EE-862: Power System Operation

& Control
Fall-2020

School of Electrical Engineering & Computer

Science (SEECS)

1
 Unit Commitment: Introduction
• To “commit” a generating unit is to “turn it on,”
that is, to bring the unit up to speed, synchronize
it to the system, and connect it so it can deliver
power to the network.
• In the case of an electric power system, the total
load on the system will generally be higher
during the daytime and early evening when
industrial loads are high, lights are on, and lower
during the late evening and early morning
• In addition, the use of electric power has a
weekly cycle, the load being lower over weekend
days than weekdays.
• But why is this a problem in the operation of an
electric power system?
 Unit Commitment: Introduction
• Why not just simply commit enough units to
cover the maximum system load and leave them
running?
• The problem with “commit enough units and
leave them on-line” is one of economics.
• it is quite expensive to run too many generating
units.
• A great deal of money can be saved by turning
units off (decommitting them) when they are not
needed.
 Economic Dispatch versus Unit
Commitment

• The essential difference between the unit commitment

and economic dispatch problem.
• The economic dispatch problem assumes that there
are Ngen units already connected to the system
economic The purpose of economic dispatch is to find
the optimum operating policy for these N gen units.
• The unit commitment problem, on the other hand, is
more complex.
• We may assume that we have Ngen units available to
us and that we have a forecast of the demand to be
served. The question that is
 Given that there are a number of subsets of the
complete set of Ngen generating units that would
satisfy the expected demand,
which of these subsets should be used in order to
provide the minimum operating cost?
 Power System
• This unit commitment problem may be extended
over some period of time, such as the 24 h of a day
or the 168 h of a week.
• The unit commitment problem is a much more
difficult problem to solve.
• The solution procedures involve the economic
dispatch problem as a sub problem.
• For each of the subsets of the total number of units
that are to be tested, for any given set of them
connected to the load, the particular subset should
be operated in optimum economic fashion.
• Finding the minimum operating cost for that subset

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7
• Load of 550 MW, what unit or combination of units
should be used to supply this load most
economically? To solve this problem, use all
combinations of the three units
• Some combinations will be infeasible if the sum of
all maximum MW for the units committed is less than
the load or if the sum of all minimum MW for the
units committed is greater than the load.
• For each feasible combination, the units will be
dispatched using the techniques

8
• Least expensive way to supply the generation is not with
all three units running or even any combination involving
two units.
• Rather, the optimum commitment is to only run unit 1, the
most economic unit.
• By only running the most economic unit, the load can be
supplied by that unit operating closer to its best efficiency
• If another unit is to be committed, both unit 1 and the
other unit will be loaded further from their best efficiency
points such that the net cost is greater than unit 1 alone.

9
 c

𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 + 𝑐3

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• Suppose the load follows a simple “peak-valley” pattern
• If the operation of the system is to be optimized, units must be
shut down as the load goes down and then recommitted as it
goes back up.
• Which units to drop and when??
• This problem is far from trivial when real generating units are
considered.
• One approach to this solution is, A simple priority-list scheme
11
• Suppose we wish to know which units to drop as a
function of system load.
• Let the units and fuel costs be the same as in above
• With the load varying from a peak of 1200 MW to a
valley of 500 MW.
• To obtain a “shutdown rule,” simply use a brute-force
technique wherein all combinations of units will be
tried
• For each load value taken in steps of 50 MW from
1200 to 500. The results of applying this brute-force
technique are given
12
13
14
Shut Down Rule

15
 Constraints
One simple constraint:
Enough units will be committed to supply the load
• If this were all that was involved in the unit commitment
• problem—that is, just meeting the load—we could stop
here and state that the problem is “solved.”
• However other constraints and other phenomena must
be taken into account in order to claim an optimum
solution.
• These constraints will be discussed in the next section,
followed by a description of some of the presently used
methods of solution.
16
 Constraints in Unit Commitment
Spinning Reserve
• The term used to describe the total amount of generation
available from all units synchronized (i.e., spinning) on the
system, minus the present load and losses being supplied.
• Spinning reserve must be carried so that the loss of one or
more units does not cause drop in system frequency
• If one unit is lost, there must be ample reserve on the other
units to make up for the loss in a specified time period.
• Typical rules specify that reserve must be a given percentage
of forecasted peak demand or that reserve must be capable
of making up the loss of the most heavily loaded unit in a
given period of time.

