary school social studies curriculum
content adequate to realize functional education?

Forty percent disagreed that the teaching of social studies does not inject practical skills,
while 30% strongly disagreed. The implication is that teaching of social studies is still
literary. In addition, 40% of respondents strongly disagreed that learners are not taught
enough vocation for life sustaining. Forty-five percent strongly agreed that social studies
curriculum is adequate for promoting citizenship education, and this position is further
supported by 30% respondents, and 15% disagreed while only 10% strongly disagreed (see
Table 5). Therefore, the existence of social studies curriculum is functional in the
development of citizenship education, but deficient in injecting practical skills and vocational
training in the learner, which is the basic objective of UBE.

Table 5
Showing the Adequacy of Social Studies Curriculum in the Realization of Functional
Education
S/N Item SA A D SD Total

Does the teaching of social studies inject practical 3 8 6 20

13 3
creative skills in the learner. (15%) (40%) (30%) (100%)

Learners are taught enough life sustaining vocation for 2 6 8 20

14 (15%)
life sustenance. (10%) (30%) (40%) (100%)

The value content of social studies curriculum is 9 4 3 2 20

15 adequate in developing effective citizenry attitudes in

(45%) (20%) (15%) (10%) (100%)
the learner.

Discussion of Findings
Findings from this study established that social studies teachers are not adequately aware
of the objectives of the UBE programme. The quality of teacher awareness of the objectives
of UBE is crucial in its effective implementation through social studies instruction. In
addition, social studies are yet to be adequately taught to enhance creative skills in the
learner. This supports Ukadike and Iyamu who opined that social studies teachers have not
involved learners in active learning through the inquiry process, instead they relied on
expository method of instruction which exalts passivity in the classroom. Equally, Abdulahi,
Nwagbo, and Achime condemned expository method of teaching social studies in Nigeria
and supported the inquiry process which injects creative and scientific skills in the learner.

69
 Furthermore, research results of this study revealed that ICTs are not used in teaching
social studies; this limits the resource base of the teacher. In addition, the social studies
teachers are not ICT-skilled but have expressed interest and motivation in being ICT-skilled.
This finding is in agreement with the works of Usman, and Obuh who discovered that social
studies teachers have no competence at all in the use of ICTs. The interest of social studies
teachers to be ICT-skilled was supported by Ibiam’s, work. This study further established that
social studies teachers are not exposed to reforms in education, even by teacher preparing
institutions of colleges of education, institutes of education, and faculties of education of
universities in Nigeria. This is worrisome as Mkpa, Eyibe,Kanno, and Ciwar , reflected in
their studies and pointed out that teacher quality and skills as a result of their preparation
would enhance the worthwhile implementation of the UBE programme. Maduewesi, and
Ibiam, confirmed from their studies that education innovations and reforms are not
immediately integrated into the school curricula of schools in Nigeria.

It could also be seen from the findings of this study that the existing social studies
curriculum is not functional in terms of injecting practical skills and vocational training in the
learner. In this respect, Kanno called on the social studies teachers’ to be resourceful to
parade modern ideas. The non-functionality of the social curriculum runs counter to
Adamechi and Romaine and Ukeje who postulated that UBE is meant to inject functional
education in the learner.

Implications of the Study

The implications of the study are as follows:
(1)Teacher preparing institutions should adequately expose social studies teachers to
curriculum reforms and innovations in education;
(2)There is a need to restructure and strategize the method of teaching social studies in
Nigeria’s tertiary institutions and secondary schools;
(3)Creativity process should be integrated into the curricula of social studies teacher
education of tertiary institutions in Nigeria;
(4)The urgent need and use of communication technologies in classroom instruction is a
challenging task to social studies educators, the public, government, and stakeholders
in education, and it must be provided for effective teaching and learning in social
studies.

Conclusions
The effectively trained, informed, and skill-equipped social studies teacher is an asset to
the effective implementation of the UBE. This is more realistic when the social studies
teacher is knowledgeable about the objectives of UBE, which will be a benchmark for the
teacher’s instructional delivery guide in the classrooms. To achieve functional education, the

70
leaner needs to be exposed to practical tasks and provided with ample opportunities to think
reflectively, scientifically, and creatively. Teacher preparatory institutions of Nigerian
universities, institutes of education, and colleges of education should constantly enrich,
revise, and review their programmes to include contemporary education reforms as UBE
amongst others. This step will ultimately enhance social studies teachers’ quality for effective
implementation of UBE in junior secondary schools in Nigeria.

Recommendations
The recommendations are as follows:
1. Social studies teachers’ quality, awareness, consciousness, and adequate knowledge of the
objectives and focus of UBE are fundamental in the effective implementation of the
functional social studies curriculum (Mezieobi, 2007, p. 5);
2.The use of effective inquiry teaching method will enhance high learning and promote
creativity;

3.Social studies teachers should be exposed to contemporary reforms in education through

conferences, seminars, workshops, and cooperative learning;
4.The training of social studies teachers with appropriate ICTs competencies is a
prerequisite for effective use of ICTs in teaching social studies.

REFERENCE:
Meziobi D. I., Oyeoku E. K., Ezegbe B. N. (2012). The Challenges of Social Studies
Educators for Effective Teacher Preparation and Implementation of the Universal Basic
Education Programme in Nigerian Junior Secondary Schools. US-China Education Review B
11 (2012) 947-955

71
ASSESSMENT: OVERVIEW

72
TOPIC: CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT, A REVIEW
OBJECTIVE: Explain the concept and role of quality assessment, measurement and
evaluation in the teaching-learning process as well as the recent trends in
classroom assessment.
PRESENTER: WEAN CHAD BALANGON

CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT, A REVIEW

Introduction

Classroom assessment is something all teachers do as part of their responsibility for

enhancing student learning and motivation, documenting student performance, and reporting
results for accountability purposes. There are many different types of classroom assessments
that can be used, each with advantages and disadvantages. To the extent that teachers base
their assessments on known indicators of high quality, such as reliability and validity, align
their assessments with clear and appropriate learning objectives and targets, use formative
assessment with meaningful feedback, and grade student work to provide meaningful
summary indications of performance, student learning and motivation will be enhanced, as
well as documented.

ASSERTIONS

As formators, teachers are invited daily to make sound decisions in order to bring out
the best in students. Aside from the in-school curriculum-bound here now setting, learners
also operate in the context of local and international societies as well as the spiritual realm.
Transformed learners are skilled in knowing, doing, being, and living together. The
transformative process could be initiated and enhanced through assessment.

Phases of Teaching
Teaching is an integral part of the process of education. It is a system of actions
intended to induce learning. Its special function is to impart knowledge, develop
understanding and skill. In teaching an interaction occurs between the teacher and the
students., by which the students are diverted towards the goal. Thus, the sole element of
teaching is the mutual relationship or the interaction between the teacher and the students
which advances the students towards the goal.

Teaching can be considered as the art of assisting another to learn by providing the
information and appropriate situations, conditions, or activities. It is an intimate contact
between a more mature personality and a less mature one which is designed to further the
education of later. The process by which one person helps other in the achievement of
knowledge, skill, and aptitudes.

73
 Pre-instructional Activities

Pre-instructional and Instructional Activities

Phases of Teaching

Instructional Activities

Post Instructional Activities

PRE – ACTIVE PHASE OF TEACHING

In the pre-active phase of teaching, the planning of teaching is carried over. This
phase includes all those activities which a teacher performs before classroom teaching or
before entering the class- room.
Pre-teaching consists essentially of the planning of a lesson. The planning of lesson
needs to be seen in broader terms, not merely the designing of a lesson plan. Planning
includes identifying the objectives to be achieved in terms of students learning, the strategies
and methods to be adopted, use of teaching aids and so on.
It is the planning phase of instructional act. The foundation of this phase is set through
the establishment of some kind of goals or objectives and discovering ways and means to
achieve those objectives.

INTERACTIVE PHASE OF TEACHING

The second phase includes the execution of the plan, where learning experiences are
provided to students through suitable modes.
As instruction is the complex process by which learners are provided with a
deliberately designed environment to interact with, keeping in focus pre-specified objective
of bringing about specific desirable changes. Whether instruction goes in a classroom,
laboratory, outdoors or library, this environment is specifically designed by a teacher so that
students interact with certain specific environmental stimuli, like natural components
(outdoor), information from books, certain equipment (laboratory) etc. Learning is directed in
pre-determined directions to achieve certain pre-specific goals. This does not, however, mean
that, in the pre-determined environment no learning other than what a teacher has decided

74
upon as instructional objectives does not take place. The variety of experiences that students
go through with a teacher, among them- selves provide learning opportunities.
All those activities which are performed by a teacher after entering in a class are
clubbed (to combine together) under inter-active phase of teaching. Generally, these activities
are concerned with the presentation and delivery of the content in a class. The teacher
provides pupil verbal stimulation of various kinds, makes explanations, ask questions, listen
to the student’s response and provide guidance.

POST-ACTIVE PHASE OF TEACHING:

Post-teaching phase is the one that involves teacher’s activities such as analyzing
evaluation results to determine students’ learning, especially their problems in understanding
specific areas, to reflect on the teaching by self, and to decide on the necessary changes to be
brought in the system in the next instructional period.
The Post-active Phase this phase concerns with the evaluation activities. This can be
done in number of ways including tests or quizzes or by observing student’s reaction of
questions, comments, structures and unstructured situations.
In this phase, as the teaching task sums up, the teacher asks the questions from the
pupils, verbally or in written form, to measure the behaviors of the pupils so that their
achievements may be evaluated correctly.

Sequencing of Instruction
The order in which the instructions in a program are carried out. Normally the
sequence proceeds in a linear fashion through the program, and the address of the instructions
is obtained from the program counter in the control unit. This sequence is interrupted when a
branch instruction is executed; at such a time the address field of the branch instruction is
inserted into the program counter and the process continues. In the case of an indirect branch
instruction, the memory content referred to by the address field of the instruction is inserted
into the program counter.
The last step in the design phase is to determine the sequence and structure of the
material to ensure the learning objectives are met. A proper sequence provides the learners
with a pattern of relationship so that each activity has a definite purpose. The more
meaningful the content, the easier it is to learn and, consequently, the more effective the
instruction.
Proper sequencing also helps to avoid inconsistencies in the content of the instruction.
When material is carefully sequenced, duplication is far less likely. Indeed, the presence of
duplication often indicates that the program has not been properly sequenced.

75
Classroom Assessment

Assessments can be classified in terms of the way they relate to instructional

activities. The term classroom assessment (sometimes called internal assessment) is used to
refer to assessments designed or selected by teachers and given as an integral part of
classroom instruction. They are given during or closely following an instructional activity or
unit. This category of assessments may include teacher-student interactions in the classroom,
observations, student products that result directly from ongoing instructional activities (called
“immediate assessments”), and quizzes closely tied to instructional activities (called “close
assessments”). They may also include formal classroom exams that cover the material from
one or more instructional units (called “proximal assessments”). This category may also
include assessments created by curriculum developers and embedded in instructional
materials for teacher use.
It is the process of collection, interpretation and use of information to help teachers
make better decisions.

Components of Classroom Assessment

1. Purpose – Why am I doing this assessment?
2. Measurement – What techniques should I use to gather information?
3. Evaluation – How will I interpret the results?
4. Use – How will I use the result?

Purpose
 Will your assessment deliberately improve student performance or simply to audit
them?
 Has the assessment motivated students to learn?
 Do the assessment provide a realistic estimation of what the students are able to do?

COMPETENCIES
For purposes of CMO No. 46, series of 2012, competencies refer to the combination
of knowledge, complex skills, behavior and attitude that enables an individual to perform a
specific task or role.
1. CONCEPTUAL COMPETENCE (rule-based, abstract knowledge about an entire domain)
2. PROCEDURAL COMPETENCE (procedures and skills needed to apply conceptual
competence in concrete situations)
3. PERFORMANCE COMPETENCIES (required to assess a problem and select a suitable
strategy for its solution)

MEASUREMENT

76
 It is a device or instrument that is used to measure students’ achievement, skills,
attitude, intelligence, personality or anything that can be expressed quantitatively.

EVALUATION
 It is the process of summing up the results of measurements or tests, giving them,
some meaning based on value judgment.
 It is a systematic process of determining the extent to which instructional objectives
are achieved by the students (Grondlund, 1981).

Type of Evaluation Function Example

Determines student’s entry behavior Pre-test, aptitude test,

1. Placement (what they already know) readiness test
Determines feedback whether students Quizzes, oral
2. Formative
are accomplishing the objectives questioning (recitation)
Determines areas of weaknesses that
3. Diagnostic cannot be assessed by formative Diagnostic tests
evaluation
Summative test
Determines if students satisfied
4. Summative (achievement tests, final
the goals of the learning task
examinations)

Use of Assessment Data

*Grading *Diagnosis *Instruction

From To
Sole emphasis on outcomes Assessing of process
Isolated skills Integrated skills
Isolated facts Application of knowledge
Paper and pencil tasks Authentic tasks
Single correct answer Many correct answer
Secret standards/criteria Public standards/criteria
Individuals Group
After instruction During instruction
Little feedback Considerable feedback
Objective tests Performance-based tests
Standardized tests Informal tests
External evaluation Student self-evaluation
Conclusive Recursive

77
Recent Trends in Classroom Assessment

REFERENCES:
Classroom Assessment - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Classroom Assessment, a Review (ppt)
“Read ‘Developing Assessments for the Next Generation Science Standards’ at NAP.edu.”
National Academies Press: Open Book, www.nap.edu/read/18409/chapter/6.

TOPIC: PRINCIPLES OF HIGHLY EFFECTIVE ASSESSMENT

OBJECTIVE: Discuss the different principle of highly effective assessment
Express insights on the effects of implementing the principles of
assessment in the Social Studies and the compelling reasons to assess
student learning
PRESENTER: JHEM LYNN S. ICBAN

Principles of Highly Effective Assessment

Assessment
refers to the wide variety of methods or tools that educators use to evaluate, measure,
and document the academic readiness, learning progress, skill acquisition, or educational
needs of students.

Learning Target

is a statement of intended learning for students based on the standards? A Learning

Target specifies and unpacks the objective and spells out what students will be able to
do during and after the lesson or lesson series. Learning Targets are in student friendly
language and are specific to the lesson for the day, or span of days, and directly connected to
assessment.

1. Clear & Appropriate Learning Targets

 A sound assessment begins with clear and appropriate targets.

 Targets should reflect what the students should know and be able to do.

Example 1
LEARNING DOMAINS
a. Cognitive
 Complexity of thought from recall of information to the use of it in new forms
and decisions
b. Affective
 Dispositions, values, & other emotional behaviors
c. Psychomotor
 Overt behaviors demonstrated in relative contexts

Example 2:
observing
comparing/
classifying
communicating
Basic Process
78 Skills asking
questions
making
models measuring &
 data

Example 3:

Applying findings to
new situations

Finding Formulating
patterns hypothesis

Drawing Integrated
conclusion Thinking Stating a
Skills problem

Communicating
Designing a
results
Collecting Procedure to
data test hypothesis

Example 4:

Describe the planning process

Describe the process you employed for your Assess the relevance
medium-scale business of the principles of
of planning for a
medium-scale
medium-scale business planning…
business

COGNITIVE PROCESS DIMENSION

79
 The Revised Bloom's Taxonomy

Example 5 knowledge

reasoning skills

LEARNING

TARGETS

products affects

Stiggins & Conklin's Learning Targets

Example 6
Howard Gardner
 Verbal/
 Logical / Linguistic  Social/
Mathematical
Interpersonal
2. Appropriateness of Assessment Methods
 Natural/
Example1 Visual/ All Domains Intrapersonal
Spatial
Selected Response of
 multiple choice- test are constructed to test
Intellegence
higher order thinking skills
 Musical

80  Existential

 Kinesthetic
  binary choice -is simply an option between only two things, giving two possible
outcomes. You have Option A or Option B. (e.g. true/false)

 matching type- measures the ability to identify the relationship between a set of
similar items, each of which has two components, such as words and their
definitions, symbols and their meanings, dates and events, causes and effects,
people and their accomplishments, problems and solutions, etc.

 interpretive-consists of a series of objective items based on a common set of

data. The data may in the form of written materials, tables, charts, graphs, maps,
or pictures. The series of related test items may also take various forms but are
most commonly multiple-choice or true-false items.

Example 2

Constructed Response
 Brief Constructed Response- is a short paragraph written in response to a reading
selection or other content area prompt. The format typically requires students to
answer a question from a prompt, cite text appropriately within the answer, and to
extend beyond the text with a response from personal experience or interpretation.
e.g. short answer, completion test, label a diagram, show your work

 Performance-based tasks- measures students' ability to apply the skills and

knowledge learned from a unit or units of study. Typically, the task challenges
students to use their higher order thinking skills to create a product or complete a
process 
Products, e.g., paper, project, poem, portfolio, video/audio tape,
exhibition, reflection, journal, graph, table illustration
Skills, e.g., speech, demonstration, dramatic reading, debate, recital,
Enactment

 Essay- is a focused piece of writing that develops an argument or narrative based on

evidence, analysis, and interpretation.
(e.g. restricted response, extended response

 Oral Questioning- This method involves the teacher probing students to think about
what they know regarding a topic.  Questions typically allow the teacher to keep a
discussion focused on the intended objective and maintain student involvement.  
(e.g. informal, examination, conference, or interviews)

Example 3:

 Teacher Observation is a formal or informal observation of teaching while it is

taking place in a classroom or other learning environment. 

 Self-report Inventories
- Attitude survey is a management tool business owners or managers use to learn
about the views and opinions of their employees on issues pertaining to the company
and their role within the organization.

81
 - Sociometric device These instruments are designed to evaluate an individual's
relative popularity within a peer group. They generally consist of a survey wherein all
members of a group are required to place the names of their colleagues in rank order
based upon traits such as popularity and cooperation.

-Questionnaires is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions for the

purpose of gathering information from respondents.

- Inventories a list of traits, preferences, attitudes, interests, or abilities used to

evaluate personal characteristics or skills

3.Validity
The quality of a test that assures measurement of what it is supposed to measure.

TYPES OF VALIDITY

a. Face Validity-Validity that relies on the physical attributes of the test

b. Content Validity-The extent to which an assessment procedure adequately represents

the content of the assessment domain being tested

c. Instructional Validity-The extent to which the test measures the instructional

objectives

d. Criterion - Related Validity- The degree to which performance on an assessment

procedure accurately predicts a student’s performance on an external criterion

e. Construct Validity-The extent to which a test can measure an unobservable trait or

behavior. It could be determined through theoretical explanations, logical analysis,
and statistical procedures.

4. Reliability
The consistency of test items in terms of getting the same score for a student taking
the same test several times within the period when traits are not expected to have
changed.

To Enhance Reliability….
the following suggestions are to be considered:

 Use sufficient number of items or tasks (other things being equal, longer tests are
more reliable).
 Use independent evaluators or observers who provide similar score on the same
performances.
 Make sure the assessment procedures and scoring are as objective as possible.
 Continue assessment until results are consistent.
 Eliminate or reduce the influence of extraneous events or factors.
 Use shorter assessments more frequently than fewer but long assessment.

5. Fairness

82
 A fair assessment is one that provides all students an equal opportunity to
demonstrate achievement and yields scores that are comparably valid from one person
or group to another.

Be fair in terms of ….
◦ Students’ knowledge of learning targets and assessment
◦ Opportunity to learn
◦ Prerequisite knowledge and skills
◦ Avoiding teacher stereotypes and bias

6. Positive Consequences
Ask yourself…….

 How will assessment affect student motivation?

 Will students be more or less likely to be meaningfully involved?
 How will the assessment affect my teaching?
 What will the parents think of my assessment?

