Computer Networks • 1

Introduction to Computer Networks Introduction to Computer Networks

Computer Networks - I . can be local or remote.
. shanng
• .
When we communicate, we sh are information. . This
1.5.4 Wireless Networks • Local co_mmunication can be face to face between individuals while remote
1.5.5 Home Networks .
commurucation takes Over d"1stance. To transfer, share the mformation '. remotely or
l .5.6 Internetwork locally we need to interconnect the computers.
1.6 Data Communication • The computers and communications have been merged together and their merger has
l .6.1 Definition h,a d a profound effect on the manner in which computer systems are organized.
1.6.2 Components • Networking is linking of more than two different entities together to form a group or
1.6.3 Data Representation network to perform some specific task.' )
1.6.4 Data Flow
Protocols and Standards
• The networking enhances the capacity of computer to share, exchange, reserve and
l .7 protect in ormation.
1.7. 1 Protocols
1.7.2 Standards • Networking is decisive factor for the successful working of today's entire Information
1.7.3 Standard s Organizations Systems (ISs). There are lots of networking examples around you, such as TV or Cable
1.8 Network Software
networks, Telephone networks, Railway networks, Cellular phone's networks, Post and
1.8. 1 Protocol Hierarchies
Telegraph networks, etc. But most important networking example is Computer
1.8.2 Design Issues of ·the Layers
Networks, because it plays vital role in some forms in other networking examples.
1.8.3 Connection-oriented and Connection-less Services • In this chapter we are going to study all fundamental things about computer network,
1.8.3.1 Connection-oriented 1Services I
I ' how networks operate,' types of networks, lY'hat types
oiitopologies available, etc.
1.8.3.2 Connection-less Services
1.8.4 Service Primitives (Operations)
' \ '
)'. Ill cd~PuiE~.NeMoRKs) .
1
1
•

1.8.5 Berkley Socket • A network is the interconnection of a set of computin devices ca able of
1.8.6 The Relationship of Services lo Protocols , communication.
❖ Summary • A network is a set of devices often referred to as nodes like computer, printer, or any
❖ Practice Questions other device capable of fending and receiving dat~onnected by media links as shown
in Fig. 1.1.
Objectives... C~omputer1

~~
After reading this chapter you will be able:
• To understand Con•.:epls of Computer Network ,0,

• To learn Applications of Computer Network . "-

• To study Network Software . Nodes
• To study Data Cornmunication Concepts Links
• To learn Protocols and Standards

Ill INTRODUCTil:>N ~-
_. Computer 2
th
• Last three centuries was known for a particular technology. The 18 Century was
th
known for Mechankal Industrial Revolution. The 19 Century was known for the '·-<:-.,
Steam Engine. Fig. 1.1 : Network Nodes and Links
• During 20 th century the most important technology has been the
information gathering, its processing and distribution. To gather, process and • Computer network is a set or collection of computing devices that are linked to each
other in order to communicate and share their resources with each other.
distribute the information we requires computers.
1.2 1.3
 rntrodudion to ~ PMtWorb
Computer N.tworb • I Computer Networb • I lntloduction to Computar Networks
uting devices.
. . f interconnecte d comP 2. High Reliability:
• In simple words, a computer network is a group O h' h )led networking.
The interconnected computers can share resource_s, w ic ca k A wired network is • Network provides high reliability by having alternative sources of data.
• Computer net:Hork is divided in to wired and wireless networ ~axial etg A wireless • For example, all files could be replicated on more than one machines, so if one of them
simply a collection of node1connected by cables like Eth em~t. c b tween nodes. is unavailable due to hardware failure or any other reason, the other copies can be
network, which uses hJgh-frequency ra di o ~s to communicate e used.
3. Minimize Cost
IfJi Definition of Computer Network
. ·zanon's computaUonal
. • Small computers have a much better price to performance ratio as compared to large
• The old model of a single computer seJVJng all of the orgaru b f separate but ones. So it is always minimizing the co5' to set up a network of large small number of
need has heen replaced by one in which a large num er O N k computers than the large ones.
interconnect;d compute;s do the job. These systems are called Computer etwor · • As well as by sharing the resources like printer, we can save the cost.While designing
Definition: cost of a network is an important factor.
• A computer network ca n be d~fined as "an interconnected collection of autonomous
4. High Performance :
computers and computing devices·.
• Computer networl_< provides the network user with maximum performance at
OR minimum cost. The network performance can be measured by its transit time and
• Aromputer network is an interconnection of com uters and computing equipments response time. ·
like printers etc. using either wires or radio waves {wireless) made to s are hardwa~ (i) Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one
and softwa re resources·. \ ~ Ccmf~ r,Jt.;c'Yk.. 1 5 CJJ"I jl'l+t..,..c.."nt2.-ti~ device to another device in network.
or
• fig 1.2 shows a typical computer network. ft.A Cf'r tr:r,-<.., <'..01'Yl~'r) ~ ~ (ii) Response time is the time elapsed between an inquiry and a response.

W obk to -{~CN1AjL 1'n ~"-,.. • Network performance depends on a number of factors including, network
transmission medium, network hardware, network software and traffic load.
~ Sot/t,J,.f ~ OY
Computer network have provided means to increase system performance as the work
• • ,-....----i~J Server hutde,.,"'r-
load increases.
Network
5. Scalability :
Users (clle~ ~ • We can easily extend computer network just by adding more computers, printers or
any other devices without disturbing others and affecting overall performance.
5}:;J 6. Powerful Communication Medium :
Fig. 1.2: Typical Computer Network • A computer network provides a powerful communication medium.

lfJj Goals of Computer Network Mid

• Computer network help people who live or work apart to report together. So, when
one user prepared some documentation, he/she can make the document online
• The compul.fr networks are playing an important role in providing services to large or enabling other to read and convey their opinions. For this reason, computer network
small or medium organizations as well as to the indiyjdual common man. is a powerful communication medium.
• Network service, are the things that a network can do. 7. Distribution of Workload:
• Like human being computer network provides following goals: • By using computer network large work c~n be distributed among different network
users.
1. RHource Sharing:
8. Security:
• It ls the main goal of the computer network. This goal is to provide all the program, • Network security issues comprise of prevention from virus attacks and protecting
data and hardware i! avaiuible to everyone on the network without regard to the data from unauthorized access. Only authorized user can access resource in a
physical location of the resource and the user,. computer network.
• In short, to provide sharing of r~ urces such as information or processors. • Users are authenticated by their user name and password. Hence it is not possible to
access the data without proper account. This increases security.
lA
1.5
 .-
uter Networks Computer Networks • I Introduction to Computer Networks
Introduction to ComP
Computer Networks • I
[iii
- . ~.-
I
Graphic files
.1.
■fil Applications of Computer Network
• Nowadays, computer network have become
.
Entertainment world, Business as we
. .an
ll as our daily lives.
e
d
ssential part of In ustry,

. d'ff rent fields are, Business

r network m I e
..
r11,.,.~
~

-..
Database file&

Spreadsheet
• Some of the applicatfons of a compute di ed below Word
. .
applications, Home apphcauons, Mobile user etc· as scuss . processing
(1ocumen!s
Ifill Business. Applications
. th
.
uirements from the business users.
(b} Sharing of Software
Fig. 1.3: Sharing resources
• Business applicauons are built based 0~ e req . ki d f Business transactions
Also, these business applications are built to use certain n ° • For sharing resources computer network uses client-server network as shown 1n
Fig. 1.4.
or data items. . .
• Network allows users to share both hardware and software resources, m~reasmg
efficiency and facilltating workplace collaboration. Computer networks are bemg used
In almost all business processes.
• The most important business application of computer networks is file sharing
hardware, files, data and other resources. In a networked environment, each
computer on a network may access and use hardware resources on the network, such Clients
as printing a document on a shared network printer.
• The capablllty of providing access to data and information on shared storage devices is
an Important feature of many networks. Users connected to a network may run ~~
! ,
,,,11
appllcation programs on remote computers. ~- 1

1. Resource Sharing: -;~

Fig. 1.4 : Anetwork with four clients and one server
• Oru! of 1he most imponant .business application of computer network is resource
• A client-server network is a system where one or more computers called clients
sharing, This enables all program!, equipments and data available to anyone on the connect to a central computer named a server to share or use resources.
network regardJ~.s of the physical locacl.on of the user and the re.source.
• Fig. 1.5 shows communication in client-server. The client places a request on the
• 1Jl flg. 1.3 ~hows different hardware and 50ftware re5ources being shared. server machine when he wants an access to the centralized resources. The server

,-. >
responds IO this requi sends the signal accordingly to =~enLT
~ J Laser printer

Clients

(a) Shattng of Prlnttr CHa-rdware) Fig. 1.5: Communication Between Client and Server

1.7
1.11
 Computer Networks • I
Comput.r Networks • I Introduction to Computer Networks

data files. Fig. 1.6 shows • Using network it is easy for two or more employees, who are separated by
File Sharing:
share
etwork users to geographical locations to work on a report, document or R and D simultaneously
• Networking of computers h elps t.'le n i.e. on -line.

