ČLANCI

ANNINI TSIOUTIS

LESSONS OF THE MASTERS: CONTINUITY AND TRADITION

IN THE 32 PIANO PIECES BY NIKOS SKALKOTTAS

Prethodno priopćenje /
Preliminary Paper
UDK: 78.071.1-05 Skalkottas,N.
(398.1+78)(495)

ABSTRACT
Specific examples from the 32 Piano Pieces (1940) by Greek composer Nikos
Skalkottas serve as a starting point for an investigation of the ways in which
certain aspects of tradition are maintained, albeit in a wholly new and original
manner. References to tonality and the great masters of the past are examined,
in connection with the teaching of Schoenberg, which Skalkottas followed in
Berlin. The paper culminates in the introduction of the term distillation, in an
attempt to characterize the composer’s assimilation of a number of stylistic and
other elements which resurface in his music at various intervals.
Keywords: Skalkottas, tradition, Schoenberg, piano, distillation

INTRODUCTION
Nikos Skalkottas (1904–1949) composed the 32 Piano Pieces in 1940, in Athens.1
The impressive variety of styles and genres evoked by the mere titles of the pieces
is indicative, amongst other things, of the composer’s special relationship to the
music of the past. To better grasp and evaluate this relationship we must first
determine which aspect or aspects of tradition the composer sought to preserve,
and in what way, thus inscribing his work within the continuity of Western art
music.
This paper will first examine the question of tonality, as one of the vestiges of
tradition. Selected examples of striking similarities between passages from the
32 Piano Pieces and certain older works of the pianistic repertory will serve to
illustrate Skalkottas’s singular appropriation of elements of the past, through a
process of assimilation and incorporation taking place over a long period of time.
This process will be explained and defined using the term distillation.

1  Skalkottas left Berlin in 1933 and spent the remainder of his life in Athens. On the
composer’s life see Romanou 2009: 163-185.

93
2020. Bašćinski glasi/članci

REMNANTS OF TONALITY
For students in Schoenberg’s Berlin Masterclass2 tradition very likely signified
tonality. However, tonality was irretrievably linked with the formal prototypes
inherited from previous centuries. Although Schoenberg never ceased stressing
the historic necessity of the elaboration of the method of composing with twelve
tones,3 he used, in his teaching, examples from the works of the great masters of
the past.4
His leap into the realm of new music was rendered more legitimate by a
profound and extensive knowledge of the musical literature of the past, and more
precisely, that of the great German musical tradition. As he states himself in a
text written in 1931,5 his masters were Bach and Mozart first of all, and secondly
Brahms and Wagner. He goes on to give a detailed account of what he learned
from each composer in terms of musical construction and formal elaboration.
While respecting each student’s individuality, in terms of compositional style,6
Schoenberg’s teaching adhered to certain basic and general principles, such as
the following:
»One of the foremost tasks of instruction is to awaken in the pupil a sense of the past and
at the same time to open up to him prospects for the future. Thus instruction may proceed
historically, by making the connections between what was, what is, and what is likely
to be. The historian can be productive if he sets forth, not merely historical data, but an
understanding of history, if he does not confine himself simply to enumerating, but tries to
read the future from the past.«7 

2  Skalkottas studied with Schoenberg at the Prussian Academy of Arts, between 1927 and
1930 on a regular basis, and then sporadically in 1931 and 1932. (See Mantzourani 2011: 3-4
and Harrandt 2006: 27-40)
3  »The method of composing with twelve tones grew out of a necessity.« (Schoenberg 1941:
216) »After many unsuccessful attempts during a period of approximately twelve years, I laid
the foundations for a new procedure in musical construction which seemed fitted to replace
those structural differentiations provided formerly by tonal harmonies. I called this procedure
‘Method of Composing with Twelve Tones Which are Related Only with One Another’. This
method consists primarily of the constant and exclusive use of a set of twelve different tones.
This means, of course, that no tone is repeated within the series and that it uses all twelve tones
of the chromatic scale, though in a different order. It is in no way identical with the chromatic
scale.« (Ibid.: 218)
4  For example, his book Fundamentals of Musical Composition, which places special
emphasis on the Beethoven piano sonatas.
5  Schoenberg 1931: 173-174: »My teachers were primarily Bach and Mozart, and secondarily
Beethoven, Brahms and Wagner. […] I also learned much from Schubert and Mahler, Strauss
and Reger too.«
6  Schoenberg 1948: 386: »One more effect derived from it: all my pupils differ from one
another extremely and though perhaps the majority compose twelve-tone music, one could
not speak of a school. They all had to find their way alone, for themselves. And that is exactly
what they did; everyone has his own manner of obeying rules derived from the treatment of
twelve tones.«
7  Schoenberg 1978: 29.

94
ANNINI TSIOUTIS LESSONS OF THE MASTERS...

The above quotation can be considered to refer to Skalkottas’s 32 Piano Pieces.

