Internet:

Definition:
 A means of connecting a computer to any other computer
anywhere in the world via dedicated routers and servers.
 When two computers are connected over the Internet, they can
send and receive all kinds of information such as text,
graphics, voice, video, and computer programs.
 No one owns Internet, although several organizations the world
over collaborate in its functioning and development. The high-
speed, fiber-optic cables (called backbones) through which the
bulk of the Internet data travels are owned by telephone companies
in their respective countries.

Other definition of Internet is:

 The Internet, sometimes called simply "the Net," is a worldwide
system of computer networks - a network of networks in which
users at any one computer can, if they have permission, get
information from any other computer (and sometimes talk
directly to users at other computers). It was conceived by the
Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) of the U.S.
government in 1969 and was first known as the ARPANet. The
original aim was to create a network that would allow users of a
research computer at one university to "talk to" research computers
at other universities.
 ISP:
An Internet service provider (ISP) is an organization that provides
services for accessing and using the Internet. Internet service
providers may be organized in various forms, such as commercial,
community-owned, non-profit, or otherwise privately owned.
 Services of Internet:
Internet service providers (ISP - Internet Service Provider) companies or
institutions (such as T-Com, Iskon or CARNet in Croatia, AT&T in US
and MTNL in India), which satellite or optical connections with several
major Internet node abroad (mainly in the direction of America and
Europe) and the thus ensuring high capacity connection to the rest of the
Internet world. However, practice has shown that it can barely follow
the needs of the growing number of members of Internet communities.
When selecting an ISP of significance is the number of services that it
provides to its customers. All services provided by e-mail, but do not
provide any service to FTP, newsgroups, renting space on the disc,
certain program support and etc. CARNet allows for almost all
university departments.

User from their computers at work or at home by joining the Internet

can:

 Exchange electronic mail (e-mail) to any Internet user in any

location on the planet.
 Participate in off-line (indirectly, not in real time) discussions via
e-mail with people with similar interests through 'mailing lists' and
'News Groups'.
 Participate live (in real time) in a conversation with another person
via the 'Internet video phone' (like Skype), or audio-video
conferencing between multiple people using a specially designed
computer programs and equipment.
 Participate in on-line (directly, in real time) written discussion with
a larger group of people who use the 'Internet Relay Chat' (IRC)
service - chat rooms.
 To work on a remote computer using the 'Telnet' service or some
per function quite the same.
 Take files of any type (download) from remote computers and
deliver files (upload) them with an FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
service.
 Reading complex documents using 'hypertext'. Clicking on a
keyword or image on the screen the user is automatically goes to
other facilities within the same or other domains.
 Read multimedia documents found on WWW (World Wide Web)
that contain text, graphics, sound, and video using intelligent
browser web presentation, as 'Google Chrome', 'Firefox' or
'Internet Explorer' program support.
 Learning and practicing for the exam and achieve appropriate
certification.
 Search the Web, documents, various WWW sites or via dedicated
international service, as 'Google' and 'Yahoo!',over subscribed
keywords to find the desired documents.
 Publicly disclose their images or pictures of his grandchildren, and
who wants to can publish a picture of mother in law.
 Advertise your business in a variety of ways, from setting up video
clips to the creation of their own website.
 Paying bills through the 'Internet Banking'.
 Buy and spend money :-), advertise and offer for sale.
 Read web editions of newspapers or say 'IT Alphabet'.
 Play simple games and .....who knows what else.
 Services of Computer System
 To make computers communicate with each other within the
network of any kind, should be on the computer and allow the
network system services, in order to allow retrieval further
described services. The computer operating system is designed to
know how to use system services, but also to offer their services to
the environment. The holder of any communication within the
local network and outside the TCP / IP protocol. According to
TCP / IP - OSI model protocols of upper layers allow the use of
certain services. The basis of all is the client-server architecture,
then architecture in which part of the network resource offers
individual services and the resources that they use.