·-~~"·": I
FIie server
file sharing using file server. N·etwork user 2
• Fig. 1.7 shows network allow Employees to communicate using e-mail, newsgroups,
and video conferencing ~tc.
• Videoconferencing also very helpful in business which enables employees from
different locations to do virtual meetings, seeing and hea ring each other and even

I writing on a shared virtual blackboard. Videocon{erencing is a powerful tool for

eliminating cost and time required for traveling.
3. Electronically Business:
• M~ • Using computer networks organizations/compa nies can do business electronically
with other organizations/compa nies, suppliers and customers which not only saves
time and cost but also reduces the need for large inventories and enhances efficiency.
~- '-: 4. E-commerce :

~~ ~
Network User 5
• The last application is starting to become more important is doing business with
Networ user 5 consumers over the Internet i.e. E-commerce.
Network User 4
• E-commer.ce is trading in products or services using computer networks, such as the
Fig. 1.6 : File Sharing Using File Server
Internet.
2. Powerful Communication Medium: • E-commerce businesses may employ on Online shopping, Online banks, Electronic
ication medium among widely
·des a powerful commuru Data Interchange (EDI), online Business-to-business buying and selling and so on.
• A computer network provi .. business can use e-mail for daily
separated employees in Business. Empl?yees m a
Qfij Home Applications

8j "~'
communication.
• Starting in 1990s, the computer networks began to start delivering services to the
Network User 1 private individuals at home.
• Some of the most popular uses of the network for home users are Access to remote
information are Person to Person Communication, Interactive entertainment and
Electronic Commerce etc., as discussed below.
1. Access to Remote Information :
/ :.t
~-
~ Emai• / • Remote access refer to connection to a data-processing system from a remote location.
Network User 4 • Remote access is the ability to get access to a computer or a network from a remote
} Network distance. For examples, Home users get access to the Internet through remote access to
L switch an Internet Service Provider (ISP).
Network User 2 • Access to remote information involves interaction· between a person and a remote
i0>
~
' Printer
database.
l-,'"'
~-~"9- • Access to remote information occurs in many forms like:
Network User 3 (i) Home shopping, paying telephone, electricity bills, e-banking, on line shar e
market etc.
Fig. 1.7: Communication Using Computer Network
1.8
1.9
 Introduction to Computer Networks
Computer Networks · l Computer Networks • l Introduction to Computer Networks

-line and is personalized, digital library consisting of books, • Another application may be game playing. If games are played with goggles and three
(ii) Newspaper is, On
magazines, scientific journals etc. . dimensional real-time, photographic quality moving images, we have a kind of

·,ooking. gov,rnm,ith, h,story, o "'• ,~

f n science sports etc.
,o • •r1
(lii)World Wide Web (WWW) which contains information. about the arts, business,
. h bb'
worl9-wide shared virtual reality.
4. E-commerce :
• E-commerce facilitates home shopping, catalogs of company products, on line
technical support.

~I " I~" '~. /f1\

• E-commerce also popularly employed for bills payments, banking, investments, on line
auctions.
• Commonly used forms of e-commerce and their typical applications are shown below:

/ (i) B2C (Business-to-Consumer) : Ordering books on-line.

(ii) B2B (Business-to-Business) : Car manufacture ordering tires from supplier.
\ ~ . '-\! "f,,-

ilt _ _ _ . m" ,
(iii) G2C (Government-to-Consumer)
electronically.
Government distributing tax forms

(iv) C2C (Consumer-to-Consumer) : Auctioning second-hand products on-line.

(v) P2P (Peer-to-Peer) : File sharing.
Fig. t.8 : Remote Access using Computer Netwoi::k
Some other Applications of Computer Networks:
2. Person to Person Communication :
th 1. Banking:
• Communication is the act of transferring information through verbal messages, e • Computers are instrumental to the way the banking industry performs its business.
written word, or more subtle, non-verbal signals.
This technology allows banks to be able to take banking transactions and update
• Person to person communication includes: · accounts in real time.
(i) Electronic-mail (e-mail) : In Person to person communication Email is used on a • Financial services: It include credit history searches, foreign exchange and investment
daily basis by millions of people all over the world. services and Electronic_ Fund Transfer (EFT), which allow a user to transfer money
(ii) Chatting or instant messaging : It can also be used for communication. Not only without going to bank.
text but audio, video can be exchanged in real time. 2. Insurance:
(iii)Real time e-mail i.e. video conferencing : It allows remote users to communicate • The world of insurance relies on computers to the same extent as banks.
with no delay by seeing and hearing each other. Video-conferencing is being used • With the use of the Internet, insurance companies are able to access infor mation
for remote school, getting medical opinion from distant specialists etc. which will determine whether they accept clients or not.
(iv) Worldwide newsgroups : In which one person posts a message and all other 3. Marketing and Sales:
subscribers to the newsgroup can read it or give their feedbacks. • Marketing professional uses them to collect exchange and analyze data relating to
3. Interactive Entertainment : customer needs and product development cycles. Sales application includes
• Entertainment is a huge and growing industry. These days we can see many live Teleshopping, which uses order entry computers or telephone connected to an order
programmes and shows. The best thing is that we can interact with them by processing network, and online reservation services for railways, hotels, airlines,
participating in the quizzes and the contests organized by them. restaurants theatre etc.
• A killer application is Video On Demand. In future, it may be possible to select any 4. Financial Services:
movie or television program ever made, in any country and have it displayed on your • It include credit history searches, foreign exchange and investment services and
screen instantly. New films may become interactive. Live Television may also become Electronic Fund Transfer (EFT), which allow a user to transfer money without going to
interactive. bank.
1 .10 1.11
 Introduction to Computer Networ11s

Utw Nflworb-1 Computer Networks • I

Introduction to Computer Networks
. f inanufacturing, including th
S. Manufacturing: spects o 'd e - Advantages and Disadvantages of Computer Network
· d y in 1nanY a rwork to provi e essenu-
• Computer network"S are used to a cts t}lat uses ne . t d Manuf e1l
• elf rwo aspe . puter Assis e acturin • The ability to exchange data and communicate efficiently is the main purpose of
manufacturing processes 1~ · •· (CAD) and com . ·multaneousiy g networking computers .
,-ervices are Computer Assisred DeSigl\ ork on a proiect SI •
(CAM}. both of which allow multiple user tow . Advantages:
6. Electronic Data Exchange (EDO: d u11ents such as purchase orders anct 1. Easy Communication: It is very easy to communicate through a network. People
. . cl di""' OCl
• EDI allows business informauon (lll u •.,, can communicate efficiently using a network with a group of people. They can
senlices) to be rransferred without using paper. enjoy the benefit of emails, instant messaging, telephony, video conferencing, chat

1111 Mobile Users .. .

d personal Digital Assistants (PDAs)
--... 2.
rooms, etc.
Ability to Share Files, Data and Information: This is one of the major advantages of
• Mobile computers, such as noteboo.1- computers anputer industry. . networking computers. People can find and share information and data because of
· - gments of the com
are one of the fastest-growulg networking. This is beneficial for large organizations to maintain their data in an
se ~i. ~achines back at the office anct
• Many owners (users) of these compurers have de)ll. 1op n
. h away from home or on route organized manner and facilitate access for desired people.
want to be connected to their home base even w ..en . rs and airplanes. s~ th 3. Flexible Access: Access of files from computers throughout the world, and 24 x 7
· · · · m ca
• Since. havmg a wired connecnon is,_~impoSSlllleerworks are either fixed wireless or
e environment.
importance of \\ireless network"S. Wuoess
1
n 4. Workgroup Computing: Workgroup software (such as Microsoft BackOffice) allows
mobile wireless. many users to work on a document or project concurrently.
_ . . f bil
• There are ,-anous applicanons o mo e ' vireless.
systems. Users can access to home
cldn s terns locati s. Sharing Hardware: Another important advantage of networking is the ability to
networks, other information. m commerte, inventory rra .g ys . ' on
. maps, emergency sen~ces mobile banking, money share h&rdware. For ::!"I example, a printer can be shared among the users in a
dependent senlices, mobile • network so that there's no need to have individual printers for each and every
transfer etc.
computer in the company. This will significantly reduce the cost of purchasing
Im Social Issues 6.
hardware.
Centralized Software Management: Software can be loaded on one computer (the
• In recent years. online social networks has become very popular, many_websi_tes
file server) eliminating that need to spend time and energy installing updates and
(Facebook, My-space, Twitter etc.) have spring up where one can meet their off-lme
tracking files on independent computers throughout.
friends, relatives in virtual ,~'Orld of the Internet.
• The wide spread of networking has inrroduced new social, ethical, and political 7. Sharing Software: Users can share software within me network easily.
problems. Networkable versions of software are available at considerable savings compared
to individually licensed version of the same software. Therefore large companies
• A popular feature of many networks are newsgroups or bulletin boards whereby
people can exchange messages with like-minded indhiduals. can reduce the cost of buying software by networking their computers.
• As long as the subjects are restricted to technical topics or hobbies like gardening, nor 8. Security: Sensitive files and programs on a network can be password protected.
too many problems will arise. But problems starts when people start posting about Then those files can only be accessed by the authorized users. This is another
religion. politics or sex. important advantage of networking when there are concerns about security
• Color photographs and even short video clips can now easily be transmitted over issues. Also each and every user has their own set of privileges to prevent those
computer networks. Some of the photographs and dips may cause trouble. accessing restricted files and programs.
• Computer networks also introduced new kinds of antisocial and criminal behavior. 9. Speed: Sharing and transferring files within networks is_very .rap_id_ (fast),
• Email messages can contain VITUses. Identity theft becoming a serious issue on depending on the type of network. This will save time while mamtammg the
Internet. integrity of files.
1.13
 lntrc,duCtlon to eomputer N ~
Computer Networks • I Introduction to Computer Networks

