Introduction, Definition and

UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION, DEFINITION AND Concept of Psychology

CONCEPT OF PSYCHOLOGY

Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Psychology: its origin and evolution
1.3 Definition of Psychology
1.3.1 Early Definitions
1.3.2 Current Definitions
1.3.3 Nature and Characteristics of Behaviour
1.4 Psychology as a Science
1.4.1 Characteristics of Science
1.4.2 Psychology: What is and what it is not?
1.4.3 Pseudo Sciences/Pseudo-Psychologies
1.4.4 Principles of Critical Thinking
1.4.5 The Tasks of Psychology
1.5 Let Us Sum Up
1.6 Unit End Questions
1.7 Glossary
1.8 Suggested Readings
References

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Psychology is concerned with almost all aspects of our lives. That is why, every
one is interested to know about psychology. But, there are many misconceptions
about psychology. Many people think that psychology deals with treating mad
people. Some others feel that psychologists can read your mind just by looking
at you or your face/forehead. They tend to equate psychologists with astrologers,
gemologists, numerologists, palmists or graphologists, who claim to solve your
problems of life and predict your future.

You might have heard the terms ‘psychology’, ‘psychological’, ‘mental’ etc., but
do you know what is the meaning of psychology and how did it evolve? Is
psychology a ‘science’ or ‘art’? What is science and what are its characteristics?
What is the subject matter of psychology? In this unit you will find answer to
these and many more such questions.

By studying psychology, you will be able to understand what psychology is and

what it is not. This unit introduces the subject of psychology.

1.1 OBJECTIVES
On successful completion of this unit, you will be able to:
 Describe the origin and evolution of psychology.
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Introduction to Psychology,  Define psychology.
Objectives, Goals
 Explain Psychology as a Science.
 Elucidate the characteristics of Science.
 Describe the nature and characteristics of behaviour.
 Explain ‘Pseudo-Psychology’.
 Identify the tasks of Psychology.

1.2 PSYCHOLOGY: ITS ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION

The origin of psychology dates back to 1870s. The term ‘Psychology’ is derived
from two Greek words; Psyche means “soul or breath” and Logos means
“knowledge or study” (study or investigation of something). The word
‘Psychology’ was not in common use before the nineteenth century, and the field
of psychology did not actually become an independent science until the middle
of the nineteenth century.

Psychology emerged as an independent academic discipline in 1879, when a

German Professor Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology laboratory at
the university of Leipzig, Germany. According to Bolles (1993), Wundt was a
medical doctor by training and early in his career, he was fortunate to work with
some of the great physiologists of the nineteenth century. Fittingly, his laboratory
was established during the time he spent as a professor of philosophy. (Remember,
the intellectual roots of psychology lie at the union of philosophy and physiology).
Wundt is traditionally recognised as the founder, or father of the modern
psychology, and 1879 is seen as the year that psychology finally emerged as a
unique field. Prior to Wundt, it was not possible to major in psychology, because
there were no official psychologists or psychology departments. Wundt started
studying the structure of mind which meant the immediate (conscious) experience,
the contents and processes of subjective experience such as sensations, thoughts,
feelings and emotions.

Thus, formally, psychology was recognised as an independent science in 1879.

Let us now look at how psychology has been defined.

1.3 DEFINITION OF PSYCHOLOGY

Psychology has been defined in a number of ways by various authors.
Psychologists had been debating on whether psychology should focus on “mind”,
“consciousness” or “behaviour”. Let us look at how the definitions of psychology
have come a long way over the past 130 years.

1.3.1 Early Definitions

According to Bagga & Singh (1990), the term Psychology was first used by
Rudolf Goeckle, in 1950. They have chronologically given the definitions of
psychology.

Earlier, psychology was part of Philosophy. Ancient philosophers were interested

in the study of the soul. Thus, it was first defined in terms of ‘the science of
soul’. However, since the term ‘soul’ has very wide and comprehensive meanings,
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it was considered as a vague term and was criticized severely, in the middle ages. Introduction, Definition and
Concept of Psychology
There were questions regarding the physical existence, weight, and volume of
soul.

Dandapani (2004) states that “people were rather naïve to believe in esoteric
terms such as Soul, Mind and Consciousness. It was believed, and rightly so,
that every human being is endowed with a Soul that would remain sublime at all
times. To a philosopher soul is the firm foundation upon which ethical values
are erected. Realisation of one’s soul was considered the chief mission of
life……….. Definition of Psychology as the study of soul became unacceptable
primarily because no convincing proof or evidence of the precise nature of soul
was furnished. It was discarded because of its METAPHYSICAL nature. It was
found inadequate to satisfy the canons of science;…….”.

Thus, this definition was not accepted by psychologists.

