Clinical Parasitology

(MTY1206-SEC 25: LECTURE) | BATCH 2023

DEPARTMENT OF MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY-FAR EASTERN UNIVERSITY (INSTITUTE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES)
TRANSCRIBED BY: SORIANO, ERICHA A.
LECTURER: ERNEST VON HIDALGO
REFERENCES: PPT, BOOK
INTRODUCTION TO PARASITOLOGY & AMOEBA
Introduction to Parasitology b. Can be in the form of eggs, helminths,
− It is the relationship of hosts and a parasite worms, cystic stages of amoeba, etc.
wherein parasite is the only one benefits. 2. Infective stage: developmental stage of the
− The documentation of parasite existence by the parasite that causes infection to the hosts
3. Mode of transmission: mechanisms on how a
ancient Persians, Egyptians, and Greeks dates
parasite is transferred from one hosts to another
back to prehistoric times
a. Fecal oral route: this is when the host
digest something that contains the
Parasitology − study of parasites infective stage of a parasite
Infection − invasion IN the body 4. Portal of entry: the point of entry of the parasite on
Infestation − invasion ON the body the hosts
Disease − the process with a. Depending on the type of parasite, the
characteristic symptoms, point of entry also differs
emerged, determining an b. Through mouth, nose, broken skin, some
effective means of healing may penetrate the skin without broken
infected persons become a skin
priority
Knowledge of the life cycle of a parasite provides us with the
Vectors − Known to be transport
possible interventions to stop it.
carriers
− responsible for transmission
Larvae/ juvenile
Hosts − plants, animals, and humans CLASSIFICATION OF PARASITES
known to harbor parasites According to habitat:
Parasitic − escalation of disease caused 1. Endo Parasites
by the presence of parasites − If it lives inside the hosts
− Because of global travel tends − Infection should be used
to result in HIGHER parasite
recovery rates 2. Ecto Parasites
− If it lives outside the hosts and it only visits
LIFE CYCLE the hosts during mealtime
− Examples: bed bugs (surot)
− Infestation should be used

According to effects to the host:

1. Pathogenic
2. Nonpathogenic

Most of the parasites are all pathogenic however what is

meant in here is to qualify nonpathogenic parasites as
facultative or free-living.

Free-living is a kind of organism wherein the parasite got what

it needs without infecting any mammalian hosts.
According to the mode of living:
− This is the way how parasites survive in an − This is the rate of dependency of the parasite to the
environment in search for its host. hosts.
1. Obligate Parasite
1. Diagnostic stage: stage wherein the parasite’s − This is when the parasite cannot survive
presence is identified in the hosts without the hosts.
a. Sometimes it is seen on the samples − Example: Nematodes (can be found in the
brought in the laboratory intestines)
2. Facultative Parasite
− Can survive with or without the hosts
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3. Permanent Parasite 2. Suffers little damage

