MODULE IN SCI 109 – EARTH SCIENCE

LESSON 3: WEATHERING, SOIL EROSION, AND SURFACE PROCESSES

Weathering is the breakdown of rocks at the Earth’s surface, by the action of rainwater,
extremes of temperature, and biological activity. It does not involve the removal of rock
material. Weathering takes place in situ, i.e. in the same place, with little or no movement. It
should therefore not be confused with erosion involving the movement of rocks and minerals
by agents such as water, ice, snow, wind, waves and gravity, and then transported and deposited
elsewhere.
Once a rock has been broken down, a process called erosion transports the bits of rock
and mineral away. No rock on Earth is hard enough to resist the forces of weathering and
erosion. Together, these processes carved landmarks such as the Grand Canyon, in the U.S.
state of Arizona. This massive canyon is 446 kilometers (277 miles) long, as much as 29
kilometers (18 miles) wide, and 1,600 meters (1 mile) deep.

Erosion is the process by which soil and rock particles are worn away and moved
elsewhere by wind, water or ice. Weathering involves no moving agent of transport.
Weathering and erosion constantly change the rocky landscape of Earth. Weathering
wears away exposed surfaces over time. The length of exposure often contributes to
how vulnerable a rock is to weathering. Rocks, such as lavas, that are quickly buried beneath
other rocks are less vulnerable to weathering and erosion than rocks that are exposed to agents
such as wind and water.
As it smoothes rough, sharp rock surfaces, weathering is often the first step in the
production of soils. Tiny bits of weathered minerals mix with plants, animal remains, fungi,
bacteria, and other organisms.
Weathering is often divided into the processes of mechanical weathering and
chemical weathering. Biological weathering, in which living or once-living organisms
contribute to weathering, can be a part of both processes.

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Physical Weathering
Physical weathering, also known as mechanical weathering or disaggregation, is
the process class that causes rocks to disintegrate without chemical change. Abrasion (the
process by which clasts and other particles are reduced in size) is the primary process in
physical weathering.

Due to temperature, pressure, frost etc., physical weather may occur. For instance,
cracks exploited by physical weathering will increase the surface area that is exposed to
chemical action, thereby increasing the rate of disintegration.
In places where there is little soil and few plants grow, such as mountain regions and
hot deserts, physical weathering occurs especially. It occurs either by repeated melting and
freezing of water (mountains and tundra) or by expanding and shrinking the surface layer of
rocks baked by the sun (hot deserts).
Temperature changes can also contribute to mechanical weathering in a process
called thermal stress. Changes in temperature cause rock to expand (with heat)
and contract (with cold). As this happens over and over again, the structure of the rock weakens.
Over time, it crumbles. Rocky desert landscapes are particularly vulnerable to thermal stress.
The outer layer of desert rocks undergo repeated stress as the temperature changes from day to
night. Eventually, outer layers flake off in thin sheets, a process called exfoliation.
Chemical Weathering
Chemical weathering changes the molecular structure of rocks and soil.
For instance, carbon dioxide from the air or soil sometimes combines with water in a
process called carbonation. This produces a weak acid, called carbonic acid, that
can dissolve rock. Carbonic acid is especially effective at dissolving limestone. When carbonic
acid seeps through limestone underground, it can open up huge cracks or hollow out vast
networks of caves.
Carlsbad Caverns
National Park, in the U.S. state of
New Mexico, includes more than
119 limestone caves created by
weathering and erosion. The
largest is called the Big Room.
With an area of about 33,210
square meters (357,469 square
feet), the Big Room is the size of
six football fields.