17
 Constraints in Unit Commitment
Spinning Reserve

The reserves must be allocated among fast-responding

units and slow-responding units.
This allows the automatic generation control system
to restore frequency and interchange quickly in the
event of a generating unit outage.
Beyond spinning reserve, the unit commitment
problem may involve various classes of “scheduled
reserves” or “off-line” reserves.

18
 Constraints in Unit Commitment
Spinning Reserve
• These include quick-start diesel or gas-turbine units as well
as most hydro-units and pumped-storage hydro units that
can be brought on-line, synchronized, and brought up to full
capacity quickly.
• These units can be “counted” in the overall reserve
assessment, as long as their time to come up to full capacity
is taken into account.
• Reserves must be spread around the power system to avoid
transmission system limitations (often called “bottling” of
reserves) and to allow various parts of the system to run as
“islands,” should they become electrically disconnected

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 Example
A power system consists of two isolated regions: a western
region and an eastern region. Five units have been committed
to supply 3090 MW. The two regions are separated by
transmission tie lines that can together transfer a maximum
of 550 MW in either direction. What is the allocation of
spinning reserve in this system?

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Example

21
 Example
• With the exception of unit 4, the loss of any unit on this system
can be covered by the spinning reserve on the remaining units.
• Unit 4 presents a problem, however. If unit 4 were to be lost
and unit 5 were to be run to its maximum of 600 MW, the
eastern region would still need 590 MW to cover the load in
that region.
• The 590 MW would have to be transmitted over the tie lines
from the western region, which can easily supply 590 MW from
its reserves.
• However, the tie capacity of only 550 MW limits the transfer.
Therefore, the loss of unit 4 cannot be covered even though
the entire system has ample reserves.
• The only solution to this problem is to commit more units to
operate in the eastern region
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 Thermal Unit Constraints
• Thermal units usually require a crew to operate them,
especially when turned on and turned off.
• A thermal unit can undergo only gradual temperature changes,
and this translates into a time period of some hours required to
bring the unit on-line.
• As a result of such restrictions in the operation of a thermal
plant, various constraints arise
Minimum uptime: once the unit is running, it should not be turned off
immediately.
Minimum downtime: once the unit is decommitted, there is a
minimum time before it can be recommitted.
Crew constraints: if a plant consists of two or more units, they cannot
both be turned on at the same time.
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 Thermal Unit Constraints
• In addition, the temperature and pressure of the thermal unit
must be moved slowly, a certain amount of energy must be used
to bring the unit on-line.
• This energy does not result in any MW generation from the unit
and is brought into the unit commitment problem as a start-up
cost.
• The start-up cost can vary from a maximum “cold-start” value to a
much smaller value if the unit was only turned off recently and is
still relatively close to operating temperature.
• There are two approaches to treating a thermal unit during its
down period.
• The first allows the unit’s boiler to cool down and then heat back up
to operating temperature in time for a scheduled turn on.
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 Thermal Unit Constraints
• The second (called banking) requires that sufficient energy be input
to the boiler to just maintain operating temperature.
• The costs for the two can be compared so that, if possible, the best
approach (cooling or banking) can be chosen

Start-up cost when cooling

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 Thermal Unit Constraints
Start-up cost when banking

Time-dependent start-up costs 26

 Other Constraints

Must Run. Some units are given a must-run status during

certain times of the year
For reason of voltage support on the transmission network
or for such purposes as supply of steam for uses outside
the steam plant itself.
Fuel Constraints. A system in which some units have
limited fuel, or else have constraints that require them to
burn a specified amount of fuel in a given time, (presents a
most challenging unit commitment problem)