 As for computer use is the most important service within the local
network, as well as SHARING (AVAILABILITY) of devices
connected to computer (like a printer), and directories and files of
computer (such as multimedia content) to other participants in the
network - File and Printer Sharing service. And the computer
could fetch a resource on the Internet the most important service is
the theDNS and DHCP obtain by server in the local network
device. By using first service enables to recognize the computer in
the network by a domain name rather than IP addresses and vice
versa, and the other service provides automatic assign of TCP / IP
settings regarding computer to enable communication. All other
services are these further upgrade on them, and follows a
description of some of them.
 WWW (World Wide Web)
The latest is an information service on the Internet. After the advent of
the 1993rd The present multi-tens of millions of web pages is a synonym
for the Internet. The first two words 'World Wide' mean global
distribution, and the last word 'Web' means in this context of network
computing. Scope of diverse content on the WWW servers is constantly
growing. Almost everything can be found. Since the purchase of the
product, technical support, advice, research papers, advertisements, price
lists and who knows what all, depending on the site designated for and
inspiration of their creator. So there are useful and useless, beautiful and
ugly, organized and unorganized. Their development today is the
extraordinary artistic and programming disciplines.

WWW is a graphical hypertext way of using the Internet using the

HTTP protocol for transmitting Web pages and other information over
the Internet, in principle, between the server and the user's computer.
Web pages are written in HTML (Hypertext Markup Language)
language, and recognizes them for this purpose designed browser
(Internet Explorer, Firefox, ...). Service provides hypertext links between
documents and combined display of text, images, sound and video, that
enables the integration of different information content. Hypertext is a
document or a system with related text units according to the principle
shown in the following figure.
How certain region have specific graphemes, header website states the code page
used records that follow. But that will not be relevant if your OS in, e.g. Africa
does not have the character set used in Europe. Unicode will greatly increase the
user-friendliness of reading web content regarding the diversity of languages and
countries. Web pages are usually placed servers that allow other Internet services
like email and the like. The servers are in operation almost continuously, and each
of them has its own unique address, a URL (Uniform Resource Locator) and a
single seat website content. One site address would be:

'http://www.domain.hr/' or
'http://computer.domain.hr/' or
'http://×××.×××.×××.×××/'

Address is written on a hierarchically organized several DNS servers.

'http' protocol is a label, 'computer' is the name of the server or name of
sub-domain. One can find and mark 'www' pointing to program support
on the client side, which must be used to copy data (not necessarily).
'domain.hr' is a fundamental domain of the main domain in which the
server and it stands true for all of the services that the server provides in
its domain. It is possible to retrieve the desired content directly via the
IP address (×××.×××.×××.×××), only need to know and remember. It's
easier to remember domain name, especially if the name is associated
with the desired content.
Tag 'hr' is an abbreviation for the state and each state is assigned a
different label. It represents the main domain. But often, especially in
the U.S., for the main domain tag to find com, edu, gov, int, mil, net,
org, according to the type of content that is presented, and is planning to
introduce some more.

Thus defined address of site is unique throughout the world. The award
is called the basic and main domain local ISP decides in consultation
with the customer along with relevant international association of
leading Internet about taking care so that each of them is unique in the
world (no two are the same). Label domain and main domain is an
integral part of the labeling of other services offered by the server.

As the number of web pages is a huge phenomenon understandable

growing number of WWW pages with type catalogs, which over the
content or accountable to the inquiry, pointing to other web content.
Those are web search engine that contain the tools to search different
databases, documents, databases, e-mails, files, multimedia content,
Web's, and more. This sought as 'Google' and 'Yahoo' really allow
efficient browsing the Internet, but also require a detailed knowledge of
the principles and rules with which they work. What you can not find the
look you over 'Astalavista' required.
 Electronic Mail (E-mail)
Service which is much earlier than the World Wide Web and has won
hearts of the users. The idea that in a few minutes you can deliver, text,
image, audio or video recording of any person on the planet was
unfeasible until recently, but now, thanks largely to the rapid expansion
of the number of Internet users and the increasing speed of
communication, was to become reality of business and social
communication. Mainly used for the contents of up to 500 kB.
Otherwise need to use the FTP service.