Even a cursory glance at the titles seems to indicate an effort to encompass a
great many historical periods, or perhaps even to evoke inexistent or incomplete
periods of Greek musical history.8
Table 1. Titles of the 32 Piano Pieces in the fair copy9

I. Klavierstück XVII. Das Frühständchen der

kleiner Magd
II. Kindertanz XVIII. Foxtrot – Der alte
Polizist
III. Kurze Variationen auf ein Bergsthema XIX. Etüde Phantastique
südlichen Characters und prägnanter Dissonanz
IV. Katastrophe auf dem Urwald (Filmmusik) XX. Berceuse
V. Griechischer Volkstanz XXI. Romance-Lied
VI. Reveria im alten Stil XXII. Gavotte
VII. Reveria im neuen Stil XXIII. Menuetto
VIII. Vierstimmiger Kleiner Kanon XXIV. Italienische Serenade
IX. Marcia Funebra XXV. Ragtime (Tanz)
X. Sonatina XXVI. Slow-Fox
XI. Partita XXVII. Galoppe
XII. Kleine Serenade XXVIII. Blues
XIII. Intermezzo XXIX. Rondo Brillante
XIV. Tango XXX. Capriccio
XV. Passacaglia XXXI. Walzer
XVI. Nachtstück XXXII. Kleiner Bauernmarsch

Attractive as this hypothesis may be, we do not have at our disposal, at the
present time, enough evidence to suggest that Skalkottas was sensitive to a
linear approach to Greek musical history, or that he could have undertaken the
composition of this particular work with such a design in mind. Nevertheless, in
the several unpublished texts he wrote on various musical subjects,10 he expresses
8  See Romanou 2009: 99-124 and 125-161, for a history of art music in Greece, starting
from 1824 and the founding of the first music school for Greek inhabitants in Corfù.
9  There are two existing autograph manuscripts of the 32 Piano Pieces, a draft and a fair
copy, where the pieces are presented in a slightly different order. Table 1 follows the order in
the fair copy. For a discussion on the composer’s hesitation concerning the order of the pieces
see Tsioutis, forthcoming.
10  Demertzis 1999: 48: »Πρόκειται για είκοσι δύο κείμενα μουσικού και γενικότερα
μεθοδολογικού προβληματισμού, πάντοτε πρωτότυπου και ιδιότυπου, συχνά φιλοσοφικού
στη δομή του. Αχρονολόγητα όλα πλην ενός (της Περισυλλογής Ιδεών, στις 24.9.1939), θα
υποθέσουμε ότι γράφονταν, σποραδικά και κατά περιόδους, από το 1934-35 ως το 1949. […]
Οι τίτλοι τους : Η τεχνική του βιολιού, Η τεχνική του πιάνου, Αρμονία και αντίστοιξις, Ανάπτυξις

95
2020. Bašćinski glasi/članci

ideas which resonate with those of his teacher. In the text entitled New Musical
Literature he states:
»The musical works of our time stand in line for the future judgement of their solid value,
those worthy of remaining as eternal specimens of good Art, a modern Art continuing in the
road of the older one. Exclusively new creation interests us in that we can thus see whether
what we create is for the present time, the future, or only for a short-span use. […] New
musical literature will of course in time take its place in the future to prove that it pursues
the grand and difficult pathways of the older literature, this is indeed what it takes for us to
prove that each new work does not bring about disorder but that its existence is useful and
justifies its musical trend.«11 (translated by the author)

Here Skalkottas underlines the fact that new music does not appear out of
nowhere, but continues along the path initiated by older music. Continuity thus
emerges as a crucial concept, one which justifies the existence of new music
and makes its acceptance – by both the general public and interpreters – easier.
If we consider the method of composing with twelve tones as the evolutionary
outcome of the dissolution of the tonal system, of extended tonality12 through
the emancipation of dissonance,13 then the following extract from Skalkottas’s
text entitled Harmony and Counterpoint would seem to refer exactly to this
intermediate period of transition.

μουσικών θεμάτων, Ύφος, Πρωτοτυπία και απομίμησις, Το δημοτικό τραγούδι, Μουσική χορού,
Μουσικές επιδράσεις, Μουσικές υποκρούσεις, Η Σχολή των Μοντέρνων Συνθετών, Μουσικά
ανέκδοτα, Η συμφωνία, Περισυλλογή Ιδεών, Θεωρία και πράξις των μουσικών κανόνων,
Η μουσική αναζήτησις, Συνθετικαί λεπτομέρειαι, Η δύναμη των συμφωνικών συναυλιών, Η
νέα μουσική του κινηματογράφου, Πώς θα γράψουμε για το θέατρο, Η ενορχήστρωση, Η νέα
μουσική φιλολογία.«
»Skalkottas wrote twenty-two texts on various methodological and musical subjects, always
original and particular, often in a philosophical vein. Only the text entitled Collecting Ideas is
dated 24 September 1939; we can deduct that the other texts were written between 1934–35
and 1949. […] Their titles are: Violin technique, Piano technique, Harmony and Counterpoint,
Developing Musical Themes, Style, Originality and Imitation, Popular Song, Dance Music,
Musical Influence, Musical Accompaniment, The School of Modern Composers, Musical
Anecdotes, The Symphony, Collecting Ideas, Theory and Practice of Musical Rules, Musical
Research, Compositional Details, The Power of Symphonic Concerts, The New Music of
Cinema, How to compose for the Theatre, New Musical Literature.« (translated by the author)
11  »Τα μουσικά έργα της εποχής μας παίρνουν θέση για μια μελλοντική στερεότητα της αξίας
των, αυτά που έχουν αιτία για να μείνουν αιώνια σημάδια της καλής Τέχνης, της μοντέρνας
Τέχνης η οποία εξακολούθησε το δρόμο της μη μοντέρνας [παλαιάς]. Η νέα αποκλειστικά
δημιουργία μας ενδιαφέρει καθόσο μπορούμε έτσι να δούμε αν αυτό που δημιουργούμε είναι
της εποχής, για το μέλλον ή μόνο της ολιγόχρονου χρήσης. […] Η νέα μουσική φιλολογία θα
πάρει ασφαλώς με τον καιρό μια μελλοντική θέση για ν’αποδείξη ότι συνεχίζει τους μεγάλους
και δύσκολους δρόμους της παληάς φιλολογίας, αυτό χρειάζεται άλλωστε για ν’ αποδείξουμε
και μεις ότι κάθε νέο έργο δεν φέρει την αταξία αλλά τη χρησιμότητα της ύπαρξής του και τη
δικαιολογία της μουσικής του τάσης.«
12  Schoenberg 1941: 216.
13  Ibid.: 216-217.