− Live inside the hosts for a very long time (25 -
30 years) Parasitic Disease
− Example: Tape worms (intestine) − Progression of the disease when no intervention done
4. Incidental/ Accidental Parasite
− A parasite ending up in the wrong hosts 1. Develops pathologic changes
− Parasites that establish themselves in or on a 2. Exhibit symptoms of varying degree
host in which they do not normally live 3. Toxic manifestation
− Example: Hymenolepis nana endeminuta (Rat 4. Evidence of inflammation
Tapeworms) 5. Generalized or localized pain
− Just like the COVID-19, it is a virus that infects
the bats then once it was ingested it may affect PREVENTION AND CONTROL
us as well 1. Parasite awareness education programs
CLASSIFICATION OF HOSTS 2. Insecticides
1. Definitive 3. Use of netting (kulambo)
− If it bears the adult stage of the parasite 4. Proper waste disposal
− Most of the time it is a mammalian hosts 5. Good personal hygiene
2. Intermediate 6. Handling, cooking, and protection of food
− Hosts that bears the larval stage of the parasite 7. Protected sexual relations
− It is only an accessory hosts in order to transfer
the parasite to its definitive hosts THINGS TO REMEMBER IN PARASITOLOGY
− It somehow helps the parasite to reach its adult 1. Scientific names are written in italics
stage − Writing scientific names is a must
− Examples: snails ✓ Trichomonas vaginalis
3. Reservoir
− Although they carry the parasite, they do not 2. The name is composed of the genus and specie
get infected classification of the parasite
− The host is the source of the parasitic infection − If doing it through handwriting, you should
write the first letter of the first word capital
− Example: Rat, lake, soil, air
while the first letter of the second word a small
4. Accidental
one
− They bear parasites that they usually don’t bear
✓ Trichomonas vaginalis
− Example: humans
5. Transport
3. Variations of genus names are used to denote the
− Can be either biological or mechanical
disease associated with the parasite
o Biological: Biological organisms like
✓ Trichomonas vaginalis - Trichomoniasis
mosquitos, flies (vectors)
o Mechanical: Inanimate hosts that helps the
parasite to be transferred to its definitive
hosts (fomites)
− Example: Mouse
o when it eats a slug infected with third
larvae of the cat lungworm
(Aelostrongylous abstrusus) it does not
infect the mouse nor undergoes
development inside it, until the mouse is
eaten by the cat
6. Carriers
− Asymptomatic but you carry the disease
− It is very seldom that a hosts will be
symptomatic
− Not so much
2 major classification
DISEASE PROCESS 1. Helminths or the worms.
Parasitic Infection 2. Protozoans
− Showing mild symptoms, tolerable Phylum of protozoans
− Onset of having the disease • Sarcomastigophora are organisms that moves
either by flagella or pseudopodia
1. Host shows mild symptoms • Ciliophora moves through cilia

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• Apicomplexa has no definite locomotory organ but Once amoebae phagocytize bacteria and viruses, these will
it has a structure known as the apical complex not die inside them, but it will propagate inside them.
However, the downside of it is if they internalize inside of it
Class of Sarcomastigophora the interventions, we make to prevent those bacteria will not
• Lobosea moves through the use of pseudopodia be effective. Once ingest by a human it will be dangerous
• Zoomastigophora exclusively moves through the since it may release the microorganism inside it.
use of flagella
General Characteristics
Orders under Zoomastigophora 1. Locomotion
• Diplomonadida − In class Lobosea particularly order Amoebida
• Retortamonadida all moves by way of PSEUDOPODIA or false
• Kinetoplastida feet
• Trichomonadida o It is an extension of a cytoplasmic structure
in order to pull the organism towards one
direction
Orders under Lobosea
− These organisms move very slow
• Amoebida those that belongs to genus entamoeda,
endolimax, iodamoeba − It is very seldom that an organism under class
Lobosea moves in a different way except
• Schizopreynida
Naegleria
o free living amoeba group
2. Cytoplasm
o considered as the brain eating amoeba
− Divided into two regions:
o Ectoplasm
Genera under Schizopreynida
▪ Cytostome: cell mouth
• Naegleria
• This is where the food comes in
• Acanthamoeba
Helminths 3 phylum
▪ Cytopharynx
− Mostly found in the intestines
• tube-like structure
• Cestodes
• it connects the cytostome to the
• Trematodes
main endoplasm like the esophagus
• Nematodes
▪ Cytopyge
• Exit point of metabolic waste
AMOEBAS • Aka cell’s anus
− considered as ancient organisms
− Amoebae (singular) o Endoplasm
▪ It contains the organelles such as nucleus,
chromatoid bar, etc.

Macrophages are white blood cells that protects our body to − These two regions are important because of the
the outside invaders through phagocytosis (engulfing the structures that are seen in them
organism).
3. Stages of development
There are studies that shows that they are somehow the o Cystic Stage
same since they both phagocytize bacteria and viruses and − transfer stage
internalize it within them. − infective stage of amoebae
− resistance stage

Knowing that it is the one exposed to the environment to be

transferred to another hosts that makes it a resistant stage.

It is resistant to environmental factors (rain, water,

temperature, etc.).