It is customary that the electronic address contains two parts separated

by ' @ '. The first part is usually the user selected a name, but it could be
anything else, any term. The second part is the name of a specific
electronic ISP or a local name from the list of network nodes that belong
to its domain (DNS) server. For example, for CARNet applies:
'[email protected]'

It is an abbreviated form for which the server CARNet 'name' is the code
of the person, or the name of the application server - USER_NAME or
USE_ID, behind which lies in content table with registered users in the
system supporting server, real name and surname of the ID belongs. The
actual e-mail address along with the user information and the name and
location of the computer is:
'[email protected]' or
'[email protected]'

The cost of sending electronic letters to any multimedia attachment to

any Internet user, regardless of the distance is less secure than sending
greetings for the New Year traditional postal services, particularly if it is
sent through the mailing-list. Difficulties may arise if only the system
administrator on the receiving side of the transmit or introduce
restrictive measures in respect of defense against unwanted attachment
types in an electronic letter for security needs.

In the business world, this type of communication is more prevalent. No

more waiting on the phone or fax machine to free selection signal or a
sign of nervousness on the calendar. This is irritating especially if the
destination is no one to receive the message. Such a user sends a
message to his partner, an electronic mailbox that this will sooner or
later read and return the response.
 News Groups
Service derived from e-mail, which allows the public debate on various
issues. As part of this service, it is possible to follow the discussion on
any topic or even start a new topic for discussion. Similar to the e-mail
message is sent to all members of the group, and everyone signed on the
group read the message and optionally answer them. Very practical and
convenient to search for help in solving business problems.
'news://news.domain.hr/'

Almost every Internet service provider offers this very interesting and
useful features.
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
Before the World Wide Web and FTP was the only way to transfer large
files between computers of Internet users. Allows access to a computer
on the Internet (if it's public or available to the password), preview
content on its hard disk, finding the necessary files and copy on its own
disk. This Internet service is not as simple as the World Wide Web, but
it is very useful.

Using program support for FTP will set about establishing

communication address is similar as in the previous examples:
'ftp://ftp.domain.hr' or
'ftp://computer.domain.hr' or
'ftp://×××.×××.×××.×××'

File transfer function is increasingly taking the WWW, so that with a

confirmation copy selected files as needed and the auxiliary program
with WWW browser (GetRight or similar) which will take over the task
of FTP transmission and after stop using the browser.

IRC (Internet Relay Chat)

This service allows the Internet to one or more of Internet users who are
hooked to the same channel at the same time see the text that you type
on your computer, and the texts of other active users typing on his
computer. Channels to 'talk' to exist for almost all areas of interest. This
system is much faster than e-mail because it is conducted almost
simultaneously send and read messages, but it is much more expensive
than e-mail, because it requires a long term connection with the Internet,
but only for those who pay for this service out of his own pocket.

Telnet
Internet service that allows the user logs on and runs on a remote
computer and use programs installed on the remote computer. Of course,
the remote computer must be enabled in the user access rights to the
computer. For security reasons this service on many servers is not
allowed. It is better to say that the Telnet 'Terminal Emulation' software
support, which to communicate with a computer connected via a
TCP / IP stack. Thus, the emulator work former unit called 'Terminal'
(from the mainframe era). This same role today better performed by
programs that use SSH (Secure Shell) connections over TCP / IP as the
carrier of connection, but all traffic is encrypted. Although this
mechanism provides plenty of security in the work with the server,
system administrators are reluctant to make this service available to all
users.
 Voice / Video Communication - Skype
Internet networking service that allows users to voice / video
communication. This implies that the devices that use this service have
built-in camera and microphone. Although this service is usually used
for that purpose, in addition to communicate written messages, internet
calls, sharing information and much more. Can be used as a common
telephone communications. This service is based on the free program
support allows free calls to anyone who has installed a 'Skype' program
support on his computer, anywhere in the world. Thanks to the high
speed internet communication has increasingly better quality. Can be
achieved over a fixed PTT communication lines or cell phones or send
text messages at very reasonable prices, without any special setup or
subscriptions.

It should be emphasized that this is no communication between user

devices (phones), but between two user accounts registered on 'Skype'
service which includes registration, enter the user_name and password
protected some basic personal information. The user can later modify
the information in their profiles as needed. 'Skype' has just developed
that allows retrieval of user account and select the desired action and can
be installed on a PC with Windows, Mac or Linux operating system,
several kinds of mobile phones, and what is best to communicate
between multiple users in a commercial version it's the conference using
the 'Skype Manager' program support to be purchased. Provides for the
use of TV sets in communication.So, a kind of free video phone, which
offers even extra specific services. With this program support the new
generation of smartphones and tablets, using the resources of the
existing SOHO infrastructure, 'calling' becomes really cheap. This
service should not be confused with VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol)
technology that allows the transmission of voice communications over
Internet networks for the purpose of protocol design, that 'Skype' is used
in the sense of some kind of Peer-to-Peer (P2P) communication.