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There are various types of chemical weathering, the most important of which is:

a. Solution- Removal of rock by

acidic rainwater in solution.

b. Hydration - is a form of
chemical weathering in which
the chemical bonds of the mineral
are changed as it interacts with
water. One instance of hydration
occurs as the
mineral anhydrite reacts
with groundwater. The water
transforms anhydrite
into gypsum, one of the most
common minerals on Earth.

c. Hydrolysis- In the process of hydrolysis, a new solution (a mixture of two or more

substances) is formed as chemicals in rock interact with water. In many rocks, for
example, sodium minerals interact with water to form a saltwater solution.

d. Oxidation - Rock breakdown by oxygen and water, often giving a rusty – colored
weathered surface to iron – rich rocks. It works on rocks that contain iron. These rocks
turn to rust.

Weathering and People

Weathering is a natural process, but human activities can speed it up.
Burning coal, natural gas, and petroleum releases chemicals such as nitrogen oxide and
sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere. When these chemicals combine with sunlight and moisture,
they change into acids. They then fall back to Earth as acid rain.
Acid rain rapidly weathers limestone, marble, and other kinds of stone. The effects of
acid rain can often be seen on gravestones, making names and other inscriptions impossible to
read.

Weathering and Erosion

Weathering and erosion slowly chisel, polish, and buff Earth's rock into ever evolving
works of art—and then wash the remains into the sea.
The processes are definitively independent, but not exclusive. Weathering is the mechanical
and chemical hammer that breaks down and sculpts the rocks. Erosion transports the
fragments away.
Working together they create and reveal marvels of nature from tumbling boulders high in
the mountains to sandstone arches in the parched desert to polished cliffs braced against
violent seas.

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 Rainwater
also mixes with
chemicals as it falls
from the sky,
forming an acidic
concoction that
dissolves rock. For
example, acid rain
dissolves limestone
to form karst, a type
of terrain filled with
fissures,
underground
streams, and caves
like the Cenotes
of Mexico's
Yucatán Peninsula
(photo on the right).

Back up on the mountains, snow and ice build up into glaciers that weigh on the rocks
beneath and slowly push them downhill under the force of gravity. Together with advancing
ice, the rocks carve out a path as the glacier slumps down the mountain. When the glacier
begins to melt, it deposits its cargo of soil and rock, transporting the rocky debris toward the
sea. Every year, rivers deposit millions of tons of sediment into the oceans.
Without the erosive forces of water, wind, and ice, rock debris would simply pile up
where it forms and obscure from view nature's weathered sculptures. Although erosion is a
natural process, abusive land-use practices such as deforestation and overgrazing can
expedite erosion and strip the land of soils needed for food to grow.

Soil Erosion: Its Causes, Impacts, and Solutions

Soil erosion is a naturally

occurring process that affects all
landforms. In agriculture, soil erosion
refers to the wearing away of a field's
topsoil by the natural physical forces of
water and wind or through forces
associated with farming activities such
as tillage(the preparation of land for
growing crops).
Erosion, whether it is by water,
wind or tillage, involves three distinct
actions – soil detachment, movement and deposition. Topsoil, which is high in organic
matter, fertility and soil life, is relocated elsewhere "on-site" where it builds up over time or is
carried "off-site" where it fills in drainage channels. Soil erosion reduces cropland productivity
and contributes to the pollution of adjacent watercourses, wetlands and lakes.
Soil erosion can be a slow process that continues relatively unnoticed or can occur at
an alarming rate, causing serious loss of topsoil. Soil compaction, low organic matter, loss of
soil structure, poor internal drainage, salinisation and soil acidity problems are other serious
soil degradation conditions that can accelerate the soil erosion process.

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What Are the Impacts of Soil Erosion?