96
ANNINI TSIOUTIS LESSONS OF THE MASTERS...

»However a three-tone harmony comprising different intervals of seconds, thirds, or

fourths, etc., remains and is called a trichord which can or cannot be classified according
to a certain scale, can be major or minor and be based on the independence, or so to speak,
of the musical tones, which do not wish to be associated to a specific scale, as they purport
positions which are self-sufficient.«14 (translated by the author)

To what else could Skalkottas be referring here but atonality? Schoenberg did
not approve of this term; in a footnote to the new English translation of his
Harmonielehre, he specifies:
»[…] they call themselves ‘atonalists’. I have to dissociate myself from that, however, for
I am a musician and have nothing to do with things atonal. The word ‘atonal’ could only
signify something entirely inconsistent with the nature of tone. Even the word ‘tonal’ is
incorrectly used if it is intended in an exclusive rather than inclusive sense.«15

Although Skalkottas does not use this specific term, his 32 Piano Pieces are in
their majority atonal, or perhaps one should say written in freie Tonalität. When
he does use rows, these have, more often than not, less than twelve tones, as in
the case of the piece No. XV – Passacaglia.

Example 1. The tone row of the melodic ostinato of the piece No. XV – Passacaglia, from the
32 Piano Pieces

This melodic ostinato row occurs twenty-one (21) times in the Passacaglia: the
Theme is followed by twenty (20) variations, all of which are two bars long,
except the last one which is four bars long. All the appearances of this melodic
ostinato occur within the same harmony, the same six (6) pitch class sets exposed
in the Theme, with variations in their registral and/or textural distribution.16

14  »Όμως μια τρίφωνος αρμονία με διάφορα διαστήματα δευτέρας, τρίτης ή τετάρτης κτλ
διαμένει και ονομάζεται τριφωνία η οποία είναι δυνατόν να καταταχθή και σε μια ορισμένη
κλίμακα ή δεν είναι δυνατόν, είναι δυνατόν να είναι μείζον ή ελλάσον και να στηρίζεται εις
την ανεξαρτησία, να πούμε, των μουσικών φθόγγων, οι οποίοι δεν θέλουν να συγγενεύουν με
μια ορισμένη κλίμακα αφού διαδίδουν αρμονικές θέσεις και άρσεις εντελώς αυτάς καθ’εαυτάς
στηριζόμενας.«
15  Schoenberg 1978: 432; Schoenberg 1926: 263-264.
16  For a detailed analysis of the Passacaglia see Tsougras 2011.

97
2020. Bašćinski glasi/članci

Example 2. Theme of the piece No. XV – Passacaglia, from the 32 Piano Pieces, mm. 1-2 (in
red the ostinato in the left hand; in green the notes E flat and D, forming an appoggiatura on
the seventh note of the ostinato, G17; in blue the harmonic pitch class sets accompanying the
ostinato)

The twentieth and last variation of the Passacaglia is texturally amplified, with
massive aggregates in the right hand and octaves in the left hand. In the last bar
of the piece the left hand plays the pitch class C, which was not present, until
this moment, in the melodic ostinato in this position. Greek musicologist Kostas
Tsougras points out that the C thus becomes a sort of tonal basis for the whole
preceding work.18 We could further suggest that the entire piece functions as an
intricate appoggiatura for the final C in the left hand.

17  This double appoggiatura is present only in the Theme and half of the variations. When
they are not present in the ostinato the two tones in question appear in the harmonic set class
accompanying the note G. For more on this subject see Tsougras 2011: 10-11.
18  Tsougras 2011: 20, 24.

98
ANNINI TSIOUTIS LESSONS OF THE MASTERS...

Example 3. No. XV – Passacaglia, from the 32 Piano Pieces, mm. 41-44

If we were to replace the last tone of the melodic ostinato row, the C sharp, by a
C natural, the row would acquire a pronounced tonal character, not least because
of the closing descending perfect fifth (between the last two tones of the melodic
ostinato row: G and C). Skalkottas avoids this evocative aural reference, by
concluding the melodic ostinato on a C sharp. The fact that in the final variation
Skalkottas levels out both the articulations and rhythmic values of the melodic
ostinato row further supports the hypothesis that the C natural played by the left
hand in bar 44 can be considered to be the real aural basis of the piece.
Another piece offering a similarly twisted approach to tonality, and more
specifically the tonality of C, is the No. VII – Reveria im neuen Stil. The basic
thematic material is exposed in the first two bars of the piece.
Example 4. No. VII – Reveria im neuen Stil, from the 32 Piano Pieces, mm 1-2

In the beginning of bar 2 the left hand plays E flat and the right hand E natural.19
This is consistent with the composer’s general practice of avoiding the octave,
in accordance with Schoenberg’s teaching, except in cases pertaining to textural
augmentation.20 When these two bars are repeated, further on in the piece, the
repetition is almost identical.
19  This has been verified in both existing autograph manuscripts of the piece.
20  As has been noted a propos the Passacaglia, see Example 3. For more on the avoidance
of the octave by Skalkottas and the differentiation he operated between octaves resulting from
polyphonic writing and those employed for textural augmentation, see Tsioutis 2019: 158-179.