-
Computer~ -1

Disadvantages :
. .
. .
ork is a senous
business in many occasions
. ,
li•i• Point-to-Point Network
1. 't'Tnensive to Build: Building a netw , d other hardware are very pricey • Communication between two directly interconnected devices is referred to a~ point-to-
._,1:1 • ti s cables an
especially for large scale orgaruza on · point communication.
to buy and replace. bl with large networks. There • - A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices as shown
· thr ats are always pro em5 . in Fig. 1.9.
2. Security Threats: seron~ e aluable data of large companies for their own
are hackers who are trying to steal v to facilitate the required security • Point-to-point networks consist of many connections between individual pairs or
benefit. so it is necessary to take utmoSt care . machines. On such type of network, when any packet is send from source to
measures. 1t destination, it may have to first visit one or more intermediate machines.
there are users who consume a o ore • In such type of networks often multiple routes of different lengths are pos~ible.
3. Bandwidth Issues: In a network
m.

s some other people may expenence • Smaller networks tends to use broadcasting, whereas larger networks usually are
bandwidth than others. Because Of thi
difficulties. point to point.
4. Ladt of Robustness: If the main file server of a computer network breaks down, • A point to point network with one sender and one receiver is sometimes called
the entire system becomes down and useless. unicasting.
s. Needs an Efficient Handler: The technical skills and knowledge required to operate • Examples of point-to-point networks are LAN (Local Area Networks), MAN
(Metropolitan Area Network), WAN (Wide Area Network), Internet, etc.
and administer a computer network. Link
6. Breakdowns and Possible Loss of Resources: One major disadvantage of
networking is the breakdown of the whole network due to an issue of the server.

m NETWORK HARDWARE
Workstation
• Network hardware/structure is design required for developing any computer network. Fig. 1.9 : Point-to-point connection
• For classification of computer network, there is no generally accepted taxonomy into Advantages:
which all computer networks fit, but two dimensions stand out as imp,ortant : 1. Simple: A point-to-point network is one of the simplest networks because it only
1. Transmission technology, and involves two nodes.
2. Scale. 2. Cheapest and effective: This is one of the cheapest and most effective network
architectures because it doesn't involve the cost of redundancies.
•if• Transmission Technology 3. Less Complex:.It does not add the complexity of needing several nodes functioning
to make a connection.
• Transmission technology refers how two devices are connected and how they are
Disadvantages:
communicating.
1. More expensive : As it requires lots of transmission lines and switching elements
• In transmission technology a Link is the physical communication pathway that
to connect remote hosts.
transfers data from one device to another.
2. Impractical from : The point-point network is impractical from a networking
• For communication to occur, two devices must be connected in same way to the same standpoint because rarely is only one connection between two nodes adequate.
link at the same time.
• The transmission technology can be categorized broadly into two type's i.e. : •iffj Broadcast Network
1. Point-to-point networks, and • The networks having multipoint configuration are called as Broadcast Network.
2. Broadcast networks (multipoint). • A broadcast network have a single communication channel that is shared by all the
machines on the network.
1.14 1 1 1
 Introduction to Computer Networ~ Introduction to Computer Networks
Computer Networks - [
Computer Networks • I

•
.
Packets sent by any machine are received Y a
b ll the others· The address field within
. .
iftJ Scale
the packet specifies the intended recipient. • An alternativ e criteria for classifying networks is their scale as shown in Fig.
1.11.
- . a packet, a mach"me checks the address field. If packet .1s .mtended for
• After rece1vmg
• • machme, • th at machine Processes the packet, if packet 1s mtended for ,·' ,, ·,,, WAN ·: ;
the rece1vmg '!"1001(111, 100.0km,, .
some other machine, it is just discarded. (Country, Continent)

• Broadcast network supports two modes of operation:

1. Broadcasting : Broadcast systems generally use a special code in the address
field for
addressing a packet to all the concerned computers. When a packet with this_code is
transmitted, it is received and processed by every machine on the network. This mode
of operation is called broadcasting.
2. Multicasting : Some broadcast systems also support .transmission to a subset of
machines known as multicasting. When a packet is sent to a certain
delivered to all machines of that group. ~
the
is
4•§1
rarif.Jj
• Examples of this network is Ethernet and Bus topology based on LAN.
• Fig. 1.10 shows a broadcast network.
Workstation 2
Fig. 1.11: Classification of Networks by Size

Link Fig. 1.11 ·shows classification of multiple processo r systems by their physical size. At
•
the top are the personal area networks that are meant for one person.
• · Personal Area Network (PAN) is the intercon nection of devices within the range
of an
-~~aii
s::_;a,_
,_
I r··1 individu al person, typically within a range of 1 meter. For example, a wireless

~ network connectin g a compute r with its keyboard , mouse or printer.

Mainframe

Workstation 3 • Beyond th-e personal area networks come longer range networks . They can be divided
Fig. 1.10 : Broadcast Network into local, metropol itan area network and wide area networks .
ic
• It is cheaper in cost but can not large number of senders (crosstalk). • Local Area Network (LAN) is a privately -owned networks covering a small geograph
(For example :
Comparison of Point-to-Point and Broadcast Networks · area (10 m to 1 km), like a home, office, building or group of buildings
Sr.No. Building).
Point-to-Point Network Broadcast Network. '
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) covers a larger geograph ical area than is
a LAN
1. Point-to-point network has more Broadcast network has single •
than one communication channel. communication channel. (1 km to 10 km), ranging from several blocks of buildings to entire cities.
2. Point-to-point network is a Wide Area Network s (WAN) covers a large geograph ical area (100 km to 1000
km),
Broadcast network is a connectio n of •
connection of routers host and repeaters often·a country.
3. Limited number of concurren t Unlimited number of concurre nt • Finally, the connecti on of two or more networks is called Intemetw orks or Internet.
connection connection
• The Internet is a global network connecti ng millions of compute rs. More than 190
4. No extra ·cost to setup peer to peer
network
It requires extra cast to set up network countries are linked into exchange s of data, news, informat ion, commun ication etc.
5. For example : WAN, Internet etc. • Following table summari zes classification of compute r network by scale:
For example : LAN.
1.17
1.16
 Introduction to Comput., Net,,y
!!!pu~ter
iC~om ~~•:_!I_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _-:~:::-- - - ~ -- : . ~
~ N~etworb Introduction to Comput• N.-lls
Example Computer Networks · I
Interprocessor Processors
distance
1m
located in same
Square meter
Personal area network lifJj Bus Topology
10m Room • In bus topology, all nodes are connected to a central cable which is called a bus. This
100 m
1 km
Building
Campus
}'"'' ... ""'°" •
bus is also called as a Trunk or sometimes it was also referred to as Backbone cable.
Trunk cable was then connected to the branch cables which were further connected to
City Metropolitan area network the PCs. Every network device communicates with the other device through this Bus.
10km
100km Country • Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. A drop line is a
} Wide area network connection running between the device and the main cable.
1,000 km Continent
10,000 km Planet The internet
• A tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable or punctures the sheathing
of a cable to create a contact with the metallic core.
m NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
• '.fhe word "topology" comes from topos, which is Greek word for "place." The terrn
• A node (computer) that wants to send data, it puts the data on the bus which carries it
to the destination node.
topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically. • When one computer sends a signal up the wire, all the computers on the network
• Two or more devices connect to link, two or more links form a topology. receive the information, but only one accepts the information. The rest regrets the
• Ne~ork topology defines the geographic arrangement of computer networking message. One computer can send a message at a time. A computer must wait until the
devices. bus is free before it can transmit.
• Topology describes the actual layout of the computer network hardware. • Fig. 1.13 shows a bus topology or network.

~
• Topology defines the physical or logical arrangement of links in a network. Laser Printer .
1. Physical Top~logy: A phy~ical topology describes the placement of network nodes
and ~e physical connections between them. This includes the arrangement and
location of network nodes and how they are connected.
2· Logical Topology: lt refers to the paths that messages take to get from one place on
.T~ onnector I
Bus/Trunk/Backbone

the network to another place. \•--------- ----

Im Definition of Topology To,mloa~, ~ Terminator

• · the computers in a network is called as topology".

The "way of connecung
OR Fig. 1.13: Bus Topology
• The topology of a network is "th ·
links and linkin d . ~ geometric arrangement-of the relationship of all the Advantages:
g evices (nodes) m a network".
1. Easy to install and set-up.
DD Types of Topologies 2. Requires less cabling length than Mesh and Star so cheaper in cost.
• The different types of network layouts are shown in Fig. 1.12. 3. Fast as compare to ring topology.
4. Sufficient for small network.
Classification of Topologies
Disadvantages:
1. It can not connect a large number of computers.
Physical Topology
Logical Topology 2. A fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission.
3. Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
__ _, ____, --....1 . . ___,
t B~s
opo ogy
Star Mesh Tree Ring
topology topology topology topology
Hybrid
topology
Token based
topology
Shared media
topology
4. Collision may occur.
5. Heavy network traffic can slow a bus considerably.
Fig. 1.12 : Types of topologies 6. Used for only small network.
1.18
1.19
■ - 1ntroductlon to Computer Networi(s

Computer Networks • I Computer Networks • I Introduction to Computer Networks

lifJj Ring
.
Topology
. the network are c
onnected in a circular fashion Disadvantages:
1. If one node goes down, it takes down the whole network.
• In ring topology, the computers m . .
which form of a ring. d the· next computer, with the last one 2. Slow in speed.
• In ring topology each computer is· connecte . to. onnected to other two devi·ces With 3. Reconfiguration is needed to add one node, whole network must be down first.
. h deVICe JS C .
connected to the first ,or we can say eac . device. Each computer m the ring 4. Traffic is unidirectional.
dedicated link in one direction, from deVIce to 5. Network is highly dependent on the wire which connects different components.
incorporates a repeater. d f r another computer, its repeater
• When a computer receives a sign
· al intende 0
th m The messa
ge flow around the ring in one llfii Star Topology
regenerates the bits and passes e · . topology Jess popular. • In star topology each device has a dedicated point-to-point link on it to a central
direction. Today higher speed LANs has made th15 . controller, usually called hub or switch. The devices are not directly connected to one
• Fig. 1.14 shows a ring topology. another.
.• Each computer on a star network first communicates with a central hub/switch that
forwards the message either to all the computers or only to the destination
computers.
• Communication is controlled by central controller (Hub/Switch) only.
• Star topology is generally used in LANs. ·
• Fig. (15 shows a star topology or network.
rsi:af i
~ L;;i - - - - .
"
·..

