Mechanical Engineering

ME321: Mechanical Measurements

Analog Signals

July 2017

Dr. B Salim
Contents
• General Signals
• Simple Harmonic Motion
• Circular and Cyclic Frequency
• Complex Relations
• Amplitudes, frequency and phase of Wave
• Beat frequency
• Frequency Spectrum
• Harmonic (Fourier) Analysis
• Sampling and sampling rules
• Aliasing
 Signals or Waves
A wave is defined as the transfer of energy from one point
to another. There are two classes of waves:
Mechanical Wave
Non-Mechanical Wave
Wave Types
Mechanical Non-Mechanical

Sound No Medium Necessary

Medium Necessary Speed Speed is speed of light
can be Speed of Sound
Mechanical Waves
• They are compression waves that have a frequency between
20-20000 hertz and travel through dry air at a speed of
approximately 340 m/sec at room temperature.
• Different substances carry compression waves at various
speeds. Metals carry it faster than liquids which transfer it
faster than gases.
• As a mechanical wave travels through a medium, it loses
energy to the medium.
• The molecules in the medium are forced to vibrate back and
forth, generating heat. Consequently, the wave can only
propagate through a limited distance.
Non Mechanical Waves
• Non-mechanical waves are waves that do not
require a medium for the transfer of energy.
• Electromagnetic waves are the only type of non-
mechanical waves.
• They can travel through the vacuum of space.
• Light from distant stars travel hundreds of thousands of
millions of years to reach us.
• Although the electromagnetic radiation spans a large
spectrum of wavelengths and frequencies, all
electromagnetic radiation travels through a vacuum at 3
x 108 m/sec, the speed of light,
Wave Classifications
Wave Movement Style
Transverse Waves
• Transverse waves are waves in which the particles vibrate at
right angles to the direction of the wave's velocity or propagation.
• An example of this type of wave would be pulses traveling
along a string as it is being shaken. Transverse waves are
restricted to move in only one plane.
Longitudinal Wave
• Longitudinal waves are waves in which the
particles vibrate parallel to the direction of the
wave's velocity, or direction of propagation.
• Sound waves are a prime example of this type of
wave.
Elliptical Waves

Elliptical waves, or surface water waves, result

when longitudinal and transverse behaviors are
super positioned, or overlap, as they pass
through the same medium simultaneously.
Torsional Waves

Torsional waves can only occur in physical structures.

Bridges , Building and Structures
These waves cause the structures to vibrate by
twisting about a central axis.
Description of Waves
• When examining waves, information is usually
displayed in two types of graphs.
• Vibration graphs
• Waveform graphs.
The shapes of both types of graphs are the identical. The only
difference is in the labels for the x-axis.
Waveform and Vibration Graphs

Waveform
Graph

Vibration
Graph
Vibration Graph (or Time History Graph or
Histrograph)

• A vibration graph (or history graph) displays the

behavior at a SINGLE location in the medium as
the wave passes.
• Its x-axis is labeled as time. One vibration can
be defined as one complete cycle, or back and
forth motion.
• Vibration graphs gives information about
• Wave shape
• Amplitude
• Period.
Vibration Graph (or Time History
Graph or Histrograph)
Waveform graph (or Snapshot Graph)

• A waveform graph (or snapshot graph) displays

the behavior of a multitude of locations in the
medium at a SINGLE moment in time.
• Its x-axis is measured in terms of distance.
• Waveform graphs gives information about
• Wave shape
• Amplitude
• Wavelength.
Waveform graph (or Snapshot Graph)
Digital vs. Analogue Signals
Example Signal Generators
Digital Analogue
Single Cycles (and Types)
Signals Problems
Simple Harmonic Motion
 Simple Harmonic Motion

‫ضعف االرتفاع‬
Double
Amplitude

Rotational

Linear
Dynamic
Free Body
Diagram
Simple Harmonic Motion
Time, Period and Amplitude
Simple Harmonic Motion Definitions

S = So sin (ωt)  = 2. . f

S: Instantaneous Displacement from Equilibrium
2
So: Amplitude or Maximum Displacement
ω: Circular Frequency (rad/s) =
T: Any time interval measured from t=0s T
Derivations
S = So sin (ωt) V: Velocity
Vo: Maximum Velocity

a: Acceleration
ds
v= = So.. cos(t ) ao= Maximum Acceleration
dt
vo = So.ω
dv
a= = − So. . sin(t ) = − S
2 2

dt
ao = -So.ω 2
Angular Frequency

Y: Displacement
A: Amplitude
sin: Sinusoidal Wave Function!
ω: Rotational Speed [rad/s]
t: Time [s]
Φ: Phase Change Angle!
Frequency Angular Frequency
From Wikipedia
From Wikipedia
Definitions
• Amplitude (A): Is the wave's maximum disturbance from it undisturbed
equilibrium position. It is the maximum magnitude.