Amoebae will maintain its viability (the ability to infect

another hosts) or integrity because of this stage since it stays
in this stage and withstand the environmental factors until it
Amoebae are really phagocytizing organisms within their was transferred to another hosts.
cytoplasm.
o Trophozoite Stage
− Vegetative stage
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− Feeding stage Things to Observe to Identify Intestinal Amoebae

Since it doesn’t have a protective wall like the cystic stage it is 1. Chromatoid bars/body
then considered to be the fragile stage of amoeba. − The shape of this is very crucial to classify
an amoebae based on its genus as well as
Most of the time it was found inside the hosts since it is fragile, the specie.
it bursts easily when it is exposed to environmental factors. − This is prone to error
2. Karyosome
It is easily destroyed by the gastric juices in the stomach. − It is the chromatin found inside the
nucleus
The ability of the amoeba to transform from a trophozoite to − It is arranged differently.
a cysts is the process called encystation and occurs in the o Some are centrally
intestine. o Some are eccentrically
o Some are blat-like in appearance
Conditions that may trigger it: 3. Movement
− Ameba overpopulation − It is seldom used to classify amoebae
− pH change − We know that all of them uses
− food supply pseudopodia
− available oxygen − Some moves direction while others are
bidirectional
The ability of the amoeba to transform from a cystic stage to
a trophozoite is a process called excystation. Excystation 4. Cytoplasmic inclusions
happens in ileocecal area. − Not very much analyze

The mechanism of encystation and excystation is affected by Classification of Amoebas

several factors but the number 1 factor is due to food supply. INTESTINAL AMOEBA
1. Entamoeba histolytica: infective
If there is a scarcity of food, it will then go back to cystic stage − Medically important entamoeba
and if it is rich with food and met the optimal temperature it 2. Entamoeba moshkovski: infective
will then be trophozoite. 3. Entamoeba dispar
4. Entamoeba hartmanni: commensal entamoeba
Replication only happen in trophozoite stage through − Small race
multiplication of nucleus via asexual binary fission. 5. Entamoeba coli: commensal entamoeba
6. Entamoeba polecki: infective
4. Replication 7. Endolimax nana: commensal entamoeba
o All amoebae are replicated through binary 8. Iodamoeba butschlii: commensal entamoeba
fission.
▪ It is known to be the division of one Commensal type of intestinal amoebae means that you can
mother cell in to two equal daughter have them but there is no evidence that they cause infection or
cells. disease to humans.

The chromatoid bar of:

o histolytica, moshkovski, dispar, and hartmanni is
describe as having a cigar shape chromatoidal bar.
o Coli which has splinter shape (ziebig); broomstick
appearance (elmario)
o Also the largest of all the intestinal
amoebae
o Polecki has angular ends
o Nana it doesn’t have a chromotoidal bar since all of
Yellow circle: cytoplasmic extension the amoeba intestinally located.
Red circle: body of the amoeba
o NANA is the smallest
o Iodamoeba butschlii does not have a chromotoidal
bar but it has a very large glycogen mass
o The first four intestinal amoeba are identical to
morphology, but the only difference is that
hartmanni is relatively smaller than the
histolytica and known to be small race of
entamoeba hystolitica

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EXTRAINTESTINAL AMOEBAE − The use of ground water

9. Entamoeba gingivalis
10. Naegleria fowlerii
11. Acanthamoeba

o Gingivalis does not have a cystic stage but it has a

multiple pseudopodia and it does not have
chromotoidal bar as well.
o Fowlerii and acanthamoeba does not have a cystic
stage since its chromotoidal bar is too small.