7. Practicality and Efficiency

Consider….
 Familiarity with the method
 Time required
 Complexity of administration
 Ease of scoring and interpretation
 Cost effective

REFERENCES:
Assessment Definition. (2015, November 10). Retrieved from
https://www.edglossary.org/assessment/

Binary Options Signals Reviews. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://winatbinaryoptions.com/the-

binary-choice-and-how-to-deal-with-it/#:~:text=A binary choice is simply, day without even
realizing it.

Hilliard, P. (2015, December 07). Performance-Based Assessment: Reviewing the Basics.

Retrieved from https://www.edutopia.org/blog/performance-based-assessment-reviewing-
basics-patricia-hilliard#:~:text=In general, a performance-based, process (Chun, 2010).

Houck, B., Houck, B., & 8, M. M. (2015, October 14). Using a learning target in classroom
instruction. Retrieved from https://www.houcked.com/blog/learning-targets/

Principles of Highly Effective Assessment (ppt)

83
Sociometric devices These instruments are designed to evaluate an individual’s: Course Hero.
(2016, January 18). Retrieved from https://www.coursehero.com/file/p4lvr05/Sociometric-
devices-These-instruments-are-designed-to-evaluate-an-individuals/#:~:text=Sociometric
devices., such as popularity and cooperation.

RESEARCH FINDINGS ON ASSESSMENT AND

EVALUATION IN SOCIAL STUDIES/SCIENCES

84
___________________________________________________________________________
TOPIC: RELEVANT RESEARCHES IN ASSESSMENT AND
EVALUATION IN THE SOCIAL STUDIES/SCIENCE
OBJECTIVE: Present and analyze the state of assessment and evaluation in the
Social Studies and Social Science today. Assessment and Evaluation in
Social Studies Classrooms A Question of Balance by John Myers
PRESENTER: EDLEA GRACE D. NOVERA

ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION IN SOCIAL STUDIES CLASSROOMS

What Is the State of Assessment and Evaluation in Social Studies Today?

Since public education began in Canada 150 years ago, assessment has identified and
ranked students using tests, essays, and quizzes. This limited role for assessment has
broadened over the past twenty years for a number of reasons:
 First, the goals of education in general, and social studies in particular, have greatly
expanded as we attempt to help our children acquire the knowledge, skills, attitudes,
and behaviors required for living in the twenty-first century.
As social studies educator Joseph Kirman argues, social studies is not about the
accumulation of selected facts for later recall but should aim to:
Produce a responsible person able to cope with change, capable of making
reasonable decisions, who is an intelligent consumer and controller of science and
technology, able to live with and appreciate human diversity, and support and defend human
dignity. Such a person should be able to settle differences honorably, avoid the use of
violence, be cognizant of, and active in, the stewardship of our planet, and have the skills
necessary to maintain a functional economic system and democratic government.
 Assessment reform has also been driven by increased knowledge about learning.
After decades of viewing learning as a relatively passive accumulation of facts and
discrete skills, we now recognize learning as a more active process in which learners
construct knowledge and make connections among facts and concepts. Innovations in
recent decades, such as curriculum integration, authentic assessment, and cooperative
learning, reflect these current theories.
 A third factor driving assessment and evaluation reform comes from the widespread
view that traditional ways of reporting student achievement—the evaluation side of
things—are not telling us what we really need to know.

85
 It is not enough to want students to learn and to express our best intentions by setting
course, unit, and lesson objectives. These objectives need to be achieved. We need results:
clear evidence students have met the outcomes set for them.

Concurrent with these trends to broaden the scope of what and how to assess student
progress has been a rise in large-scale, standardized assessments of various types
including provincial, national, and international achievement tests.

The instructions to students, the test conditions, the timing, and scoring are the same in all
places. They are generally norm-referenced and provide comparative data on students. They
usually test for what the test authors determine to be basic skills and knowledge, and are
considered to be objective; i.e., free of teacher bias in scoring.
 Provincial examinations in all subjects including social studies contain many if not
most elements of standardized tests.

Whatever benefits such tests have in determining student acquisition of basic facts and
simple skills they do not set a standard as to what students should be able to do. They do not
define clear expectations, other than to get the highest score possible. They seldom assess
complex thinking and behaviors.

Even at the school and classroom levels there are competing trends in assessment and
evaluation. The key focus is to promote “assessment literacy”; the capacity to better match
assessment methods and the information desired about student achievement, make sense of
the student achievement data we collect, communicate assessment results effectively, use
assessment to maximize student motivation and learning, and identify current trends and
issues in the field for further investigation and research so that we can be more proactive and
better able to hold our own in debates about assessment, evaluation, standards, and
accountability.

What Is the Vocabulary of Assessment and Evaluation?

One of the confusing factors in the field of assessment is that professionals often use
the same terms to mean different things. It might be helpful then to define some important
terms and see how they relate to each other.
The terms “assessment” and “evaluation” are often used interchangeably but they
do not always mean the same thing. For many, assessment is the process of collecting data
on student performance that is then used to evaluate (make judgements about) the
attainment of certain expectations, objectives, or outcomes.
 Because we speak of judgements, evaluation is never neutral. It can only be
objective in that assessments provide us with a quantity and quality of information
sufficient to make judgements that are fair to the strengths and needs of all
learners; precise in that students and others gain clear insights into how they are
learning and what they can do to improve performance; and true in that our
verdicts are valid, consistent, and accurate. It is important to remember that all
assessments and evaluations are limited in that they do not tell us everything there
is to know about the learning of particular individuals or groups.

Assessment and evaluation are continuous activities in the classroom and they can be
both informal and formal.

86
  Informal assessment occurs when teacher collects information to use for the
purposes of shaping on-going instruction. At the end of a segment of a lesson, for
example, the teacher might orally ask a random sample of students around the
room to respond to questions about what was just taught. The responses to these
questions will give the teacher a sense of how well the class has learned the
information, concept, or skill in question and whether they are ready to move on.
Teachers might also carry out informal assessment of individual students by
observing the way they are completing tasks assigned in class.

While informal assessment is a continuous and sometimes almost unconscious

process, formal assessment is normally more overt and systematically planned. We are all
familiar with typical manifestations of formal assessment: quizzes, tests, essays, and projects.

For example:
A typical outcome for social studies is that students become more open- minded. One could
imagine assessing progress towards that goal by having students write position papers on
issues from various points of view, but observing students interacting in class with people
expressing views different from theirs might also accomplish this. What makes this kind of
observation different from an informal assessment is the structured nature of the data
collection, perhaps using a checklist or taking notes, and sharing the information gathered
with the students involved and perhaps others to provide feedback.

A key to effective assessment and evaluation is clarity about purpose. Broadly speaking
in terms of purpose, there are two types of assessment: formative and summative.

Formative assessment is to provide teacher and student with feedback that can direct future
teaching and learning.
 For example, following some instruction on the skill of comparing and
contrasting, the teacher might assign students the task of writing a short essay
comparing and contrasting Napoleon’s and Hitler’s invasions of Russia. When the
teacher examines the essays she finds that the majority of students tend to describe
both invasions but do not actually develop comparisons and contrasts. This
information tells her that there are areas of the skill that need further work. She
can then develop a lesson showing students both the strengths and weaknesses of
their work in terms of the skill, and provide further direction in developing the
skill.

Central to formative assessment is the provision of quality feedback. Feedback

consists of information that tells us how we are doing and what we need to do next, in the
light of our intentions and goals.

A research synthesis by Marzano, Pickering, and Pollock noted the following principles of
quality feedback:
 First, feedback should be timely (the longer we wait the less effect it has on
achievement).
 Feedback should be specific (criterion-referenced) and “corrective” in order to
show what went well, what needs improvement, and how to improve (all three
components needed for maximum achievement).
 Feedback can be verbal and written and can come from teachers, peers, or the
student him/herself.

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  Feedback should allow students to make decisions as to the nature of the
improvements and adjustments that need to be made.

Summative assessment provides an accounting of student progress at a particular point in

time. It is normally a measurement that describes where the student stands in regard to some
sort of standard such as curriculum outcomes.

 The most familiar summative assessment is the report card that communicates to
students and their parents the degree to which students are meeting expectations
with regard to the curriculum. Of course, summative assessments can be used in a
formative manner—report card might help students focus on particular areas
where they need extra work—but that are not their primary intent.

Assessment and Evaluation in Social

Studies Classrooms

In order to overcome the limits and minimize the errors in our assessments and
evaluations, the assessment tools we use must be valid and reliable. Validity and reliability
are terms usually associated with standardized testing, but the underlying ideas are important
to assessment and evaluation more generally.

Validity simply means that the data collected is truly related to the outcomes we intend to
measure.
 Valid historical claims about the past. Assessment instruments that only collect
data on discrete historical facts, then, are not valid in assessing curriculum
outcomes related to developing historical thinking.

Reliable assessment instruments are ones that will produce the same (or very similar) results
in different situations. There are two components to be concerned about in producing reliable
instruments.
 First, the activity itself should produce clear, consistent evidence of student
achievement in the desired area.
 Second, the evidence should be interpreted the same way by independent observers.
It is important to remember that no single instrument, no matter how carefully
constructed, can collect all the information needed for a comprehensive evaluation of student

88
progress or be completely valid and reliable. The evaluation of student progress is a very
complex process and good teachers build a wide repertoire of approaches to both collecting
information and making sense of it.

What Are Some Particular Assessment and Evaluation Challenges for Social Studies
Teachers?
Designing and implementing appropriate mechanisms for tracking student progress and
providing feedback is a complex endeavor for all teachers, but social studies present some
unique challenges for assessment and evaluation.
 Even within a single social studies discipline, the kinds of learning’s to be assessed
cover a wide range.
 Many key social studies outcomes such as critical thinking, social responsibility, and
informed decision-making are hard to define compared to outcomes from other
subjects.
 As a result of these varied and contested outcomes, the field of social studies has had
great difficulty reaching consensus on its key concepts and purposes, including what
constitutes sound assessment and evaluation.
 This has certainly been true in the area of assessment. Tests or quizzes purporting to
test student knowledge of history, geography, or civics are routinely published in the
media, with subsequent blaming and hand-wringing about our wayward youth.

How Do I Plan for Sound Assessment and Evaluation?

Sound assessment begins with the learner in mind. This “backwards design” or “design
down” process requires us:
(1) determine what the learner needs to know and or do as a result of the learning;
(2) identify clear evidence of learning; and
(3) Design instruction so that students will have opportunities to learn and demonstrate their
leanings.
Good teachers will keep the following questions in mind when planning for
assessment.
1. What is to be assessed?
 As mentioned above, assessment instruments should be valid; that is, they should
provide information about specific, clearly defined elements of students’
knowledge or skills. In order to design appropriate methods of assessment,
teachers must be very clear about exactly what it is they want information on.
2. What is the purpose of the assessment?
 The means of collecting information and reporting on it will vary depending on
whether the purpose of the assessment is formative—to provide information for
the student and teacher to use to monitor or improve progress—or summative— to
provide end-point information for students, parents, and/or administrators.
3. What assessment tools will best provide the information we need?
 Tools will vary depending on what is to be assessed and the purpose of the
assessment.
4. What form will the data take?
 This is obviously related to the previous question but there may be some variety
within particular assessment tools. A teacher might, as suggested above, ask
students to compare and contrast Napoleon’s and Hitler’s invasions of Russia,
allowing students to present their report in written, oral, or graphic form. In the
case of students who have difficulty writing, the latter two forms might provide
better information about their facility with the skill being evaluated.

89
 5. Who will collect the data: teachers, students, or outside judges?
 Involving students in self- or peer-assessment can be a very effective teaching and
assessment technique Asking students to use a checklist to rate their peers’
performance in a debate by collecting data on several criteria (content,
presentation, argument, etc.) both directs the students to pay specific attention to
these important criteria (teaching) and provides information on how well they
understand them (assessment).
6. How often and when will the data be collected?
 As stated above, teachers assess students all the time.

7. What will be done with the data making up the assessment?

 As stated above, we assess for different purposes and, depending on the purpose,
different things will be done with the data.
 Underpinning all these questions, of course, is the principle that our assessments must
align with curriculum outcomes. Constraining our use of the full range of techniques
and tools is our ability
to manage, assess, and teach at the same time. So manageability is a factor in our
assessment planning decisions.
 Such opportunities are built into sound lesson planning. With good instruction we
are well on our way to making those first steps towards assessment literacy.

What Specific Forms of Assessment and Evaluation Can Be Used in Social Studies?
As stated above, assessing and evaluating student progress is a complex endeavor.
Good teachers will develop a range of tools for helping with this task. It is important to
remember that each of these tools has strengths and weaknesses and teachers need to be able
to select appropriate ones to serve their particular assessment and evaluation purposes.

Selected response tests

Selected response tests, often called “objective paper and pencil tests” consist
of multiple choice, true false, matching, and fill-in-the-blank items. The phrase
“selected response” is most accurate since it reflects the procedure of selecting correct
responses from a range of possibilities. We use them because we perceive that they
are objective, because we experienced these types of tests when we were students, and
because the ease of marking makes evaluation more manageable.
 True-false tests, data are quickly collected on a range of knowledge targets such as
generalizations or propositions, with little demand on reading ability.
 Fill-in tests work for outcomes such as vocabulary understanding and, unlike other
forms of selective response, do not promote guessing.
 Matching is particularly useful for assessing student recognition of how ideas are
associated.
 Multiple-choice items, usually consisting of a complete statement of the problem or
question
 (stem/lead); construction of plausible distracters (wrong answers); random placing of
the key (correct answer), are the most versatile form of selective response, ranging in
use from recall of basic information to interpretation, analogies, and other complex
outcomes.

Selected response items have the advantage of being easy to administer and score and,
if well-constructed, are high in validity and reliability. Using selective response for

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 assessment beyond routine knowledge or simple skills, however, is difficult. Furthermore
it is too easy to include irrelevant data in selective response items, allowing students to
guess a correct answer without actually knowing anything.

Extended- or essay-response tests

Essays are items that require an extended or constructed written answer to a relatively
open-ended question for which a variety of appropriate responses are possible. Along with
short-answer questions, selective and essay responses constitute the traditional assessment
options in social studies classes.
 Essay tests or assignments may be more valid than selected response items in that
they are more likely to provide data on important outcomes such as the ability to
identify an issue, organize relevant information into an argument, reveal cause-effect
relationships, recognize human-environmental interactions, weigh evidence, and so
on.
 The essay can range from a short paragraph to many pages.
 Without clear and precise scoring criteria, applied consistently by teachers, one
person’s “A” can be another person’s “C.”
 Committees of specialists, especially teachers, meet to design questions based on
curriculum outcomes, to be assessed with clear criteria and reliable scoring systems.
 We can narrow or broaden the content focus by increasing or decreasing the factors or
variables to consider.
 We can also specify the cognitive demands.

Document-based questions
These questions are not designed to test student’s recall of information but rather their
abilities to critically use sources as the basis for constructing historical accounts.

Performance Assessment
Performance assessment is considered new although it is as old as assessment itself.
Unlike selected response, the assessor does not count correct responses in order to render a
judgement.
 Instead, she or he collects data on the process or makes a judgement about the
quality of the final product as students actually do something.
 Performance assessment tasks are not add-ons, fillers, or breaks for the
teacher, but opportunities to combine instruction with assessment.

According to Bower, Lobdell, and Swenson, culminating performance activities or

projects:
 are central to the unit and its big question
 are known to students in advance

Assessment and Evaluation in Social Studies Classrooms

• ask students to create a meaningful product or performance
• demand students use different learning styles and intelligences
• make clear to students the standards by which their work will be judged
• foster the habit of self-assessment
• allow teachers to act as coaches
• require students to think deeply about important issues
Authentic Assessment

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  Authentic assessments are a particular form of performance assessment where
students are required to perform a real-life activity and an assessment is made based
on that activity.

Structured Observation
 Many performance and authentic assessments will include “hard” evidence of student
progress such as written components, constructed models, and visual representations,
but often much of the evidence of student progress will be gathered through watching
them work.
 We need to be able to be more specific about what we mean and that kind of
specificity can be obtained by structured observation: watching for, and collecting
evidence on, particular behaviors. In the area of thinking, for example, we might
watch for:
 Perseverance
 Decreased impulsiveness
 Flexible thinking
 Metacognition
 Careful review
 These observations would be structured not only in the sense that the teacher looks for
evidence for precise criteria like these but also in the sense that some form of record
is kept of the observations such as checklists or anecdotal notes.

A rubric is an achievement scale: a set of scoring guidelines for evaluating student

work.

 Before determining specific criteria, it is important for students to discuss what

quality looks like.
 A word on weighting criteria for grading purposes: the issues around converting
performance levels to marks or grades are complex.
 evaluation using a grade or rubric represent a judgement about what is valued

Conclusion
 The trends in assessment and evaluation in social studies, as in other parts of the
curriculum, are in a state of flux.
 The issues are complex; easy solutions are impossible. Assessing student progress is
one of the most difficult and public things teachers do.
 It takes time and hard work to develop the range of procedures and instruments
necessary to adequately provide feedback to both teacher and students (formative
assessment) and end-point information for students, parents, and others in the
education System (summative assessment).
 Informed, reasoned discussion by researchers, practitioners, and policymakers is a
must.

REFERENCE:
Myers, J. (2004) Assessment and Evaluation in Social Studies Classroom, A
Question of Balance. Challenges & Prospects for Canadian Social Studies.

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TOPIC: RELEVANT RESEARCHES IN ASSESSMENT AND
EVALUATION IN THE SOCIAL STUDIES SCIENCE
OBJECTIVE: Present and Analyze the state of assessment and evaluation in
the Social Studies and Social Science today.
RESEARCH ARTICLE: Evaluation and Assessment in Early Social Science by Hus &
Matjašič (2017)
PRESENTER: PAUL BRYAN B. BADAR

Evaluation and Assessment in Early Social Science

by Hus & Matjašič
ABSTRACT

Authenticity is an important element in the newer models of teaching, evaluation and

assessment. Due to the fact that it is quite unclear how authentic evaluation and assessment
should be implemented into practice, teachers still cling too much to traditional forms of
knowledge evaluation and assessment.

Researchers of this study gathered the data through a web questionnaire on a

representative sample of Teachers who were teaching Social Science year 4 in primary
schools of Slovenia. Part of this result, they discovered that Teachers widely used summative
knowledge evaluation and assessment form. Among the authentic and alternative forms,
research and simulation are predominant.

1. INTRODUCTION

Evaluation and assessment are concepts which teachers use and are familiar with, but
the distinction between them is quite complicated because both the scholarly literature and
everyday communication do not offer unambiguous understanding. Evaluation is the process
of gathering information on learning and pupils' understanding of the discussed learning
content while Assessment is the process of finding and interpreting evidence to be used by
learners and teachers in order to enable them to establish exactly where the learners are in
their learning, where they have to focus and what best way to get there. According to
Strmčnik states that assessment is an independent level of learning process with its own
specific didactic function, and does not coincide either with evaluation or practice. At the
assessment stage there are marks, which are not an option at the evaluation stage.

Teachers may measure students' knowledge in a number of ways after they have assessed
their knowledge: verbal and written responses, oral presentations, creative, technical,
realistic, and other assignments, project work, and so on. When evaluating and assessing

93
knowledge the atmosphere of an environment where these processes take place is also very
important. Students need to feel safe and accepted in this environment, not-knowing should
present a challenge and motivation for learning to students, and differences between the
pupils should be taken into account and respected.