99
2020. Bašćinski glasi/članci

Example 5. No. VII – Reveria im neuen Stil, from the 32 Piano Pieces, mm. 45-46

Identical, but not quite: this time, in the beginning of bar 46 (corresponding to
bar 2) both hands play E natural.21 Thus an octave is sounded, clearly, on the
strong beat of the bar. From this point on and until the end of the piece, the pitch
E natural gains in importance, and is treated almost as a sort of pedal point. An E
natural is given in the bass in bars 46, 47, 49, 50 and 52.
Example 6. No. VII – Reveria im neuen Stil, from the 32 Piano Pieces, mm. 46-54
(in red the occurrences of the pitch E natural in the bass)

21  This has also been verified in both existing autograph manuscripts of the piece.

100
ANNINI TSIOUTIS LESSONS OF THE MASTERS...

The rare octave on the strong beat of bar 46, followed by the quasi pedal point
on E natural, culminates in what can be considered a C major triad in the last bar
of the piece: if we consider that the E natural played in bar 52 will be sustained
by the damper pedal throughout the two following bars, we hear, in bar 54, the
pitches C, E natural and G. Thus the piece entitled Reveria im neuen Stil (Reverie
in the new style), as opposed to Reveria im alten Stil (Reverie in the old style)
which immediately precedes it, concludes on the resonance of a C major triad.
Ironic?

IN THE GRIP OF THE PAST?

Skalkottas was a violinist, composer, arranger, conductor and pianist. A
combination of these musical activities and abilities allowed him to survive during
the difficult years of the inflation in Berlin,22 the German occupation of Greece,23
and the subsequent civil war. We do not know if he composed at the piano; we
do however know that he was an excellent improviser, accompanying silent film
projections, as well as dance lessons on the piano. His evident pianistic skills are
visible and tangible in the 32 Piano Pieces, as is his extensive knowledge of the
music of the past. As has already been pointed out, this is obvious through the
titles, which offer an initial indication as to possible connections to older music
and ancient masters, and to the composer’s wider preoccupation with what may
generally be considered as the tradition of Western piano repertoire. Other than
the titles, however, the music itself, its texture, disposition and graphic layout,
often indicate a knowledge of and/or familiarity with older works.
One such occurrence is the piece No. XIII – Intermezzo. Although a number
of composers wrote intermezzi, we are immediately directed towards Robert
Schumann,24 via the composer’s indication in the first bar, sehr ernst, which
evokes the piece Fast zu Ernst, No. 10 from the Kinderszenen Opus 15.
Example 7. No. XIII – Intermezzo, from the 32 Piano Pieces, m. 1

22  Huynh 1998.

23  See Mazower 1993: 85 and following, for a description of the civilian population’s life
during the German occupation.
24  A possible influence by Schumann is also visible in other titles of the 32 Piano Pieces.
Unfortunately the scope of the present article does not allow us to further develop this question;
the interested reader will find more on this subject in Tsioutis 2019: 41-42.

101
2020. Bašćinski glasi/članci

A comparison of the two aforementioned works does not yield any interesting
results. However, if we look at Schumman’s Intermezzo from Faschingsschwank
aus Wien Opus 26, certain common features become apparent.

Example 8. Robert Schumann, Intermezzo, Opus 26, No. 4. G. Schirmer Inc.25

Both works have the same number of bars (45), and both are conceived with
an accompanying background of continuous semi-quavers. In Skalkottas’s piece
these are in the lower register, in Schumann’s work they are in the middle register,
shared between the hands. As we progress further on in the piece, the disposition
of the accompaniment is modified.
Example 9. No. XIII – Intermezzo, from the 32 Piano Pieces, mm 13-14

This is reminiscent of Claude Debussy’s Poissons d’or, last piece of the second
volume of Images.

25  Schumann 1897: 18.

102
ANNINI TSIOUTIS LESSONS OF THE MASTERS...

Example 10. Claude Debussy, Poissons d’or, mm. 1-2. Edition Peters26

We could suggest that in bar 13 of Skalkottas’s Intermezzo, the composer

condenses the two types of accompaniment in Poissons d’or: the first two beats
are reminiscent of the beginning of the piece, and the last two beats, continuing
on to the next bar, are reminiscent of the accompaniment in bars 64-65.
Example 11. Claude Debussy, Poissons d’or, mm 64-65. Edition Peters27

These comments on the left hand accompaniment of the pieces may seem trivial,
or of secondary importance, compared to other matters concerning form or
musical material. They are however indicative not only of stylistic directions,
but also of the repertoire Skalkottas was familiar with, and which he probably
assimilated through the physical act of playing the score, as well as listening to
it. In the absence of sources confirming Skalkottas’s knowledge of these specific
works, the above comments serve as a starting point for the observation of similar
26  Debussy 1970: 45.
27  Ibid.: 53.

103
2020. Bašćinski glasi/članci

situations, throughout the 32 Piano Pieces. The Intermezzo provided the material
for considerations pertaining to the gestural disposition of the musical basis in the
left hand accompaniment; in what follows the starting point will be the graphic
representation of the score.
A look at the beginning of the piece No. XXII – Gavotte, immediately brings to
mind the disposition at the beginning of Schoenberg’s Musette, from the Suite
Opus 25.