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 UNIT COMMITMENT—SOLUTION METHODS
The most important techniques for the solution of a
UC problem are:

1. Priority-list schemes.
2. Dynamic programming (DP) method.
3. Lagrange’s relaxation (LR) method.

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 UNIT COMMITMENT—SOLUTION METHODS

1. Priority-list schemes.
Enumeration scheme

• A straight forward but highly time-consuming way of

finding the most economical combination of units to meet a
particular load demand is to try all possible combinations of
units that can supply this load.
• This load is divided optimally among the units of each
combination by the use of co-ordination equations so as to
find the most economical operating cost of the
combination. Then, the combination that has the least
operating cost among all these is determined

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 UNIT COMMITMENT—SOLUTION METHODS

1. Construct Priority-list for the units used in example

using the same fuel cost
First, the full-load average production cost will be
calculated

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 c

𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 + 𝑐3

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 • A strict priority order for these units, based on the
average production cost, would be

And the commitment scheme would

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• such a scheme would not completely parallel the
shutdown sequence described in Example where unit 2
was shut down at 600 MW leaving unit 1.
• With the priority-list scheme, both units would be held
on until load reached 400 MW, then unit 1 would be
dropped.

33
 Most priority-list schemes are built around a
simple shutdown algorithm that might operate
as follows:
At each hour when load is dropping, determine whether
dropping the next unit on the priority list will leave
sufficient generation to supply the load plus spinning
reserve requirements. If not, continue operating as is; if
yes, go on to the next step.
• Determine the number of hours, H, before the unit will
be needed again, that is, assuming that the load is
dropping and will then go back up some hours later.
• If H is less than the minimum shutdown time for the
unit, keep the commitment as is and go to the last step; if
not, go to the next
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• • Calculate two costs. The first is the sum of the hourly
production costs for the next H hours with the unit up.
• Then recalculate the same sum for the unit down and
add in the start-up cost for either cooling the unit or
banking it, whichever is less expensive.
• If there is sufficient savings from shutting down the
unit, it should be shut down; otherwise, keep it on.
• • Repeat this entire procedure for the next unit on the
priority list.
• If it is also dropped, go to the next and so forth.

35
The imposition of a priority list arranged in order of
the full-load average cost rate would result in a
correct dispatch and commitment only if
1. No–load costs are zero.
2.Unit input–output characteristics are linear
between zero output and full load.
3. There are no other limitations.
4. Start-up costs are a fixed amount

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 UNIT COMMITMENT—SOLUTION METHODS

2. Solution of an optimal UC problem with DP method

Dynamic programming has many advantages over the
enumeration scheme, the main advantage being a
reduction in the size of the problem
In the DP approach, we assume that:
1. A state consists of an array of units with specified operating
units and the rest are at off-line.
2. The start-up cost of a unit is independent of the time if it has
been offline.
3. There are no costs for shutting down a unit.
4. There is a strict priority order and in each interval a specified
minimum amount of capacity must be operating
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 Assumptions

• Practically, a UC table is to be made for the complete

load cycle. The DP method is more efficient for
preparing the UC table if the available load demand is
assumed to increase in small but finite size steps.
• The total number of units available, their individual
cost characteristics, and the load cycle on the station
are assumed to be known
• Further, it shall be assumed that the load on each
unit or combination of units changes in suitably small
but uniform steps of size Δ MW (say 1 MW)

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 Procedure for preparing the UC table using
the DP approach
Step 1: Start arbitrarily with consideration of any two
units
Step 2: Arrange the combined output of the two units in
the form of discrete load levels.
Step 3: Determine the most economical combination of
the two units for all the load levels. It is to be observed
that at each load level, the economic operation may be
to run either a unit or both units with a certain load
sharing between the two units.
Step 4: Obtain the most economical cost curve in
discrete form for the two units and that can be treated
as the cost curve of a single equivalent unit.
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 Procedure for preparing the UC table using
the DP approach