Switch/Hub

Fig. 1.14: Ring Topology

Advantages: Fig. 1.15: Star Topology
1. Require less cabling. Advantages:
2. Less expensive and easy to install. 1. Easy to install, reconfigure and wire.
. .
3. Adding or deleting a device is easy. 2. Centralized management which helps in monitoring the network.
4. Reduces chances of collision. 3. Robustness i.e., if one link fails, only that link is affected.
5. Each computer has equal access to resources. 4. Fast as compare to ring topology.
6. There is no need for network server to control the connectivity between 5. ~ultiple devices can transfer data without collision.
workstations. 6. Eliminates traffic problem.
7. Its performance is better than that of Bus topology. 7. No disruptions to the network then connecting or removing devices.
8. Fault isolation is simplified. 8. Its easy to detect the failure and troubleshoot if. ·

1.20 1.21
Computer Nttworb • I Computer Networks -1 Introduction to Computer Networks
tire network goes down.
. . then en . Advantages:
Disadvantages. . hl goes down ore expensive
1 If central node (hub
or switc av so rn ·
ring topo10o,' 1. Easy to install and wire.
. . d than bus or .ce
2. More cabling is require aci·ty of central deVl · 2. Fast as compare to other topologies.
d don cap 3. Multiple devices can transfer data without collision.
3. Performance is depen e
4. It eliminates traffic problem.

!•!!!l!,f!!!l.!!!!!'l!..T.::.::re::e:...T:..:o:!p_o_lo....;g~y-:-::l
.
devices mal<e a tree strUcture. It is also caued a 5. No disruptions to the network then connecting or removing devices.
• As its name implies In this topo o'5'! 6. Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
hierarchicaltopology. . . f star and bus topology. In tree topolo"', Disadvantages:
th haractensncs o a,,
• Tree topology integrates e c t dusing Bus. · · 1. It relies heavily on the main bus cable, ifit breaks whole network is crippled.
ks are connec e
the numbers of star networ f tree and other star networks. as fl.. 2. More-expensive than other topologies.
· stern o a ' -.,e
• This main cable seems like a mam 3. The cabling cost is more. .
branches. . f topology. 4. Scalability of the network depends on the type of cable used.
0
• Ethernet protocol is commonly-us ed in this type 5. As more and more nodes and segments are added, the maintenance becomes
• Fig. 1.16 shows tree topology. difficult.
llfJj Mesh Topology @4ii4J
• In a mesh network topology, each of the network node, computer and other devices,
are interconnected with one another with dedicated point to point link.
• Dedicated means that link carries traffic only between the two devices it connects. So
for Nnumber of nodes, there will be total n(n-1)/2 links require.
• Mesh topology is usually implemented in a limited fashion, as a backbone connecting
the main computers of a hybrid network that can include several other topologies.
• Fig. 1.17 shows a mesh topology. It is used in WAN.

--.I.'7
:_1
.,.

t' J
<>
<:,

' .It, Fig. 1.17 : Mesh Topology

Fig. 1.16: Tree Topology
1.23
l .22
Computer Networks • I Introduction to Computer Networks
Introduction to Computer Netwt-rks
Computer Networks • I

Advantages: Advantages :
1. Each connection can carry its own data load due to dedicated link. 1. Fault detection and troubleshooting is easy in this type of topology. .
2. Eliminates u·affic problem. 2. It is easy to increase the size of network by adding new components, without
0ther disturbing existing architecture.
3. Mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does not affect
3. Flexible because this topology can be designed according to the requirements of
systems.
the organization and by optimizing the available resources.
4. Privacy or security .because of dedicated line. Disadvantages :
5. Point-to-point link make fault identification easy and simple. 1. Hybrid topology is complex in design.
Disadvantages: 2. The hubs used to connect two distinct networks are very expensive.
1. More cables are required than other topologies. 3. As hybrid architectures are usually larger in scale, and so it is time consuming and
difficult to install. It also require a lot of cables, cooling systems, sophisticate
2. Overall cosc of this network is very high.
necwork devices, etc.
3. Installation and reconfiguration is very difficult. 4. Cost is high.
4. Set-up and maintenance of this topology is very difficult. comparison between Bus, Ring and Star Topologies:
5. Expensive due to hardware requirements such as cables. Terms ~
Bus Topology Ring Topology Star Topology
There is a single All computers and There is a central
Dfjj Hybrid Topology Structure
central cable other devices are host (hub/switch)
• Hybrid, as the name suggests, is mixture of two different things. (backbone) and all connected in a circle and all node
• A network structure whose design contains more than one topology is said to be computers and other or ring. connect to it.
Hybrid Topology. devise connect to it.
• In short a hybrid topology is combination of two or more network topologies. Host existence Depends on network Depends on network Yes.
• Hybrid topology inherits merits and demerits of all the incorporating topologies. needs. needs.
It has no connection Yes. No.
• Two common examples for hybrid network are star ring network and star bus Connection
network. between nodes between the nodes.
• Fig. 1.18 shows an example of star-bus hybrid topology. Host failure Network can still run. Network will fail. Network will fail.

m Ease of trouble-
shooting
Difficult, need to
search for-the
problemati c node one
Depends on
backbone.
backbone,
If there
trouble-
is
Depends on the
host.
repair
It is easier to
the

l Bus

!
by one. shooting
If there is
is
not
difficult.

backbone, the focus

problemati
However,
nodes fail,
c host.
if the
then
is one the two nodes each node has to be
nor communicating. searched.
- - - Star-- -• Difficult. Average.
Ease of adding or Easy.
removing nodes
Number of nodes Many. Limited. Limited.
when extending
Fig. 1.18 : Hybrid Topology
network

1.24 1.25
 c~~~~~~!.__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~ln:::.tr::.:od:.::u.;..ct_lo_n_to_C_o_m.,_pu_t_er_N.:..:•::.::,:tw
_ o,1cs
_ Introduction to Computer Networks
£omputer Networks - I computer Networks • I

m NETWORK TYPES
Computer networks fall into three classes regarding the size, diS ance and ~
t
• LANs are widely used to connect personal computers and workstations to share
resources like printers and exchange information.
•
• LANs are distinguished from other kind of networks by three characteristics i.e., their
structure namely LAN (Local Area Network), MAN (Metropolitan Area Network), WAN
size, their transmission technology and their topology.
(Wide Area Network), as shown in Fig. 1.19.
• Generally, LAN will use only one type of transmission medium wired or wireless. The
Types of Network most common LAN topologies are bus, ring or star. .
• Early LAN had data rates in the 4 to 16 mbps ra~ge. _Today, speeds are normally 100 to
lOOO mbps. Wireless LANs are the newest evolution m LAN technology.
• Now-a-days LANs are being installed using wireless technologies. Such a system makes
LAN MAN use of access point or APs to transmit and receive data. One of the computers in a
network can become a server serving all the remaining computers called clients.
Fig. 1.19 : Types of Computer Network • For example, a library will have a wired or wireless LAN Network for users to
• Fig. 1.20 shows geographical arrangement of LAN, WAN and MAN. interconnect local networking devices. For examples, printers and servers to connect
to the Internet.
• Fig. 1.21 (a) shows a typical LAN while Fig. 1.21 (b) shows a building LAN.
WAN
(Overall World
/Globe) /
11j
•. .O~

-'i~-
,-~
'• -
MAN "
(Cities, states, etc.)

-----
LAN
IDffli m (Building, (a) typical LAN Cb) Building LAN
cyber cafe etc.) Fig. 1.21

i Characteristics of LAN:
1. Every computer has the potential to communicate with any other computers of the
network.
Fig. 1.20: Geographical Arrangement of LAN, WAN and MAN
2. High degree of interconnection between computers.