1.1 AUTHENTIC FORMS OF EVALUATION AND ASSESSMENT

 Authentic assessment activities are designed to mimic the complexity of ‘real world’
situations that students may encounter in life, and require the application of a
combination of skills related to knowledge, skills and attitude.
 Wiggins states the basic characteristics of the authentic forms of evaluation and
assessment:
1. They are realistic and promote pupils’ intrinsic motivation.
2. They require reflection and stimulate innovation, as they are not based on pre-set
answers.
3. They require from students to seek for alternatives and construct their own
knowledge by collecting and organizing data, researching, analyzing, generalizing
and observing.
4. They require students to think critically about their work, learn about themselves,
discover their strengths and weaknesses, evaluate their products and to correct and
improve results by themselves.
 Ormiston adds that students do such tasks and solve such problems that enable them
to acquire knowledge that is useful in real life outside school.
 Luongo-Orlando states that the authentic methods of teaching, learning and
assessment of knowledge are based on practical assignments and presentations
Luongo-Orlando states that the authentic methods of teaching, learning and
assessment of knowledge are based on practical assignments and presentations
 Furthermore, Wiggins states that if we want to design an authentic test, we must first
to decide what the actual performances that we want students to be good at are. (full
potential, realistic applications of learning)
 Razdevšek Pučko reports on the positive results of pupils' maps (portfolio)
management which are reflected in the way that: teachers make criteria for assessment
more carefully; students are more aware of their mistakes; writing reflections on
products increases the level of metacognition;

To conclude, authentic forms of assessment and evaluation tries to offer realistic point of
view to students so that they can apply their learning effectively and they will see to it that
what they have learned is a necessity and a must to know.

1.2 Evaluation and Assessment in the School Subject Social Studies

For Social Studies there are no standardized tests yet, so a teacher evaluates and assesses
knowledge by tests composed by themselves or in school expert groups. Teachers have to

94
strive to maximize the inclusion of authentic forms of assessment which take into account the
aspects of procedural, lifelong and useful knowledge.

Authentic forms that are appropriate for the evaluation in the subject Social Studies are
simulation;

1. conversation with elderly locals about the town's history and life;
2. connecting with the community and discussion on the possibilities of development
of the place;
3. interview with a specialist who deals with furnishing; preparation and conduct of
the conference on the topic of violence in the neighborhood;
4. video recording;
5. appearances before different audiences;
6. teaching younger students,
7. further evaluation of various activities such as:
7.1 research and investigation;
7.2 data collection;
7.3 planning;
7.4 observation;
7.5 taking notes;
7.6 editing;
7.7 representation;
7.8 interpretation;
7.9 evaluation etc.

One of authentic forms of evaluation are also pupils’ maps (a map of achievements, a
map of products - portfolio), which are collections of the best examples of somebody's work.
Students’ feedback from the portfolio development process indicates that the procedure itself
made them more aware of their own learning processes, and how they needed to take control
of their learning activities to make them more meaningful for personal and professional
growth.

In the new curriculum for the subject which became valid. the curriculum also introduces
operational as well as procedural and developmental objectives. the objectives are not
fragmented and they show competencies. In the above-mentioned curriculum we can also
find a recommendation that teachers should plan authentic evaluation and assessment where
students apply knowledge to solve real issues and the most realistic problem situations, taking
into account the level of development and individual characteristics of pupils. In the
assessment, the teacher should create learning situations where students show their skills at
realistic and, above all, meaningful tasks.

Stern survey on the frequency of use of authentic forms of assessment in Social Science
classroom in Year 5 showed that among authentic forms of assessment products assessment
with a percentage rate 43.2% and the use of portfolio is the least or final in the said survey
with a percentage rate of 12.6%

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 The aforementioned survey also revealed some differences based on the professional title
of teachers in solving practical problems and self-assessment. The data show that the use of
these declines with lower teachers’ professional title. The length of service has also shown
some statistically significant differences, namely that teachers who teach for more than 21
years more often make use of authentic forms than teachers with less seniority.

Based on the findings, the author concludes that the reasons for the low distribution of
authentic types of evaluation are due to teachers' lack of information about them, as
well as the fact that they cause them to modify conventional teaching practices, so they
tend to use normal, more tried and tested methods.

1.3 PURPOSE

More modern ways and methods of teaching and learning are becoming increasingly
relevant as a result of the novelty brought by new insights in the field of learning theory and
conception of knowledge. However, such a method of working necessitates various forms of
evaluation and appraisal from teachers, which must be synchronized with the class schedule.
Therefore, we were interested in how teachers evaluate and assess in the subject Social
Science in Year 4.

In the empirical part of the research, we studied:

1. Teachers’ objectives in evaluation and assessment.
2. The frequency of authentic and alternative forms of evaluation.
3. Implementation of continuous evaluation.

From this research, the author stated that they are interested to see whether there were any
disparities based on seniority, teachers’ professional title, and the popularity of Social
Science as a subject.

2. METHOD

This research uses descriptive and non-causal experimental method. They also employed
data collection through online questionnaire. The respondents of this study are the dedicated
representative sample of teachers with a total number of 288 who teaches Social Science
(entire Primary School of Slovenia). The sample varies from

Teachers Seniority

Years of Teaching Percentage

0-10 years 30.9%

11-25 years 38.2%

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 Teachers’ Professional Title

Teacher without title 18.8 %

Mentor 36.5%
Over 26 years 30.9% Consultant 39.9%

Counselor 4.9%
Popularity of the Subject Social Science

Loves to teach 34%

Likes to teach 58.3

Doesn’t like to teach that much 7.6%

3. RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION

3.1 Analysis of Teachers' Objectives in the Evaluation and Assessment in the
Subject Social Science in Year 4.
Table 1. Average values of the importance of objectives of evaluation and
assessment

3.2 The Result

The results show that hat teachers, considering knowledge evaluation and assessment,
believe that two most important goals are that they know how to obtain information which
enables them to monitor the ongoing development and progress of pupils (x = 4.35) and the
objective that the students are able to timely provide high quality feedback about their
development and progress (x = 4.30). These two objectives are mutually closely linked,
because if a teacher does not constantly monitor and in different ways record how students’
progress, it is more difficult for him/her to inform students about their individual progress in
all areas of work. Teachers did not assign significantly great importance to the objective
of teacher’s acquiring a mark (x = 3.04), since that is required from them under current
legislation, and the objective of knowledge evaluation and assessment serving as a basis for
teachers to allocate pupils into learning groups (x = 2.67). Every teacher sets their own

97
criteria to help determine the groups of students who most actively work within the group and
where each student has their specific and defined role.

The popularity of teaching is a variable in which there are variations and tendencies.
Researchers of this study found out that teachers who love teaching Social Science assign a
higher importance to the objective “a teacher acquires a mark”.

3.3 Analysis of the Frequency of Use of Authentic and Alternative Forms of

Evaluation

Table 2: shows that among all alternative and authentic forms of knowledge
evaluation teachers most often choose an evaluation in the forms of “Research” and
“Simulation”. The least often teachers evaluate by using videos. From the above results we
conclude that teachers are aware of the importance of active forms of evaluation, since when
accompanied by good organization students’ activity in research is very intense, and
consequently the knowledge gained that way is more durable.

From the results of tests of differences, it can be summarized that the popularity of
teaching is a factor where differences appear. Namely, we found statistically significant
differences in the frequency of knowledge evaluation by interview exploration, video, and
performing experiments. These forms of evaluation are, as expected, most frequently used by
teachers who love to teach the subject Social Science. We believe that these teachers spend a
lot of time for updating their knowledge and introducing innovations in the learning process,
which is also reflected in the quality and variety of their teaching.
3.4 Analysis of the Implementation of Continuous Evaluation
The researchers are interested on how teachers implement continuous evaluation of pupils
through different types of evaluation. The respondents filled out a 3-step scale of frequency
of use of certain types of evaluation (1 meant often, 3 meant never).
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 The findings indicate that summative assessment, which occurs after a discussion of
learning material, is more common in practice. Teachers will effectively verify the
consistency of their instruction and how well students remembered the new material in this
manner. The next step is a diagnostic test, which is "conducted at the start of instruction to
assess prior knowledge: its scope and structure," and then formative assessment, which
"occurs in the teaching and learning process." There was no statistically important
independent variable in continuous analysis.

4. CONCLUSIONS and RECOMMENDATIONS

Students' evaluation and assessment is a delicate and timely area of educational work
that necessitates teachers' thorough understanding of its legality, accountability, propriety,
system, consistency, and fairness.
Because evaluation and assessment are critical and responsible steps in the learning process
for teachers, researchers must discover conditions and guidelines to improve this area through
empirical research. We approached our own research with this in mind.
Researchers found out from the representative sample of teachers who participated in
the conduct of study that:
1. These two interconnected targets were given the highest priority by the teachers: "a
teacher obtains feedback for continuous monitoring of pupils' progress" and "learners
receive feedback on growth and progress."
2. Teachers most commonly select analysis as an authentic method of assessment,
followed by experiment, interview, portfolio, and video evaluation. Simulation and
projection are marginally more common among the alternative forms among
teachers.
3. The majority of teachers use summative assessment, with some diagnostic and
formative evaluation mixed in for good measure.

The researchers of the study have also derived or come up with the following:

1. Formative testing, in general, happens when students are already learning so that
teachers can change their curriculum to better suit their students' actual learning
needs. On the effect of formative assessment on the learning process, it was
discovered that formative assessment would assist teachers in anticipating and
treating students' knowledge gaps in advance, as well as modifying approaches if
necessary, during the learning process. Summative evaluation, on the other hand,
does not accurately represent the degree of comprehension of the concepts taught. In
addition, since the boundaries between formative and summative assessment of

99
 knowledge is somewhat blurred, it is necessary to encourage the students to be
always critically involved in the teacher's feedback.
2. Changing testing and appraisal methods is a long process that takes a lot of
commitment from teachers, as well as the willingness to try something different and
consciously improve their own attitudes and beliefs.
3. Continuous assessment preparation is required, and students must obtain timely
feedback on their growth and progress in all areas of work.

REFERENCE:
Hus, V. and Matjašič, J. (2017). Evaluation and Assessment in Early Social Science.
Universal Journal of Educational Research

_________________________________________________________________________
TOPIC: PERFORMANCE BASED ASSESSMENT
ASSESSNG P-SP-PERFORMANCE
OBJECTIVES: Explain how processes/skills, products and performances in
Social Studies are assessed using Performance Based Assessment
(PBA)
Discuss and analyze the characteristics, strengths, limitations and
types of Performance Based Assessment (PBA)
PRESENTER: MARIE FE D. DE GUZMAN, EdD. (Professor V)

PERFORMANCE BASED ASSESSMENT

(ASSESSNG P-SP-PERFORMANCE)

Relevant Researches in Performance Based

Assessment (PBA)

Explain how processes/skills, products and performances in Social

Studies are assessed using Performance Based Assessment (PBA)
Discuss and analyze the characteristics, strengths, limitations and
types of Performance Based Assessment (PBA) Source:
Performance Based Assessment (ppt)
Identify and Present empirical/salient findings on researches
about PBA significant to teaching Social Studies.
1. Performance-Based Assessment: Some New Thoughts on an Old
Idea by Lai (2011), and
2. Teachers’ Difficulties in Preparation and Implementation of
Performance Task by Metin (2013)

100
101
102
 Republic of the Philippines
P resident R amon M agsaysay S tate U niversity
Iba, Zambales, Philippines
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _________

GRADUATE SCHOOL

MAEd-Social Studies
Scoring Rubric for Oral Presentation
Course Code/Title: ___________________________ Name of Presenter: ___________________________
Topic: ______________________________________ Date:___________
Category Very Good (4) to Good
Well done (5) Fair (2) Poor (1)
(3)
Content The content is clear and The content provides The content is vague in The content lacks a clear
Score: ____ Information is accurate. persuasive information conveying a point of view. point of view.
and is accurate.
Organization Presents information in Presents information in Audience has difficulty Presentation is not
Score: ____ logical, interesting logical sequence which following presentation understandable because
sequence which audience audience can follow. because researcher jumps there is no sequence of
can follow. around. information.

Subject Presenter demonstrates Presenter is at ease with Presenter is uncomfortable Presenter does not have
Knowledge full knowledge by expected answers to all with information and is grasp of information;
Score: ____ answering all questions questions, but fails to able to answer only cannot answer questions
with enough elaboration. elaborate. rudimentary questions. about subject.

Eye Contact Presenter maintains eye Presenter maintains eye Presenter occasionally uses Presenter reads all of
Score: ____ contact with audience, contact most of the time eye contact, but still reads report with no eye contact.
seldom returning to notes. but frequently returns to most of report.
notes.
Instructional Reinforces presentation Are readable, mostly Rarely supports the Difficult to read and
Resources (visuals, clearly and concisely. with distinct presentation, lacks style understand, lacks creativity
ppt, videos, etc.) Creatively done and neat. characteristics and neat. and sometimes neat. and barely neat.
Score: ____
Total Score: _______
Descriptive Equivalent: ___________
________________________________________
Name of Evaluator, Signature & Date

103
 Republic of the Philippines
P resident R amon M agsaysay S tate U niversity
Iba, Zambales, Philippines
*** GRADUATE SCHOOL ***

Course ---------------------------------------------------
________ Semester, Academic Year _______

Scoring Rubric
PRESENTATION OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS & VISUAL AIDS/DEVICES
Name/Title of IMs &VA/D: __________________________________
Name of Presenter __________________________________
Course//Major: __________________________________
Subject/Topic: __________________________________

Category Excellent - 4 pts Good - 3 pts Fair - 2 pts Poor - 1 pts

Display The visual includes all The visual presents the The visual does not The visual does not
Content information on the topic information fairly clearly contain all of the have relevant
in an organized fashion. and it displays a relevant information. information.
Score: ____
Information is presented reasonable Information is not well Information is
clearly and displays a understanding of organized. Information unorganized.
complete understanding information. Most contains several factual
of information. information is factually errors.
correct. Information is
somewhat organized.
Creativity The visual has creativity The visual is clear and The visual lacks style The visual is not
Score: ____ and is presented in a clear logical and contains facts and reads more like a written in students’
and concise manner with as well as very few list of facts. Somewhat own words. Lack of
full understanding of the mistakes. Good clear written in students’ own creativity.
subject. Written in presentation. Mostly words.
students’ own words. written in students’ own
words.
Uniqueness The visual aid has The visual aid mostly has The visual aid barely has The visual aid is not
Score: ____ distinctive characteristic distinguishing distinguishing one of a kind
and one of a kind characteristic characteristic
Mechanics Writer has completely Writer has all correct Writing has mostly Writer has some
Score: ____ correct spelling, spelling, punctuation and correct spelling correct spelling,
punctuation and mostly correct grammar. punctuation, and punctuation, or
grammar. No missing Few missing words. grammar, some missing grammar.
words. words.
Neatness The visual aid was neat The visual aid was mostly The visual aid was The visual aid was not
Score: ____ and organized and neat and organized and sometimes neat and or barely neat and
followed a logical flow. followed a logical flow. organized in its flow. organized in its flow.
Total Score: ___________
Descriptive Equivalent: ___________
104

________________________________________
Name of Evaluator, Signature & Date
105
 REFERENCE:
Performance Based Assessment (ppt)

___________________________________________________________________________
TOPIC: RELEVANT RESEARCHES IN PERFORMANCE
BASED ASSESSMENT (PBA)
OBJECTIVE/S: Identify and present empirical/salient findings on researches
about PBA significant to teaching Social Studies.
RESEARCH ARTICLE: Teachers’ Difficulties in Preparation and Implementation of
Performance Task by Metin (2013)
PRESENTER: WEAN CHAD BALANGON
__________________________________________________________________________
_
Teachers’ Difficulties in Preparation and Implementation of
Performance Task

Curriculum composed of four dimensions such as aim, content, organization of

learning activities and evaluation. While determining aims and contents of curriculum, it is
benefited from educational philosophy and as composing organization of learning activities
of curriculum it is made use of educational psychology. In Turkey, while behaviorist
approach was considered in the past, now cognitive approach is adopted in curriculums. It is
seen that this preference is effective to changing of teaching methods and techniques in
organizations of learning activities and measurement and assessment approaches in
evaluations component of curriculums.

In the contexts of these studies, although teachers’ difficulty in implementation of

performance assessment in the classroom is partially investigated, it is a need to studies
related to investigating to difficulties of teachers in preparation and implementation of
performance tasks. So, it is believed that this study provides important contributions to
researcher studies on performance assessment.

The aim of study is to determinate teachers’ difficulties in preparation and

implementation of performance tasks. In accordance with this aim, the study specifically
focuses on the following research questions:
• What are teachers’ difficulties in preparation of performance tasks?
• What are teachers’ difficulties in implementation of performance tasks?
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Abstract
The aim of study is to determinate the difficulties of teachers in preparation and
implementation of performance task. This study was carried out with 25 teachers (5 science
and technology, 5 primary, 5 mathematic, 5 social science and 5 Turkish teachers) who
working at elementary schools in Artvin. Sample of study is selected randomly. Case study
research method was used in the study. Data gathered with interview, observation, and
documentary data collection tolls. Obtained data were analyzed with content analyses
method. At the end of the study, it is ascertained that teachers do not determine appropriate
topics for students’ level and appropriate criteria for topics and have insufficient knowledge
about how prepared rubrics. Besides, it is seen that teachers encounter some difficulties such
as crowded classroom, insufficient time for assessment, insufficient learning environment and
technological opportunity and they do not do objective assessment.

Method
 The study has descriptive feature because the systematic examination of the meanings
occurred from the experiences of the informant, the researcher used qualitative
approach. In this study, case study method, one of the qualitative research methods
was used. Data were gathered as three data collection tolls which are:
 semi-structured interview
 observations
 documentary analyses.

Sample
This study was carried out with 25 teachers working in 10 primary schools in Artvin.
The informant was drawn from 90 teachers (30 primary, 15 science and technology, 16
mathematics, 14 social science and 15 Turkish teachers). Since there are only 10 schools in
Artvin, 5 teachers in different branches are randomly selected. Informants were 12 men and
13 women (5 of them are science and technology, 5 primary, 5 mathematic, 5 social science
and 5 Turkish teachers).

Data Gathered Process

1st step, teachers in different branches selected from 10 schools in Artvin were
informed about the study, interviews were done with them to develop semi-structured
interview forms used in the study.
2nd step, after developing the interview form, 25 teachers were interviewed with in
different time. It was carried out in an appropriate and comfortable environment, none of
them abstained.
3rd step, 60 performance tasks developed by teachers was assessed.
4th step, informants were observed by researcher in the classroom to determine
difficulties of teachers in implementation of performance tasks.

The observation was completed in 20 hours.

Data Collection Tolls

Semi-structured interview and observations and documentary analyses was used as
data collection tolls in this study.

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Semi-structured Interview Form: While this form was developed, it was interviewed with
five teachers who randomly selected to determinate difficulties of teachers in preparation and
implementation of performance task. Each interview took 20 minutes. Draft interview form
was examined by experts in the field of language and measurement - assessment. After
experts’ examination, it was decided that five question related to research problems must be
stayed in the interview form.

Rubric: Parts of performance task and features of these parts were investigated in
national and international studies to develop rubric for assessing performance task prepared
by teachers. After investigating, it was decided that rubric consists of four dimensions such as
describing, assignment, directive and method of scoring. This rubric was examined by
experts in the field of language and measurement – assessment to provide content validity.
Besides, similar criteria were classified into the same category to provide construct validity.
Each criterion in rubric was assessed three categories such as “inappropriate”, “partially
appropriate” and “appropriate”.

Semi-structured Observation Form: Observation form was prepared to provide

easiness for researcher. While preparing the form, its suitability for suitable to study’ aims,
points by taking into consideration the implementing performance assessment in classroom
was considered. Each criterion in the observation form was labeled “accomplished”,
“partially accomplished” and “unaccomplished” and a blank was left fort researcher
observer to write his opinions on application of teachers. This form was examined by
experts in the field of language and academic staffs of education faculty. This observation
form was revised according to experts’ opinions.