Next, psychology was defined in terms of ‘the science of mind’, by some ancient
Greek philosophers. According to them, psychology was held as a branch of
mental philosophy. Since this definition does not include overt behaviour of
human beings and mind cannot be measured directly, this definition was also
dropped by psychologists.

Then, psychology was defined as ‘the science of consciousness’. According to

Bagga & Singh (1990), at one time during the history of Psychology, it was felt
that the main business of Psychology was to the conscious experience.
Consciousness makes us conscious or aware of the situation or a thing around
us. This definition too is now obsolete and it has been rejected due to the following
reasons:

Consciousness cannot be studied objectively as it is more personal and subjective.

Second objection came from the fast developing branch of the abnormal
psychology which brought the study of unconscious part of our mind within the
province of Psychology.

The term consciousness does not include animal or human behaviour.

The term consciousness also was supposed to have a philosophical-tinge and
not accepted by the modern scientific minded psychologists.

Finally, modern Psychology has been defined as ‘a science of behaviour.’ In the

early decades of twentieth century, Watson, the father of the school of
‘Behaviourism’, defined psychology as ‘the study of behaviour’. According to
Morgan et al. (1986), Watson rejected mind as the subject of psychology and
insisted that psychology be restricted to the study of behaviour – the observable
(or potentially observable) activities of people and animals. Watson held that
there are no essential differences between human and animal behaviour and that
we can learn much about our own behaviour from the study of what animals do.
Watson emphasised that nothing is innate and everything can be learned.
In this context, Woodworth (1948) had earlier stated that, first psychology lost
its soul, then its mind, then it lost its consciousness. It still has behaviour of sort.
As we will see below, the term ‘behaviour’ is still there in almost all the modern
definitions.
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Introduction to Psychology, 1.3.2 Current Definitions
Objectives, Goals
Hilgard, Atkinson, & Atkinson (1975) have compiled the changing definitions
of psychology starting from that of William James (1890) to that of Kenneth
Clark and George Miller (1970). Bagga & Singh (1990) have also cited the
following two definitions of Woodworth and Munn, respectively:
“Psychology is the scientific study of the activities of the individual in relation
to his environment”.
“Psychology today concerns itself with the scientific investigation of behaviour,
including from the stand-point of behaviour, much of what earlier psychologists
dealt with as experience”.
Some of the more recent definitions of Psychology, in chronological order, are
as follows:
 Psychology is the science of human and animal behaviour. It includes the
application of this science to human problems. (Morgan et al., 1986)
 The scientific study of behaviour and mental processes. (Feldman,1996)
 The scientific study of behaviour and mental processes and how they are
affected by an organism’s physical state, mental state and external
environment (Tavris and Wade, 1997)
 Psychology is all about human behaviour, about mental processes, and about
the context in which behaviour and mental processes occur. (Das, 1998)
 The science of behaviour and mental processes. (Lahey,1998)
 The science of behaviour and cognitive processes. (Baron, 1999)
 Scientific study of behaviour and mind. (Nairne, 2003)
 A science in which behavioural and other evidence is used to understand the
internal processes leading people (and members of other species ) to behave
as they do. (Eysenck, 2004)
 The scientific study of behaviour and mental processes. (Ciccarelli &
Meyer,2006; Coon & Mitterer, 2007, 2008)
 The science that studies behaviour and mental processes.( Rathus,2008)
As is evident in the above definitions, study of behaviour (human and animal)
has been emphasised in all of them. In addition, most authors have also included
‘cognitive/mental processes’ in their definitions of psychology. But, what is
behaviour? We will now look at the nature and characteristics of behaviour.

1.3.3 Nature and Characteristics of Behaviour

Behaviour is a broad term and a complex phenomenon. In this section, we will
discuss the nature and characteristics of behaviour. According to psychologists,
behaviour is every thing or any thing that a human being or animal does that can
be observed in some way. In other words, behaviour includes all actions and
responses of organisms that can be measured directly or indirectly. Behaviour
not only means bodily movements but also can include mental and cognitive
processes such as feelings, attitudes, thoughts, emotions, and all other internal
vents, which cannot be observed directly but can be measured indirectly through
what people say (vocal behaviour) and how they react to different problems and
8 situations.
We will now consider some of the general characteristics of human behaviour, Introduction, Definition and
Concept of Psychology
as described by Parameswaran & Beena (1988, 2002). These are:

 Behaviour is influenced by a number of factors

Behaviour is influenced by a number of factors such as biological, cultural, social,
environmental, past experience, motivational, emotional, cognitive (e.g. feelings,
emotions, motivation, thoughts) etc.