•if• Local Area Network (LAN) . 3. Easy physical connection of computers in a network.
4. Inexpensive medium of data transmission.
• Local area networks are privately-owned networks covering a small geographical
5. High data transmission rate.
ar~a. (less than 1 km) like a home, office, or groups of buildings.
Advantages of LAN:
• Depending on the needs of the organization and the type of technology used, a LAN
can be as simple as two PCs and a printer or it can extend throughout a organization. 1. The reiiability of LAN is high because the failure of one computer in the network
does not effect the functioning for other computers.
1.26
1.27
 Introduction to Computer Networks
Comput er Networlls • 1
computer Netw0rks • I
company such as
2. Addition of new computer to network is easy and simple. ~ MAN can be owned by one private organization or public service
. . . .
3. High rate of data transmission is possible. local telephone or cable television company.
• Iler networks within a large geographic area, mformauon. 1s
shared by other
4. Peripheral devices like magnetic disk, printer etc. can be •
By interconnecungd sma
. - t throughout the network. Local libraries and government agenci
es
computers. ct to citizens and private industries. ATM (Asynchronou s
easily disserrunaNe . .
often use a MA to conne
5. Less expensive to install. Fiber Distributed Data Interface) etc. are the technologies 1s
Transfer Modes) FDDI (
Limitations (Disadvantages) of LAN:
used in MAN.
1. Used for small geographical areas Oess than 1 km).
Advantages: .
2. Limited computers are connected in LAN. 1. MAN spans large geographical area than LAN.
re, increases the efficiency of
3. Special security measures are needed to stop users from using programs and data AN falls in between the LAN and WAN therefo
· 2. M
that they should not have access to network. handling data.
k.
4. LAN need to be maintained by skilled technicians. AN saves the cost and time attached to establish a wide area networ
3. M
.
5. In LAN if the file server develops a serious fault, all the users are affected 4. MAN offers centralized management of data.
s. MAN enables us to connect many fast LANs together.
•ifJ Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN) Disadvantages:
a WAN, such
• If a n~twork spanning a physical area larger than a LAN but smaller than 1. Cost is high.
. .
as a city then this network is called Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
over a city are 2. Speed is slow.
• MAN is an extended face of LAN, in which computing devices spread
interconnected with communication mediums to form a network .
ly covers towns and
1111 Wide Area Network (WAN) . from remote areas.
• ~ographi~al area for MAN lies between 16 km to SO km general • WAN is a computer network used to connect different equipments
cities. In this type of networks data is transmitted over one or two cables. voice image and
• . A WAN provides long distance transmission of data,

~J
1•J l~
1 r 11;:i
n~
!J
- video information over large geographical areas that
continent or even the whole world.
may compri se a country, a

g users programs. These

• It contains collection of machines intended _for runnin
-i~ J ~~
fllii.l~ ~- .
tJJ. ~-
- machines are called as h_osts and connecced by communication subnet
. The hosts are
cypic:ally owned and
~
-·
i(JJ "-: owned by the customer, whereas the communication subnet is
operated by a telephone company or Interne
messages from host to host.
t service

• A WAN is a geographically-dispersed collection of LANs. A

provid er. Subnet carries

wide area netwo rk is

simply a LAN of LANs or Network of Networks.
n rates and the largest
• WAN are characterized by the slowest data communicatio
distances.
h the Internet or special
• Wide-Area Networks are commonly connected either throug
ers.
arrangements made with phone companies or other service provid
er Mode (ATM), Frame
Fig. 1.22 : MAN • WAN may use advanced technologies like Asynchronous Transf
Relay and SONET.
1.28 1.29
 Introduction to Computer Networks
t r Netw0rks • I
Compu • Computer Networks • I Introduction to Computer Networks
B k Networks that supported core
• Internet, Indian Railway Reservation Syof
stem, an
WAN The Internet is the largest WAN, the required· output line is free and then forwarded. A subnet
banking, etc. are some good examples . using this principle is
called a point to point, store-forward or packet switched subnet.
spanning the World today.
• WAN's may use public, leased or private communication device
• Fig. l.23 shows a typical WAN. s, and can spread over
a wide geographical area. A WAN that is wholly owned and used
by a single company
is often called as an enterprise network.
Advantages of WAN:
1. WAN covers a large geographical area.
2. WAN shares software and resources with connecting
workstations.
3. Using WAN messages can be sent very quickly to anyone else
on the network.
4. Expensive things (like printers or phone lines to the intern
et etc.) can be shared by
all the computers on the network.
5. WAN adds fluidity to users information communication.
Fig.1.23: WAN Disadvantages of WAN:
. . d f running user ('1.e. app1·1cau·on) 1. WANs are expensive.
• WAN contains a collection of machines use ~rd by a comm
programs. All the machines called hosts are conn~c e unication subnet. 2. Slow in speed than LAN and MAN.
• Fig.1.24shows communication Subnet and Host IS WAN, 3. WANs need a good firewall to restrict outsiders from enterin
g and disrupting the
network.
LAN 1 4. Setting up a network can be time consuming.
•·-~
~ 5. Protection against hackers and viruses adds more compl
Difference between LAN MAN and WAN·
exity and expense.
11 11
' M"· ,•i•ii
Parameter· LAN WAN MAN
1. Stand for Local Area Network. Wide
LAN 3 Area Metropolitan Area
Network. Network.
LAN2
Communication subnet 2. Area covered Covers small area Covers large Covers larger area
i.e. within the geographical area, than LAN and
Fig.1.24: Communication Subnet and Host is WAN building (less than like country, state smaller than WAN
• The function of the subnet is to carry ~essages from host to 1 km). etc.
host. The sub11et consists like campus.
of two important components; transmission lines and switching elemen 3. Error rates Lowest.
ts. Highest. Moderate.
• Transmission lines move bits from one machine to another. The 4. Transmission speed High.
switching elements Low. Moderate .
are specialized computers used to connect two or more transmission lines.
When data 5. Equipment cost Uses inexpensive Uses
arrive on an incoming line, the switching element must choose an most Uses moderately
outgoing line to equipment.
forward them. expensive expensive
equipment. equipment.
• The switching elements are either called as packet switching
nodes, intermediate 6. Example Offices, Cyber Cafe.
systems, data switching exchanges or routers . Internet. ATM,FDDietc.
• When a packet is sent from one router to another via one or
7. Data transfer rate High. Low.
more intermediate Moderate.
routers, the packet is received at intermediate router. It is stored in 8. Set-up cost Low. High.
the routers until Moderate.
1.30 Contd...

1.31
 Computer Networks - I Introduction to Computer Networks

z. Wireless LANs:
9. Diagram • The next step in wireless networkin g are the wireless LANs. WLANs are systems in
which every computer has a radio modem and antenna with which it can
MAN
communic ate with other system.
WAN
LAN • Wireless LANs are becoming increasing ly common in small offices and homes.
• IEEE 802.11 is a standard for wireless LANs.
IJJ■ Wireless Network s _
• A Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) links two or more devices over a short
• Wireless communic ation is one of the fastest growing technologies. The demand for distance using a wireless distributio n method, usually providing a connection through
connecting devices without the use of cables is increasing everywher e. an access point for Internet access.
• The word wireless is dictionary defin~d as "having no wires"•
• In networking terminology, wireless is the term used to describe any
computer network where there is no physical wired connection between sender and
receiver, but rather the network is connected by radio waves and/or microwave s t~
maintain communications.
• The basis of wireless systems is radio waves, an implementation that takes place at the
physical level of network structure.
main categories as listed below:
• Wireless networks can be divided into three
~
m
1. System interconne ction,
2 . Wireless LANs, and Printer
3. Wireless WANs.
1. System Interconnection:
• System interconnection means connecting the componen~s af computer using short
Computer 1
range radio. Desktop PC / Laptop
• All components can also be connected by a short range wireless network called
Bluerooth. Bluetooth also allows digital cameras, headsets, scanners and other devices ·~--.::i.
to connect to a computer. Computer2
• The system interconnection networks use the master-slave paradigm as shown in Desktop PC / Laptop
Fig.1.25. Fig. 1.26: Wireless LAN

3. Wireless WANs:
Printer ,Mobile
• The third kind of wireless network is used in wide area system.
' • The radio network used for cellular telephones is an example of a low-bandw idth
wireless system.
~
PDA
• Cellular wireless networks are like wireless LANs, except that the distances involved
are much greater and the bit rates are much lower.
• In addition to low-speed networks, high bandwidth wide area wireless networks are
also being developed. The initial use is high speed wireless internet access from homes
and business bypassing the telephone system.
Flg. 1.25: Bluetooth Configuration
1.33
1.32
 Introduction to Computer Networ~
computer Netwarks • 1 •
Computer Networks • I Introduction to Computer Networks
. less networks that typically cover
• Wireless Wide Area Networks (WWANs) are wired cities or city and suburb. These s. It is inexpensive network because of It is expensive network.
large areas, such as between neighboring towns anf business
'
or as a public internet Ethernet cables, hubs, switches etc.
networks can be used to connect branch offices o are very inexpensive.
access system. 6. Wired network utilizing hubs can Wireless networking performance is
Satellite suffer performance slowdown if distance sensitive, meaning that

-f~ ))}))) .......

,
,..
.... .
1111, 1·1

1111r ·
··••·· . ·•
computers heavily utilize the
network simultaneously.
maximum performance will degrade on
computers farther away from the
access point or other communication
endpoint.

---- ~ Example: Wired LAN (WLAN)

1111 \"
:::-·;== 7. Examples: Microwaves, Satellite

~
...:;,,,·===
'~ '------
.---- -
··•··· ·-:·---
······
communication etc.