Example 12. No. XXII – Gavotte, from the 32 Piano Pieces, mm. 1-2

Example 13. Arnold Schönberg, Musette, Suite Opus 25, No. 3, m. 1. Universal Edition AG28

Both works are in 2/2 time; both present a similar disposition of the musical
material: two voices in the right hand with different articulations and an
accompaniment in the left hand. The anapaestic rhythmic formula of two quavers
– one crotchet, present throughout the Gavotte is not only characteristic, but
easily identified, by the ear, as well as by the hand.29

28  Schönberg 1925, 1952. Reproduced by permission.

29  This formula or its equivalent in half values – two semi-quavers and one quaver – is
present in bars 19, 25, 42, 43 of the Gavotte.

104
ANNINI TSIOUTIS LESSONS OF THE MASTERS...

Example 14. No. XXII – Gavotte, from the 32 Piano Pieces, m. 25

An almost identical rhythmic formula is present in the Musette, in the same

homorhythmic configuration between the hands.

Example 15. Arnold Schönberg, Musette, Suite Opus 25, No. 3, mm. 4-5. Universal Edition
AG30

In the Suite Opus 25 the Musette forms a pair with the preceding Gavotte, which
is also performed Da Capo. Furthermore, Schoenberg’s indication of the speed
of performance of the Musette is given in relation to that of the Gavotte: the
composer notes Rascher (faster) and not Rasch (fast). These observations further
emphasize the relationship between Skalkottas’s Gavotte and Schoenberg’s
Musette; the Gavotte in the 32 Piano Pieces also forms a pair, with the following
Menuetto (numbers XXII and XXIII of the 32 Piano Pieces). Both pieces are in
three part form, both have titles evoking music of the past, and more specifically
the dance suite; finally they both make use of the same concluding rhythmic
formula.

30  Schönberg 1925, 1952. Reproduced by permission.

105
2020. Bašćinski glasi/članci

Example 16. No. XXII – Gavotte, from the 32 Piano Pieces, mm. 36-37

Example 17. No. XXIII – Menuetto, from the 32 Piano Pieces, m. 49

In the preceding paragraphs a possible influence by Schoenberg on Skalkottas

was examined through elements pertaining not only to the gestural configuration
and realisation of the pieces (homophonic statements, rhythmic formulas), but
also to the graphic representation of the music (time signature and disposition of
the musical material between the two hands), as well as the larger overall structure
of the work. In the final example we will examine an influence detectable in the
textural modifications of the material, its gestural realisation and aural
reminiscences. Once again our focus will be on the Passacaglia.
A comparison with the works by Schoenberg31 and Webern32 of the same title
does not yield especially interesting results. It is a whole different matter when
one takes a look at Alban Berg’s Passacaglia, in Wozzeck, act 1, scene 4.

31  Arnold Schoenberg, Nacht (Passacaglia), Pierrot Lunaire, Opus 21, movement 8 (1912).
32  Anton Webern, Passacaglia for orchestra, Opus 1 (1908).

106
ANNINI TSIOUTIS LESSONS OF THE MASTERS...

Example 18. No. XV – Passacaglia, from the 32 Piano Pieces, mm. 3-6

The rhythmic and articulatory modifications that Skalkottas's applies to the

melodic ostinato, during the first two variations in the left hand, are intensely
reminiscent of the beginning of the Theme in Berg’s Passacaglia, played by the
cellos.

107
2020. Bašćinski glasi/članci

Example 19. Alban Berg, Passacaglia from Wozzeck, mm. 488-492. Piano reduction. Universal
Edition AG33

In Variation 17 of Skalkottas’s piece, the ostinato theme is given in octaves in the

left hand, a configuration which continues to the end of the piece.

33  Berg 1931, 1958. Reproduced by permission.

108
ANNINI TSIOUTIS LESSONS OF THE MASTERS...

Example 20. No. XV – Passacaglia, from the 32 Piano Pieces, mm. 35-36

The material is treated in a similar way at the end of Variation 8 in Berg’s

Passacaglia, in the octaves played by the harp.

Example 21. Alban Berg, Passacaglia from Wozzeck, mm. 543-545. Piano reduction. Universal
Edition AG34

Finally, the massive aggregates in the last variation of Skalkottas’s work are
surprisingly similar to those played by the whole orchestra in (also) the last
variation of Berg’s Passacaglia (compare aggregates in Example 3 wtih those in
Example 22).

34  Ibid.

109
2020. Bašćinski glasi/članci

Example 22. Alban Berg, Passacaglia from Wozzeck, mm. 636-640. Piano reduction. Universal
Edition AG35

The above mentioned occurrences of similarities between certain of the 32 Piano

Pieces and works of the past, and many more which the scope of the present study
does not allow us to explore, cannot be classified as mere coincidences. Their
sheer quantity and scope – pertaining to the gestural, textural, formal, graphic
and stylistic domains – do not justify their qualification as simple influences
or allusions. That is why it was deemed necessary to seek an adequate term
qualifying this situation.