Analyzing Interview: Data recorded from audiotape were transferred to transcripts by

researcher. Thematic codes were composed by means of descriptive analyses. Besides, main
categories and sub-codes were determined by content analyses. After researcher made content
and descriptive analysis, main categories and sub-codes were compared and the ones with
consensus and the ones with disagreement were discussed and necessary regulations were
made. The reliability formula which formulates the reliability, as
Reliability = Consensus /Consensus + Disagreement was suggested by Miles and Huberman
(1994) and this reliability was used for the research. The reliability was calculated as 89% at
the result of calculation. If the reliability calculation exceeds 70%, this calculation can be
accepted as reliable Miles and Huberman. The result obtained was adopted as reliable.
Besides, it was regarded that many sub-codes could be constituted from the replies of the
teachers. It was taken into consideration that extra sub-codes might have been formed from
the answers given by teachers. After researchers had formed main categories and sub-codes,
frequency was kept about sub-codes. In the finding, main categories and sub-codes were
displayed.

Analyzing Rubric: Researcher assessed the performance task prepared by teachers in

different time according to rubric. According to rubric’ criteria, performance tasks were
graded as “appropriate”, “partially appropriate” and “inappropriate”. Frequencies,
percentages and means of each criterion were the interval width of 1.00-1.66 showed
insufficiency, the 1.67-2.33 intervals showed slightly medium level, the 2.34-3.00 intervals
showed good level of agreement with the criteria on rubric.

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Analyzing Observations: The observation’ forms were composed by research in different
time were examined to determine the frequencies of teachers’ behaviors and repeated
situations. Researcher’s expressions in the section of observation note were transferred into
transcripts. Then main themes were determined after investigating transcripts.

Results

In this study, findings obtained from different data collection tools were analyzed
under two main categories including (a) teachers’ difficulties in preparation and (b)
implementation of performance task.

Teachers’ Difficulties in Preparation of Performance Task. As a result of examination

performance tasks prepared by teachers, it is seen that general means are 1.98 in part of the
describing, 1.91 in part of the assignment, 1.87 in part of the directive and 1.71 in part of the
scoring method. According to these means, it was found that the performance tasks
developed by teachers are at medium level while taking into consideration the criteria in the
describing, assignment, directive, and method of scoring parts. As a result of the interviews
and document review, it was determined that the problems encountered when preparing the
performance tasks are suitable to categorize under two main themes including the problems
encountered while determining the subjects of performance tasks and the assessment criteria
about performance tasks and sub-themes that were created under the main themes.

1. Main Theme: Problems Encountered while Determining the Subjects of

Performance Tasks: Teachers’ opinions for the sub-themes are given below.
Not being able to Determine the Appropriate Subject for the Students’ Level: It is seen that
almost all of teachers have difficulties in determining the subject of performance tasks in
semi-structured interview. A great majority of teachers stated that they had difficulty in
“determining appropriate subject for the students’ level”. One of teachers expressed this idea
as “determining various subjects for all students in the performance tasks is impossible. In
this respect, determining an appropriate subject appealing for all students and appropriate to
their level is quite difficult. Although successful students can do subject of performance task,
low-level students cannot do accurately (Math 3).” As a result of document review,
similarly, it was determined that teachers had difficulty in choosing the content of the
performance tasks appropriately in describing part of performance tasks.

Not being able to Indicate Acquirements in Performance Task and Encourage Students for
Subject: Another problem of teachers having difficulty in determining the subject of
performance tasks is that they cannot decide how they should give performance task
regarding acquirements of curriculum. One of the teachers described this opinion in interview
this idea as “… sometimes, giving research task is appropriate to acquirements in curriculum,
sometimes, it is not appropriate. So, I cannot decide what kinds of performance task which I
should give (Soc 5).” Similar findings were obtained from document review. As a result
of document review, it was determined that teachers have difficulty in informing on
research subject or problem in performance task and explaining to encourage students
for research.

Not being able to Prepare Performance Tasks for Different Subjects: It was understood
from the teachers’ expressions that they generally prefer performance tasks examining
similar features. One of the teachers expressed this opinion in interview, “ordinarily, I give
tasks that they are related to subjects on numbers, fractions and geometry to the students

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within the context of mathematics. I created these performance tasks according to examples
provided by internet. I want to give different performance tasks for different subjects, but I do
not know accurately how to prepare performance task (Math 1).”

Not being able to Decide the Performance Tasks Related to Which Acquirements in
Curriculum: Another problem of teachers having difficulty in determining the subject of
performance tasks is that teachers cannot decide the performance task related to the
acquirements in curriculum. One of the teachers stated this opinion in interview as in the
following “I cannot decide the performance task related to which acquirements as there are so
many acquirements in Science and Technology lesson. For example, digestive system,
excretory system, and sense organs are referred about systems which are one of the subjects
in the 7th grade, Science and Technology lesson. I cannot decide the performance task to
which subjects in this unit (Sci 1).” As a result of document review, similarly the teachers
have difficulty in determining appropriate acquirement for the subject on performance
task.

2. Main Theme: Problems Encountered While Determining the Assessment

Criteria on the Performance Task: Teachers’ opinions for sub-themes are given
below.
Not being able to Determine Appropriate Assessment Criteria for the Subject: Determining
appropriate criteria expected to be done by students is important for an effective performance
task. It was determined that teachers have difficulty in determining the appropriate
assessment criteria for subject. One of the teachers expressed this opinion as in the following
sentences “I think that determining the appropriate assessment criteria is the most difficult
part in preparing performance tasks. I determine a subject in performance tasks, but I cannot
decide what criteria I should bear in mind when assessing the prepared performance tasks for
this subject (Soc 2).” As a result of document review, teachers’ opinions are corroborated. It
is seen that teachers have difficulty in preparing observable criteria in the rubric, explaining
to students required qualifications, how to grade the criteria. Thus, they are not able to be
successful under these circumstances.

Not Knowing to Paying Attention to What, While Determining the Assessment Criteria:
Qualified assessment criteria of performance are important for students for guidance, at the
same time it is important for assessment of the students’ performance. In this respect,
teachers should know how to prepare assessment criteria. It was determined that teachers
could not know paying attention to what, while preparing assessment criteria. One of the
teachers asserted this opinion as it is “There are principal main themes in Turkish lesson. In
context of these themes, what is expected from students is revealed. In deference to these
specifications, I state my assessment criteria. I do not know whether my assessment criteria
are appropriate for assessment criteria of performance or not (Turk 1).” As a result of
document review, it is seen that teachers have difficulty in determining the assessment
criteria.

Not Knowing How to Prepare to Rubric: One of the difficulties of teachers while preparing
performance tasks is not being able to reach to rubric. A teacher expresses his/her ideas as it
is “It is said that we should give performance tasks to students. I cannot find model
implementations about how to assess these tasks and how to give a performance task (Class
1).” As a result of document review, it is seen that teachers have insufficient knowledge
about explanation of the performance extent, level, and regulation of criteria.

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Not being able to Find Prepared Rubric: Teachers are obliged to develop an assessment
instrument since they cannot find rubric sample from books or internet. In this case, whether
teachers have adequate knowledge about how to develop a rubric or not is important. As a
result of interview, it was determined that a grade majority of teachers had difficulty in
preparing rubric. One of the teachers described this case as in the following “I should
improve myself as I cannot find rubric sample which is expected to be given to the students
form books or internet. I do not know how to develop the rubric. So, I am trying to develop it
myself (Math 5).”

The Teachers’ Difficulties in Implementation of Performance Tasks. As a result of

interviews and document review, two main themes were determined as problems encountered
while assessing performance task and implementation of performance tasks in class and
subthemes that were created under these main themes.

3. Main Theme: Problems Encountered While Implementation of Performance

Tasks in Class: Teachers’ opinions for sub-themes are given below.

Crowded Class: One of teachers’ problems is to have outrageous number of students in the
classroom as most of them are trying to implement the performance tasks in class. One of the
teachers described this case with his/her’ own words “It is wanted from us to give the
performance tasks to students and assess them in the classroom environment. But since the
size of the classroom is too big, the implementation of performance tasks cannot be applied
properly (Math, 5).” It is found that classroom size consists of 25–30 students from the
results of observation. Although the number of students in the class is not crowded, teachers
have to implement to at least 75 or 100 students because of the fact that branch teachers
attend to two or three different classes. This case results in the emergence of the idea from the
teachers that they would implement the performance tasks to a crowded student group.

Using too Many Forms and not Having Enough Time: It was noticed that enlargement of the
classroom size prevents teachers from implementing the performance tasks exactly and they
cannot do what they want to do due to the time lag. Also, at the end of each performance task,
it is expected that assessment scales related to this task are filled by students and teachers. It
appears that this situation prevents the teachers from applying the performance tasks in class.
One of the teachers described this as in the following expression “while assessing
performance, we are wanted to use so many scales to evaluate the students. This is an
exaggerated situation. we are using at least three scales for a student (Class, 3).”

The Lack of Physical Environment and Technological Facilities: When some of the teachers
implement performance tasks in the classroom; teachers indicate that they have problems
including the crowded classroom, and lack of time as well as the lack of physical
environment and technological facilities in schools to apply the performance tasks. One of the
teachers states this case as it is “Performance tasks cannot be applied exactly because of some
reasons such as crowded class, insufficient time for applications, not having the necessary
physical equipment for performing activities in class and unsuitable learning environments
(Sci, 3).” Observation notes support this finding.

The Low-level Students and not Understanding What is Expected from the Students:
Implementing the performance tasks in the classroom by teachers is directly related to
the students’ levels and features. Many teachers state that they cannot implement

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performance tasks in classroom as the students have low levels and they do not understand
exactly what is expected of them. One of the teachers stated this as in the following sentence
“I give a subject on social sciences to the students so as to research and present it in lesson…
but students bring me everything that they find on the internet. They do not understand what I
expect from them and what they should do (Soc, 4).” researcher’ notes from observation and
interviews support this finding.

Doing Students’ Homework by Parents: Another problem of the teachers is that the parents
perform performance task given to the students as homework. One of the teachers
revealed this case with his/her words given below “I gave the students a performance task
related to coordinate planet. I saw that the majority of the students’ drawings done by them
require mastery of the drawings. Doing these drawings by my students is impossible. It is
obvious that these drawings had been done by their parents (Math, 1).” Also, researchers’
notes support this finding.

4. Main Theme: The Problems Encountered While Assessing the Performance

Tasks: Teachers’ opinions for sub-themes are given below.

Taking Long Time for the Assessment and Incorrect Determination of Performance Task: The
vast majority of teachers assert that the main problem they face is to need long time for the
assessment of performance tasks while applying them. It is seen that teachers who perform
education activities in crowded classroom emphasize this problem. One of the teachers
revealed this as in the italic form “I attend five different classes in school. Each class has
about 30 students and this situation displays that I should assess at least 150 students’
performance tasks. Analyzing and assessing these performance tasks take lot of time of mine
(Math, 3”. Also, researchers’ observation notes support this finding.

Not being able to Assess Objectively and Giving Undeserved Notes to the Students: Having
crowded classes and assessing the prepared performance tasks done by students take long
time. As a result of this teachers cannot assess performance tasks objectively. Accordingly,
one of the teachers stated that “when we assess the performance tasks, we have to give a high
mark to the students even if they give us homework that we do not want from them. I do not
think that I assess objectively, while assessing the performance tasks.” As a result of the
observations, it is seen that teachers cannot determine the assessment criteria. Due to this case
students cannot understand what teachers expect from them and what they should do, and
performance homework is not up to grade.

Not being able to Assess Students’ Performance Appropriately and Lack of Knowledge about
Performance Assessment: It is very important to assess the performance tasks prepared by the
students objectively and know how to convert their performance tasks into grade so as to give
them the grades they deserved. As a result of the interviews, it is found that a great majority
of teachers accepted that they do not know how to convert the performance tasks into grade.
One of the teachers mentions it as in the following expression “I give some performance
tasks to the students during the lesson. I do not know how to assess these performance
EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES: THEORY & PRACTICE1670 tasks and convert them into the
mark (Class, 4).” As a result of the observations, it is seen that teachers do not have enough
knowledge about performance assessment, applying performance tasks in classroom and
performance tools. When analyzing the performance tasks given to the students, it was seen
that teachers did not consider ordinary features. As a result of this students cannot do
performance tasks very well and continue asking questions to their teachers about the task.

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Problem Encountered While Interfering the Students and Classroom Environment: To doubt
that the teachers have the most important role for the implementation of performance tasks in
classroom. Teachers are to interfere the students and learning environment when needed in
order to assess performance tasks effectively. As a result of observations, it is understood that
teachers cannot interfere the students and learning environment effectively while
implementing the performance tasks. In addition to this, it was seen that teachers did not have
willing to motivate the students. Also, teachers did not give feedbacks to the students about
their previously prepared performance tasks in order to see which part is missing or what
should be developed.

Discussion and Conclusions

Results of this study were collected two categories as difficulties of teachers in

preparation of performance task and difficulties of teachers in implementation of
performance task.

Teachers’ Difficulties in Preparation of Performance Task

One of the most issues encountered teachers is not determinate topic of appropriate
performance task to students’ levels. In consequence of investigating performance task
developed by teachers, it was seen that teachers were not specify to content of performance
task. Similar result was seen observation activities in the classroom. This condition is results
from that teachers do not understood to logic of performance assessment and relationship
between curriculum and performance task.

Others results of the study are how to prepare performance task regarding
acquirements in curriculum and teachers do not decide the performance task subject related to
acquirements. These results are similar to results obtained observations and documentary
analyses. It was understood from these results that while performance task was developed by
teachers, they were not considered to curriculum. It is said that aims of performance task are
decided and relationship between the aims and acquirements of curriculum are determined in
order to using performance assessment effectively. It is thought that this condition is results
from teachers having insufficiency knowledge about performance tasks related to
acquirements in curriculum. Hence, teachers need to be trained about performance
assessment. But many researchers were dictated that in-service training program coordinated
for teachers were not useful. So, it is possible that teacher do not prepare appropriately the
performance task regarding acquirements of curriculum.

It is determined that teachers have difficulty in preparation of performance task

related to different topics. It thinks teachers encounter the problems because of not being
given knowledge about types and features of performance assessment in course books and
curriculum and having difficulty in finding performance task regarding to different topics on
the internet and the other resources. Not preparing performance tasks effectively is an
important factor for the teachers who cannot find material related to the performance tasks.
When the prepared performance task by teachers and observation’ notes were investigated it
was seen that teachers had difficulties in the expression of giving knowledge about research
topics and problems, doing explanations to encourage the students to have eager for research
topics. It is important to do necessary explanations in part of the performance tasks so as to
encourage the student to be willing to do the performance task given and motivate him/her
for the lesson.

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 Another problem of teachers is that they cannot determine appropriate assessment
criteria regarding to the topic while preparing performance tasks. Teachers generally think
that performance criteria related to the assessment of the performance task are only used to
grade the students. But it was revealed by several researchers that performance criteria are
used to guide the students and teachers and give them knowledge about how to make an
assessment and let the students learn to do their self-assessment. Besides, it is important that
performance criteria are determined in order to assess the students effectively and it is
emphasized that determining performance criteria increases the validity and reliability of
assessment. It conduced that performance criteria should not be determined by teachers since
they do not have enough theoretically knowledge about performance assessment.

It was seen that teachers have insufficient knowledge about how rubric can be
prepared and cannot find rubric related to task topics. These results were found out when the
prepared performance tasks by teachers were examined. These researchers revealed that
teachers had not prepared the performance task themselves but made use of the previously
designed performance tasks. Besides teacher have inadequate knowledge about rubric and
this rubric is merely used in the classroom.

Teachers’ Difficulties in Implementation of Performance Task

The most issues encountered by the teachers are not having sufficient time and
crowded classroom. Teachers asserted they had to spend too much time while implementing
the performance task and thus, they could not apply the performance tasks in the classroom
effectively.

Teachers expressed that physical and technologic opportunities for the

implementation of performance assessment in the classroom were insufficient. Results of
observations carried out by researchers displayed that teachers did not arrange the equipment
and technological materials in order to implement the performance tasks effectively.
Although, schools have enough amounts of equipment and technological materials, teachers
cannot use them because of their insufficient knowledge and negative opinions about using
them.

Teachers dictated that using too many forms in assessment of the performance tasks
made it difficult to implement the performance tasks in the classroom. Although, teachers
said that there were too many forms such as rubric, self and peer assessment forms, they only
used rubric leastwise in the classroom. Teachers do not use the self and peer assessment
forms in the classroom because of bias on them.

Teachers expressed that they did not implement the performance task as the students’
grade level was very low and students did not come through. According to observations and
documentary analyses, teachers did not implement the performance task effectively because
of giving performance task above students’ level, determining far and wide performance
tasks topics, inappropriate and complex performance criteria given to the students. It was
understood that students did not have enough knowledge about what is expected from them
since the teacher did no determine appropriate performance criteria. Besides, it was seen that
teachers did not do any explanations about the performance task to the students, and they
were not given feedback on their done performance tasks. Many researchers revealed that
feedbacks are very important factors for the implementing of performance assessment
effectively, increasing the students’ achievement, their motivations and showing the right
ways to the students and teachers.

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 It was seen that teachers complained that assessment of students takes a long time
because of crowded classroom, objective assessment was unexecuted, and students was given
undeserved high mark. Birgin (2003), Çepni (2007), Kutlu et al. (2008), Linn and Gronlund
(2000), and Metin (2008) explained that of performance assessment had some disadvantages
such as consuming much time, decreasing the validity and reliability of assessment results.

REFERENCE:
Metin, M. (2013). Teachers’ Difficulties in Preparation and Implementation of Performance
Task. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice -13(3) - 1664-1673 ©2013 Educational
Consultancy and Research Center. DOI: 10.12738/estp.2013.3.1452

___________________________________________________________________________
TOPIC: AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENT
OBJECTIVE/S: Describe and discuss the aspect:
(a) Authentic learning and authentic assessment,
(b) activities varying in authenticity; and
(c) the difference with traditional assessment.
PRESENTER: JEROME DANSALAN

AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENT

NOMENCLATURE OF ASSESSMENT OF STUDENT LEARNING

PERFORMANC
ED-BASED

ALTERNATIVE AUTHENTIC

ASSESSMENT PORTFOLIO

AFFECTIVE
TRADITIONAL
WRITTEN
TESTS

Authentic Learning and Authentic Assessment

 Authentic learning or authentic assessment is a concept promoted by Grant Wiggins
(1989)
 Characteristic: students are engaged in applying skills and knowledge to solve “real
world” problems, giving the sense of authenticity.
 Many, but not all performance-based assessments are authentic.

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  A form of assessment in which students are asked to perform real-world tasks that
demonstrate meaningful application of essential knowledge and skills -- Jon Mueller
 "Performance assessments call upon the examinee to demonstrate specific skills and
competencies, that is, to apply the skills and knowledge they have mastered." --
Richard J. Stiggins -- (Stiggins, 1987, p. 34).
 Authentic learning allows students to explore, discover, discuss, and meaningfully
construct concepts and relationships in contexts that involve real-world problems and
projects that are relevant and interesting to the learner.
 Authentic assessment starts with authentic instruction

AUTHENTIC LEARNING IS EVIDENT IN THESE PRODUCTS

1. Verbal products. Role-playing, simulations, panel discussions, audiotapes,
debates and lectures.
2. Visual products. Charts, illustrations, graphs, murals, maps, flowcharts and posters.
3. Kinesthetic products. Dioramas, puzzles, games and exhibits
4. Written products. Journals, diaries, reports, essays and abstracts

ACTIVITIES VARYING IN AUTHENTICITY

RELATIVELY SOMEWHAT AUTHENTIC

UNAUTHENTIC AUTHENTIC
Indicate which parts of a  Design a garden  Create a garden
garden design are accurate
Write a paper on zoning Write a proposal to change Write a proposal to present to
fictitious zoning laws city council to change zoning
laws
Answer a series of questions Defend the selection of Plan a trip with your family
about what materials are supplies needed for a indicating needed supplies
needed for a trip hypothetical trip
Explain what you would Show how to perform Play a basketball game.
teach to students learning to basketball skills in practice
play basketball
Listen to a tape and interpret Hold a conversation with a Hold a conversation with a
a foreign language teacher in a foreign language person from a foreign country

116
 in his or her native language

AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENT VS. TRADITIONAL ASSESSMENT

TRADITIONAL ASSESSMENT AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENT
Selecting a Response Performing a Task
Contrived Real-life
Recall/Recognition Construction/Application
Teacher-structured Student-structured
Indirect Evidence Direct Evidence
relies on indirect or proxy "items"-- directly examine student performance on
efficient, simplistic substitutes worthy intellectual tasks
reveal only whether the student can Require students to be effective performers
recognize, recall or "plug in" what was with acquired knowledge.
learned out of context
Usually limited to paper-and-pencil, one- present the student with the full array of
answer questions. tasks that mirror the priorities and
challenges found in the best instructional
activities
only ask the student to select or write attend to whether the student can craft
correct responses--irrespective of reasons polished, thorough and justifiable answers,
performances or products

HOW DO YOU CREATE AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENTS?