 Behaviour varies in complexity

Behaviour can be as simple as picking a pen, waving a friend or reflex responses
like sneezing etc. Some other behaviours include certain skills which become a
habit over a period such as playing guitar, cycling etc. Yet some other behaviours
involve complex activities like repairing a car. Activities such as landing on the
moon, flying a fighter plane, rock climbing etc. are some of the examples of
highly complex behaviour.
 The factors influencing behaviour are of different kinds
Behaviour is influenced by two large sets of factors:
i) Those belonging to the individual; and
ii) Those belonging to the environment.
Factors pertaining to an individual can be categorized under physiological
(biological needs such as hunger, thirst etc.) and psychological ( ideas, opinions,
attitudes etc.).

The environmental factors include physical surroundings, family and friends,

the larger society and even the overall cultural and social background.

 Individual differences
Behaviour also varies from one person to the other as well as from one group of
people to the other group of people. People differ in their physiological and
bodily conditions, in their past experiences, in their abilities, in their background
etc. It is therefore, natural that if ten people are put in same situation, each person’s
behaviour differs from that of others, in some respects or in some degrees.

 Behaviour also shows similarities

Though behaviour differs from person to person but this does not mean that all
people differ from all others, at all times, and in all situations. There is also a
considerable degree of similarity in behaviour among people. For instance, if a
particle of dust falls into a person’s eye, he/she tries to remove it. This type of
behaviour is universally found.

 Behaviour is always purposeful and goal directive

Human behaviour is always purposeful and one’s actions are always directed
towards some goal or the other. A boy sitting and studying suddenly gets up and
takes a glass of water. Here, the goal is to have a glass of water and the purpose
is to quench his thirst. On the other hand, a boy is sitting and studying and feels
cold. He gets up and switches off the fan. Here the goal is to switch off the fan
and the purpose is to avoid the discomfort of cold. So, all our behaviours can be
categorized under:
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Introduction to Psychology, i) Approach behaviour (Positive goal directed) or
Objectives, Goals
ii) Avoidance behaviour (Negative goal avoidance)
 Behaviour is changeable to a large extent
It was mentioned earlier that a number of factors influence behaviour. In view of
this, it is possible to change behaviour by modifying these factors. It is this
changeability which enables a child to become adult, a bad man to become a
good man and a good man to become a bad man. It is again this very characteristics
which helps people to adjust to new surroundings. These changes are the results
of one’s practice or experiences (learning).

 Behaviour also shows stability

Though emphasis has been laid on the possible changes in behaviour, it must be
mentioned that life is not always full of all sorts of changes. While behaviour
changes, at the same time there is also a certain stability in behaviour. It does not
change with every change in the environment nor do all forms of behaviour
change. Human behaviour shows a lot of stability. For instance, you may still
find your grandmother preferring old ideas and old ways of life, though she is
living in an ultra modern society.

 Behaviour is integrated
As already mentioned, behaviour is influenced by a number of factors and a
variety of purposes. Every human being has physiological, psychological, personal
and social purposes.

He/she has also been the subject of different learning experiences. In spite of all
this, behaviour always shows an order and a hierarchy of purposes. Every
individual behaves as a total person and this process of the organisation of different
purposes, different learnings and different influencing factors results in an
integration of behaviour.

Thus, an individual put in different situations, still shows certain characteristic

ways and styles of behaviour which help us to understand and predict his/her
behaviour. We often say, Ram is a pleasant person. Gobind is an unpleasant person,
Krishna is a sociable person and so on. Psychologists use the term Personality to
describe this process of integration. The greater the degree of integration in a
person’s behaviour, the more effective his behaviour is likely to be.

It can therefore be appreciated that behaviour is a complex phenomenon and

studying behaviour is not an easy task.

1.4 PSYCHOLOGY, AS A SCIENCE

Psychology has been defined as a science of behaviour. But is it a science like
physics, chemistry, biology and zoology or some thing different? In this section
we will look at some of the definitions of science. We will also discuss the
nature and characteristics of science and understand psychology, as a science.
Let us look at the following definitions of science:
 Science is a systematized body of knowledge gathered through carefully
observing and measuring events (Morgan et al.,1986).
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 Science is approach to knowledge, based on systematic observation Introduction, Definition and
Concept of Psychology
(Lahey,1998)
The sole aim of science is to classify, understand, and unify the objects and
phenomena of the material world. By using a combination of accurate observation
and experimentation, logic and intuition, scientists seek to understand the rules
that govern all levels of the natural universe. We will now describe the
characteristics of science.

1.4.1 Characteristics of Science

The observation of events are systematized in various ways, but mainly by
classifying and establishing general principles and laws to describe and predict
new events as accurately as possible. Psychology studies behaviour in the same
way that the other sciences study their subject matter and therefore shares a
number of features with them. In common with other sciences, psychology, as a
science, has the following characteristics, as described by Morgan et al. (1986).

 Empirical observation
Psychology, as a science, is first of all, and above all, empirical. That is to say, it
rests on experiment and observation, rather than on argument, opinion, or belief.