Step 5: Add the third unit and repeat the procedure to

find the cost curve of the three combined units. It may
be noted that by this procedure, the operating
combinations of the third and first and third and second
units are not required to be worked out resulting in
considerable saving in computation
Step 6: Repeat the process till all available units are
exhausted

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 Mathematical representation

Let a cost function

• 𝐹𝑁 (x) = the minimum cost of generation of ‘x’ MW by N
number of units,
• 𝐹𝑁 (y) = cost of generation of ‘y’ MW by the Nth unit,
• 𝐹𝑁 (x-y) = the minimum cost of generation of (x − y) MW
by remaining (N − 1) units.

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 Mathematical representation

• The most efficient economical combination of

units can efficiently be determined by the use of
the above relation
• The most economical combination of units is such
that it yields the minimum operating cost, for
discrete load levels
• In this process, the total minimum operating cost
and the load shared by each unit of the optimal
combination are automatically determined for
each load level

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 Example

A power system network with a thermal power plant is

operating by four generating units.
Determine the most economical unit to be committed to
a load demand of 8 MW. Also, prepare the UC table for
the load changes in steps of 1 MW starting from the
minimum to the maximum load. The minimum and
maximum generating capacities and cost-curve
parameters of the units listed in a tabular form are given
in Table

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Example

Capacities and cost-curve parameters of the units

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Example

Capacities and cost-curve parameters of the units

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 Solution

The cost function

Incremental fuel cost

The total load = P = 8 MW (given)

By comparing the cost-curve parameters, we come to know

that the cost characteristics of the first unit are the lowest. If
only one unit is to be committed, Unit-1 is to be employed

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Solution

47
 Solution

Let,
f (1) = Cost for the generation of 1 MW by the first unit
f (2) = Cost for the generation of 2 MW by the first unit
f (3) = Cost for the generation of 3 MW by the first unit
f (4) = Cost for the generation of 4 MW by the first unit
….. ….. ….. ….. … … … … … … … … …
f (8) = Cost for the generation of 8 MW by the first unit
When only one unit is to be committed to meet a particular
load demand, i.e., Unit-1 in this case due to its less cost
parameters, then 𝐹(𝑋)1 = 𝐹(𝑥)1

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 Solution
When only one unit is to be committed to meet a particular
load demand, i.e., Unit-1 in this case due to its less cost
parameters, then 𝐹1 (x) = 𝑓1 (x)

𝐹1 (x)is the minimum cost of generation of ‘x’ MW by only one unit

𝑓1 (x) is the minimum cost of generation of ‘x’ MW by Unit-1

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 Solution

Similarly

When Unit-1 is to be committed to meet a load

demand of 8 MW, the cost of generation becomes
206.88
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 Solution
For the second unit
𝑓2 (1) = min. cost for the generation of 1 MW by the second
unit only

By observing 𝑓2 (8) and 𝑓1 (8), it is concluded

that 𝑓1 (8) < 𝑓2 (8)
i.e., the cost of generation of 8 MW by Unit-
1 is minimum as compared to Unit-2.

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 For commitment of Unit-1 and Unit-2 combination

F2 (8) = Minimum cost of generation of 8 MW by the

simultaneous operation of two units

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 For commitment of Unit-1 and Unit-2 combination

The minimum cost of generation of 8 MW by the

combination of Unit-1 and Unit-2 is 205.11 and for
this optimal cost, Unit-1 supplies 7 MW and Unit-2
supplies 1 MW.