Something similar is service 'Viber' that allows free calls, SMS and
MMS share content with anyone, anywhere, but there is no ability to
transfer video as 'Skype'. Similar to the above mentioned is service
'WhatsApp', multiple platform mobile application to send messages in
real time.

Social networks
Social networks are a newer phenomenon and do not belong in a
separate category because they contain almost all of the previously
mentioned services, unified to work in an easy, friendly way. Not only
does it allow communication among users but also represent a form of
socializing. There are already quite developed FORUMS, bulletin
boards web version, which uses a technology exchange text via the web
site, or web sites. It is a debate on a topic initiated by a member of the
forum. As a rule, seek enrollment, mostly for free, using the application
type USER_NAME  / PASSWORD, typically associated with a user's
address in the e-mail regarding the identification.

Purpose of writing by arbitrarily selected topics has a BLOG

(contraction of the term 'web log'), a type of website that is usually
maintained by an individual, is organized much like a personal diary
with respect to input regarding the content of the description of an event
or topic, with the possibility of enriching the content and graphics video.
As a kind of diary of events, entered contests are usually displayed in
reverse chronological order. Usually allows readers can add here your
comments on the topic that is currently being processed..

One of the most popular is FACEBOOK, a social network where users

can set up their image, disclose your personal information, describe their
interests, publish their written and photographic pieces, develop some
thematic discussions, etc. with the possibility that any of the members
receive in 'his 'group or a member of it off. A sort of meeting place, so it
is possible even to initiate effective political, protest, humanitarian or
some other action. Has a similar purpose, and TWITTER, social
networks and mikrobloging service, which uses instant messaging, SMS
or web content. There are also 'LinkedIn', 'Myspace', 'Tumblr',
'Instagram' and the other, each with its own characteristics. What made
them especially adorned with a tremendously rapid dissemination of
information, and misinformation. Thus, the negative effects are possible.

Very specific Internet service YOUTUBE. Used to exchange video

content where users can upload, view and evaluate video, up to 'Full HD'
resolution, respecting copyrights. It is forbidden to support pornography,
violence, crime, embarrassment and defamation, and advertising. For
your own protection YouTube reserves the right to use, modify and
delete content posted. In summary, one can find all sorts of things, from
useful to useless content, but also very funny and naughty and critical to
everyday events. Whether it is a film and music videos covering
YouTube to be a free medium for promoting a filmmaker, musician or
politician and there have been cases where people have gained
popularity in this way, and then accepted by traditional media such as
newspapers, radio and television.

Essentially all of these are web applications that typically require

enrollment to confirm the response to the e-mail messages to prospective
members. Registration is usually type USER_NAME / PASSWORD or
E-MAIL / PASSWORD, and the user alone chooses who will be his
personal data are visible in your profile settings. But for one such
network services server is usually insufficient. Caring for their
functioning in particular computers-servers; datacenter. The forerunner
of the above was certainly B.B.S. era of modem communications.
 Search Engines
Already these social networks to enable retrieval of content that is stored
and monitored, but a special group of interconnected computer servers
in a DATACENTER and interconnected datacenters in a unique system.
The basic idea is that all registered facilities are located on one or more
servers can be found in some sort of elaborate directory by interest
groups (sports, music, movies ...). For this purpose, the contents should
be reported to the owner who approves the inclusion of datacenter
facilities and reported its index. Advanced way of this is that all of the
reported content indexes and their keywords are ranked according to
their relevance. Through a simple form to enter the desired search term
on the basis of which offers all of the titles that describe the content of
the list according to the achieved ranking. So, basically it is a huge
database that is constantly updated.