DISTILLATION
As a young student in Berlin Skalkottas took up a number of jobs to make
ends meet. He worked in silent movie theatres, either improvising at the piano,
conducting small instrumental ensembles, or playing violin; he copied and

35  Ibid.

110
ANNINI TSIOUTIS LESSONS OF THE MASTERS...

arranged music for record labels; he played in cabarets and cafés; all of these
activities brought him into direct contact with the popular music of his age. At the
same time, through his association with Schoenberg and his circle of students he
not only widened his knowledge of works belonging to the tradition of Western
art music, but also became familiar with the new musical scene in Berlin.36
After his return to Athens in 1933 he worked as a violinist in the principal
orchestras of the Greek capital.37 He accompanied dance lessons at the piano;38
he made arrangements of songs and short pieces for colleagues. He transcribed
Greek traditional songs from field recordings.39 All these musical styles and
genres are present in the 32 Piano Pieces, as is evidenced by looking at their
titles alone;40 furthermore this characteristic can be said to be shared by the Piano
Suites nos. 2, 3, 4, also composed in 1940.41 These multiple influences present
in Skalkottas’s output have been identified and commented upon by a number of
scholars, who have accorded more or less importance to the extent of this practice
and its musical importance.42
Skalkottas is not the only 20th century composer to use a variety of stylistic
elements in his works as yet another way of inscribing them in the tradition
of Western art music. Modern musicology has approached this subject from
different angles and has proposed several terms explaining its multiple forms
of manifestation. Leonard B. Meyer speaks of borrowing with reference to
Stravinsky’s practice;43 also regarding the latter composer, Anthony Pople uses
the term allusion;44 as for Alban Berg, he considers that he operates a synthesis
or symbiosis45 between older forms and genres and the new musical language in
a subtler way than his master Schoenberg.46
The examples cited above, relating certain of the 32 Piano Pieces with works by
Schumann, Debussy, Schoenberg and Berg, illustrate the fact that in Skalkottas’s
case the influence of older or contemporary masters often goes beyond the
use of stereotype forms, titles or stylistic elements, embracing a more organic
dimension, one that is manifest through the disposition of the musical material, its

36  Gradenwitz 1998.

37  Charkiolakis 2013.
38  In Athens Skalkottas collaborated with dance teachers Koula Pratsika and Polyxeni
Mathéy. (See Ramou 2017b)
39  Fidetzis 2008.
40  See Table 1.
41  The titles of the movements of the Suites are: No. 2, Largo; Gavotte; Rapsodie; Marsch;
No. 3, Minuetto; Thema con Variazioni; Marcia Funebra; Finale; No. 4, Toccata; Andantino;
Polka; Serenade.
42  Ramou 2017a: 107-122; Sirodeau 1999-2000, 2001: 7-15; Sousamoglou 2008: 46-59.
43  Meyer 1989: 347-348. On the term borrowing see also Burkholder 2001.
44  Pople 1991: 2-3.
45  Ibid.: 6-7.
46  Schoenberg uses older forms in a number of works, such as, for example the Suite Opus
25 for piano or the Pierrot Lunaire, Opus 21, cited earlier.

111
2020. Bašćinski glasi/članci

layout on the page, its textural elaboration and the eventual physical components
of its realisation, its execution by the pianist. The term allusion is inappropriate,
as Skalkottas does not, in these cases, employ themes or melodies from other
composers. The term borrowing, which can be considered to be an umbrella term,
is too general for the practice we are attempting to characterize. Furthermore, none
of these terms take into account the physical aspect of this phenomenon; a physical
aspect which can be considered to be at the origin of the composer’s practice, the
assimilation of the material in question, through the study, listening to or playing
of the piece, and its subsequent appearance in the score, pointing to a specific
physical realisation by the pianist. Thus the term distillation was chosen, as it
encompasses the above mentioned elements, in addition to stressing the organic/
corporal dimension of the manifestation of musical influence, which is assimilated
over time.
Distillation47 is an organic process, a bodily integration of certain techniques or
musical characteristics, which takes place through years of practice and contact
with the repertoire. Its origin as well as its manifestations are kinaesthetic and
tactile alike. The process of distillation itself being impossible to observe, we must
content ourselves with the observation of the final product, the distillate and to
thus infer the likely course of the process, through the study of the transformations
and changes in the nature of the musical material. The chronological – as well
as geographical, in Skalkottas’s case – distance separating the exposure of the
composer to the material and its subsequent appearance in the work examined,
ought to be taken into account. The graphic presentation and the general format of
the score are also elements to be taken into consideration. By detecting possible
aural, tactile or visual influences in the composer’s work, we attempt to recreate his
creative process by identifying those elements which successfully passed through
the filter of his memory.48 Finally, the distillate, the final result of the process which
we examine in order to extract conclusions, can be considered to be as much a
reflection of the composer’s musical personality as an expression of the organic
appropriation and assimilation of the material by his body, their distillation.
47  The choice of the term distillation seeks to emphasize the fact that, while constituting an
organic process, it is one which is completed over time, and which yields an important role to
memory – intellectual and muscular/tactile. The scope of this paper, which aims to introduce the
term in view of further study, does not allow for a detailed account of the background research,
which draws upon the writings of Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Daniel Stern, Marc Leman, Marc
Rowlands, Lawrence Shapiro, Arnie Cox, Mine Dogantan-Tack, Robert S. Hatten Michel
Imberty and others. The interested reader is encouraged to consult Tsioutis 2019: 269-304.
48  Let us not forget that the 32 Piano Pieces were composed in 1940. Because of the general
political and social situation in Europe Skalkottas had not been in contact with new music or
contemporary artistic trends since he left Berlin in 1933. Levinas 2007: 56: »Memory recaptures
and reverses and suspends what is already accomplished in birth-in nature. Fecundity escapes
the punctual instant of death. By memory I ground myself after the event, retroactively: I
assume today what in the absolute past of the origin had no subject to receive it and had
therefore the weight of a fatality. By memory I assume and put back in question. Memory
realizes impossibility: memory, after the event, assumes the passivity of the past and masters
it. Memory as an inversion of historical time is the essence of interiority.«