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 For commitment of Unit-1 and Unit-2 combination

F2 (7) = Minimum cost of generation of 7 MW by the

simultaneous operation of two units

The minimum cost of generation of 7 MW with the combination

of Unit-1 (by 6-MW supply) and Unit-2 (by1-MW supply) is 177.4
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 For commitment of Unit-1 and Unit-2 combination

F2 (6) = Minimum cost of generation of 6 MW by the

simultaneous operation of two units

The minimum cost of generation of 6 MW with the combination of

Unit-1 ( 5-MW supply) and Unit-2 ( 1-MW supply) is 150.43
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For commitment of Unit-1 and Unit-2 combination

56
For commitment of Unit-1 and Unit-2 combination

57
For commitment of Unit-1 and Unit-2 combination

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 For commitment of Unit-1 and Unit-2 combination

Now, the cost of generation

by Unit-3 only is

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 For commitment of Unit - 1, Unit - 2, and
Unit-3 combination

• 𝐹3 (8) = The minimum cost of generation of 8 MW by the

three units, i.e., Unit-1, Unit-2, and Unit-3

60
 For commitment of Unit - 1, Unit - 2, and
Unit-3 combination

• 𝐹3 (8) = The minimum cost of generation of 8 MW by the

three units, i.e., Unit-1, Unit-2, and Unit-3

For the generation of 8 MW by three units, Unit-1

and Unit-2 will commit to meet the load of 8 MW
with Unit-1 supplying 7 MW, Unit-2 supplying 1 MW,
and Unit-3 is in an off-state condition.

61
For commitment of Unit - 1, Unit - 2, and
Unit-3 combination

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Unit - 1, Unit - 2, and Unit-3 combination

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Unit - 1, Unit - 2, and Unit-3 combination

64
 Unit - 1, Unit - 2, and Unit-3 combination

Cost of generation by the fourth unit

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 Minimum cost of generation by four units
Unit-1, Unit-2, Unit-3, and Unit-4

For the generation of 8 MW by four units, Unit-1 and Unit-2

will commit to meet the load of 8 MW with Unit-1 supplying
7 MW, Unit-2 supplying 1 MW, and Unit-3 as well as Unit-4
are in an off-state condition:

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Minimum cost of generation by four units
Unit-1, Unit-2, Unit-3, and Unit-4

67
Minimum cost of generation by four units
Unit-1, Unit-2, Unit-3, and Unit-4

68
Minimum cost of generation by four units
Unit-1, Unit-2, Unit-3, and Unit-4

69
 Minimum cost of generation by four units
Unit-1, Unit-2, Unit-3, and Unit-4

From the above criteria, it is observed that for the

generation of 8 MW, the commitment of units is as follows:

70
Minimum cost of generation by four units
Unit-1, Unit-2, Unit-3, and Unit-4

71
 Minimum cost of generation by four units
Unit-1, Unit-2, Unit-3, and Unit-4

By examining the costs 𝐹1 (8), 𝐹2 (8), 𝐹 3 8 and 𝐹4 (8),we have

concluded that for meeting the load demand of 8MW, the optimal
combination of units to be committed is Unit-1 with 7 MW and Unit-2
with 1 MW, respectively, at an operating cost of 205.11 Rs./hr

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 Minimum cost of generation by four units
Unit-1, Unit-2, Unit-3, and Unit-4
For preparing the UC table, the ordering of units is not a criterion.
For any order, we get the same solution that is independent of
numbering units.
To get a higher accuracy, the step size of the load is to be reduced,
which results in a considerable increase in time of computation
and required storage capacity

Status 1 of any unit indicates unit running or unit committing and

status 0 of any unit indicates that the unit is not running

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 Minimum cost of generation by four units
Unit-1, Unit-2, Unit-3, and Unit-4

• The UC table is prepared once and for all for a given set
of units
• As the load cycle on the station changes, it would only
mean changes in starting and stopping of units without
changing the basic UC table.
• The UC table is used in giving the information of which
units are to be committed to supply a particular load
demand.
• The exact load sharing between the units committed is
to be obtained by solving the co-ordination equations

74
Minimum cost of generation by four units
Unit-1, Unit-2, Unit-3, and Unit-4

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Minimum cost of generation by four units
Unit-1, Unit-2, Unit-3, and Unit-4

𝑃𝐺1 + 𝑃𝐺2 = 8

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 Minimum cost of generation by four units
Unit-1, Unit-2, Unit-3, and Unit-4