 STANDARDS

 TASKS

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HOW TO CREATE AN AUTHENTIC LEARNING TASK?
1. Identify your lesson and its objectives.
  Lesson: Ecosystem
Contents/Topics:
Definition of Ecosystem
Natural Ecosystem
Man-made Ecosystem
Objectives:
1. Define ecosystem
2. Differentiate between natural and man-made ecosystem
3. Exemplify natural and man-made ecosystem
4. Create a miniature model of the ecosystem 
2. Design a task based on the objectives of the lesson. Based on the given example,
objective no. 4 can be realized through authentic task.
Authentic Task Identified: Making a Terrarium
3. Check its authenticity by relating its characteristics to the authentic learning.
 Interesting to the learners
  Learners will become interested since the task is new and exciting.
 Engaged students in exploration and inquiry
Learners have to explore the net, library and other resources to have an idea what a
terrarium looks like. They may ask their brothers and sisters or their parents to
identify the best soil and plants to be included in the terrarium.
 Learning is interdisciplinary.
Learners may use Geometry to determine the shape, Math for the measurement, Art for
the decoration and arrangement, Chemistry for the composition of soil and balance
of gasses and Biology for the organisms to include.
 Learning is closely connected to the world
Learners may easily solve problems that may occur during the process of creating the
task since they are making a close picture of the life in real world, like a pond. 
 Students become engaged in complex tasks and higher-order thinking skills
Learners will be able to develop HOTS since they are learning through actual
experience.
 Students produce a product that can be shared with an audience outside the
classroom.
  A terrarium can be displayed after its completion for other learners to see.
 Learning is student driven
Whatever decision the learners make during the process of creating the task, this is
basically a product of intrinsic motivation.
 Learners employ scaffolding techniques.

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 Learners are expose to completing a task using a step-by-step procedure, starting from
the simplest to the most complex.
 Students have opportunities for social discourse.
  Learners are given the chance to interact, mingle and socialize with other people.
 Ample resources are available. 
  Materials are abundant and readily available.
 
REFERENCE:
Authentic Assessment (ppt).

___________________________________________________________________________

TOPIC: AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENT

OBJECTIVE/S: Identify and Present empirical/salient findings on researches
about Authentic Assessment significant to teaching Social
Studies.
RESEARCH ARTICLE: The Effect of Authentic Learning Approach in Social Studies
Teaching on the Academic Success by Gürgil (2018)
PRESENTER: ROER-JAY S. FERRER

The Effect of Authentic Learning Approach in Social Studies Teaching

on the Academic Success
by Gürgil (2018)

Abstract
The purpose of this study is to determine the impact of authentic learning
activities organized within the scope of the social studies course of 5th grade students on the
academic success. Quasi-experimental design which is one of the quantitative research
methods was used in the research. The study was carried out in the academic year of 2017-
2018 in schools that represent three different socioeconomic statuses in Ankara province. 62
students from Çankaya Province; 61 students from Yenimahalle Province and 61 students
from Altındağ Province; a total of 184 students participated in the study. Academic
achievement test developed by a researcher was used as a data collection tool in the study.
According to the results, the academic success of experimental groups where authentic
learning activities was used was found to be higher than the academic success of the
control groups where the available programs were used. Again, in the groups where
authentic learning was applied, it was found out that the girls were more successful than
the boys. It was also found out that authentic learning activities increase success in all
classes with socioeconomic status.

Introduction
What is as important as learning something new in a changing and transforming
World order is that things learned should be meaningful and permanent. Many different

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theories, models, strategies and techniques have been developed in education for permanent
and meaningful learning. Authentic learning is one of these insights.
The French origin word, "authentique", which is introduced to Turkish means "having
the characteristics that have existed since ancient times" according to the Turkish Language
Society [1] Great Dictionary. In the terminology of education, use of the word ‘authentic’ is
quite different. The term of authentic used in the area of education has the meaning of
'close to reality, reflecting reality'. Just to make definition with regards to the learning-
teaching process, "authentic learning can be defined as education given in an environment
which is very similar to reality or in the real environment".
Authentic learning is accepted as a learning insight that is beneficial for the learning
process of students in many aspects. We can put these benefits in order as follows:
 Contributes to the development of high-level thinking skills.
 Provides deep, meaningful and permanent learning.
 Provides a link between learned life and real life.
 Increases students’ success.
 Provides students with social support.
 Ensures finding solutions to problems.
 Improves the sense of responsibility.
 Provides the synthesis of information.
 Increases attendance to lessons
 It is based on research and query.
 Shows that events are multidimensional.
 Brings in an interdisciplinary perspective.

The aim of this research is to determine the effect of authentic learning activities
prepared within the scope of the 5th grade social studies course 'Production, Distribution
and Consumption' on the learning of students. In this context, the sub-goals of the
research are as follows:
Academic achievement test results of experimental group and control group students;
a). Does it varies by groups (experimental-control)?
b). Does it varies by measurements (pretest-posttest)?
c). Does it varies by common effects of group*measurement factors?
d). Does it varies by gender?
e). Does it varies by the socioeconomic status of the schools?

Materials and Methods

Model of Research
Pretest-posttest control group experimental design from semi-trial models were used
in the research. According to Çepni (p.123) [31] and Karasar (p. 99) [32], the semi-trial
models come after the real experimental methods in terms of scientific value. In cases, where
the classes are predetermined independently of the researcher (central examinations, school
administrators, etc.), quasi-experimental design from experimental designs is applied.

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According to Çepni (p.123) [31] in such patterns, one of the classes in the school is
determined as an experimental group and the other class is determined as a control group. In
this research, quasi-experimental model was applied because the classes were prepared
before the research. One of the existing classes in schools was chosen as an
experimental, and the other was chosen as the control group randomly.
Study Group
The experimental groups in three different schools were applied the authentic
learning activities of social studies course for 18 course hours. The program, which is also
available to the control groups of three different schools, was taught with the same learning
area for 18 course hours. The distribution of the participants in the study group in terms of
variables is given in table 1.
Table 1. The distribution of the study group students in terms of variables
Variable Type of Variable f %

Females 94 51.1
Gender Males 90 48.9
Total 184 100
Experimental 92 50
Group Control 92 50
Total 184 100
Low 61 33.2
Medium 61 33.2
Socioeconomic
High 62 33.7
Status
Total 184 100

The reason for conducting this research in three different socioeconomic groups is to see the
effect of the socioeconomic status on results. For this reason, the same experimental
procedures were carried out in schools in different districts representing low, medium and
high socioeconomic income groups. All processes and measuring tools in the experimental
and control groups are identical. The applications were done and the data were collected
simultaneously.
Data Analysis
SPSS.21 package program was used in the analysis of the obtained data. For the
analysis of the first three sub-problems of the study, Mixed Between -Within ANOVA test
was performed. The t-test was used for the related samples to see differences in pretest and
posttest scores of the experimental and control groups. Mixed Between-Within variance

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analysis was conducted to determine whether authentic learning activities vary by the
variable of gender. Mixed Between-Within variance analysis was also conducted to test
whether the effect of authentic learning activities on academic achievement varies by
socioeconomic status. Significance level is taken as 0.5.
Findings
In this study, it is aimed to investigate the effect of authentic learning activities
prepared within the scope of social studies learning “Production, Distribution and
Consumption” on the learning of secondary school students. Three experimental groups and
three control groups were included in the study. The measurement tool prepared in both
groups was applied as pretest and posttest. The findings are presented below.
a). Authentic Learning Activities and Effects of the Course Taught in Line With the
Available Programs on the Academic Achievement
In order to seek an answer to the first three research questions of this study, Mixed
Between-Within ANOVA was conducted. That is, the effect of the social studies course
taught in line with the authentic learning (AL) activities and the social studies course taught
in line with the available programs (AP) on the academic achievement of students were
examined according to the group, time and time-group based interaction. In these analyzes,
while the academic achievements of students in the social studies course constitute dependent
variable, they represent two different time periods, which is before and after applying time
variables. Group variable consists of the experimental group where course is taught in line
with the authentic learning (AL) activities and the control group where the course is taught in
line with the available programs (AP). The scores and standard deviations of the students in
the experimental and control groups before and after the application are given in Table 2.
Table 2. Average and standard deviation values for students' achievement scores

Period of Time n M SD
Pre- Test (AL) 92 10.08 1.43

Pre- Test (AP) 92 10.05 1.43

Post- Test (AL) 92 23.54 3.19

Post- Test (AP) 92 15.58 2.61

Table 2 shows that there is a significant interaction between time and the two different
methods applied, Wilks' Lambda = .31, F (1,182) = 415.58, p <.05, partial eta square (η2)
=70. Wilkins' Lambda = .07, F (1,182) = 2373.56, p <.05, η2 = .93. The main effect showing
the change in academic achievement over time was also observed to be statistically
significant, F (1,182) =207.99, p<.05, η2=.53. In addition, the main effect comparing the
groups (applied method) was also observed to be significant (F (1,182) = 207.99, p <.05,
η2 = .53. These findings show that the effects of two different applications on the
academic achievement of students are different. That is to say, considering the pretest
and posttest scores of both groups, it is seen that in the beginning, both groups had
almost the same success level, but after the application, the increase in the experimental
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group is higher than the increase in the control group. The effect size of difference
between the groups indicates that 53% of the total variance in academic achievement is
explained by the method applied.

Table 3. Findings obtained for academic achievement from the mixed between within
variance analysis

Wilks’
Lambda F(1,182) p η2
Time-Group
interaction .31 415.58 .000* .70
Time (pre-test,
post-test) .07 2373.56 .000* .93
Group (AL,
AP) 207.99 .000* .53
*There is a statistically significant difference at the level of p< .05.
In order to examine the effect of method and time independent variables on academic
achievement separately and in more detail, syntax codes were expanded and paired
comparisons were made with t-test for related samples and t-test for dependent samples. In
these comparisons, Bonferroni correction was applied in order to reduce the probability of
making Type I mistakes that could result from the division of the sample.
Table 4. Comparison of academic achievement of groups in pre-test and post-test
Period of Difference Btw Standard Partial Eta
Time Averages mistake p’ Square
1.Pre-test
(AL and
AP) .022 .21 .918 .00
2.Post-test
(AL and
AP) 7.97* .43 .000 .65

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(5) The difference between the averages is statistically significant. ‘Bonferroni
adjustment was made for comparisons.

The difference between the pretest scores of the experimental and control groups is
not statistically significant (p = .918, η2 = .00) according to the t-test results for the
independent samples that are made to compare the pre and post test scores between the
experimental and control groups (Table 4). However, the difference between the posttest
scores of the groups is statistically significant (p = .000, η2 = .65). These findings show that
the posttest scores of the students in the group where the authentic learning (AL) activities
are applied are higher than the achievement scores of the group where in the available
programs (AP) is applied and the difference between the averages after practices is quite big.
Table 5. Paired comparison made with intra group pre-test and post-test scores
Differences btw
Partial
averages Standard P’
Group Eta
(pre test-post Mistake
Square
test)
AP (pretest
-5.52* .28 .000 .69
and posttest)
AL (pre-test
-13.47* .28 .000 .93
and posttest)
(6) The difference between the averages is statistically significant. ‘Bonferroni
adjustment was made for comparisons.

Figure 1. Change in the academic achievement of the students in the experimental

and control groups over time.

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 Finally, the findings (Table 5) obtained as a result of the t-test for the related
samples made in order to compare pre-test and post-test scores of experimental and
control groups within itself, show that the success scores in the experimental group (p =
.000, η2 = 93) and the control group (p = .000, η2 = 93) , η2 = 69) increased
statistically and significantly. Considering the effect sizes calculated by the partial
eta square, it can be said that the contribution of the authentic learning (AL)
activities applied in the experimental group to increasing the academic
achievement is higher than the contribution of the available programs (AP)
applied to the control group. The diagram showing the effect of the applied methods
on the academic achievement of the experimental and control groups is given in Figure
1.
b). Effects of the Course taught in line with the Authentic Learning Activities by
Gender
The above findings have shown that the social studies course that is given
according to the authentic learning activities is more effective on the academic
success than the available programs. The fourth research problem of the study
focuses on whether this effect of the teaching method based on authentic learning
activities varies by gender. In order to test this research question, mixed between-
within variance analysis was performed. In this analysis, while the success scores of the
experimental group constitute the dependent variable, time constitutes the first
independent variable which expresses the pretest and posttest time periods and the
gender constitutes the second independent variable. Table 6 shows the academic
success scores and standard deviations that male and female students from the
experimental group took from pre- and post-tests.

Table 6. The mean and standard deviation values for the success scores of male and female
students in the experimental group

Period of Time n M SD

Pre-test(Girls) 46 10.22 1.50

Pre-test(Boys) 46 9.93 1.37

Post-test(Girls) 46 24.43 2.66

Post-test(Boys) 46 22.65 3.45

Table 7. Findings obtained from mixed between-within variance analysis by gender

Wilks’
Lambda F(1,182) p η2
Time-Gender .93 6.57 .012* .068

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 interaction

Time (pre-test,
post-test) .04 2117.67 .000* .959
Gender (girls,
boys) 6.48 .013* .067

*There is a statistically significant difference at the level of p< .05.

Findings obtained (Table 7) show that there is a statistically significant
interaction between gender and time, Wilks' Lambda = .93, F (1,90) = 6.57, p = .000,
η2 = .068. Similarly, the main effect making comparison by gender was found to be
significant, F (1,190) = 6.47, p = .013, η2 = .067. This shows that the gender variable
accounts for 6.7% of the total variance of the academic success scores. According to
Cohen's [33] criteria, both effect sizes are moderate. Since the change in the groups is
in the same direction, the main effect which makes a comparison according to the time
was examined and it was seen that this effect is significant as well, Wilks' Lambda =
.04, F (1,90) = 2117.67, p = .000, η2 = .96. The effect size of the change over time is
quite high [33].

Table 8. Comparison of academic achievements in pre-test and post-test

Differences btw Partial

Period of Standard
averages p’ Eta
Time error
(Girls-Boys) Square
1.Pre-Test
(girls and .283 .29 .347 .01
boys)
2.Post-test
(girls and 1.783* .64 .007 .08
boys)

*The difference between the averages is statistically significant. ‘Bonferroni

adjustment was made for comparisons.

Paired comparisons were conducted to examine the effect of gender and time
variables on academic success in more detail. In these comparisons, Bonferroni
adjustment was applied to reduce the potential of Type 1 error. Firstly, pretest and
posttest scores between girls and boys were compared with t-test on independent
samples. Findings (Table 8) obtained show that there is a statistically significant
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difference in posttest scores between girls and boys (p = .007, η2 = .08), while there is
no statistically significant difference in pre -test scores between girls and boys (p = .
347, η2 = .010). In other words, while both groups had similar scores in the pre-test, in
the posttest girls were found to be more successful than boys despite the increase in
success of both groups. Moreover, the effect size of the difference between the
academic achievements in the post-tests was found to be moderate.

Table 9. Paired comparison made with intra-group pre-test and post-test scores
Differences
btw averages Partial
(pretest-post Standard Eta
Group test) Error P’ Square
Girls (pretest
and posttest) -14.22* .41 .000 .93
Boys (pretest
and posttest) -12.72* .41 .000 .91

*The difference between the averages is statistically significant. ‘Bonferroni adjustment

was made for comparisons.
A t-test was conducted for related samples to compare intra-group pre-test and
post-test scores of girls and boys (Table 9). A statistically significant difference was
found between the pretest scores and posttest scores of the girls (p = .000, η2 = 93) and
the boys (p = .000, η2 = 91). In other words, academic success in both groups increased
over time. The partial eta squares of intra-group differences indicate big effect size;
however, the increase in girls’ academic success is significantly higher than the
increase in boys’ academic success, as mentioned above. The diagram showing the
variation of success scores by gender and time is given in Figure 2.

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Figure 2. The change in academic success of male and female students over time.

c) Effects of the Course Taught in Line with the Authentic Learning Activities by
Socioeconomic Status

Table 10. The mean and standard deviation values for the success scores of male and female
students with different socioeconomic status (SES) in the experimental group.
Period of Time n M SD

Pretest (low) 30 10.00 1.39

Pretest (medium) 31 10.10 1.47

Pretest (high) 31 10.13 1.48

Posttest (low) 30 23.10 2.11

Posttest (medium) 31 24.29 3.26

Posttest (high) 31 23.23 3.88

The fifth research problem of the study focuses on whether the effect of the authentic
learning activities-based teaching method on academic success varies by socioeconomic
status of the students. To test this problem, mixed between- within variance analysis was
performed using data of the students in the experimental group. While the academic success
scores of the students constitute the dependent variable, the period of time when pre-test and
post-test were conducted constitutes the first independent variable (time), and students’
socioeconomic status (SES) of consisting of 3 categories (low, medium and high) constitutes
second independent variable. Table 10 shows the scores and standard deviations that male
and female students from the experimental group took from pre- and post-tests.
Table 11. Findings obtained from the mixed between-within variance analysis according
to the socioeconomic status
Wilks’Lambda F(1,182) p η2
.97 1.49 .231 .032
Time-SES

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 interaction
Time
(pretest, .042 2015.40 .000* .96
posttest)
SES (low,
medium, .89 .415 .20
high)
*There is a statistically significant difference at the level of p< .01.
The Levene test for posttest was found statistically significant (p = .032) in the
analysis made. That is, the assumption of homogeneity of variances could not be ensured for
the success scores in the post-test. For this reason, as suggested [34], the alpha value for the F
test was taken as .01 rather than .05, and the p values obtained from the F tests were
compared with.01. Findings from mixed between-within variance analysis (Table 11) showed
that there was no significant interaction between socioeconomic status (SES) variable and
time, Wilks' Lambda = .97, F (2,89) = 1.49, p = .231, η2 =.032. On the other hand, the main
effect testing the change over time was found statistically significant, Wilks' Lambda = .042,
F (2,89) = 2015.40, p = .000, η2 = .958. F (2,89) = .89, p = .415, η2 = .020. These findings
show that the social studies course, based on authentic learning activities, has a similar effect
on the academic success of students at all SES levels. The effect size of the differences
between the groups indicates that only 2% of the variance of the academic success scores is
explained by the SES variance. The diagram showing the change in academic success of SES
groups over time is given in Figure 3.

Figure 3. The change in the academic success of students from different socioeconomic
status groups over time.