112
ANNINI TSIOUTIS LESSONS OF THE MASTERS...

Of equal importance in the choice of the term is the fact that as a process
distillation takes place over time, it is not immediate; a number of the styles and
genres present in the 32 Piano Pieces were distant, both chronologically, and
geographically, when Skalkottas composed the pieces in 1940. Titles such as
No. XVIII – Foxtrot – Der alte Polizist, or No. XXVII – Galoppe, clearly reflect
the popular music of the Berlin years, the former piece probably referring to a
cinematic scene, and the latter to popular dances of the time. Certain titles such
as the No. XXI – Romance-Lied, can be considered to denote free forms; of the
entire work the piece presenting the closest connection between its title and a
tangible gestural depiction is the No. II – Kindertanz, where a spinning six-note
ostinato motif can be considered to evoke children dancing, turning round and
round.
Example 23. No. II – Kindertanz, from the 32 Piano Pieces, mm 1-3

CONCLUSION
In order to re-evaluate tradition one must first define its context and boundaries.
As a student of Schoenberg, Greek composer Nikos Skalkottas can be considered
a proponent of the German tradition of Western Art Music. His respect for older
musical forms is evident through his choice of titles; his regard for his teacher
outlasted their years of contact in Berlin.49 Although he is not considered to
be a member of the Greek national school of composers, Skalkottas made use
of Greek folkloristic melodies in a large number of works,50 exhibiting great
originality in the treatment of this type of material, which he often placed in
atonal or dodecaphonic environments. His 36 Greek Dances for orchestra are
without a doubt his most popular work, and represent the finest example of the
elaboration of Greek folkloristic material in the western tradition that Greek art
music has to offer.51 Furthermore, his original and innovative use of the method

49  Thornley 2002.

50  In the 32 Piano Pieces Skalkottas makes use of traditional Greek melodies in the following
pieces: No. III – Kurze Variationen auf ein Bergsthema südliches Characters und prägnanter
Dissonanz, No. V – Griechischer Volkstanz, No. XX – Berceuse, No. XXIV – Italienische
Serenade, No. XXVIII – Blues and No. XXXII – Kleiner Bauernmarsch. (See Tsioutis 2019:
27-31)
51  Levidou 2014.

113
2020. Bašćinski glasi/članci

of composing with twelve tones52 overrides questions pertaining to the number of

pitches in a row or the number of rows used per work, to include issues regarding
stylistic elements and the graphic representation of the score.
In the 32 Piano Pieces the composer seems to be constantly playing hide and
seek with a number of remnants of tradition, such as tonality, textbook forms,
and gestural pianistic reflexes. His long personal and physical contact with
the piano, through improvisation, interpretation and compositional practice is
evident in the 32 Piano Pieces; it is visually obvious on the score, and tactilely
felt and experienced when playing. The introduction of the term distillation has
a double advantage; on the one hand it provides a term designating Skalkottas’s
characteristic and extensive practice; on the other it acknowledges the uniqueness
of this very practice, in that it underlines its organic quality and medium of
manifestation, through a process of assimilation and incorporation which take
place over time. In this sense it stresses Skalkottas’s unique appropriation and
reutilization of traditional elements, through a sort of bodily and memory filter,
one that confers equal importance on eyes, ears and hands. The very idea of
tradition thus ceases to represent a bastion of the past, a rigid stereotype canon;
its incorporation entails a rebirth, a refreshment and a promise of continuation.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Burkholder, James Peter. 2001. Borrowing. Grove Music Online. (https://www.oxfordmusicon
line.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0
000052918, accessed 4 June 2020).
Charkiolakis, Alexandros. 2013. The Athens Conservatoire Symphonic Orchestra  – State
Orchestra of Athens during the Occupation period: repertoire and political conclusions.
In: Nika-Sampson, Evi; Sakallieros, Giorgos; Alexandru, Maria; Kitsios, Giorgos;
Giannopoulos, Emmanouil (eds.). Crossroads: Greece as an intercultural pole of musical
thought and creativity. International musicological conference. Thessaloniki, 6-10 June
2011. Conference proceedings. Thessaloniki: Aristotle University of Thessaloniki – Faculty
of Fine Arts – School of Music Studies. 63-70.
Demertzis, Kostis. 1999. Αφιέρωμα στο Νίκο Σκαλκώτα [Hommage to Nikos Skalkottas].
Athens: Megaro Mousikis.
Harrandt, Andrea. 2006. Die ‘Meistersinger’ Schönbergs in Berlin. In: Wanek, Nina-Maria (ed.).
Nikos Skalkottas (1904-1949) – Zum 100. Geburtstag, Akten des Wiener Internationalen
Symposions vom 10. Dezember 2004. Wien: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften. 27-40.
Fidetzis, Vyron. 2008. Ο Νίκος Σκαλκώτας και οι ελληνικές παραδόσεις [Nikos Skalkottas and
the Greek traditions]. In: Vrontos, Charis; Kantzia, Natalia (eds.). Νίκος Σκαλκώτας: Ένας
Έλληνας Ευρωπαίος [Nikos Skalkottas: A Greek European]. Athens: Benaki Museum. 178-
190.
Gradenwitz, Peter. 1998. Arnold Schönberg und seine Meisterschüler. Berlin 1925-33. Wien:
Paul Zsolnay.
Huynh, Pascal. 1998. La musique sous la République de Weimar. Paris: Fayard.