~ ~ E•""'"'
·•···· 8. Ethernet cables, switches, are used The reliability of wireless network is
in wired network are reliable. less as compared to wired network.
9. Wired-networks are easy to set up Wireless networks are comparatively di
Emergency response and troubleshoot. fficult
to set up, maintain, and troubleshoot.
10. The communication between two Wireless networks the communication
devices via cables. between two devices without cables.
,, ,, ,, Fax
,, ,, 11. Not support wireless mobility. The major advantage of having a
,,
wireless device is the mobility and
freedom that comes with it.
Central office
Client server
Fig. 1_27: WWAN (Wireless Wide Area Networks) 11\j Home Networks
Comparison of Wired and Wireless Networks: • The fundamental idea behind home networks is that in the future most homes will be
setup for networking. Every device in the home will be capable of communicating
Wired necworlc Wireless Network
with every other device and all of them will be accessible over the Internet.
Wired network uses network cables Wireless Network uses radio • For example, with a PDA or mobile phone, a user can communicate with his
to be connected co each and every frequencies.
microwave, refrigerator or babycam even though he/she is not at home.
computer in the network.
·• A Home Area Network (HAN) is a network that is deployed and operated within a
A wired network anows for a faster A wireless network is a lot less secure
small boundary, typically a House or Small Office/Home Office (SOHO).
and more secure connection. and slow transmission speeds.
• It enables the communication and sharing of resources (like the Internet) between
3. covers shorter This network covers larger . computers, mobile and other devices over a network connei:;tion.
geographical distances (1 - 4 km) geographical distances like state, city or
like building, offices etc. world. • A HAN is a dedicated network connecting devices in the home such as:
1. Computers (PC, notebook, PDA etc.)
High cost than wired network.
2. Entertainment (TV, DVD, VCR, Camera, MP3 etc.)
Contd. .. 3. Telecommunications (telephone, mobile phone, fax, etc.)
1.34 1.35
 Introduction to Computer Networks

~:o:!!m~p~ut~•'!.r~N~etw~o~rk~s:..:•_!_I_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ Computer Networks • I Introduction to Computer N8tworks

A liances (microwave, refrigerator, lights, etc.) Disadvantages :

4.PP ) 1. Buying all the eqt:1ipment so costly.
5. Telemetry (smoke alarm, babycam etc. . d. e but more and more demands
d . a lim1te us , 2. Complete set up of a network can be difficult.
H0 me comnuter networking is alrea Y m d wnloaded from the Internet, but
" · can be 0 3. Depending on the network topology type, a broken cable can halt the whole
fr m u sers are there. Music and movies . . ·t people want to share their own
o d television to I . . . network.
user want to connect stereos an to monitor theu- babies on their
now . arents want
videos with friend and family. Many P
PDA, mobile phone when they are at work.
.
HAN may be wired or wireless. In a
iitl lnternetwork
• Today, it is very rare to see a LAN, a MAN in isolation, they are connected to on e
e of IP-based local area network (LAN), a dband Internet connection that is
• As a typ .sts of a broa . . another. When two or more networks are connected, they become an Internetwork or
typ ical implementation, a HAN consi ndor/third party Wired or wireless Internet.
. through a ve .
shared b etween muluple users . • An internetwork is formed when distinct networks are interconnected. The internet is
modem. a structured organized system.
Fig. 1.28 shows a HAN. • Internetworking started as a way to connect disparate types of computer networking

a
•
technology.
• Computer network term is used to describe two or more computers that are linked to

rt
Wireless connection each other. When two or more com·puter networks or computer network segments

fI \~ are connected using devices such as a router then it is called as computer

Plug link HDAV internetworking.
~ -/gsl"I..
-ii,OO:-~- E-+
CO
~ adapter ~ nter
Concentrator

~i ,.
Notebook Wireles~ Cable I
acess point I Switch
I
Plug link HDAV I
Plug link HDAV ECO I
ECO adapter I
Game ~ adapter Work group
console

....... - --- !,!.t!O.:;.,,,.,.--

IPSTB
ATM

Fig. 1.28: Horne Area Network (HAN)

Advantages :
1. The main advantage of a network is that multiple users can simultaneously
Access
interact with each other anp share resources for example, the Internet connection.
2. After the home n etwork is created, as many wireless devices like laptops and
mobile phones can connect to it and more PC's can also be connected with ease Core
and simple. Fig. 1.29 : Internetworldng
, ::17
 eoinputer Networks Computer Networks • I
introduction to
Introduction to Computer Networks
or11s . 1
puter NetW . mong or between comparison between Data and Information :
. interconnecuon a orks may also ,
lnternetworlting is a terr:n ~se:u:~i~:si;g:::
rnmental computer netw . Sr.No. Data
public, private, c~mmercial, ; or lnternetworkin Information
be defined as an mternetw or g. ected by intermediate 1. Data is collection of raw facts and Informat
. di .dual networks, conn ion is processed data.
·
i\n internetwork is a co Uect ion of m V1 figures.
networking devices, that funcuon_s
. as a singl e large netwo rk. dures that meet the
nroducts, and proce . 2. Data is unarranged and Information is arranged and organize
lnternetworki·ng re fers to dm. the mdustrY• i- d
. tering internetworks. · 1
t today is not a sunp
unorganized.
challenge of creating and a 1ms . the 1960 e
long s. The Inter ne a netw orks joined by 3. Data is un-meaningful.
way smce Information is meaningful.
The Internet has come a . of many wide and local are
hier archical srructure . It 1s. mad e-up
. stations. 4. Data is input. Information is output.
connecting devices and switching I ternet conn the services of Internet
ectio n use .onal and local service 5. Data is raw material for Infonnation is the final product of data .
• Toda)' most end users who wanret inter n
natio
l tional reg1
Service Providers USPs). There a na ' na ' information.
. . .
-proV1ders. I terne twor king . 6. Data depends upon the sources. Information depends upon data.
. f Internetwork
• There are following vanants_o et of inter or n rks or Internetworki.ng,
connected ne~oas web browsers and ftp • Data communication refers to the exchange
1. Intranet : An intranet ~~o~ a~d uses
of data between a source and a receiver
IP-base~ t?ols ~~~ entity. via some form of transmission medium.
using the Internet Prot rrol of a single admln1st
ran Internetworking that is • The effectiveness of a data communicati
tools, that is under the co_n network of internet on systems depends on four fundamental
w?r\ o~ which also has limited characteristics as given below :
2 Extranet : An extranet i_s :ie organization or
. limited in scope to a smk f one or more enuty u Uy but not necessarily, 1. Delivery : The system must deliver data
other usua ' to the correct destination. Data must be
connections to the networ .sties o received by the intended device or user.
trusted organizations or enu .
2. Accuracy: The system must deliver the data
Benefits ofintemetworldng : network traffic. accurately.
1 Intemetworks reduces 3. Timeliness : The system must deliver data
. . ·zed performance. in timely manner. Data delivered late
2. The benefit of reduced trafficis opu : .d . are useless.
ntified and isolated in smaller networks,
. Network problems can be more eas y l e 4. Jitter: Jitter refers to the variation in the pack
et arrival time.
3. as opposed to oµe large network. l
4.
We can more efficiently span ong
distance by connecting multiple smaller
m l Definition
networks. • The term data Communication can be defin
mDATA COMMUNICATION · ·
. ~ . gthewaywe do business and
d networking are c angm
versa".
ed as "the process of using computing and
communication technologies to transfer data
from one place to another, and vice
• Today, data commun1c auon an
the way we live. Today everyone is. d ither through computer or mobile
connecte e OR
• Data communication is "the transmission
telephone. . . of electronic data over some media like
usine ss or day to day work of cables, microwaves etc.".
• We want quickly access to ac~ur; te ~:fso:;:
:~:: ork ing or internetworking.
human being relay on commuruca on
• Communication is the act of transferring
. verbal messages
!nfo~m~~n t:~uc~mmunicate, we ar~
1111 Components
written word, or more subtle, non-verbal s1gna • The purpose of data communications is to
s. en . . each provide the rules and regulations that allow
sharing information. Like human beings comp computers with different disk operating syste
uters are also commum~at~ with ed in ms, languages, cabling and locations to
other using messages. The word data refers to infor
mation used by parues mvolv share resources.
communication.
1.39
1.38
 Introductio
n to computer Networks
computt1r Networt<.s - I Introduction to Computer Networks
:omputer Networks . I , . 30