Conclusion, Discussion and Recommendations

The purpose of this research is to reveal the effect of authentic learning activities
prepared within the scope of the 5th grade social studies course 'Production, Distribution and
Consumption' on the academic success of students. In the research, firstly the academic
success results between experimental and control groups were compared. Accordingly,
authentic learning activities regarding academic success were found to be more effective
129
than the available programs. In the study conducted by Karakuş [22], it has been concluded
that authentic learning activities increased the academic success of the students. Likewise, in
the study conducted by Hastürk [27], it has been concluded that authentic learning activities
develop mental structure, contribute to significant learning and develop high-level skills.
Similar results have also been found in other studies [2, 15, 17, 25, 35].
The second important result obtained in the research was obtained by
comparing the academic success of the boy and girl students in the classrooms where
authentic learning activities were carried out. Academic success that initially had similar
characteristics in girls and boys has changed over time. At the end of the process, the
increase in academic success of female students was higher than male students. The
teaching materials prepared for authentic learning activities may be considered to be effective
in formation of this situation. Because the gender of most of the characters in the WebQuest
materials and script texts prepared for authentic learning activities is also female. It has also
been observed that in the classroom girls are more willing to participate in the activities.
The third important result of the research is that authentic learning activities
increase academic success in all socioeconomic statuses in a similar way. That is,
socioeconomic status does not have a statistically significant effect on the authentic learning
environment. Newmann & Wehlage [35] in their research examined schools having different
properties. As result of research, it was obtained that authentic learning increases
success in all schools at different socioeconomic status. The reason of encountering a
similar result in both researches can be explained by taking part of students in this kind of
study for the first time. It is thought that this research should be examined in other
investigations. In addition, previous researches [11, 15, 17, 19, 21, 25, 28, 40] show that
authentic learning activities influence students’ attitudes positively and increase their
success. According to Dilmaç and Dilmaç [19], the most important difference in authentic
learning activities is that they give effective results in both successful and unsuccessful
students. According to this finding, it can be said that authentic learning activities are
effective in increasing academic success in all students regardless of socioeconomic
status difference Unfamiliar and complex things for students can be taught to students with
units associated with daily life and authentic learning activities. In the literature, it is
emphasized that social studies and geography lessons fit the authentic learning concept and
they should be used more in these lessons [36, 37]. It is also stated in the literature that there
are many methods, techniques, strategies and materials that teachers can use within the frame
of authentic learning concept [2, 7, 9, 28, 38]. Herrington, Parker & Boase-Jelinek [30] and
McFarlane [7] says that authentic learning can be supported by information technology.
Considering that nowadays, computers are thought to increase their effect in all areas of life,
similar studies can be conducted with different materials prepared in computer environment,
for different class levels.
As a result, this study shows that authentic learning activities increase students’
success in the social studies course. In this study, the results of the lessons taught within
the framework of authentic learning activities were determined by the academic success
test. Authentic learning is an insight where alternative measurement and evaluation methods
can be used [39]. In this context, it is also thought that it is also important to bring the
literature in authentic learning activities to be determined by authentic evaluation tools.

130
REFERENCES:
Gürgil, F. (2018). The Effect of Authentic Learning Approach in Social Studies Teaching on
the Academic Success Universal Journal of Educational Research 6(10): 2061-2068, 2018
http://www.hrpub.org DOI: 10.13189/ujer.2018.061002.

“Figure 2f from: Irimia R, Gottschling M (2016) Taxonomic Revision of Rochefortia Sw.

(Ehretiaceae, Boraginales). Biodiversity Data Journal 4: e7720.
Https://Doi.org/10.3897/BDJ.4.e7720.” doi: 10.3897/bdj.4.e7720.figure2f.

___________________________________________________________________________
TOPIC: AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENT
OBJECTIVE/S: Identify and Present empirical/salient findings on researches
about Authentic Assessment significant to teaching Social
Studies.
RESEARCH ARTICLE: Social Studies Teachers’ Knowledge Base in Authentic
Assessment in Selected Senior High Schools in the Central
Region of Ghana by Bordoh, et al. (2015)
PRESENTER: RAMIL BASA RABACA

Social Studies Teachers’ Knowledge Base in Authentic Assessment in

Selected Senior High Schools in the Central Region of Ghana
Anthony Bordoh, Isaac Eshun, Ama Mbeaba Quarshie,
Thoephilus Kweku Bassaw, Patrick Kwarteng

Abstract
The knowledge base of senior high school teachers in authentic assessment will be paramount
to both teachers’ students if they are implemented effectively in a social studies classroom.
The study used a descriptive case study design. Both the schools and teachers were randomly
selected from fifty-seven (57) government assisted senior high schools in the Central Region
of Ghana. The study used ten (10) senior high schools and twenty (20) teachers. Semi
structured interviews were the main instruments used for data collection. The results
indicated that knowledge in authentic assessment was relatively poor. Clearly, there were
noticeable gaps and variations between the teachers’ conceptions and theoretical knowledge
of authentic assessment and their relevant practices in the classrooms. It was also discovered
that authentic assessment use in the Social Studies classroom was limited by policy systems,
time, resources and assessment methods employed by the various schools. It recommended
that the teaching universities in Ghana should broaden their scope on the teaching of
assessment to incorporate authentic assessment.

1. Introduction
Assessment is central to teaching and learning. Assessment information is needed to
make informed decisions regarding students learning abilities, their placement in appropriate
levels and their achievements. According to Sadler, “assessment refers to the making of
evaluation on students’ overall performance and generating assumptions regarding their
learning and production education-wise, which include the quality or achievement in tasks

131
such as tests, projects, reports and examinations.” The success of any assessment depends on
the effective selection and use of appropriate procedures, as well as on the proper
interpretation of students’ performance. Thus, assessment procedures also help in evaluating
the suitability and effectiveness of the curriculum, instruction and teaching methodology.
It has become common more recently among educational reformers to criticize
traditional testing for its emphasis on outcomes that will not serve the students beyond the
classroom. Authentic Assessment has emerged out of this criticism with the promise that
assessment can be constructed so as to further both learning and teaching. The criticism has
substance. For example, Social Studies assessment in Ghana is dominated by traditional
testing from the classroom to the national level. Analysis has been largely uncritical,
however, and the emphasis on authentic outcomes poses problems as well as solutions.
Assessment continues to be at the center of a lively debate taking place in educational reform.
The measure of student learning, whether the assessment is standardized or alternative,
inevitably includes theories, techniques, practices, applications and outcomes (McMillan,
2001; Rudner & Schafer, 2002). The argument for assessment, as a measure of educational
outcomes is that it is expected to improve teaching and learning, and contribute to overall
school improvement (Shepard, 2000; McMillan, 2001).
According to Bekoe, Eshun and Bordoh assessment helps the teacher know the level
of understanding of the students and their ability level. Wiggins argued that the aim or
purpose of assessment is primarily to educate and improve student performance, and not to
audit it. Schools tend to focus on teaching students to pass simplistic, multiple-choice tests
that neither assesses what is valued and also do not provide feedback about how to teach and
how to learn. The tendency is to sacrifice what should be assessed and settle for score
accuracy and efficiency.
He contended that assessment reform is not simply achieved by simply throwing out
the conventional tests. In order to promote excellence, Wiggins argued that instructors must
change their way of thinking about how assessment is not germane to learning and therefore
is to be best done expediently. He stated that "assessment is of no value unless it is educative;
that is, instructive to students, teachers, and school clients and overseers". Assessment signals
to teachers and students what is important in learning.
Assessment tasks need to reflect actual teaching and learning processes and not the
mechanistic approach that if the test is improved, teaching will also be improved (Cumming
& Maxwell, 1999; Torrance, 1995). This shows that assessment is the bedrock in teaching
and learning. The assessment controversy or dilemma takes front and center stage in
education as the increasingly growing controversy of traditional and authentic assessment
evolves. Wiggins argued that if there is agreement among educators that assessment reform is
necessary, then we must imagine an educative assessment system that is designed to improve
student performance. Shepard suggested that a framework for understanding a reformed view
of assessment must be developed, where assessment is viewed as an integral part of teaching
and learning. Assessment in the classroom must be transformed in two fundamental ways:
(a) the content and the character of the assessments must be significantly improved; and
(b) the gathering and use of assessment information and insights must become part of the
ongoing learning process.

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 The discussion about assessment reform continues to include a discussion about
authentic assessment. Finding a definition of authentic assessment in the literature revealed a
more perplexing and challenging task because it produced a myriad of meanings (Gulikers,
Bastiaens, & Kirschner. The activities would challenge students to produce or perform at
high standards and instruction with assessment seamlessly integrated in order to foster a
mastery type learning environment (Warman). It appears that Authentic assessment is used
interchangeably with authenticity, alternative assessment, performance assessment,
portfolio assessment, as well as classroom-based assessment. Authentic assessment is the
use of activities which resembles, as closely as possible, activities performed by adults in
the real world. Authentic assessment would include authenticity, alternative assessment,
performance assessment, portfolio, authentic pedagogy, authentic learning and classroom-
based assessment, which includes assessment of learning, assessment for learning and
assessment as learning.
Furthermore, Boud and Falchikov suggest that educators need to move from
traditional (paper and pencil) assessment that focuses on specifics, standards and
immediate outcomes to more sustainable assessment that can aid students to become more
active learners not only in managing their own learning, but also assessing themselves to
life beyond the end of the course. They added that there has been considerable critique of
both the inadequacy of current assessment practices by classroom teachers and external
examination. Boud and Falchikov further highlight that most of the critique has focused on
the effect on learning within courses not on learning following graduation. They noted that
balancing this however, has been the flourishing of an array of authentic assessment
procedures designed to overcome the limitations of traditional unseen summative and norm
referenced standardized tests. Pellegrino, Chudowsky and Glaser assert that authentic
assessments provide multiple paths to demonstration of learning in comparison to
traditional assessments, such as answering multiple-choice questions that lack variety,
owing to students’ ability to demonstrate knowledge and skills they possess. Authentic tasks
tend to provide more freedom to demonstrate their competencies, including business
proposals, projects, portfolios, artwork and videos, among other tangible products, (Craddock
& Mathias).
According to the CRDD (2010) the general aims of Social Studies syllabus for Senior High
Schools are to help students to develop:
1. the ability to adapt to the developing and ever-changing Ghanaian society
2. positive attitudes and values towards individual and societal issues
3. critical and analytical skills in assessing issues for objective decision-making
4. national consciousness and unity
5. enquiry and problem-solving skills for solving personal and societal problems and
6. become responsible citizens capable and willing to contribute to advancement of society.

The primary purpose is to help young people develop the ability to make informed
and reasoned decisions for the public good as citizens of a culturally diverse, democratic
society in an interdependent world. An outcome-based approach requires that we test in
authentic ways what is considered to be most important in terms of knowledge, skill, values,
and attitudes. Thus, if critical thinking, problem solving, positive attitudes and values,
analytical skills and civic competence are highly valued, and then students should be able to

133
demonstrate mastery of these through worthwhile activities which meet the demands and
expectations of the society, hence the need to employ authentic assessment in our various
classroom (CRDD, 2010).
The traditional classroom paper and pencil assessment offers a quick and simple
method of learning about students’ subject knowledge. These tests have a standard delivery
and response format, with their typically being one correct answer using a forced choice
response format, mainly that of multiple choice, matching, or true/false. The benefits of these
tests are that they are relatively quick to score, easy to administer and are reliable, and may
be given to small and/or large groups of students simultaneously. In addition, they are
appealing to teachers already burdened by constraints of time and standards, but unable to
measure learners’ attitudes and values, which is the hallmark of social studies education.
Social studies educators should embrace authentic assessment for its ability to assess critical
and analytical thinking skills, problem solving, positive attitudes and values. Using multiple-
choice tests consistently tends to benefit some students and not others (Sternberg). This made
Bekoe et al. asserted that assessment can take place in any manner, but it does not mean that
authentic assessment must merely happen in non-traditional ways - it must always be
conducted in a formal way under the tutelage of the Social Studies teacher.
Relevant literature suggests that there are not many formal authentic assessment
training programs for social studies teachers in the Ghanaian educational context. The
purpose of this study is to determine whether SHS Social Studies teachers in Ghana have
knowledge of authentic assessment as a process of improving learning in their classrooms.
The research is meant to answer the question: what is the extent of the knowledge of SHS
Social Studies teachers in terms of authentic assessment?
2. Literature Review on Knowledge Base of Authentic Assessment
Authentic assessment has best been described by Warman as the use of activities that
would closely resemble those activities performed by individuals in the real world.
Assessments that are related in some manner to real world or workplace performance are
broadly described as ‘Authentic,’ although the term is used in a variety of ways by different
authors. Eubanks defines authentic assessment “as a subjective judgment resulting from
direct observation of performance by an expert.” This definition highlights the enactment of a
practice that is judged by someone who is a ‘member’ of that practice and is intimate with its
performance.
Cumming and Maxwell refer to authentic achievement as “the extent to which the
outcomes measured represent appropriate, meaningful, significant, and worthwhile forms of
human accomplishment.” Raison and Pelliccione describe authentic assessments as
“educative, explicit, relevant, valid and comprehensive.” Authentic assessments are said to
involve the performance of a task that involves the complexity of real-world practice; a
holistic response rather than component parts and a context specific response that involves
higher order thinking and problem-solving (Cumming & Maxwell). These indicate that
authentic assessment is performance-based assessment. According to Bekoe et al., cited in
Eshun, Bordoh, Bassaw & Mensah “knowledge is constructed during the learning process
and that a student discovers knowledge for him/herself, rather than receiving knowledge, and
this inspires the notion of performance-based assessment.” Cumming and Maxwell suggest
that the validity of authentic assessment tasks should be focused on the situation and purpose

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of the assessment. This relates to notions of ecological relevance which is concerned with
how the assessment meets the needs of the context of which it is a part. In this study the
relationship of the assessments to authenticity can be visualized as occurring along a
continuum that progresses from paper and pencil to involvement in real life productions.
While there are a range of definitions for authentic assessment, Gulikers, Bastiaens &
Kirschner provide a five-dimensional framework for designing authentic assessment task.
They understand authentic assessments in terms of five dimensions: assessment task, physical
context, social context, assessment result/form, and assessment criteria. Each of these
dimensions is individually perceived on a scale or ‘continuum’ of authenticity. For example,
a microteaching experience for a group of pre-service teachers that occurs in a university
classroom may be relatively high on a scale of authentic practice, as this experience replicates
the professional practice of a teacher, yet rate lower as an authentic physical and social
context. Frameworks such as this may help with the development and evaluation of authentic
assessments in practice.
Authentic assessments are generally considered to be performance-based tasks done
in an environment that actually is or closely approximates a real-world setting. Physical
education’s real-world environment might include playing games, dancing, rock climbing, or
inline skating. Danielson, identifies a second type of authentic assessment that involves work
that someone in the profession would actually do. For example, a dance critic would be
required to write a review of a dance performance. A sports announcer would describe the
play-by-play of a game. Either of these examples could demonstrate cognitive knowledge of
the respective activity and thus measure student learning.
There are eight characteristics that can be used to describe authentic assessments.
According to Lund (1997):
● exhibits harmony with a shared aim, involve the presentation of meaningful or worthwhile
tasks,
● requires higher levels of thinking,
● should be judged using criteria known by students in advance,
● should be so firmly embedded in instruction that they are difficult to separate from
instruction,
● gives students multiple opportunities to demonstrate competence, and
● involves a public presentation of student work, and assess process as well as the product.

Each of these characteristics serves as immediate feedback to teachers, parents and all
who matter in education. A good assessment must provide immediate feedback to both
learners and teachers. There has been a movement from traditional assessment toward
authentic assessments. Authentic assessment started being used as a means for educational
reform due to the increasing awareness of the influence of testing on curriculum and
instruction (Dietel, Herman & Knuth). Similarly, Reeves stated that “traditional assessment,
which is generally called testing, is challenged by alternative assessment approaches”
(Reeves).

According to Bailey, traditional assessments are indirect and inauthentic. She also
adds that traditional assessment is standardized and for that reason, they are one-shot, speed-
based, and norm-referenced. Law and Eckes underline the same issue and state that
traditional assessments are single-occasion tests. That is, they measure what learners can do

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at a particular time. However, test scores cannot tell about the progression of child. Similarly,
they cannot tell what particular difficulties the students had during the test.

Bailey also mentions that there is no immediate feedback provided to learners in this
type of assessment. The projects are mainly individualized and the assessment procedure is
de-contextualized. Law and Eckes point out most standardized tests assess only the lower-
order thinking skills of the learner. Similarly, Simonson Smaldino Albright and Zvacek state
that traditional assessment often focuses on learner’s ability of memorization and recall,
which are lower level of cognition skills. Additionally, traditional assessment techniques
require learners to display their knowledge in a predetermined way (Brualdi). However, in
the views of Kankam, Bordoh, Eshun, Bassaw and Korang authentic assessment provide
valuable information and improve students’ learning regarding how effective a teacher’s
instructional strategies have been to date. Authentic assessment help teachers identify the
level of understanding their students have reached, become aware of students’ strengths and
weaknesses, and to monitor their current progress during the learning process. This
encourages teachers to employ alternative approaches or methods in their teaching, because
certain methods can help certain students learn better (Kankam et al.,). More authentic
assessment tools, such as portfolios, independent projects, journals and so on, motivate
learners to express their knowledge on the material in their own ways using various
intelligences. However, this suggests that proper usage of authentic assessment methods in
teaching and learning provide feedback to both teachers and students.
Reeves believe the emphasis on authentic assessment is the ability of the learner to apply
their knowledge and skills to real life situations. He further states that there are five main
points in authentic assessment:
1. “It is focused on complex learning,
2. engages higher order thinking and problem-solving skills,
3. stimulates a wide range of active responses,
4. involves challenging tasks that require multiple steps,
5. requires significant commitments of student time and

Similarly, Simonson et al., discuss the several advantages of authentic assessment.

First, they tend to simulate real-life contexts. Learners have opportunity to practice the
authentic activities that they might encounter in real life. These activities allow them to
transfer their skills to various real world related settings. Second, collaborative working is
encouraged. Finally, authentic assessments assist instructors to have a better understanding
of student learning (Winking, 1997). That is, looking at the student product rather than scores
can allow instructor to get further insights regarding students’ knowledge and skills
(Niguidila, 1993). Bailey (1998:207) contrasted traditional and authentic assessment in a
table form.