We’re already seeing the risks of soil erosion

play out around the world. Jakarta’s deadly floods earlier
this year (photo on the left) are a prime example. Eroded
sediments from further upstream clogged Jakarta’s rivers
and canals, causing them to overflow. Similar erosion-
related floods have occurred in many other countries,
such as Colombia, India, the Philippines and Democratic
Republic of the Congo.
Soil erosion is not only an environmental issue; it also causes huge losses to
the economy. One study estimated global economic losses from soil erosion to be around $8
billion, due to reduced soil fertility, decreased crop yields and increased water usage. In Java,
Indonesia, soil erosion is responsible for a 2% loss in total agricultural GDP, taking into
account the losses farmers face directly and the losses others face downstream. Another
study showed that soil erosion in Sleman, a district located in Java, costs 17% of an average
farmer’s net income per hectare of agricultural land.
The U.S. agricultural sector loses about $44 billion per year from erosion. This value
includes lost productivity, along with sedimentation and water pollution. Lost farm income is
estimated at $100 million per year. Soil erosion also costs European countries $1.38 billion in
annual agricultural productivity losses and $171 million in lost GDP (about 1% of total
GDP). South Asia loses $10 billion annually thanks to soil erosion.

What Solutions Exist to Prevent Soil Erosion?

1. Use Soil-friendly Agricultural Practices

Terraced farming needs to be implemented to make hillside agriculture manageable.
Terraces prevent erosion and allow more water to flow to crops. In addition, hillside farm fields
need full crop cover to help keep the soil in place. This can be accomplished by intercropping,
which means growing two crops together in the same field, such as planting rows
of maize or soybean between rows of oil palm trees. For smallholders, agroforestry
systems where a diverse set of crops, including trees, are grown together can be effective.
Access to manure improves the organic matter of the soil, which inhibits erosion. Finally,
alternating deep-rooted and shallow-rooted crops improves soil structure and reduces erosion
at the same time.
2. Offer Incentives for Land Management
Although the science of sustainable land management has been gaining support, the
socio-economic context often makes implementation difficult. Sustainable land practices need
to be financially viable for farmers. Anti-erosion measures have a median cost of $500 per
hectare, a considerable investment for a farmer. Governments and banks must help farmers get
access to credit and support in implementing erosion prevention. This is not only a good deal
for the farmer, but for the whole community. The cost of erosion prevention is far lower than
the price of land restoration and rehabilitation, which one source estimated to be
around $1,500–$2,000 per hectare. Another source found it could reach $15,221 per hectare.
3. Prevention AND Rehabilitation
The key to managing and reducing soil erosion is to rehabilitate already-damaged land,
stop further degradation and put erosion-preventative measures at the core of land management
policy. In this way, we can help prevent hunger and mitigate the climate crisis.

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 SCI 109 – EARTH SCIENCE
LESSON 3: WEATHERING, SOIL EROSION, AND SURFACE PROCESSES

Name: Yr. and Sec: Rating:

Activity: Answer briefly.

1. The Appalachian Mountains in eastern North America once towered more than 9,000 meters
(30,000 feet) high—taller than Mount Everest! Over millions over years, describe why the
highest Appalachian peak reaches just 2,037 meters (6,684 feet) high today. What do you think
will happen to Mt. Everest millions of years from now, considering the possible effects of
weathering and soil erosion?

Evaluation: Essay. 15 points each.

1. Despite the beauty of Silab, Batabat, Maayon in Capiz which has recently become a
tourist spot, with its beautiful view of corn production, describe corn production’s
effect/s in soil depletion.
2. In your municipality/city (or in our province), what certain place or spot did you
observe weathering and erosion? How does it affect you and your place? As an Earth
warrior, what will be your own ways to prevent it?

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Additional Readings:
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/weathering/
https://www.cntraveler.com/story/appalachian-mountains-may-have-once-been-as-tall-as-the-
himalayas

References:
Books
Refran, et al (2016) Earth Science.Quezon City, Philippines. Vibal Group Inc. pp. 20-28
Seeds, M.A. & Backman, D. (2016) Earth Science. Manila, Phillipines. Rex Bookstore, Inc.
pp. 109-142

Website
What is Weathering? What Are Types Of Weathering?
http://www.geologypage.com/2016/05/weathering.html#ixzz6SoLDHHeq
Erosion and Weathering https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/earth/the-dynamic-
earth/weathering-erosion/
The Causes and Effects of Soil Erosion, and How to Prevent It
https://www.wri.org/blog/2020/01/causes-effects-how-to-prevent-soil-erosion

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