Almost every state has its own internal search engine, but the most
interesting are those international type as YAHOO!, GOOGLE and
BING. Are listed in the order they occurred, although they appear to
their versions that preceded them, today its possibilities are not even
close. Course and apply them to the desired content complying with the
prescribed rules. Basically all are oriented to search HTML text or the
images, though some of their skills are recognized and other formats of
documents and index them. Currently qualified as a browser web
content considered GOOGLE. In addition to enabling the global search
and local search free within declared site. Algorithm correspondence of
new titles, indexing and ranking their content daily in construction, a
mechanism for storing data and their storage is not reduced more on
copying disks themselves but to each other constantly copying content
themselves datacenter which has quite a few in the world, about forty.
Seen from the perspective described something of very great importance
should be kept by them.

Live Conference
Livestream lets conference organizers connect with remote attendees.
Whether you are streaming a conference, workshop, or live panel
discussion, Livestream can help you engage your audience worldwide.
Viewers can watch on any device, including desktops, tablets, mobile
devices, and Roku-connected TVs.
 How Internet Works?
Lots of people use the word "Internet" to mean going online. Actually,
the "Internet" is nothing more than the basic computer network. Think of
it like the telephone network or the network of highways that criss-cross
the world. Telephones and highways are networks, just like the Internet.
The things you say on the telephone and the traffic that travels down
roads run on "top" of the basic network. In much the same way, things
like the World Wide Web (the information pages we can browse online),
instant messaging chat programs, MP3 music downloading, and file
sharing are all things that run on top of the basic computer network that
we call the Internet.

The Internet is a collection of standalone computers (and computer

networks in companies, schools, and colleges) all loosely linked
together, mostly using the telephone network. The connections
between the computers are a mixture of old-fashioned copper cables,
fiber-optic cables (which send messages in pulses of light), wireless
radio connections (which transmit information by radio. waves), and
satellite links.

What does the Internet do?

The Internet has one very simple job: to move computerized information
(known as data) from one place to another. That's it! The machines that
make up the Internet treat all the information they handle in exactly the
same way. In this respect, the Internet works a bit like the postal service.
Letters are simply passed from one place to another, no matter who they
are from or what messages they contain. The job of the mail service is to
move letters from place to place, not to worry about why people are
writing letters in the first place; the same applies to the Internet.

Just like the mail service, the Internet's simplicity means it can handle
many different kinds of information helping people to do many different
jobs. It's not specialized to handle emails, Web pages, chat messages, or
anything else: all information is handled equally and passed on in
exactly the same way. Because the Internet is so simply designed,
people can easily use it to run new "applications"—new things that run
on top of the basic computer network. That's why, when two European
inventors developed Skype, a way of making telephone calls over the
Net, they just had to write a program that could turn speech into Internet
data and back again. No-one had to rebuild the entire Internet to make
Skype possible.

How computers do different jobs on the Internet

There are hundreds of millions of computers on the Net, but they don't
all do exactly the same thing. Some of them are like electronic filing
cabinets that simply store information and pass it on when requested.
These machines are called servers. Machines that hold ordinary
documents are called file servers; ones that hold people's mail are called
mail servers; and the ones that hold Web pages are Web servers. There
are tens of millions of servers on the Internet.

A computer that gets information from a server is called a client. When

your computer connects over the Internet to a mail server at your ISP
(Internet Service Provider) so you can read your messages, your
computer is the client and the ISP computer is the server. There are far
more clients on the Internet than servers—probably getting on for a
billion by now!
When two computers on the Internet swap information back and forth on
a more-or-less equal basis, they are known as peers. If you use an instant
messaging program to chat to a friend, and you start swapping party
photos back and forth, you're taking part in what's called peer-to-peer
(P2P) communication. In P2P, the machines involved sometimes act as
clients and sometimes as servers. For example, if you send a photo to
your friend, your computer is the server (supplying the photo) and the
friend's computer is the client (accessing the photo). If your friend sends
you a photo in return, the two computers swap over roles.

Apart from clients and servers, the Internet is also made up of

intermediate computers called routers, whose job is really just to make
connections between different systems. If you have several computers at
home or school, you probably have a single router that connects them all
to the Internet. The router is like the mailbox on the end of your street:
it's your single point of entry to the worldwide network.
 Computer - Networking
What is a Computer Network?
A computer network is a system in which multiple computers are
connected to each other to share information and resources.
Characteristics of a computer network
 Share Resources from one computer to another
 Create files and store them in one computer, access those files
from the other computer(s) connected over the network
 Connect a printer, scanner, or a fax machine to one computer
within the network and let other computers of the network use the
machines available over network.