Chromatoidal bar is only present at the cystic stage of the

organism. It is a food storage like a giant mitochondrion.
− A study from the CDC which says that it is really
E. histolytica, E. dispar, & E. moshkovski important for us to distinguish the difference
E. Histolytica between the two
− this organism has been tagged in two
important terms: amoebiasis and
hyaluronidase
− this is the only one causing severe diarrhea to
people (amoebiasis denotes this parsite)
− hyaluronidase is the enzyme which this − This tells us that 10% of the global population is
parasite elaborate. infected with entamoeba species.
− It creates this enzyme once it gain access in the o But only 10% of that 10% is E. histolytica
intstine and through this enzyme it will be able − To distinguished that it is amoebiasis:
to puncture through intestinal wall and o Presence of RBC
blood vessels. o Presence of PUS cells
− That is why persons with amoebiasis started to
defecate stool with blood. If the patient is healthy these two cannot be seen.
− Also, through puncturing the walls of the blood Eosinophil are the cells that is made to combat any type of
vessels it is now able to feed themselves with parasitism
blood.
− This is the only intestinal amoeba that can − These parasites were lysed by the eosinophil by the
ingest RBC granules inside them.

VIRULENCE: The one used to measure the intensity or severity − If the patient is healthy, the presence of crystals may
in which a parasite can cause a disease. indicate that there is something happening in the
intestines.
PATHOGENICITY: refers to the ability of an organism to cause o These crystals are called Charcot Leyden
disease Crystals.
▪ It is an eosinophilic granules that
E. histolytica, E. dispar, & E. moshkovski aggregates together to form this
− These three are like twins crystals
− Their size, morphology, shape of the chromotoid
bar, and number of nucleus are the same. PCR: you are finding the DNA of the parasite.
− But E. histolytica is the only one pathogenic while
the two are commensals.
− That is why Identification of parasite whether it
pathogenic or not is crucial since almost 80% of
doctor’s diagnosis is based on the lab results.
− Metronidazole medicine used to treat E. histolytica

How E. histolytica is transferred?

− Fecal-oral route

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Method of diagnosis
1. Fecalysis
o NSS
o Lugol’s iodine
If NSS is used, you will not be able to stain the specimen but
through Lugol’s iodine you can clearly have a picture of it.

2. Concentration techniques
− Acid-Ether Concentration Technique
− Formaline-Ether Concentration Technique
o This is not used now due to the volatile
reaction of the two
− Zinc Sulfate Floatation technique
3. Molecular techniques
− PCR
− RFLP (restriction fragment length
polymorphism)
o It differs in PCR since you separate the
DNA in fragments
o There are also patterns in it and it is used
to identify what kind pf organism it is

E. gingivalis
Under the cystic stage it may stay alive for 2 years. − Example of extraintestinal group of parasite
− It is found in the mouth (tar-tar if the teeths) but
E. histolytica not only affect the intestines, lungs, hearts, but may ended up in the vagina
also the genitalia (male). − Only entamoeba organism that ingest white blood
cells
E. polecki − It ia a very big amoeba with multiple pseudopodia
− Parasites of monkeys and pigs − It eats food debris in the mouth
− It can go deeper like the tonsils and it will digest the
WBC which protects us from those parasites.

− Even though it is a parasites of animals it may cause

moderate intestinal discomfort to human.
− Considered to be Zoonotic infection to humans and
we are infected due to our eating habits.
− It also has the ability to elaborate hyaluronidase

I. butschlii
− Non-pathogenic and it doesn’t have a cystic stage
but it has a very large glycogen vacuole somehow − It does not have cystic stage but a lot of
largely occupying the entire cytoplasm. pseudopodia that it uses to glide and swim in the
oral cavity
− It doesn’t have the ability to reside outside of the
body.
− It can only be transferred directly (kissing) by the
use of saliva
− They found a certain organism in brain, lungs,
intestines and he proposed that it is Iodamoeba To isolate this parasite, it can be through oral swabs then
butschlii study it at once since it is sensitive to the environment.
− But as years past by it is proven that it is Naegleria

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− it has fast progression since it takes 7 days to

complete its progression (death)
− there is no therapeutic regimen for this
o Doctors only prescribe amphotericin b
but it has a severe side effects and they
also use antifungal drugs to maintain the
Other than causing indirect infection, it was able to cause
condition of the patient
Acute Osteomyelitis of the mandible (it is the jawbone).