For an optimal load sharing,

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 Minimum cost of generation by four units
Unit-1, Unit-2, Unit-3, and Unit-4

load shared by the first unit,

load shared by the second unit

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Minimum cost of generation by four units
Unit-1, Unit-2, Unit-3, and Unit-4

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 Minimum cost of generation by four units
Unit-1, Unit-2, Unit-3, and Unit-4

The total minimum operating cost with an optimal

combination of Unit-1 and Unit-2 is

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 Lagrange Relaxation Solution
• The DP method of solution of the unit commitment
problem has many disadvantages for large power
systems with many generating units.
• This is because of the necessity of forcing the DP
solution to search over a small number of commitment
states to reduce the number of combinations that must
be tested in each time period
• In the Lagrange relaxation technique, these
disadvantages disappear
• This method is based on a dual optimization approach

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 Lagrange Relaxation Solution
Start by defining the variable

Define several constraints and the objective

function of the unit Commitment problem:

82
 Lagrange Relaxation Solution
1. Loading constraints

2. Unit limits

3. Unit minimum up- and downtime constraints

83
 Lagrange Relaxation Solution
4. The objective function is

Form the Lagrange function similar to the way we did

in the economic dispatch problem

84
 Lagrange Relaxation Solution

The unit commitment problem requires that

• minimize this Lagrange function, subject to
the local unit constraints 2 and 3
• Can be applied to each unit separately

85
 Lagrange Relaxation Solution
1. The cost function, together with
constraints 2 and 3 are each separable over units.
That is, what is done with one unit does not affect
the cost of running another unit, as far as the cost
function and the unit limits (constraint 2) and the
unit up- and downtime (constraint 3) are
concerned
2. Constraints 1 are coupling constraints across the
units so that what we do to one unit affects
what will happen on other units if the coupling
constraints are to be met.
86
 Lagrange Relaxation Solution
• The Lagrange relaxation procedure solves the
unit commitment problem by “relaxing” or
temporarily ignoring the coupling constraints
and solving the problem as if they did not exist.
This is done through the dual optimization
procedure
• The dual procedure attempts to reach the
constrained optimum by maximizing the
Lagrangian with respect to the Lagrange
multipliers while minimizing with respect to
the other variables in the problem
87
 Lagrange Relaxation Solution

where

This is done in two basic steps

Step 1. Find a value for each which moves q(λ) toward a
larger value.
Step 2. Assuming that the found in step 1 are now
fixed, find the minimum of by adjusting the values of

88
 Lagrange Relaxation Solution
Assume that a value has been chosen for all the and
that they are now to be treated as fixed numbers.
Minimize the Lagrangian as follows.

This is now rewritten as

89
 Lagrange Relaxation Solution

The second term in the preceding equation is constant and

can be dropped (since the are fixed). Finally, we write
the Lagrange function as.

90
 Lagrange Relaxation Solution
we have achieved our goal of separating the units from
one another. The term inside the outer brackets, can be
solved separately for each generating unit, without regard
for what is happening on the other generating units.

The minimum of the Lagrangian is found by solving

for the minimum for each generating unit over all
time periods
91
 Lagrange Relaxation Solution
The minimum of the Lagrangian is found by solving
for the minimum for each generating unit over all
time periods

subject to

and the up- and downtime constraints. This is easily solved as a DP

problem in one variable. This can be visualized in Figure which
shows the only two possible states for unit i (i.e., 0= or 1)

92
 Lagrange Relaxation Solution

where Si is the start-up cost for unit i.

At the state , the value of the function to be minimized
is equal to 0)
At the state the function to be minimized is (the start-up
cost is dropped here since the minimization is with respect to

93
 Lagrange Relaxation Solution

The minimum of this function is found by taking the first

derivative

The solution to this equation is

94
 Lagrange Relaxation Solution
There are three cases to be concerned with depending on the
relation of and the unit limits:

95
 Lagrange Relaxation Solution

The solution of the two-state dynamic program for

each unit proceeds in the normal manner as was
done for the forward DP solution of the unit
commitment problem itself.

96