-~
ication system has five components as shown m Fig. 1. .
ml Data Flow
-~
, A data com mun
--- Step 1:
Step 1: Step 2: • The way in which data is transmitted from one place to another is called data
Step 3: .. ......... . communication mode.
........... ·siii"n"
"Ste .. n.. • Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex or full duplex.
Protocol
1. Simplex : In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional. One device on the
I~
.l! 8
;•~as•~
Medium
-ilD
~
_
-
" ' link transmits and other can only receive.
In computer system, the keyboard, monitor and• printer are examples of simplex
~~ Receiver
communication. The keyboard can only be used to enter data into computer, while
sender . . s t m components monitor and printer can only accept (display/print) output.
Fig. 1.30: Data Commun1canon ys e . . • fig. 1.31 shows simplex mode in data communication.
f data commurucaoon.
• Fig. 1.30 shows the following co~ponents o e data message. It can be a computer,
1. Sender: The sender is the device that sends th
workstation, telephone handset, and so on. b communicated. It can consist ..!
1 - - - - - - -D
-ir_e_c1_io_n_of_d_a_1a_ _ _ _-1 111'i ·:;
c(),
. th . f mation (data) to e
2. Message:The message is ~ m or y combination of these.
of text, pictures, sound, or video- or an. h . al path by which a message Mainframe Monitor
· · dium 1s the P ysic · 1 bl
3· Me<lium: The transmission ·me b twi ·sted-paired wire, coaxia ca e, Fig. 1.31: Simplex mode
travels from sender to receiver. It could e a
. Advantages:
fiber-optic cable, or radio waves. th overns data communications. It (i) Very simple and easy communication method.
Protocol: . r of rules at g .
4. A protocol 1s a se . ting devices. Without a protoco1, (ii) Cheaper in cost.
t between the commuruca
represents an agreemen b t could not communicate. Disadvantages:
two devices may be connected u . the message It can be computer,
. . the device that receives · (i) Only allows for communication in one direction.
5. Receiver: The receiver is .. d so on
workstation, telephone handset, telev1S1on, an (ii) Simplex transmission are not often used because it is not possible to send back
.
error to the transmit end.
IIIJ Data Represen
.
tation
th thods used imernally to represent mformauon
. . 2. Half-Duplex : In half-duplex mode, the communication can tak,e place in both
directions, but only in one direction at a time. For example, two-way communication
) • Data represencaoon refers to e me
between computers and other computers that may be connected to a hub. In this
stored in a computer. . . f like text numbers, images, audio, and mode, data is sent and received alternatively.
• Information today comes in various arms , • In simpie words, in half-duplex mode, at a time only one end transmits data while
video. b
1. Text: In data communication , text is represented as a i•t pa ttern, a, sequence of Os other end receives.
• Fig. 1.32 shows half-duplex communication mode.
or ls. ASCII codes are used to represent text. . not used to
2. Numbers: Numbers are also represented by bit p~ttern: ASCII is
represent numbers, the number is directly converted mto bmary. ! ~1 - -- -
Di-
re_c_tio_n_o_fd
- a-ta_a_t_tim_e_1- --;
.
3. Images: Images are also represented by bit pat tern. An image is composed of a
marrix of pixels. , · "' Direction of data at time 2
4. Audio : Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music. 1t is
Workstation
co11tinuous, not discrete.
Fig. 1.32: Half-duplex Mode
5. Video : Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie.
1.40 1.41
 Introduction to Computer Networks
Computer Networks · I Introduction to Computer Networks
:omputer Networks • I

Advantages: • A standard is an object or procedure considered by an authority or by general consent

Enable to two way communication. as a basis of comparison. Standards are authoritative principles or rules that imply
(i) a
(ii) Low cost than full duplex communication mode.
model or pattern for guidance by comparison.
• In this section, we will study protocols and standards.
Disadvantages:
(i) Only one device can transmit at a time.
High cost than simplex mode.
(ii) ication can take place in both
IJI Protocols
/NIP
3 Pull-Duplex : In Full-duplex mode, the comrnun • In computer networks, communication occurs between entities in different systems
. . h l .
th
directions simultaneously, i.e. at es ame time don the same c anne .
etwork device such as a switth An entity is anything capable of sending or receiving information. For commun
ication
For example, two or more computers connecte to a n to occur, the entities must agree on a protocol.
that provides full duplex activity. . le of full.duplex communication • A protocol is a set of rules and guidelines for communicating data. Rules
The telephone communication system is an examp are defined

.. 18;,
for each step and process during communication between two or more computers.
mode.
• Fig 1 33 shows full.duplex communication mode. . Networks have to follow these rules to successfully transmit data.
1 • Aprotocol can be defined as "a set of rules that govern data com~unication".
Diradloo of data all lho ,mo
• A protocol defines what is communicated, how it is communicated and when
it is
communicated.
• The key elements of a protocol are :
workstation
Wot¥tation • · M d 1. Syntax : Syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the
=:.. Fig. 1_33: Full-duplex commurucation o e order in
which they are presenteJ..
Advantages: 2. 'semantics : Semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits. How is
(i) Enables two-way communication simultaneously. a
particular pattern to be interpreted and what action is to be taken based on that
(ii) Fastest method of data communication.
interpretation ?
Disadvantages: 3. Timing : Timing refers to two characteristics : when data should be sent and how
(i) More expensive and complex method.
fast they can be sent.
(ii) Two bandwidth channels is required for data transmission.
Functions of Protocols:
m
•
PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS
During the past several decades, the data communications industry_ha~ grown at an
1. Protocol defines data sequencing rules.
2. Protocol defines data routing rules ~hich the most efficient path between the
astronomical rate. Consequently, the need to provide commumcauons between source and destination.
dissimilar computer equipment and systems has also increased. 3. Protocol defines data formatting rules which group of bits or characters within
• A major issue facing the data communications industry today i~ world-wide packet constitute data, control, addressing, or other information.
compatibility. Major areas of interest are software and programmmg language, 4. Protocol defines flow control of information or data.
electrical and cable interface, transmission media, communications signal, and format 5. Protocol defines error control rules are designed to detect errors in messages and
compatibility. to ensure transmission of correct messages.
• Thus, to ensure an orderly transfer of information, it has been necessary to establish
6. Protocol defines precedence and order of transmission rules ensure that all the
standard means of governing the physical, electrical and procedural arrangements of
nodes get a chance to use the communication lines and other resources of the
a data communications system.
network based on the priorities assigned to them.
1.42 1.43
 Introduction to Computet' Networ~ computer Networks - I Introduction to Computer Networks

Computer Networks · l

ti
7. Protocol defines connec on
·nation rules that define how
establishment an d ternu
. t d when two nodes of a
1111 Standards Organizations
connections are established, maintained and termma e • Many organizations are dedicated to the establishment of standards. These are :
network want to communicate with each other. 1. International Organization for Standardization (ISO) : The ISO is a multinational
. that built into most communication body whose membership is drawn mainly from the standards creation committees
rotocol defines data security and privacy .
8. P of various governments through the world. ISO developing standards in scientific,
software packages.

lift Standards .
mm
.
technological and economical activity.
2. International Telecommunication Union - Telecommunication Standard Sector
. . thin that we use in our daily hfe has (ITU - T) : In 1970s, United nations form a committee named, Consultative
• Standards are necessary in our daily life. Every g Committee for International Telegraphy and Telephony (CCITT) for research and
some standards. . ensure interconnectivity and standards in telecommunication. On March 1, 1993 the name of this committee is
ary in networking to changed to ITU-T.
• Standards are al so necess k' g hardware and software
ill b tw en various networ m 3. American National Standards Institute (ANSI) : This organization is completely
interoperab ty . e _e would have proprietary products creating
components/devices. Without standards we private, non-profit corporation, not affiliated to US government.
is~lated islands of users which cannot interconnect. d .t 4. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) : The IEEE is the largest
ufacturers and ven ors o ensure
. .d .d lines to product man professional engineering society in the world. IEEE oversees the development and
• Standards provi •
e g\ll e
·
. . D ta communications standards can be
1 interconnecnvity. a adoption of international standards for computing and communications.
national and mtemauona . "b fact" or" by convention")and de jure
classified into two types de facto (mearung y ' s. Electronic Industries .t'.:;::!.lciation (EIA) : EIA i~ a non-profit organization devoted to
the promotion of electronics manufacturing concerns.
(meaning "by law" or "by regulation"). ..

1 · De facto Standards: These are .

mean by fact or by convenuon. ese
Th
d ds that have been traditionally used and
the stan ar
standards are not approved by any organized
. .
. m NETWORK SOFlWARE
• In computer nerworks, not only the hardware but software is also very important. For
. d D facto data commumcauon standards can
body but are adopted by widesprea use. e communication between devices, hardware and software both are required. Network
be further divided into proprietary and non-proprietary standards. . software is not highly structured.
· · ted and owned by an organization who first • Networking software, in the most basic sense, is software that facilitates, enhances or
(i) The proprietary Standards are mven .
· · ularity Proprietary standards 1s closed, because interacts w ith a computer network.
uses them, and which gam pop •
they close-off communication with devices/systems of other vendors. • One type of networking software allows computers co communicate with one another,
while another type of networking software provides users access co shared programs.
are those that are developed by an organization/
(ii) Non-proprietary Standards
• Networking software is a key compon ent of today's computer networks, including the
committee/group, which become popular and vendors start supporting them.
Internet.
Nonproprietary standards are open because anybody adhering to those
• Network software is a general phrase for software that is designed to help set up,
automatically gains access to all others following those standards. manage, and/or monitor computer networks. Networking software applications are
2. De Jure Standards: It means by Jaw or by regulation. De jure are the standards that available to manage and monitor networks of all sizes, from the 5mallest h ome
have been legislated by an official body. These De jure standar ds are usually led by networks to the largest enterprise nerworks.
governments or government-appointed agencies.
1 .45
1.44
 Introduction to Computer Networks
Computer Netwodu - I

••=I•
•
Protocol Hierarchies
In a computer network, many devices are connected to each other. Every computer i;
_9>mputer Networlcs - I