Following is the list of hardware's required to setup a computer network.

 Network Cables
 Distributors
 Routers
 Internal Network Cards
 External Network Cards

Network Cables

Network cables are used to connect computers. The most commonly

used cable is Category 5 cable RJ-45.
Distributors

A computer can be connected to another one via a serial port but if we

need to connect many computers to produce a network, this serial
connection will not work. The solution is to use a central body to which
other computers, printers, scanners etc. can be connected and then this
body will manage or distribute network traffic.

Router
A router is a type of device which acts as the central point among
computers and other devices that are part of a network. A router is
equipped with holes called ports and computers and other devices are
connected to a router using network cables. Now-a-days router comes in
wireless modes using which computers can be connected without any
physical cable.

Network Card

Network card is a necessary component of a computer without which a

computer cannot be connected over a network. It is also known as
network adapter or Network Interface Card (NIC). Most branded
computers have network card pre-installed. Network cards are of two
types : Internal and External Network Cards.
Internal Network Cards

Motherboard has a slot for internal network card where it is to be

inserted. Internal network cards are of two types in which first type uses
Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) connection while the second
type uses Industry Standard Architecture (ISA). Network cables are
required to provide network access.

External Network Cards

External network cards come in two flavours : Wireless and USB based.
Wireless network card need to be inserted into the motherboard but no
network cable is required to connect to network
Universal Serial Bus (USB)

USB card are easy to use and connect via USB port. Computers
automatically detect USB card and can install the drivers required to
support the USB network card automatically.

Computer - Internet and Intranet

Internet - Definition
 The Internet, sometimes called simply "the Net," is a worldwide
system of computer networks - a network of networks in which
users at any one computer can, if they have permission, get
information from any other computer (and sometimes talk directly
to users at other computers).

 It was conceived by the Advanced Research Projects Agency

(ARPA) of the U.S. government in 1969 and was first known as
the ARPANet.

 The original aim was to create a network that would allow users of
a research computer at one university to "talk to" research
computers at other universities.

 A side benefit of ARPANet's design was that, because messages

could be routed or rerouted in more than one direction, the network
could continue to function even if parts of it were destroyed in the
event of a military attack or other disaster.

Types of Computer Network

 There are many ways in which different networks can be
classified, such as their size, capabilities and the geographical
distance they cover.

 A network is simply a group of two or more computer systems

linked together in some way so that they can share data between
them. Different types of networks provide different services, and
require different things to work properly.

 Most network types are known as different types of ‘area’

networks – this is due to the history of networks, and dates back to
 the time when computer networks were defined by their literal
scale.

 This is no longer always the case due to new technology. Some of

the most common types of network you are likely to encounter are
detailed here below:

Local Area Network (LAN):

 This is one of the original categories of network, and one of the
simplest.  

 LAN networks connect computers together over relatively small

distances, such as within a single building or within a small group
of buildings.

 Homes often have LAN networks too, especially if there is more

than one device in the home.

 Often they do not contain more than one subnet, if any, and are
usually controlled by a single administrator.
 They do not have to be connected to the internet to work, although
they can be.

Wide Area Network (WAN):

 This is another of the original categories of network, and slightly
more complex in nature.

 WAN networks connect computers together over large physical

distances, remotely connecting them over one huge network and
allowing them to communicate even when far apart.

 The Internet is a WAN, and connects computers all around the

world together.

 LANs connect to WANs, such as the internet, using routers to

transfer data and information quickly and securely.

 WANs are usually too large to be controlled by one administrator,

and so usually have collective ownership, or in the case of the
internet, are publicly owned.
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):
 This is a network which is larger than a LAN but smaller than a
WAN, and incorporates elements of both.

 It typically spans a town or city and is owned by a single person or

company, such as a local council or a large company.

Campus Area Network:

 This is a network which is larger than a LAN, but smaller than an
MAN. This is typical in areas such as a university, large school or
small business.

 It is typically spread over a collection of buildings which are

reasonably local to each other.
 It may have an internal Ethernet as well as capability of connecting
to the internet.