Naegleria spp.
− Also called as “free-living amoebae”
− This is one of the two amoeba that causes the most
fatal conditions that any amoeba caused human
being specifically the N. fowleri.
− There are 8 known species of Naegleria existing but
only 3 are considered important since it is
pathogenic to humans,
o N. fowleri (1947)
▪ There are 381 cases of PAM in the
world and 4 only lived
o N. australiensis
▪ It is proven to be pathogenic in mice N. fowleri is mostly found in the environment that is why it is
models called “free living amoeba”
▪ It can cause fetal meningitis in mice
models This organism is different from the other organism included
o N. philippinensis in the order Amoebida since it has a flagellated stage.
▪ The first case of it happened in the
PH in the year 1970s Flagellated stage is considered as the transient stage which
▪ 1st case of Primary Amoebic is panandalian lang. Also called as the escaped stage.
Meningoencephalitis (PAM)
− These parasite can be seen in fresh eaters like river, The only time Naegleria is transformed into a flagellated
lakes, swimming pools stage is by the time it detects ripples in the water.
o You can get infected when you swim on − Since in this stage, this organism moves very fast to
contaminated water and inhaled water escape the predators.
− The access of the organism inside the host is − Once it detects that the water is now calm it will be
through the nose (olfactory bulb) and it will go to transformed into trophozoite form then go back
the olfactory nerve then it will go to the brain and forth to cystic stage depending on the situation
− It uses elastase and CD59 protein to evade − In trophozoite stage it moves very slowly.
phagocytosis or the membrane attack complex of
the body. Trophozoite stage is the detection stage which is most of
o These two are used to avoid the membrane the time seen in CSF and tissue.
attack complex formed by the immune
response of the body. Sometimes, flagellated stage can also be the detection stage
o Elastase lyses the connective tissue so it which it can be seen swimming around in the CSF also known
can feed itself, it is also its role to climb up as the spine tap or the lumbar tap.
its Cribiform plate which is the base of the
brain and sip in the blood-brain barrier
which is separated with the immune
response of the body that is why there is a
delayed immune response once you have
this disease

Primary Amoebic Meningoencephalitis (PAM)

− it is an infection in the brain (inflammation)
− any type of Naegleria can cause this as they reached
the blood brain barrier and is able to settle in the
Acanthamoeba spp.
brain which will cause inflammation (hemorrhage − This is one of the two amoeba that causes the most
of the brain) which increases the pressure in the fatal conditions, and it is called as the
cranial area that causes severe headaches, nausea, Granulomatous amoebic encephalitis (GAE)
seizures and eventually coma then death which also affects the brain.
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− This can be seen almost everywhere (ubiquitous)

o It can be seen in air filters, dust, biological
organisms like fishes

Can also cause:

1. Acanthamoeba keratitis (AK)
− This is the most common condition that this
can cause. This is a rare case of acanthamoeba infection since the
− Most commonly seen in people with contact patient is does not wear contact lens however, he washed his
lenses due to its solution face with top water.
− It is a very painful eye infection which you
cannot even close your eyes and sleep Amoeba are not susceptible to chlorination but there are
− It is not fatal and treatable certain genotypes that are susceptible like the T11.

2. Subcutaneous infection
− Genotype T5 can cause this infection
− Portal of entry is the skin with open wound

There are a lot of this specie but only few are considered to
be pathogenic specifically the genotype T4 and T5.

However, through this study it shows that there are other Genotype T11 is seen which supposed to be susceptible to
genotypes that shows pathogenicity but when subjected to chlorine.
thermal tolerance testing it provided negative result. So it
can be concluded that there are interspecies variation of Method of diagnosis
Acanthamoeba, and you cannot say that this genotype can 1. Microscopy (provided that CSF is the specimen)
cause harm to people or the otherwise. 2. Culture methods (Non-Nutrient Agar lawned with
Escherichia coli)
− Usual method used
− It will serve as a food source of the
acanthamoeba

3. Molecular methods
− PCR to detect the DNA of those species
4. Corneal scrapings
− Use to detect Acanthamoeba in the eyes

Challenges in giving medical intervention to PAM and

GAE
1. Lack of definitive symptoms
− Fever
It can as well find in the environment and freshwater − Headache
systems but there is only two developmental stage of this. − Nausea
− Seizures
It can enter the human hosts in three different routes:
1. By the nose (will lead to GAE) The first three is the early symptoms seen while seizure is
2. By the eyes (will lead to AK) towards the latter stage like the 5th day of infection.
3. By the ulcerated or broken skin (will lead to − 4th to 7th day is irreversible
subcutaneous infection)
The first three is too common so you will not suspect any major
condition.