• Period (T): Is the time between two adjacent in-phase points on a

vibration graph. The reciprocal of period is frequency.

• Frequency (f): Represents the numbers of waves that pass a given

location each second along the path of the wave. frequency of a wave is a
property of its source

• Wavelength (λ): Is the distance between two adjacent in-phase points on

a waveform graph.

period frequency
Time required for only one vibration Total number of vibrations per second
seconds (sec) Hertz (hz)
Wavelength
• Wave Length: Product of wave speed and time period
λ = VW* T

• Wave Speed: Wave length divided by time period

VW = λ /T
VW = λ * f Product of Wave length and frequency

Because
• f = 1/T ( reciprocal of Time Period)

• Frequency and wavelength are inversely proportional,

not reciprocals.
Signal Phase
In-Phase Out of Phase
Possible Signals Representations
Possible Expressions

• Y = A sin ωt ω is the circular frequency in radians per second and ω=2πf

• Y=A.sin 2πft f is cyclic frequency in Hertz

T is time period in second

WAVE SHAPE
A wave is either periodic, shown as a sinusoidal pattern that repeats
itself at regular intervals
Or it is a single, one-time disturbance called a pulse.
Applying the kinematics equation Distance = Velocity * Time,
Therefore
Wave length λ = VW* T ( product of wave speed and time period)
Wave speed VW = λ /T ( Wave length divided by time period)
VW = λ * f ( Product of Wave length and frequency)
Because f = 1/T ( reciprocal of Time Period)
Frequency and wavelength are inversely proportional, not
reciprocals.
PHASE
• Two points are said to be in-phase if they behave exactly the same;
that is, if they are a multiple of a wavelength apart. If two points are
not in-phase, then they are out-of-phase.
• Since a wavelength corresponds to one complete vibration, or one
complete revolution, one wavelength is often expressed as 360º. So
in-phase points are separated by n360º. Out-of-phase points can be
separated by 90º, 180º, or 270º or. any number of degrees apart.
;
;

DRAWING A SINE OR COSINE WAVE

For;

y= A sin (ωt)
Divide T into at least eight (8) Formulae to be Used
equal parts. Find value of y for
each value of t
S.No t= y=
1 (0T)/8=0
2 (1T)/8= T/8
3 (2T)/8 = T/4
4 (3T)/8
5 (4T)/8 = T/2
6 (5T)/8
7 (6T)/8 = (3T)/4
8 (7T)/8
9 (8T)/8 = T
;
;

DRAWING Example
For;

E = 20 Sin 314t Volts

S.No t (s) E ( Volts)

1 (0T)/8=0 20 sin((314*0*180)/3.14))=0
2 (1T)/8= T/8=0.0025 20 sin((314*0.0025*180)/3.14))=14.137
3 (2T)/8 = T/4=0.005 20 sin((314*0.005*180)/3.14))=19.999
4 (3T)/8=0.0075 20 sin((314*0.0075*180)/3.14))=14.159
5 (4T)/8 = 0.01 20 sin((314*0.01*180)/3.14))=0.032
6 (5T)/8=0.0125 20 sin((314*0.0125*180)/3.14))=-14.114
7 (6T)/8 = (3T)/4=0.015 20 sin((314*0.015*180)/3.14))=-19.999
8 (7T)/8=0.0175 20 sin((314*0.0175*180)/3.14))=-14.182
9 (8T)/8 = 0.02 20 sin((314*0.02*180)/3.14))=-0.064
 Example Drawing Result

E (volts) Sin Wave

25

20

15

10

-5

-10

-15

-20

-25 t(s)
0

0.0025

0.005

0.0075

0.01

0.0125

0.015

0.0175

0.02
Signals Addition
 Sinusoidal Signals Relations
• Adding and Subtracting Relations;
y = A. cos x + B. sin x y = A. cos x − B. sin x

• For both cases;

Although this indicates an infinite
number of frequencies, there is
only a maximum number of
frequencies possible that can be
present due to practical equipment
limitations.
Complex Relations
Square Wave Approximations
Harmonic or Fourier Analyses
The study of the way general functions may be represented or approximated
by sums of simpler trigonometric functions

Fourier
Equation

A0, An and Bn are harmonic coefficients

n is the harmonic order. n has to be whole number (1,2,3,…)
 Frequency Spectrum
Frequency Analyzer
Frequency Analyzer Output

➢ Gives frequency and amplitude.