Wireless Local Area Network:

 This is a LAN which works using wireless network technology
such as Wi-Fi.

 This type of network is becoming more popular as wireless

technology is further developed and is used more in the home and
by small businesses.

 It means devices do not need to rely on physical cables and wires

as much and can organize their spaces more effectively.
 Network Topology:
 In computer networking, topology refers to the layout of connected
devices.

 A network topology is the arrangement of a network, including its

nodes and connecting lines. There are two ways of defining
network geometry: the physical topology and the logical (or signal)
topology.

 The physical topology of a network is the actual geometric layout

of workstations. There are several common physical topologies, as
described below and as shown in the illustration.

 Network topologies are categorized into the following basic types:

 Bus
 Ring
 Star
 Tree
  Mesh
 Hybrid
 More complex networks can be built as hybrids of two or more of
the above basic topologies.

1) Bus Topology:

 Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and

network device is connected to single cable. When it has exactly
two endpoints, then it is called Linear Bus topology.
 Features of Bus Topology

1. It transmits data only in one direction.

2. Every device is connected to a single cable

 Advantages of Bus Topology

1. It is cost effective.
2. Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
3. Used in small networks.
4. It is easy to understand.
5. Easy to expand joining two cables together.

 Disadvantages of Bus Topology

1. Cables fails then whole network fails.

2. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of
the network decreases.
3. Cable has a limited length.
4. It is slower than the ring topology.
2) Ring Topology:
 It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each
computer is connected to another computer, with the last one
connected to the first. Exactly two neighbors for each device.

 Features of Ring Topology

1. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large

number of nodes, because if someone wants to send some data to
the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data
will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence
to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the network.
2. The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional
by having 2 connections between each Network Node, it is called
Dual Ring Topology.
3. In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data
flow is in opposite direction in them. Also, if one ring fails, the
second ring can act as a backup, to keep the network up.
4. Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data
transmitted, has to pass through each node of the network, till the
destination node.
 Advantages of Ring Topology

1. Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding

more nodes, as only the nodes having tokens can transmit data.
2. Cheap to install and expand

 Disadvantages of Ring Topology

1. Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.

2. Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
3. Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.

3) Star Topology:
 In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a
single hub through a cable. This hub is the central node and all
others nodes are connected to the central node.

 Features of Star Topology

1. Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.

2. Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
3. Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.
 Advantages of Star Topology

1. Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.

2. Hub can be upgraded easily.
3. Easy to troubleshoot.
4. Easy to setup and modify.
5. Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can
work smoothly.

 Disadvantages of Star Topology

1. Cost of installation is high.

2. Expensive to use.
3. If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the
nodes depend on the hub.
4. Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity

4) Mesh Topology:
 It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All
the network nodes are connected to each other. Mesh has n(n-
2)/2 physical channels to link n devices.
  There are two techniques to transmit data over the Mesh
topology, they are :

1. Routing
2. Flooding

 Routing

 In routing, the nodes have a routing logic, as per the network

requirements. Like routing logic to direct the data to reach
the destination using the shortest distance. Or, routing logic
which has information about the broken links, and it avoids
those node etc. We can even have routing logic, to re-
configure the failed nodes.

 Flooding

 In flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network

nodes, hence no routing logic is required. The network is
robust, and the its very unlikely to lose the data. But it leads
to unwanted load over the network.

 Types of Mesh Topology

1. Partial Mesh Topology : In this topology some of the systems are

connected in the same fashion as mesh topology but some devices
are only connected to two or three devices.
2. Full Mesh Topology : Each and every nodes or devices are
connected to each other.

 Features of Mesh Topology

1. Fully connected.
2. Robust.
3. Not flexible.
 Advantages of Mesh Topology

1. Each connection can carry its own data load.

2. It is robust.
3. Fault is diagnosed easily.
4. Provides security and privacy.

 Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

1. Installation and configuration is difficult.

2. Cabling cost is more.
3. Bulk wiring is required.

5) Tree Topology:

 It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it

forming a hierarchy. It is also called hierarchical topology. It
should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.

 Features of Tree Topology

1. Ideal if workstations are located in groups.

2. Used in Wide Area Network.
 Advantages of Tree Topology

1. Extension of bus and star topologies.

2. Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
3. Easily managed and maintained.
4. Error detection is easily done.