The only definitive symptom that we can get is through the

patient’s history.
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Facultative parasite Parasite that is capable of

2. Misdiagnosis with bacterial or viral meningitis existing independently of a
host
Wrong medical intervention will be given. Endoparasite Parasite that is established
inside of a host
Ectoparasite Parasite that is established in
One of the symptoms which you can tell that it is meningitis is or on the exterior surface of a
through the Kernig’s sign (inability to bend a patients neck host
downwards). Type of Host
Accidental/Incidental Host other than the normal
3. Fast progression of the disease host one that is harboring a
− 7 days progression parasite
Definitive host Host in which the adult sexual
− Due to the blood-brain barrier which causes late
phase of parasite
reaction development occurs
Intermediate host Host in which the larval
BOOK INFO asexual phase of parasite
• Most parasitic infections are found in development occurs
underdeveloped tropical and subtropical countries Reservoir host Host harboring parasites that
such as Haiti, Guatemala, and Myanmar (Burma) are parasitic for humans and
and countries on the African Continent from which humans may be
• Increased population density, poor sanitation, infected
Transport host Host responsible for
marginal water sources, poor public health
transferring a parasite from
practices, and environmental changes
one location to another
Populations at Risk for Contracting Parasites Carrier Parasite-harboring host; not
Individuals in underdeveloped areas and countries exhibiting any clinical
Refugees symptoms but can infect
Immigrants others
Visitors from foreign countries
Individuals who are immunocompromised Parasite-Host Relationship Terms
Individuals living in close quarters (e.g., prisons) Symbiosis Living together; association of two
Children who attend day care centers living organisms, each of a different
species
• Mode of transmission Commensalism Two different species of organisms
that is beneficial to one and neutral
− means whereby a parasite gains entry
to the other
into an unsuspecting host
Mutualism Two different species of organisms
that is beneficial to both
• Arthropod Parasitism Two different species of organisms
− vector through which a parasite is passed that is beneficial to one at the
on to an uninfected host, most often via a other’s expense
blood meal (bite) Commensal Relating to commensalism; two
Modes of Parasite Transmission different organisms in which on
Ingestion of contaminated food/drink benefits and neutral on the other
Hand-to-mouth transfer Pathogenic Parasite that has demonstrated the
Insect bite ability to cause disease
Entry via drilling through the skin
Unprotected sexual relations • The primary function of a host in a parasite-host
Mouth-to-mouth contact relationship is to carry on the parasite’s life cycle
Droplet contamination • The Newly formed relationship may develop into
Eye contact with infected swimming water commensalism, mutualism, or parasitism.
• Some of these associations exist as commensal or
PARASITE-HOST RELATIONSHIPS pathogenic.
• Parasites adapts to their hosts surroundings.
Main focus of research of parasite-host:
• Parasites can protect themselves from the host’s
• Recognition of these relationships immune system.
• Search for patterns of the relationships o It changes its antigenic makeup so that the
• Development of methodologies to study these host will not recognize them.
patterns
PARASITIC LIFE CYCLES
Terms Associated w/ Parasite-Host Relationship • Infective stage – morphologic form that invades
Type of Parasite humans
Obligatory parasite Parasite that cannot survive • Diagnostic stage – detected via laboratory retrieval
outside of a host
methods