•
A list of protocols used by a
stack.
. Introduction to Computer Networks
certain system, one protocol per layer, is• called a protocol
working as a source or destination or intermediate machine.
•
It is also possible that a computer is simultaneously performing all these jobs. As a
source, destination or intermediate machine certain predefined jobs a computer has to
~
Host 1 "'
[1117
~~ 2
Host
__t,_ayer 5 protocol
perform. The entire structure of computer network is complex. ----------► Layer 5
To reduce their design complexity, networks are organized as a stack of layers or
• __1:_a_i'!r 4 protocol
levels, each one built upon the one below it. • -- -- - ---- -►
The number of layers, the name of each layer, the contents• of each layer and the
• function of each layer differ from network to network. Each layer offers certain __1:_ay~r-3_protocol
-------►

predefined services to higher layers and taking services from lower layers. Layer 2/3 interface
r------''--
__1:_ayer 2 protocol
The basic concept of layering network responsibilities is that each layer adds value to Layer 2
----------►
• Layer 1/2 interface
services provided by sets of lower layers. r---"'--
__t,_ayel"'1 protocol
In this way, the highest level is offered the full set of services needed to run a Layer 1
----------►
•
distributed data application.
Fig. 1.34 shows a layered architecture where layer n at the source logically (but not Physical Medium
• necessarily physically) communicates with layer n at the destination and layer n of
Fig. 1.34 : Layers Prot ls
any intermediate nodes. • To understand the idea of ul . ' oco and II!-terfaces
office. m tllayer communication consider the example of post
Layer n on one machine carries on a conversation with layer n on another machine.
• The rules and conventions used in this conversation are collectively known as the Sender Receiver

•
layer n protocol.
A protocol is an agreement between the communicating parties on how
~
communication is to proceed.
• A five layer network is shown in Fig. 1.34. The entities comprising the corresponding The letter is written The letter is picked up,
layers on different machines are called peers. put in an envelope & Higher removed from the
dropped In a mailbox layers envelope,& read
• The peers m~y be proc~sses, hardware devices or even human beings. It is the peers
that communicate by usmg the protocol. ·
• In reality, no data are directly transferred from layer n on one machine to layer n on
The letter Is carried The letter is carried
_anothe~ machine. ~ach !ayer passes data and control information to the layer from the mailbox Middle from the post office
unm_ediately below 1_t, until the lowest layer is reached. Below layer 1 is the physical to a post office layers to the mail box.
medium through which actual communication occurs.
• In Fig. 1.34 virtual communication is shown by dotted lines and physical
communication by solid lines. The letter is delivered
to the carrier Lower
The letter is delivered
from the camer
:r::~en each ~air of adjacent layers is an interface. The interface defines which by the post otf1C8 layers to the post office
ve operaaons and services the lower layer gives to the upper layer.
A set of layers and protocols is called a network architecture
The details of implementation d th . . .
architecture because they ar ~dd e ~pe~cation of ~e interfaces is not part of
outside. e en ms1de the machines and not visible from
The letter Is carried from the
source to the destination

1.46 Fig. 1.35

 Introduction to Computer Networks
Computer Networks • I computer Networks - I

example how to provide com mun icati on

• Now, we will discuss more technical 3. Erro r control,
age M, is prod uced by an appJi to
top layer of the five layer network. A mess • • 1 ca~ 4. flow control,
r 4 for transrrusswn. ayer 4 adds a he
process running in layer s and given to laye s. Disassembling and reassembling of messages,
message and passes the message to 1 a
part i.e. control information in front of the 6. Multiplexing and demultiplexing,
ence number, source addr ess, ·des~Yer~
The control information may include sequ
. attoii 1. Routing, and
address, total num ber of bytes etc.
8. Order of messages.
to handle large data, so laye r 3 break-u
• We assume that layer 3 is not able Let us discuss above issues in detail:
kets), adding layer 3 head er to it anct p. !he •
sm for identifying send ers and receivers.
incoming messages into smaller units (Pac IDVe1 . Addressing : Every laye r need s a mec hani
parts Ml and M2. puters, som e of whi ch have multiple
to layer 2. In our example, M is split into two 1
In computer netw ork from man y com
ed for a process on on~ mac hin~ to
Layer ol p.i;ocesses, some sort of mechanism is need
Layer 5 protoc
As a cons eque nce of havi ng mul uple
5 M ------------------------- M
specify with whom it wan ts to talk.
need ed in orde r to specify a specific
destinations, some form of addressing is
Layer 4 protocol destination. to
mea ns send ing data from one com pute r
4 2. Data Transfer Methods : Data tran sfer
sfer can be of thre e mod es i.e. simp lex,
another. In com pute r networks, data tran
M •_La yer 3 protocol_ half duplex and full duplex.
3 2
an imp orta nt issu e beca use physical
3. Error Control : Erro r control is
..__.' -,-J

Layer 2 ect. Man y erro r-de tecti ng and erro r-

protocol communication channels are not perf
H2 H3 M2 T2 of the connection mus t agre e on whic h
H2 H3 M2 T2 • ---- -- + H2 H3 H4 M1 T2 correcting codes are known, but both ends
som e way of telling the send er whi ch
one is being used. The receiver mus t have
whic h have not.
messages have been correctly received and
is
d to rece iver, issu e occu rs at ever y laye r
4. Flow Control : If send er is fast com pare
Source machine Destination machine a slow rece iver with data . One sohi tion
how to keep a fast send er from swamping
Fig. 1.36 : Data Flow between Machines to control the flow. Othe r solution
is both entities agree upon the data rate
trailer (which is also a control information) receiver to the send er abou t rece iver s
• ~a~er ~ adds not only a header, but also a involves some kind of feedback from the
mission.
o 1 an passes to layer no. 1 for physical trans current situation. This subject is called flow
control.
ved by layer 1 and th Messages : Another prob lem that mus t be
• At the receiving machine, the message is recei 5. Disassembling and Reassembling of
er part attached b en move~ upward
from layer to layer. Every layer removes head all processes to acce pt arbitrari ly long
ers for la ers b y corresponding laye r solved at several levels is the inability of
from sender's machine. None of the head elow n are passed _uptp message into mul tiple sma ll messages,
layer n.
Y messages. One solution is to divide long
iving end.
transmit them and combine them at the rece
a
n it is inco nven ient or expe nsive to set up
■i:fj Design Issues of the Layers 6. Multiplexing and Demultiplexing: Whe
municating proc esse s, the unde rlyin g
A netwo.r k consists of a series of levels calle
d layers. The various ke de . . ' separate connection for each pair of com
• Y sign issues are connection for multiple, unre late d
pres ent m several layers in computer netw
orks. layer may decide to use the sam e
ing. Multiplexing is need ed in the
• The important design issues of the layer are
listed below : conversations. This is know n as multiplex
1. Addressing, physical layer.
2. Data transfer methods,
1.49
8
 Computer Networks • 1
Introduction to ComPUter ~--r-
i• Introduction to Computer NetWor b

~ computer Networks • I
7. Routing : When there are multiple paths between source and d
available, a route must be chosen depending upon certain criteria . Criterttion. .,_
Illa~~
ji:flJ Connection-less Services
current traffic or situation of subnet. Criteria is called as routing protocoi" • connection-less service is modeled after the postal system. In this type of
services, no
process is called routing.
an~ II\
connection is established between source and destination.
8. Order of Messages : Not all communication channels preserve the 0 rd Here, there is no fixed path. Therefore, the messages must carry full
destination
er ~ •
messages sent on them. To deal with possible loss of sequencing, the prot address and each one of these messages are sent independent of each other.
to allow the pieces. to be rea ocol lll1tit
make explicit provision for the receiver order. Thus,
properly. • . sselllb~ • Messages sent will not be delivered at the destination in the same
s are not
grouping and ordering is required at the receiver end, and the service
DJI Connection-Oriented and Connection-less Services •
reliable.
There is no acknowledgement confirmation from the receive
r. Unreliable
~
• La_yers can offer two types of services to the layers above them namely con not return an
ection, connectionless service is often called datagram service, which does
oriented service and connection-less service.
acknowledgement to the sender.
ll:J91 Connect·ion-oriente
--- · · es
d Servic
•
In some cases, establishing a connection to send one short messages is
needed . But
be used for
In connection oriented se'"'"ce,
• ., . 1 connection is established b --.....
l ogica reliability is required, and then acknowledgement datagram service can
• etween
communicating parties. these applications.
. is
tion oriented service . modeled after the telephone system. Advantages of Connectionless Services :
•• Connec
1n telephone system when we w dial th 1. Does not required any connection.
number, after that c~nnectio . ant to _make a call, we have to pickup phone,
the telephone. n is established, use that connection and then disconn e~ 2. This services is very simple and easy for data transfer.

. . 3. Used for periodic burst data transfer.

• To use a connection oriented .netwo rk sernce, the service user first establishes a
connection uses the th
connection and the n reIeases e connection. Once th 4. Less overhead then connection oriented services.
'
connection is established b tw Disadvantages of Connectionless Services :
. ' e
• :rhe data transmission take elen source.and destination, the .path is fixed.
es P ace through
.
thi th
s pa established. The order. of th e 1. Less reliable than connection-oriented services.
messages sent will be same at th e receiver end
• . 2. No guarantee for delivery of data.
Se~ce s are reliable and there is no Joss .
provides acknowledgement is an overhead ofddadtad. Most of the time, reliable service 3. It provides minimal services.
an a s delay tion oriented and
Adv . • Following table describes various services and examples of connec
antages of Connection-oriented Services :
connectionless services.
1. . services provi'des guarantee delivery of data.
These r "
Example
.
reliable th en connectionless Service
2. This service is more
. services.
oriented service s wil . Connection--< Reliable message stream Sequence of pages
3. Some connec tion
resending them. 1 monitor for lost packets and handle -
oriented Reliable byte stream Remote login
Disadvantages of Connection-oriented Services : ' Unreliable connection Digitized voice
1. A connection must required. Electronic junk ·mail•
Unreliable datagram
These services have more overhead ~an connectionless service
2. C
3. omplex method for data transferring. . Connection-{ Acknowledged datagram Registered mail

less Request-reply Database query

1.50
1.51