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According to the information provided above, traditional assessments seem to have no
positive characteristics at all. However, this is not true. There are advantages of traditional
assessment, just as there are disadvantages of authentic assessment.
To begin with, traditional assessment strategies are more objective, reliable and valid.
This is especially true for standardized tests and other types of multiple-choice tests (Law &
Eckes). Alternative assessment, on the other hand, carries some concerns in terms of
subjectivity, reliability and validity. Eckes and Law express their concerns by stating
coaching or not coaching, making allowances, or giving credit where credit is not due are
critical issues that have yet to be addressed; we simply do not have answers yet”. While
Bailey agrees with Law and Eckes about the reliability issue, she argues about the high
validity in authentic assessments. She gives the portfolio example and claims that the wide
variety in student products might cause reliability problems. However, the positive wash back
they provide to the learner as well as validity let portfolios be a widely used effective
assessment tool.
Similarly, Simonson et al., claims that “proponents of authentic assessment suggest
that the content validity of “authentic” tasks is ensured because there is a direct link between
the expected behaviour and the ultimate goal of skill/learning transfer.” As Law and Eckes
mention, authentic assessments can be laborious in terms of time and energy spent by the
teacher. For example, the diversity of products in portfolios, which is viewed as one of the
most important strengths, can lead problems for the teacher in terms of practicality (Bailey,).
They might be harder to score and quite time consuming to evaluate the learners ’s
performance (Simonson et al.,). Rentz claims that unlike multiple-choice tests, which are
practical to score, performance assessments are viewed quite time consuming to grade. While
the first involves machine scoring, the latter relies on human judgment.
3. Methodology
A descriptive case study was suitable for this study as it allows for the gathering of
data in a real context, and it takes into account the political and ideological context within
which the research is situated (Cohen et al., 2003, in Lunn, 2006). It is an intensive
description and analysis of a bounded system (Bassey) used to gain an in-depth
understanding of the situation and meaning for those involved. As the study was carried out
in ten SHSs in the central region of Ghana, the data were used together to form one case.
Several research scholars including Yin and Bassey consider that case studies are
particularistic, descriptive and heuristic and are particular to a certain context and have a
more human face than other research methods, as it is strong on reality and context which
enables ‘thick’ description.
The population in this study comprised all the Senior High School Social Studies
teachers in the Central Region of Ghana. Simple random sampling technique was used to
select Twenty (20) Social Studies teachers and ten (10) SHSs out of Social Studies teachers
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fifty-seven (57) and the two hundred and eighty-five (285) SHSs in the Central Region of
Ghana.
The study used both primary and secondary sources of data. The primary data was
made up of interview schedules. In each of the study schools two Social Studies teachers
were interviewed. The interview guide was made up of fourteen semi-structured questions.
Secondary data was obtained from existing documents on assessment practices in general,
and policies on assessment in the schools. The main instrument for data collection was the
interview schedule. Both the interview and document analysis solicited for qualitative
information. The qualitative data analysis was done by the use of descriptive technique based
on the themes arrived at the data collection. This was based on questions on the semi
structured interviews.
4. Teachers’ Knowledge Base of Authentic Assessment
Teachers’ knowledge base of authentic assessment is presented under this section.
The main import of this objective was to find out the differences in the conception of
authentic assessment by Social Studies teachers in Senior High Schools in the Central Region
of Ghana. All the questions were placed in the interview checklist to elicit teachers’ views on
the issue. Their responses are discussed below:
When this question was posed- how do you understand authentic assessment? Five
(5) of the teachers were of the view that it is any assessment strategy in which questions
given to students are employed directly from the teaching syllabus. It is used by teachers to
measure, and to evaluate the effectiveness of teaching and learning. Another six (6) indicated
that, authentic assessment is a form of formal and informal assessment procedures (i.e., tests,
assignments, quizzes…exercise) undertaken by teachers in the classroom during the teaching
of any unit of Social Studies which is directly linked to the content of the social studies
syllabus. Eight (8) of these teachers also shared the same view that authentic assessment is
any form of assessment that purely measures what teachers have taught in class. One teacher
said “an assessment that resembles as closely as possible those activities performed by adults
in the real world”. This shows that theoretically almost all the Social Studies teachers
involved in this present study appear not to have any general knowledge of what constitutes
authentic assessment. Like Gulikers et al., and Messick, (1994) they perceived authentic
assessment as an assessment that require students to use and demonstrate the same (kind of)
competencies, or combinations of knowledge, skills and attitudes, that are applied in this
situation in professional life. Also, to buttress this, (Cumming & Maxwell) refer to authentic
achievement as “the extent to which the outcomes measured represent appropriate,
meaningful, significant, and worthwhile forms of human accomplishment”. Raison and
Pelliccione describe authentic assessments as “educative, explicit, relevant, valid and
comprehensive”. Authentic assessments are said to involve the performance of a task that
involves the complexity of real-world practice; a holistic response rather than component
parts and a context specific response that involves higher order thinking and problem-solving
(Cumming & Maxwell). Cumming and Maxwell suggest that the validity of authentic
assessment tasks should be focused on the situation and purpose of the assessment.
When these teachers were asked - what is the nature of authentic assessment? A
common opinion of nine (9) of these teachers was that, authentic assessment is all about
assessing what has been learned and what still remains to be learned within the course of

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teaching after a particular unit or units have been covered as is the case with all types of
assessment. What was discerned of six (6) of the teachers was that, it is about giving students
ill structured and critical thinking questions that involve complex and analytical process in its
solution.” One (1) teacher indicated that “It involves the use of project work, observations,
interviews, classroom discussions, portfolios, debates and report writing and also it is
performance based.” Opinions of the last three (3) indicated that they had no idea of its
nature. In response to the nature of authentic assessment Wiggins and Danielson consider
authentic assessment to be performance based. Authentic assessments are designed to
measure complex thinking (Wiggins). With authentic assessment, students are required to
take basic learned information and evaluate, analyze, or synthesize it while demonstrating the
ability to use this knowledge. Schools want students to use higher levels of thinking;
authentic assessment creates situations where critical thinking skills are used and assessed in
Social Studies. Good authentic assessments challenges students to build on prior knowledge
and experiences as they demonstrate competence on the concepts evaluated by the
assessment. They are designed to move students toward more sophisticated work, rather than
something they can complete the night before the due date.
When this question was posed - what tools support your effective usage of authentic
assessment? The answers from eight (8) of the teacher participants were quizzes, debates,
classroom discussion, end of term examinations and class test. Four (4) also were of the
opinion that authentic assessment tools are multiple choice and essay writing in an
examination. Another three (3) indicated that it should include project work and assignments.
However, the last five (5) did not state any special tool of authentic assessment that is
supposed to be different from traditional assessment. They were emphatic that it has the same
tools as traditional assessment. Authentic assessment strategies include open-ended
questions, exhibits, demonstrations, hands-on execution of experiments, computer
simulations, and portfolios (Dietel et al.). The most common authentic assessment tools are;
performance assessment, portfolios, self-assessment, peer assessment, alternative assessment,
authentic pedagogy, authentic learning and projects (Darling-Hammond & Pecheone,; Wood
& Joseph).
Another question asked to answer the above theme was - what are the differences
between authentic assessment and traditional assessment? Two (2) teachers indicated that
authentic assessment involves the use of ill-structured questions and higher order thinking
skills. Another four (4) were of the view that it involves challenging tasks, but it is the same
as traditional assessment. Eight (8) think the differences are not so wide, but are very close.
Their views were that authentic assessment questions must always be found in the syllabus or
textbook, but traditional assessment is not necessarily so. They also contended that authentic
assessment can take place outside the classroom, but not for traditional assessment. However,
they indicated that both involve the use of knowledge. Five (5) indicated that it is merely the
use of semantics, for every examination be could considered either authentic or not. It
depends on one’s definition of authenticity. However, one teacher indicated that there are a
lot of differences. She highlighted that authentic assessment is continuous, but traditional is
one-shot. Authentic is untimed, but traditional is timed and authentic assessment is
classroom-based test, but traditional assessment is using a standardized test. However, many
authors view these two as being wide apart. According to Bailey, traditional assessments are
indirect and inauthentic. She also adds that traditional assessment is standardized and for that

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reason, and that they are one-shot, speed-based, and norm referenced. Law and Eckes outline
the same issue and state that traditional assessments are single-occasion tests. They measure
what learners can do at a particular time. However, test scores cannot tell about the
progression of a child’s learning ability. Similarly, they cannot tell what particular difficulties
the students had during the test. Bailey also mentions that there is no feedback provided to
learners in authentic assessment. The projects are mainly individualized and the assessment
procedure is decontextualized Law and Eckes pointed out that most standardized tests assess
only the lower-order thinking skills of the learner. Similarly, Simonson et al., stated that
traditional assessment often focuses on learner’s ability of memorization and recall, which
are lower-level cognition skills.
Additionally, traditional assessment tools require learners to display their knowledge
in a predetermined way (Brualdi). Authentic assessments, on the other hand, assess higher-
order thinking skills. Students have the opportunity to demonstrate what they learned. This
type of assessment tools focus on the growth and the performance of the student. That is, if a
learner fails to perform a given task at a particular time, they still have the opportunity to
demonstrate their abilities at different times and in different situations. Since authentic
assessment is developed in context and over time, the teacher has a chance to measure the
strengths and weaknesses of the student in a variety of areas and situations (Law & Eckes).
When these participants were asked - Have you ever had any lessons or in-service
training on assessment and authentic assessment? Fifteen (15) teachers indicated that they
have had lessons on diagnostic assessment, formative assessment, summative assessment and
continuous assessment. Four (4) stated that they are aware of portfolio assessment as type of
assessment in addition to the above. One of the teachers who had a masters’ degree in
curriculum design added authentic assessment, alternative assessment, differentiated
assessment, criterion-referenced and norm-referenced assessment. It is plausible that teachers
who pursue further education (e.g., a master’s degree) are more likely to use alternative
techniques (Baumann, Hoffman, Duffy-Hester, & Ro). Perhaps they became disinterested in
the multiple-choice test, or maybe they have been exposed to alternative assessments, either
through their mentoring at their local schools and/or through professional conferences.
Additionally, graduate education may provide teachers not so much with the hands-on skills
they need to teach, but with a critical perspective regarding the practices they use. Given this
possibility, having a graduate degree in education and more experience (each individually) is
expected to have a negative effect on traditional practices and a positive effect on alternative
practices.
5. Conclusion
The findings of this present study indicated that authentic assessment, as a classroom
assessment strategy, should be implemented in SHS in the central region of Ghana. The
teachers in this study perceived that the form of authentic assessment used in their classrooms
was limited by policies, time, resources and assessment methods employed by their schools.
These policies affect their use of this assessment method because the subject is a core in the
SHSs.
It was realized that theoretically, almost all the twenty participants in this study
expressed no knowledge of authentic assessment. There were noticeable gaps, variations and
confusions in their articulated understanding of authentic assessment. This was largely due to

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teachers limited theoretical understanding of what authentic assessment is, and how it should
be integrated into the classroom assessment process.
6. Implications for Teaching and Recommendations
In order to build a common knowledge base for teachers teaching Social Studies on
authentic assessment in the SHSs, the University of Cape Coast and the University of
Education, Winneba, and other stakeholders in education and government officials should
broaden their scope on the teaching of assessment to incorporate authentic assessment. This is
because the interviews outcome reveals that there is a mismatch between teachers’
knowledge on authentic assessment. Although they demonstrated some level of
understanding in what constitutes authentic assessment processes, they still lacked
comprehensive and profound understanding of the real benefits and uses of authentic
assessment purposes to social studies teaching and learning.
The curriculum content of social studies should be reoriented to incorporate more
authentic assessment practices at the SHS level, and even at the university level. This should
emphasize classroom-based testing, and not standardized tests.

REFERENCE:
Bordoh, A. Eshun, I. & Quarshie, A.M. (2015). Social Studies Teachers’ Knowledge Base in
Authentic Assessment in Selected Senior High Schools in the Central Region of Ghana.
Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Vol. 1, No. 3, 2015, pp. 249-257
http://www.aiscience.org/journal/jssh

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________________________________________________________________________
TOPIC: PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT
OBJECTIVE: Relate the concepts and features of portfolio assessment as to:
(a) Principles Underlying Portfolio Assessment,
(b) Types of Portfolio,
(c) Characteristics, Advantages and Disadvantages
PRESENTER: DECENA F. VENZEIL

PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT
Prof. Marie Fe D. De Guzman, Ed.D.

PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT

- is a purposeful, ongoing, dynamic, and collaborative process of gathering

multiple indicators of the learner’s growth and development.

Principles Underlying Portfolio Assessment

1. Content principle – it reflects the subject matter that is important for the students to
learn
2. Learning principle – it enables the students to become active and thoughtful learners.
3. Equity principle – it allows the students to demonstrate their learning styles and
multiple Intelligences.
Types of Portfolio
1. Working Portfolio – a collection of student’s day-to-day work which reflects one’s
learning (process oriented).

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 2. Show Portfolio – a collection of a student best works (product oriented).

3. Documentary Portfolio – a working portfolio and a show portfolio (process and

product).

Characteristics of Portfolio Assessment

 Clearly defined purpose and learning targets
 Systematic and organized collection of student progress
 Pre-established guidelines for what will be included
 Student selection of some of what will be included
 Student self-reflection and self-evaluation
 Progress documented with specific products and/or products
 Clear and appropriate criteria for evaluating student products

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  Portfolio conferences between student and teachers
Advantages of Portfolio Assessment
 Assessment process is individualized
 Allows demonstration of unique accomplishment
 Promotes performance-based instruction
 Provides concrete examples for parent conferences
 Products can be used for individualized teacher diagnosis
 Flexibility and adaptability
 Promotes student self-evaluation
 Promotes collaborative assessment
 Enhances student motivation
 Systematic assessment is on-going
 Focus is on improvement, not comparison
 Focus is on students’ strengths
Disadvantages of Portfolio Assessment
 Scoring difficulties may lead to low reliability
 Teacher training needed
 Time-consuming to develop criteria, score, and meet with the students
 Students may not make good selections of which materials to include
 Sampling of student products may lead to weak generalization
 Parents may find portfolio difficult to understand
Possible Criteria in Scoring Rubrics for Portfolio
 completeness, creativity, originality, resourcefulness, reflectiveness, organization,
mechanics, visual appeal, accuracy of information, diversity of collection, multiple
intelligences, quality of the product and evidence of understanding.

REFERENCE:
Portfolio Assessment (ppt)

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___________________________________________________________________________
TOPIC: PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT
OBJECTIVE: Identify and Present empirical/salient findings on researches about
Portfolio Assessment vital to apply in teaching Social Studies.
RESEARCH ARTICLE: The Use of a Portfolio to Enhance Authentic Assessment
among In-service Student-Teachers’ in Social Studies
Education at the University of Botswana by Mhlauli &
Kgosidialwa (2016)
PRESENTER: RODRICK S. RAMOS

The Use of a Portfolio to Enhance Authentic Assessment among In-service

Student-Teachers’ in Social Studies Education at the University of Botswana
Mavis B. Mhlauli & Keinyatse Kgosidialwa

INTRODUCTION

“This course has helped me to transform some of my attitudes which were hitherto
not consistent with social studies education. Although I am not entirely satisfied with my
level of participation in class discussions, I have profoundly increased participation in group
activities. Gone are the days where I used to approach the course in a sloppier manner to a
point of wanting to learn more. My attitude to education has developed for the better, in fact,
I have of late applied for MEd. Social Studies on part-time basis because I feel I have so
much potential to excel and develop professionally” (Student; 2014/15 Cohort).
The above quote, in particular, sets the tone for this paper as posits the students’
position, mood and feelings regarding their experiences in a Social Studies course known as
EPS 403 whose main aim was to transform students’ learning through high quality
pedagogical experiences. It is through high quality education that the country’s human
resource can produce a sustainable economy and move towards social development. For
education to be of high quality it should continuously strive to undertake rigorous
pedagogical stances and assessment procedures.
This implies that any education system has to undergo a process referred as reforms in
educational assessment. Erwin (1991) defines educational assessment as a process of
defining, selecting, designing, collecting, analyzing, interpreting, and using information to
increase students’ learning and development. Educational assessment, therefore, implies a

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process of documenting, usually in measurable terms, the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and
beliefs that students have to experience during their educational journey.
Educational assessment “seeks to determine how well students are learning and is an
integral part of the quest for improved education. It provides feedback to students, educators,
parents, policy makers, and the public about the effectiveness of educational services”
(Pellegrino, Chudowsky & Glaser; 2001, p.1). This suggests that for educators to know if
leaners have acquired the necessary knowledge, skills, attitudes, and beliefs, a form of
assessment has to be conducted.
Student assessment has long been considered as one of the key issues in education as
it assists educators to know if students learn what they are being taught. Student assessment
has several purposes which include: improving students’ learning, stimulating and
encouraging good work by students, communicating the teacher's judgment of the students’
progress and informs the teacher about what students have and have not learned.
Assessment is essential not only to guide the development of individual students but
also to monitor and continuously improve the quality of programs, inform prospective
students and their parents, and provide evidence of accountability to those who are involved
in the process (Gardiner, 1994). Student assessment provides crucial information on how well
students are learning and how to improve students’ learning. Student assessment can be based
on writing assignments, group presentations, portfolios, examinations or project work.
Recent research shows that student assessment is undergoing profound changes as
reforms in educational goals and content, standards, curriculum and instruction, teacher
education, and the relationships among parents and schools take place (Bond, 1995).
Institutions are now mandated to develop assessment practices that will minimize the
uncertainty and subjectivity associated with assessing student competence. One of such
student assessment practice is authentic assessment. The type of authentic assessment that is
gaining ground is where students are required to perform a task on their own and become
actively involved in the learning process. In other developed countries such as the
Netherlands and New Zealand assessment usually takes the form of an integrated portfolio
(Monyatsi, 2013). In Botswana schools, the use of portfolio as an assessment tool has been
used in practical subjects such as Design and Technology, Commerce, and Art, craft and
design.
The University of Botswana pre-service teaching practicum has also changed from the
traditional classroom observation to portfolio-based assessment (Monyatsi, 2013). The multi-
million-pula questions is; if one unit of the University of Botswana was able to change the
students’ assessment practices, what prevents other units to follow suit?
This study comes in the wake of criticisms leveled against social studies classrooms
and pedagogy as being authoritarian and didactic (Tabulawa, 2003; Mhlauli & Muchado,
2013). Teachers’ have also lamented that social studies is a difficult subject to teach as it is
content-laden and requires a lot of reading and information for one to be able to teach with
confidence. Teachers also complained that the subject matter for social studies was difficult
and very scarce to get. Furthermore, student- teachers felt it was boring and uninteresting as it
calls for knowledge regurgitation with no active involvement of the learners in the learning

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process (Mhlauli, 2010). As a result, student- teachers shy away from taking social studies as
an area of specialization since it is difficult for them.
The purpose of this study was, therefore, to explore the student teachers’ experiences
in using a portfolio as an assessment tool in a social studies course on international
organizations and governance (EPS 403) designed for in-service teachers in the department
of primary education at the University of Botswana in an effort to transform its teaching,
learning and assessment and see as to whether it would yield better results and interest.

The following Research Questions (RQ’s) guided this study generated from the
students’ reflections on the use of a portfolio:
Research Questions
1. What is the student-teachers’ ideas and views about the use of a portfolio in social
studies?
2. How does the use of a portfolio improve (if any) students’ pedagogical content
knowledge in social studies?
3. What challenges do students encounter in the use of a portfolio in social studies?
4. What recommendations are necessary to enhance the use of a portfolio in social
studies?

LITERATURE REVIEW
Educational assessment is crucial for assisting learners learn and is an integral part
of the quest for improved education (Pellegrino, Chudowsky, & Glaser, 2001).
Huba & Freed (2000) emphasize that assessment should develop a deep
understanding of what students know, understand, and can do with their knowledge as a
result of their educational experiences; the process culminates when assessment results are
used to improve subsequent learning.
Teachers assess student learning through varied procedures such as structured and
informal observations, projects, tests, presentations, performances and exhibitions, audio and
videotapes, experiments, portfolios, and journals. It is highly recommended by some scholars
that today’s student assessment should be authentic (Mueller, 2014; Palm, 2008).
Authentic assessment is any technique, which can be used, by teachers, instructors,
educators and lecturers in order to assess students’ professional and personal growth. It is a
shift from the traditional way of assessing students’ knowledge, skills and attitudes by using
tests, examination and experiments. Mueller (2014) describes authentic assessment as a form
of assessment in which students are asked to perform real-world tasks that demonstrate
meaningful application of essential knowledge and skills.
Types of Authentic Assessment

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 There are several types of authentic assessment which include; performance
assessment, portfolio assessment, self-assessment, face-to-face interviews, writing articles,
story retelling, demonstrations, projects/presentations and observations. The most commonly
used authentic assessments are performance assessment, portfolio assessment and self-
assessment (Mueller, 2014; Palm, 2008).
Authentic assessments have many potential benefits to students, teachers and parents.
These benefits include:
 Students assume active role in the assessment process.
 Authentic assessment can be successfully used with students of varying cultural
backgrounds, learning and academic abilities.
 Tasks used in authentic assessment are interesting and reflective of students’ daily
lives.
 Ultimately, a more positive attitude toward school and learning may evolve.
 Authentic assessment promotes a more student-centered approach to teaching.
 Teachers assume a larger role in the assessment process than in the traditional
testing programs.
 Authentic assessment provides valuable information to the teacher on the student
progress as well as the success of instruction.
 Authentic assessment is helpful for special needs students because it incorporates
social and behavioral skills necessary both in and outside the classroom.
 Parents will more readily understand authentic assessment than the abstract
percentiles, grade equivalents, and other measures of standardized tests (Hart,
1994; Elsworth, 2014; Sonkushre, 2012).