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Some parasites require only a definitive hosts, whereas Key goal of WHO and Doctors Without Borders: eradicating
others also require one or more intermediate hosts. parasites
• A parasitic life cycle consists of two common
phases: Parasite Prevention and Control Strategies
➢ Route of a parasite follows when in or on Development and implementation of parasite awareness
the human body education programs
Use of insecticides and other chemicals
Symptomatology and pathology of the parasite, insights Use of protecting clothing
about the best method of diagnosis and selection of Use of protective netting
appropriate antiparasitic medication. Proper water treatment
Good personal hygiene
Proper sanitation practices
➢ Route of parasite follows independently Proper handling, cooking, and protection of food
of human body Avoidance of unprotected sexual relations

Provides crucial information pertinent to epidemiology,

prevention, and control. SPECIMEN PROCESSING AND LABORATORY
DIAGNOSIS
DISEASE PROCESSES AND SYMPTOMS
Stool – most commonly submitted sample
• Major body areas associated: gastrointestinal (GI) • Typical stool analysis consists of performing
tract and urogenital (UG) tracts, blood and tissue, macroscopic and microscopic techniques on a
liver, lung, miscellaneous locations such as portion of unpreserved sample when available
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), eye, skin, and extremities
• Some persons remain asymptomatic, whereas other O&P – “O” stands for ova (eggs) and “P” stands for parasites;
parasites produce symptoms and may result to traditional parasite recovery method
death. • Other specimens including blood, tissue biopsies,
CSF, sputum, urine, and genital material is also used
Symptoms Associated with Parasitic Disease • Giemsa stain – procedure of choice for blood
Processes samples submitted for parasite study
Diarrhea
Fever Cellophane tape preparation – methodology for recovery
Chills
of pinworm eggs
Abdominal pain
Abdominal cramping
Elephantiasis Enterotest (string test) – for recovery of several parasites
Anemia
Vitamin deficiency Newer Parasite Laboratory Diagnosis Techniques
Bowel obstruction Direct fluorescent antibody (DFA)
Edema Enzyme immunoassay (EIA)
Enlargement of major organs Indirect fluorescent antibody (IFA)
Skin lesions Latex agglutination (LA)
blindness Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
Rapid immunochromatography technique
*Elephantiasis – enlargement of areas such as the breast,
leg, and scrotum caused by a parasite’s presence Artifacts/confusers – suspicious forms that visually
resemble parasites in terms of size and morphology
• Most commonly observed in parasitic infections
are abdominal cramping, abdominal pain, diarrhea, Example:
fever, and chills.
E. histolytica cyst – single celled eukaryotic animal known as
TREATMENT a protozoa, typically measures 12 to 18 microns (µm)
similar with polymorphonuclear leukocytes average 1.5 µm
Parasite Treatment Options in size.
Antiparasitic medication
Change in diet Ascaris lumbricoides eggs – member of the subkingdom
Vitamin supplements METAZOA. Typically measures 30 to 50 microns (µm).
Fluid replacement
Blood transfusion PARASITE NOMENCLATURE AND CLASSIFICATION
Bed rest
• Many of the drugs are toxic to the hosts thus care is • Scientific names of parasites are written in italics
advised. and consist of two components, genus (p.l., genera)
PREVENTION AND CONTROL and species

• Preventive measures – designed to break the Example: Giardia intestinalis – Giardia is the genus and
transmission cycle intestinalis is the species name; abbreviation is G. intestinalis
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LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO PARASITOLOGY & AMOEBA

Variations of specific genus names are used to identify

diseases and conditions associated with their presence.

• -iasis: to denote such diseases or conditions

Example:
Giardiasis refers to the disease or condition associated with
Giardia intestinalis

Variations of scientific genus name are used to refer to a

genus name.

Example:
Leishmania and Trypanosoma: reference to infections with
these two genera are often written as leishmanial infections
and typanosmal infection.

Variations of parasite category names are common

Example:
Amebas can be written as amebic or ameboid.

Three Major Groups of Clinically Significant Parasites

1. Single-celled parasites – Protozoa
2. Multicellular worms – Metazoa helminths
3. Arthropods (insects and their allies) – Animalia

• Groups of parasites in each classification table are

organized by kingdom and subkingdom, phylum
and subphylum, and class

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