➢ Used to indicate source of

maintenance problems.

If;
E = 20 sin (20 πt) + 10 sin (40 πt)

Then;
E = 20 sin(2 π 10 t) + 10 sin (2 π 20t)
Domain Conversion
Original Signals A, B and C Frequency Spectrum
A complex Wave
Fundamental Frequency
• Is the lowest frequency of a periodic waveform.
Harmonics
Example

• Analyze the acceleration-time relation that is

expressed by the equation;

• a= Angular acceleration (rad/s2)

• T= Time (s)
 Phase Shift
Example Solution

A ω
Three harmonics exist within the Amplitudes: 3800, 1750 and 800
formula.
Phase Shift: π/3
Harmonics ratio (1:3:5) or
(fundamental, 3rd and 15th harmonic)

Frequencies: 390, 1170, 5850 Hz

Beat Frequency
 Beat Frequency Demonstration
When 2
signals of
similar
amplitude
and
frequency
meet…
And where
there is a small
difference in
frequency

The result is
continuously
changing
depending on
where the
signals add or
subtract from
each other
due to phase
difference!
Beat Frequency
For 2 Signals (fo and f1)

Here;

∆f is very small compared to f0, then

their resultant will yield

Because;
Then
Beat Frequency
The result will
be a function of
∆f/2

∆𝑓 2𝑓0 ∆𝑓
𝑦= 2𝐴 cos(2𝜋 2 𝑡) sin(2𝜋 2 𝑡)=2𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜋 2 𝑡 sin(2𝜋𝑓0 𝑡)
If two signals having the same amplitude and have frequencies that
differ by a small margin then Their addition will yield a wave whose
main frequency will be the frequency of signal with lower frequency and
its beat frequency will be the half of the difference between the two.
❑ ∆f/2 is the beat frequency and f1 is the main frequency
❑This principle is used in the measurement of flow by Laser Doppler
Anemometer.
Sampling and Aliasing
Sampling
Definitions

• Sampling: Convert continuous to discrete (Analogue to Digital)

• Reconstruction: Converting from discrete to continuous

Analogue Signal Digital Sampling

Sampling Approach
• The sampling rate, sample rate, or sampling frequency (fs)
defines the number of samples per unit of time (usually seconds)
taken from a continuous signal to make a discrete signal.

• For time-domain signals, the unit for sampling rate is Hertz

sometimes noted as Sa/s

• The inverse of the sampling frequency is the sampling period or

sampling interval, which is the time between samples
 Nyquist Criteria

The Problem: How many sample readings are needed to understand a signal
correctly??

Without enough sampling points, aliasing will occur.

Sampling Rules
• CASE (1)
• SAMPLING FREQUENCY fS = Signal frequency f
• Therefore TS = T
• Sampled wave and actual wave are not
Sampling Rules
• CASE (2)
SAMPLING FREQUENCY fS = Signal frequency f- 2f
(Say 1.5 f)
Therefore TS = (2/3)T
Sampled wave and actual wave are not
Sampling Rules
• CASE (3)
SAMPLING FREQUENCY fS = Signal frequency 2f
Therefore TS = 0.5T
If sampling point is taken at t=0 then one gets a straight line as
RED LINE
If sampling point is taken at other point then one gets actual
signal as black line
SAMPLING PRINCIPLE
• The Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem states that
• Perfect reconstruction of a signal is possible when
the sampling frequency is greater than twice the
maximum frequency of the signal being sampled.

• Nyquist frequency (half the sample rate) exceeds the

highest frequency of the signal being sampled.

• If lower sampling rates are used, the original signal

information may not be completely recoverable from
the sampled signal. The phenomenon is called
aliasing
Sampling Rules
FOR GOOD SAMPLING
fS≥ 2x f
Sampling frequency is equal
to more than twice the signal
frequency.
Sampling Techniques
• Sampling requires three basic
information.
• Sampling Frequency: fS
• Number of Points: N
• Sampling Threshold: ∆f = fS/ N
• Nyquist frequency: fNYQ fNYQ = fh
• fh = Highest frequency present in a Wave = Half of
Sampling Frequency
• fNYQ = fS/ 2
• The time period of signal
• T = N∆t ; ∆t = 1/fS
• therefore lowest frequency or threshold
frequency ∆f =flowest = 1/T =1/ N∆t = fS/ N
 Aliasing

Figure above shows the effects of aliasing.