 Disadvantages of Tree Topology

1. Heavily cabled.
2. Costly.
3. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
4. Central hub fails, network fails.

6) Hybrid Topology:

 It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of

two or more topologies. For example if in an office in one
department ring topology is used and in another star topology
is used, connecting these topologies will result in Hybrid
Topology (ring topology and star topology).

 Features of Hybrid Topology

1. It is a combination of two or topologies

2. Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies
included

 Advantages of Hybrid Topology

1. Reliable as Error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.

2. Effective.
3. Scalable as size can be increased easily.
4. Flexible.

 Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

1. Complex in design.
2. Costly.
 OSI Model:
 There are n numbers of users who use computer network and are
located over the world.

 So to ensure, national and worldwide data communication, systems

must be developed which are compatible to communicate with each
other. ISO has developed this.

 ISO stands for International organization of Standardization.

This is called a model for Open System Interconnection (OSI) and
is commonly known as OSI model.

The ISO-OSI model is a seven layer architecture. It defines seven layers

or levels in a complete communication system.
Feature of OSI Model :

1. Big picture of communication over network is understandable

through this OSI model.
2. We see how hardware and software work together.
3. We can understand new technologies as they are developed.
4. Troubleshooting is easier by separate networks.
5. Can be used to compare basic functional relationships on different
networks.

Functions of Different Layers :

Layer 1: The Physical Layer :

1. It is the lowest layer of the OSI Model.

2. It activates, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
3. It is responsible for transmission and reception of the unstructured
raw data over network.
4. Voltages and data rates needed for transmission is defined in the
physical layer.
5. It converts the digital/analog bits into electrical signal or optical
signals.
6. Data encoding is also done in this layer.

Layer 2: Data Link Layer :

1. Data link layer synchronizes the information which is to be

transmitted over the physical layer.
2. The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is
error free from one node to another, over the physical layer.
3. Transmitting and receiving data frames sequentially is managed by
this layer.
4. This layer sends and expects acknowledgements for frames
received and sent respectively. Resending of non-
acknowledgement received frames is also handled by this layer.
5. This layer establishes a logical layer between two nodes and also
manages the Frame traffic control over the network. It signals the
transmitting node to stop, when the frame buffers are full.

Layer 3: The Network Layer :

1. It routes the signal through different channels from one node to

other.
2. It acts as a network controller. It manages the Subnet traffic.
 3. It decides by which route data should take.
4. It divides the outgoing messages into packets and assembles the
incoming packets into messages for higher levels.

Layer 4: Transport Layer :

1. It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single

path.
2. Functions such as Multiplexing, Segmenting or Splitting on the
data are done by this layer
3. It receives messages from the Session layer above it, convert the
message into smaller units and passes it on to the Network layer.
4. Transport layer can be very complex, depending upon the network
requirements.

Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that they
are handled more efficiently by the network layer.

Layer 5: The Session Layer :

1. Session layer manages and synchronize the conversation between

two different applications.
2. Transfer of data from source to destination session layer streams of
data are marked and are resynchronized properly, so that the ends
of the messages are not cut prematurely and data loss is avoided.

Layer 6: The Presentation Layer :

1. Presentation layer takes care that the data is sent in such a way that
the receiver will understand the information (data) and will be able
to use the data.
 2. While receiving the data, presentation layer transforms the data to
be ready for the application layer.
3. Languages(syntax) can be different of the two communicating
systems. Under this condition presentation layer plays a role of
translator.
4. It perfroms Data compression, Data encryption, Data conversion
etc.

Layer 7: Application Layer :

1. It is the topmost layer.

2. Transferring of files disturbing the results to the user is also done
in this layer. Mail services, directory services, network resource
etc are services provided by application layer.
3. This layer mainly holds application programs to act upon the
received and to be sent data.

Merits of OSI reference model:

1. OSI model distinguishes well between the services, interfaces and

protocols.
2. Protocols of OSI model are very well hidden.
3. Protocols can be replaced by new protocols as technology changes.
4. Supports connection oriented services as well as connectionless
service.

Demerits of OSI reference model:

1. Model was devised before the invention of protocols.

2. Fitting of protocols is tedious task.
3. It is just used as a reference model.