The Importance of Student Portfolio Assessment

Research has shown that students benefit from portfolios as they reveal the students'
talents and skills. As students take part in the development of their portfolios, analyzing the
criteria for what constitutes good work, and learning to evaluate their own work through
guided reflective practices, students grow and develop in their knowledge and understandings
(Venn, 2000; Elsworth, 2014). Venn (2000) outlines some of advantages of student
portfolios, which include:
 Promoting student self-evaluation, reflection, and critical thinking.
 Measuring performance based on genuine samples of student work.
 Providing flexibility in measuring how students accomplish their learning goals.
 Enabling teachers and students to share the responsibility for setting learning
goals and for evaluating progress toward meeting those goals.
 Giving students the opportunity to have extensive input into the learning process.
 Facilitating cooperative learning activities, including peer evaluation and tutoring,
cooperative learning groups, and peer conferencing.
 Providing opportunities for students and teachers to discuss learning goals and the
progress toward those goals in structured and unstructured conferences.
 Enabling measurement of multiple dimensions of student progress by including
different types of data and materials.

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FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS

The findings from this study have shown that students are overwhelmingly in favour
of the use of a portfolio in the teaching and learning of social studies even though it has its
own challenges. The students see the use of a portfolio as key to the development of a variety
of skills, pedagogies and knowledge acquisition as they embark on a variety of activities.
These findings are in tandem with the assertion that student portfolios are useful as a
support to the new instructional approaches that emphasize the student's role in constructing
knowledge and understanding and the teacher's role in promoting students’ learning (Venn,
2000; Mueller, 2014).
From these findings, it can be argued that students’ performance also improved with
the use of a portfolio as it enabled them to document all lessons and resources used during the
course, which also acted as revision throughout the course leading to the final examination.
These findings are discussed according to the themes that were generated from the
research questions, which are development of skills, knowledge acquisition, improvement of
pedagogical content knowledge, and challenges in developing a portfolio.
Theme 1: Views about the use of a portfolio in social studies?
These themes that emerged from Research Question (RQ) 1 are discussed under the
following sub-headings as articulated in the student’s portfolios; development of skills and
knowledge acquisition.
Development of Skills
The student viewed the use of a portfolio as beneficial to them as it helped them in
developing a variety of skills such as research, critical thinking, IT skills as well as
collaborative, analytical, communication, interpersonal skills, application of multiple
perspectives and knowledge acquisition on global issues and relations. In all the 74 portfolios
examined, students indicated that they were able to acquire and develop a variety of skills
that they will be able to apply at their work place and in this case their classrooms.
Research skills were also learned, as they were able to search for information
individually and developing a log and journal where they were able to keep track of their
activities throughout the semester.
Figure 1 below shows how students articulated the skills that they learned with a portfolio.
This figure indicates that all the students stated that they acquired a variety of skills in this
course (EPS 403) and were appreciative of the way the assessment was structured.

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 Students further indicated that they learned a lot of skills as indicated by one of the
Students who wrote in her refection page that:
“I developed critical thinking, analytic skills (especially public speaking and ability to read
critically) achieved through group discussions and presentations. I did not only develop
knowledge and skills but also some values such as tolerance, cooperation and trust were
realized.”
The majority of students who felt that the way assessment was structured forced them
to work hard in order to meet the lecturers’ and course expectations shared the sentiments of
this student. They also felt that the skills they learned using a portfolio were important for
future use as articulated by another student who mentioned that:
“These skills I believe are pre-requisites for today’s challenging and unpredictable
life.”
These students’ reflections are a clear testimony of what they learned throughout the
course, which was necessitated by the form of assessment that the lecturer used which is a
departure from the norm where students make presentations, assignments and tests without
having to document their journey throughout the course.
Research has shown that students benefit from portfolios as they reveal the students'
talents and skills. As students take part in the development of their portfolios, analyzing the
criteria for what constitutes good work, and learning to evaluate their own work through
guided reflective practices, students grow and develop in their knowledge and understandings
(Hamp-Lyons & Congdon, 2000).
Therefore, these findings resonate well with research where it is stated that one of the
advantages of portfolio assessment is that it promotes student self-evaluation, reflection, and
critical thinking as well as facilitating cooperative learning activities, including peer
evaluation and tutoring, cooperative learning groups, and peer conferencing (Venn, 2000),
hence developing a myriad of skills among learners.
Development of IT Skills
Students further showed the extent to which the use of a portfolio generated interest
and equipped them with IT skills. One student stated in his portfolio that:
“…My technological prowess has even surpassed expectations since I am more capable of
confidently applying my ICT skills in downloading videos, saving data on flash disks and CD
ROM. Above all I have developed my personal website, blog and forum for scholarly
discussions with colleagues online.”

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 Another student mentioned that:
“Apart from content knowledge gained, I really have acquired several skills such as
computer knowledge… Computer knowledge was acquired through blackboard discussions,
class presentations as we were expected to write and present power point presentations, and
compilations of presentations. Also, different skills of computers were acquired through the
compilation of this portfolio as it called for looking for information from a variety of
resources including the internet where most of the information was sourced.”
The ability of students who for years have proved to be technologically challenged as
they were seriously technophobic and resisted to use a computer to learn to be able to use a
computer for a variety of activities was an eye opener for the lecturer in terms of the power of
a portfolio to enhance authentic assessment. The students’ assertions attest to Mueller (2014)
suggestion that students’ portfolios often tell compelling stories of the growth of the students'
talents and showcase their skills through a collection of authentic performances.
Figure 2 below shows the magnitude of students who basically alluded to the notion
that their IT skills were improved through developing a portfolio for EPS 403.

Figure 2 above clearly shows

that 99% of the students stated that the use of a portfolio in this course assisted them in the
development of IT skills through the use of blackboard discussions, chats, internet,
downloading videos and using the computer to compile their work while only 1% did not
write anything about the use of a computer. It also facilitated their interest in the use of the
computer which enabled them to develop into the 21st century teachers.
Knowledge Gained during the Course
Almost all the students stated that through developing a course portfolio they were
able to gain more knowledge on global governance. This helped them change their
perspectives on the course as they used to think that the course was too difficult for them. The
portfolio development enabled them to continuously keep on task through reading various
materials for class discussions and group presentations.

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 These tasks needed them to read every day as they kept a log and a journal of all
activities that they embarked on during lessons and after class which assisted them in gaining
confidence in handling content on international organizations as stated by one student in her
portfolio that:
“…the knowledge gained will be used at the field of work and will be shared with other
teachers. The project will also help the writer handle with confidence topics in the upper
primary syllabus such as objective 5.4.1.7 which says “explain the roles of economic
organizations in Africa”.
Through this portfolio students were able to gather and use information, improve their
interest in current affairs as well as analyse content for further understanding. Students
further mentioned that the knowledge gained in the course enhanced their capacity to critique
and analyse information as they read various materials provided for the course.
Figure 3 below clearly shows the students’ responses to their acquisition of knowledge and
their ability to analyse the content of the course.
The statistics in figure 3 support the students position on knowledge gained in the
course as indicated in the student portfolio that:
“I have learnt so much
from the course. It really
gave me a breakthrough to
a lot of things. Therefore,
it isof great importance to
appreciate that more has
been learnt from this
course. Through the
articles, videos and class
presentations…all these
increased my scope and
knowledge of social studies
content hence improved
professional growth in
terms of delivery”.
From these
anecdotes from the students ‘portfolios, it is evident that the use of portfolios though
demanding, was appreciated by the students as they reflect on what they have done. Another
student wrote that:
“This portfolio project helped me grasp the course content such that I don’t even have to
read for the final exam as everything I have learned in the course in still vivid on my mind”.
Students in this course see the use of a portfolio as a gateway to freedom of
knowledge acquisition as it developed their potential in terms of learning how to use
information for their teaching as well. These findings are in support of scholars who contend
that portfolio assessments provide an authentic way of demonstrating skills and

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accomplishments and also encourage a real-world experience that demands organization,
decision making, and met cognition (Fernsten & Fernsten, 2005).
Theme 2: Improvement of student pedagogical content knowledge
Through the course, students alluded to the fact that the course exposed them to a
variety of pedagogical styles. Students stated in their portfolios that the teaching methods that
were predominantly used throughout the course included discussions, group presentations,
video discussion, blackboard discussions, individual research, class lectures and debates.

Figure 4 below shows the extent to which the students felt that various methods were used
during the semester in EPS 403.

Students also indicated that the methods used in the teaching of this course in the
form of videos, discussions, debates, presentations and blackboard discussions gave them the
opportunity to learn first-hand on how to teach social studies and motivated them to make the
teaching of social studies interesting as they were exposed to a variety of resources in the
process. As indicated in one of the portfolios the students observed that:
“Teachers that use high quality, appropriate resources in an effective way enhance the social
studies programme for students. Students should have access to information and ideas via a
range of materials. Resources used in this course enabled us to reinforce, challenge and
expand existing knowledge and skills from a range of views and perspectives”.
These anecdotes are indicative of the student’s reflections on methods and resources
used in the course that in turn would influence how they teach in future. These findings are in
tandem with Darling-Hammond (2006) assertion that the uses of productive strategies are

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becoming increasingly crucial for the improvement and survival of teacher education. The
ideas about the teachers’ pedagogical stances influencing their decisions on how they
approach their teaching are well captured in these students’ portfolios.
Theme 3: Challenges in the use of a Portfolio in Social Studies
Students mentioned that during the process of developing a portfolio the encountered
a number of challenges which revolved around technophobia, cumbersome research, self-
assessment, journaling, and group discussions.
Students felt that they had challenges in the use of a computer to access videos and
other materials posted on blackboard as they had phobia of technology. However, they ended
up learning how to use a computer because of the portfolio. It became crucial for everyone to
work as an individual because no one was willing to work for another, hence individualized
work was accomplished.
Backboard discussions also required students to sit behind the computer and
contribute to the discussion thread posted by the lecturer; as a result, every student was forced
to learn how to participate on the discussion board with the lecturer focusing and refocusing
the discussion throughout the lesson. They also felt that the use of a portfolio required a lot of
research which was cumbersome for them, but in the end, they appreciated the research as it
kept them informed about the content of the course. The journaling of the events in the
course was challenging as it required students to keep track of what was happening in class.
Self-assessment and peer assessment were difficult for them as they tended to be
biased. When self-assessment was used students tended to shy away from being critical about
themselves and where peer assessment was used students would revenge on those that they
had a grudge on. They also indicated that group discussions were very difficult in that some
students were not contributing to the discussion or not participating effectively hence making
collaborative work a nightmare.
Theme 4: Students’ recommendations on the use of a portfolio
The majority of students felt that the use of a portfolio should be used in EPS 403 and
be extended to other courses in social studies that are both content and pedagogically
inclined.
Table 2 below shows that 83% of the students felt that the course should be
recommended to other students outside the social studies concentration while only 17% felt
that it should not be extended to the other students.

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 Almost all the students felt that the course should be made a core for all students in
primary education since it will inform them about global issues and current events which are
important for every teacher to know and understand.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The use of a portfolio in EPS 403 provided a “teachable moment” for the students as
they in turn shifted their ideas of resistance in the development a portfolio to a situation
where in the end they appreciated having gone through the whole process.
The development of a portfolio further enhanced class attendance as each student
needed to document what transpired during the lesson as perceived by them. Participation
also improved, as those who could not speak in class were able to weigh-in their thoughts in
the online discussion board.
A well-structured portfolio may provide a platform for a systematic inquiry into
teaching and lead instructors to very important insights about their teaching and its effect on
student learning.
Through this course, we learned a lot about students as we saw the use of a portfolio
as having a great potential in influencing scholarly discourse about teaching that can foster a
systematic and focused discussion on significant problems and issues that make up the
content of social studies.
Portfolios are important as they can serve not only as an assessment tool but rather as
a source of pedagogical content knowledge and can be used as a reference point for teachers
in future as they can inform their teaching and learning to advance the practice of teaching.
These portfolios were pivotal in that they have the potential to help students plan their
own academic pathways as they come to understand what they know and are able to do and
what they still need to learn as shown by some students who were inspired by this course to
apply for M Ed Social Studies and Early Childhood Education while they were still doing
their B Ed. One student who said confirmed this:
“My attitude to education has developed for the better, in fact, I have of late applied
for M Ed. Social Studies on part-time basis because I feel I have so much potential to excel
and develop professionally”
From the excerpt above, it is clear that students were challenged and motivated by
developing a portfolio to the extent they discovered their potential and what they need in life
hence the idea of pursuing a higher degree.
The following recommendations are made:
1. The use of a portfolio as an assessment and pedagogical tool should be extended to other
courses in the social studies specialization especially at year 3 and 4.
2. Students need to be trained on the importance of self-assessment and peer-assessment for
their development as practicing teachers.
3. More emphasis should be put on blended e-learning as a way to enhance teaching and
learning.

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4. Alternative assessment techniques, which are authentic, need to be emphasized in teacher
education in order to for them to influence their peers’ pedagogies and practices in primary
schools.

REFERENCE:
Mhlauli, M. & Kgosidialwa, K. (2016). The Use of a Portfolio to Enhance Authentic Assessment
among In-service Student-Teachers’ in Social Studies Education at the University of Botswana.
Journal of Education and Human Development September 2016, Vol. 5, No. 3, pp. 84-96. DOI:
10.15640/jehd. v5n3a10

___________________________________________________________________________
TOPIC: PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT
OBJECTIVE/S: Identify and Present empirical/salient findings on researches
about Portfolio Assessment vital to apply in Teaching Social
Studies:
RESEARCH ARTICLE: Research Results on Portfolio Assessment: Implications for
Teachers Considering Its Promises and Challenges by Erdoğan
and Yurdabakan (2012)
PRESENTER: JEREMAE TORRES EUGENIO

Research Results on Portfolio Assessment: Implications for Teachers

Considering Its Promises and Challenges
by Erdoğan and Yurdabakan

Abstract
Portfolio assessment is one of those alternative assessment methods put into effect.
Portfolio is defined as a purposeful collection of student work that tells the story of students’
efforts, progress, or achievement in (a) given area(s) or is described as an “intersection” of
instruction and assessment which allows the use of teaching and assessment practices
together to improve learning, and has been associated with terms like metacognitive
knowledge and lifelong learning.

Purpose of Study
The aim of this study is to find the research in literature that focus on “theory of
constructivism, alternative assessment methods, portfolio and portfolio assessment” and to
depict (1) the positive results obtained towards the use of portfolio assessment, (2) the
challenges of portfolios and portfolio assessment, and (3) implications for teachers.

Sources of Evidence
Regarding the promises and challenges of portfolios, literature provides us with a lot
of evidence. As to the benefits of portfolio assessment, many authors mentioned some of
them as below;
1. Portfolios show student progress in time (Arter et al, 1995; Fenwick & Parsons, 1999),
2. Portfolios combine instruction and assessment within a continuous process (Moya &
O’Malley, 1994; Paulson et al, 1991),
3. They are authentic assessments of student work (Calfee & Perfumo, 1993; Valencia, 1990;
Valencia & Calfee, 1991),
4. They encourage students to self-reflect and self-evaluate (Glazer, 1991; Valencia,1990),

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hence this leads to the improvement of metacognitive skills (Hamilton, 1994),
5. Portfolios encourage student participation and increase student self-reliance (Fenwick &
Parsons, 1999; Paulson et al, 1991),
6. Portfolios inform teachers on strengths and weaknesses of their students better than
traditional assessments (Chen, 1993),
7. Students’ and teachers’ attitudes grow positively (Ryan & Kuhs, 1993),
8. They help multiple recording of student progress (Chen, 1993; Mills, 1994),
9. The also positively improve teachers’ attitudes towards their job (Perkins & Gelfer, 1993).

Drawbacks or challenges of using portfolios are also mentioned by many authors as below;
1. Portfolio processes take a lot of time (Ediger, 2000; Fenwick & Parsons, 1999) and cost
much (Ediger, 2000; Gomez, 2000).
2. Compared to standardized tests, more studies should be done on reliability and validity
issues of portfolios (Ediger, 2000).
3. The criteria used in the assessment of portfolios may vary, because different items included
may require separate assessment criteria, that could be considered as a difficulty of portfolios
(Ediger, 2000).
4. Students need to be trained beforehand and guided continuously during the portfolio
process (Fenwick & Parsons, 1999). Because they may not be or feel ready to undertake their
own learning or preparing something different like a portfolio. They may not know what to
do or they may be frightened of the long process itself.
5. Arter and Spandel (1992) highlight some challenges of portfolios as including items in
portfolios that may not represent one’s learning, the weakness of assessment criteria, and the
possibility of subjectivity of assessment results.

Upon its reception as an effective teaching and assessment method, many studies
were done on portfolios. The following items were found when those research results were
analyzed:
1. Considering the effects of portfolios on achievement of various student skills, in most
studies (Slater, Ryan, Samson, 1997; Starck, 1999; Subrick, 2003) no meaningful
influence was found; whereas significant difference was obtained about portfolios influence
on especially writing skills of students (Starck, 1999; Spencer, 1999; Barootchi and
Keshavarz, 2002; Enoki, 1992; Shober, 1996; Yurdabakan & Erdogan, 2009).
2. In most studies, the use of portfolios led to positive attitudes towards reading and
language arts (Calfee & Perfumo, 1993; Valencia & Place, 1994), writing (Spencer,
1999), learning itself (Zou, 2002; Tiwari, 2003).
3. It is shown better assessing student progress, strengths and weaknesses (Bushman &
Schnitker, 1995; Starck, 1996; Gussie & Wright, 1999).
4. Instructors and students need instruction or warm-up training on the use portfolios
(Bushman & Schnitker, 1995; Starck, 1996; Gussie & Wright, 1999; Oğuz, 2003).
5. They motivate students, encourage critical thinking and problem solving, increase learner
responsibility, decrease anxiety, and lead to higher student participation
(Shorb, 1995; Bujan, 1995; Slater et al, 1997; Zou, 2002; Barootchi and Keshavarz, 2002;
Alabdelwahab, 2002).
6. On the other hand, organization and scoring of portfolios may be problematic (Gussie &
Wright, 1999; Starck, 1996) and requires more time and effort on the part of teachers (Oğuz,
2003; Yurdabakan & Erdogan, 2009)

Main Argument

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  The writings and research on portfolio assessment suggest that portfolios are well
received by teachers and students, they create positive attitude towards learning, and
have been used as successfully as the standardized traditional assessment methods.
 Also, the research findings show that portfolio use has meaningful difference in
students’ skills related to reading, writing, and language arts.
 Also, literature review shows that portfolios motivate students, increase learner
responsibility, develops higher order thinking skills like critical thinking and problem
solving and supports self-evaluation.
 Besides those positive results obtained, portfolios are found to be taking a lot of time
and they cost more and the real effects of portfolio use could be better observed in
following practices. There are some reliability and validity issues considering the use
of portfolios.
 Another limitation is that teachers, school administrators, students need to be trained
on portfolio assessment beforehand.

Conclusions
As a result; as any other assessment method, portfolios also do have some promises and
limitations.
 The real advantage of portfolio use is that it gives teachers the chance to observe
student growth during the learning process and it gives students the chance to observe
thirteenths and weaknesses themselves (by activating self-evaluation) and show what
they have learned better than any other assessment method.
 To alleviate the problems that may be encountered during the portfolio use, teachers,
administrators, and students (and even parents) must decide collectively on what to
include in portfolios, which assessment criteria to use, how to evaluate student
products, and what to expect from the end result of such a practice. This necessitates
the training of not only teachers, students, and school administrators, but also the
families or any other person that may have an influence on students’ learning.
 With its benefits and positive influence on student learning process, portfolios are
considered to be useful and they can be used at any level, from primary to tertiary
education.

REFERENCE:
Erdoğan, T. & Yurdabakan, I. (2012). Research Results on Portfolio Assessment:
Implications for Teachers Considering Its Promises and Challenges.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323187485

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