52  Mantzourani 2013.

114
ANNINI TSIOUTIS LESSONS OF THE MASTERS...

Levidou, Katerina. 2014. A Dubious Mission: Skalkottas’s Vision of Truly Greek Music and
his 36 Greek Dances. In: Maliaras, Nikos (ed.). The National Element in Music. Conference
Proceedings. Athens: University of Athens. 255-266.
Levinas, Emmanuel. 2007. Totality and Infinity. An Essay on Exteriority. Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania: Duquesne University Press.
Mantzourani, Eva. 2011. The Life and Twelve-Note Music of Nikos Skalkottas. Great Britain:
Ashgate.
Mantzourani, Eva. 2013. A reappraisal of Nikos Skalkottas’s dodecaphonic compositional
techniques. In: Nika-Sampson Evi; Sakallieros, Giorgos; Alexandru, Maria; Kitsios,
Giorgos; Giannopoulos, Emmanouil (eds.). Crossroads: Greece as an intercultural pole of
musical thought and creativity. International musicological conference. Thessaloniki, 6-10
June 2011. Conference proceedings. Thessaloniki: Aristotle University of Thessaloniki –
Faculty of Fine Arts – School of Music Studies. 553-568.
Mazower, Mark. 1993. Inside Hitler’s Greece. The Experience of Occupation, 1941-44. New
Haven and London: Yale University Press.
Meyer, Leonard B. 1989. Style and Music. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Pople, Anthony. 1991. Berg: Violin Concerto. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University
Press.
Ramou, Lorenda. 2017a. L’œuvre pour piano solo de Nikos Skalkottas. Unpublished doctoral
thesis. Paris: Université Paris Sorbonne, CNSMDP.
Ramou, Lorenda. 2017b. La restitution de la chorégraphie d’Yvonne de Chirico sur la musique
du Chalutier et de la Danse des vagues de Nikos Skalkottas: un exemple de danse et de
musique de ballet à Athènes en 1948. La Revue du Conservatoire, Création/Re-création, 6.
(https://larevue.conservatoiredeparis.fr/index.php?id=1888, accessed 8 July 2019).
Romanou, Katy. 2009. Serbian and Greek art music. A patch to Western music history. Bristol
(UK), Chicago (USA): Intellect.
Schoenberg, Arnold. 1926. Opinion or Insight?. In: Stein, Leonard (ed.). 1975. Style and Idea.
New York: St Martins Press. 258-264.
Schoenberg, Arnold. 1931. National Music (II). In: Stein, Leonard (ed.). 1975. Style and Idea.
New York: St Martins Press. 172-174.
Schoenberg, Arnold. 1941. Composition with Twelve Tones (I). In: Stein, Leonard (ed.). 1975.
Style and Idea. New York: St Martins Press. 214-245.
Schoenberg, Arnold. 1948. The Blessing of the Dressing. In: Stein, Leonard (ed.). 1975. Style
and Idea. New York: St Martins Press. 382-386.
Schoenberg, Arnold. 1967. Fundamentals of Musical Composition. London – Boston: Faber
and Faber.
Schoenberg, Arnold. 1978. Theory of Harmony. Translated by Roy E. Carter. Berkeley – Los
Angeles: University of California Press.
Sousamoglou, Antonios. 2008. An Interpretational Approach to the Violin Concerto of Nikos
Skalkottas. DMA Dissertation. London: City University.
Thornley, John. 2002. “…denn fortgegangen von ihm bin ich nicht”. Nikos Skalkottas’
Schönbergsches Berlin. In: Metzger, Heinz-Klaus & Riehn, Rainer (eds.). Arnold
Schönbergs “Berliner Schule”. Musik-Konzepte, 117/118. Edition text & kritik. 103-121.
Tsioutis, Annini. 2019. Les 32 Pièces pour piano de Nikos Skalkottas: Eclairage analytique et
approche pianistique. Unpublished doctoral thesis. Paris: Sorbonne Université.

115
2020. Bašćinski glasi/članci

Tsioutis, Annini. Forthcoming. The 32 Pieces for piano by Nikos Skalkottas: A cycle or
collection of pieces? In: Proceedings of the international conference Musicology (in)
action: Past Musics, Present Practices, Future Prospects, Thessaloniki, 9 - 11 February
2018. Thessaloniki: Department of Musical Science and Art, University of Macedonia.
Tsougras, Costas. 2011. “Passacaglia” για σόλο πιάνο του Νίκου Σκαλκώτα: Παράδοση και
καινοτομία σε ισορροπία [Nikos Skalkottas’s “Passacaglia” for solo piano: Tradition and
innovation in equilibrium]. Polyfonia, 18. 7-28.

SCORES
Berg, Alban. 1931, 1958. Wozzeck, Oper in 3 Akten (15 Szenen), Opus 7. Wien: Universal
Edition AG.
Debussy, Claude. 1970. Klavierwerke, Band IV. Leipzig: Edition Peters. (http://hz.imslp.info/
files/imglnks/usimg/7/70/IMSLP256279-PMLP02391-Debussy,_ClaudeKlavierwerke_Peters_
Klemm_Band_IV_02_Images_2eme_Serie_scan.pdf, accessed 31 May 2019).
Schönberg, Arnold. 1925, 1952. Suite für Klavier, Opus 25. Wien: Universal Edition AG.
Schumann, Robert. 1897. Complete Works for the Pianoforte, Vol. 99. Faschingsswank aus
Wien, Opus 26. New York: G. Schirmer Inc. (http://hz.imslp.info/files/imglnks/usimg/0/02/
IMSLP336361-SIBLEY1802.28245.29d1-39087032302517score.pdf, accessed 31 May
2019).

DISCOGRAPHY
Sirodeau, Christophe. 1998-2000, 2001. Text in the booklet of the recording of the 32 Piano
Pieces, Four Etudes, Suite No. 1. Nikolaos Samaltanos, piano. BIS Records.

116