Aliasing is the production of an in-accurate representation of the original signal.

Many anti-Aliasing techniques exist
Example 1
• For the following signal:

• What is the sampling frequency?

Answer:

• F1= 25 Hz, F2= 150 Hz, F3= 50 Hz

• Y = A sin ωt
• Then Fmax= 150 Hz

• Then Fs > 300 Hz • Y=A.sin 2πft

 Example 2
• A pressure signal from a transducer is given as:

P=200 sin (40t) +100 cos (200t -π/6) Pa

Analyze the signal for frequency in radians per second, frequency in

Hz, time period, amplitude, harmonics and phase.

SOLUTION:
FUNCTION P= 200 sin (40t) Pa P= 100 cos ( 200t -) Pa

Frequency ω ω1= 40 radians per second ω2= 200 radians per second

Harmonics First ω2/ ω1= 200/40= 5 5th Harmonic

Amplitude 200 Pa 100 Pa

Frequency f = ω/(2*π) 40/(2*π) = 6.34 Hz 200/(2*π)= 31.85 Hz

Time period T = 1/f 1/6.34 =0.157 seconds 1/31. 85 = 0.0314 seconds

Phase φ zero π/6=300 = 300 lagging

Example 3
• Two signals are given as under. Find the main frequency of combined
signal and the beat signal.
• y1=A sin6280t
• y2=A sin6342.8t

Compare the signal with general wave form y= A sin(ωt)

SOLUTION:
• ω0= 6280 rad/s, therefore f0 = 6280/(2*3.14) = 1000 Hz

• ω1 =6342.8 rad/s therefore f1= 6342.8/(2*3.14) =1010 Hz

• ∆f = 1010 -1000= 10 Hz

• ∆f/2 = 10/2 = 5 Hz

• As 10 Hz<<1000 Hz

• Therefore the resultant will be a main frequency f0=1000 Hz and a

beat of ∆f/2= 5 Hz
Example 4
• A signal contains 8 harmonics of 500 Hz. It is sampled at 6000Hz
by taking 3000 points.
• What is Nyquist frequency for the given sampling frequency?
• What is frequency resolution?
• Which of the harmonics are not correctly sampled and what is
there apparent frequency?
• What should be the sampling frequency for correctly sampling
all the harmonics of the wave?

SOLUTION:
• Fundamental frequency= 500 Hz
• Number of harmonics = 8
• Harmonics= 500 Hz, 1000 Hz, 1500 Hz, 2000 Hz, 2500 Hz, 3000
Hz, 3500 Hz,4000 Hz,
• fS= 6000Hz Number of points N= 3000
• Frequency resolution ∆f=fs/N=6000/3000=2 Hz
• fs= 2 fNYQ Therefore fNYQ=3000 Hz
• Therefore frequencies more than 3000 Hz cannot be sampled
correctly and will get aliased.
Contd. Solution
• Harmonics that will not be sampled correctly are 3500 Hz and 4000
Hz
• Apparent frequency of these harmonics= fs- f
• For frequency 3500 Hz= 6000- 3500= 2500 Hz
• For frequency 4000 Hz= 6000- 4000= 2000 Hz
• Correct sampling frequency= fs=2 fh ; fh= 4000 Hz
• Therefore Correct fs= 8000 Hz.
 Example 5
• A signal is given as:

E= 40 sin 10t + 13 sin 30t + 8 sin 50t + 6 sin 70t + 4 sin 90t

Find: The Nyquist frequency, correct sampling frequency, number of

points and frequency threshold.
SOLUTION:
E= 40 sin 10t + 13 sin 30t + 8 sin 50t + 6 sin 70t + 4 sin 90t

f1=10/6.28=1.59Hz; A1=40 Volts f2=30/6.28=4.78 Hz; A2=13 Volts

f3=50/6.28=7.96Hz; A3=8 Volts f4 =70/6.28=11.15Hz; A4=6 Volts
f5=90/6.28=14.33Hz; A5=4 Volts
fh=14.33Hz flowest=1.59Hz

Sampling :
B) Nyquest Frequency = fh=fNYQ=14.33 Hz
C) Good sampling fs=2 fNYQ;
Sampling frequency ∴ fs≥14.33×2Hz=28.66 Hz
D) Frequency resolution ∆f=fL=1.59 Hz
E) No. of points =fs/(∆f)=28.66/1.59=18
Sampling Rules