 Systematic approach and theory

Data from observations and experiments are essential to science, but for them
“to make some sense” in helping us to understand events, they must be ordered
in some way. The scientist tries to find a limited number of principles which will
summarize the data economically. Scientific theories are important tools for the
organisation of data.

 Measurement
Another distinguishing feature of many sciences is measurement, defined as
assignment of numbers to objects or events according to certain rules. Physics is
ranked highest (most scientific) among the sciences as it has developed the most
precise measurements.

 Definition of terms
Careful definition of terms is essential to clear thinking in science. The procedure
in psychology is to define concepts by relating them to observable behaviour
(operational definition). When we define a concept operationally, we define it in
terms of measurable and observable operations. For example, the concepts of
length, height in physics, and concepts like intelligence, motivation, personality
in psychology are defined in terms of observable operations, which can be
performed to measure them. However, psychology cannot measure many
behaviours such as bravery, friendship, love, beauty etc. as these cannot be defined
operationally.

The above characteristics are common to all sciences including psychology.

However, psychology is a different type of science (Behavioural science). In
physics or chemistry, researchers investigate processes and events which remain
stable and constant to a large extent. This makes it possible to measure and
predict with a reasonable degree of accuracy. But it is not the case with human
behaviour, which is highly complex, not easily controllable, and appears to be 11
Introduction to Psychology, much more unpredictable than the reactions of physical and chemical substances.
Objectives, Goals
Whereas other sciences investigate things around man, psychology studies man
himself. The methods used in psychological research include observation,
interviews, psychological testing, laboratory experimentation, and statistical
analysis.

Thus, psychology is categorized under the youngest group of scientific inquiry,

the ‘Social/Behavioural Sciences’, which also includes subjects like anthropology,
economics, education, geography, history, linguistics, sociology etc.(Rush, 1972).
The first group of sciences are the ‘Physical Sciences’, which include subjects
like physics, chemistry etc. Next is the ‘Biological / Life Sciences’ that include
such subjects as biology, botany, zoology etc.

The application of knowledge to practical problems is an art; it is the skill or

knack for doing things which is acquired by study, practice and special experience.
Since principles and laws of psychology are applied to solve human problems in
a number of situations (families, schools, organisations, environment) as well as
treating behaviour disorders and emotional problems, it is also an art.

1.4.2 Psychology: What it is and what it is not

Psychology is an exciting field. It is at once familiar, exotic, surprising, and
challenging. Most of all, psychology is changing. Psychology is about each of
us. It asks us to take a reflective attitude as we inquire, “How can we step outside
of ourselves to look objectively at how we live, think, feel, and act?” psychologists
believe the answer is through careful thought, observation, and inquiry. (Coon &
Mitterer, (2008).

According to Parameswaran & Beena (2002), some people regard psychology as

a part of philosophy. Others equate it with magic. Some view it as madness. Still
others are of the opinion that psychologists are either mystics or mysterious
people, their interest in psychology mainly arises from uninformed curiosity.
They are of the view that if they studied psychology, they would learn about
miracles, mysteries, madness and that it would be an exotic experience. Many of
them feel that the main use of psychology is in treating mentally ill individuals.
While certainly this is an important area of application, it is not the only area.
Today, psychology finds useful applications in an individual’s life almost from
the womb to the tomb.

Psychology, like all academic disciplines, has its own concepts such as intelligence,
personality, stress, learning, memory, thinking, perception etc. Many of the
concepts of psychology are familiar to you, but many of them are new. The
topics included in psychology are: the nervous system, sensation and perception,
learning and memory, intelligence, language and thinking, growth and
development, motivation and emotion, personality, stress, psychological disorders,
ways of treating those disorders, sexual behaviour, and the behaviour of people
in social settings such as groups and organisations.

The goals of psychology, like other sciences, are to describe, explain, predict
and control (Coon & Mitterer, 2008) the phenomena it studies. Psychology, thus,
attempts to describe, explain, predict and control behaviour and mental processes.
Psychology as a science of behaviour, attempts to explain the ‘why’ and ‘how’ of
behaviour. The knowledge of psychology can also be applied to solve various
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problems facing human beings, be it at home, society, work place or in the whole Introduction, Definition and
Concept of Psychology
world. However, there are many ‘professionals’ who practice applying psychology
without any type of training in psychology. They are somewhat like quacks or
‘jhola chhap’ doctors. They may be called ‘pseudo-psychologists’. In order to
further clarify, let us describe some of the pseudo-psychologies.

1.4.3 Pseudo-Sciences/Pseudo-Psychology
A gemologist, graphologist, numerologist, palmist or an astrologer, all claim to
solve your problems of life and predict your future. They seem to be psychologists.
But these disciplines are categorized under “pseudo- psychology” or “pseudo-
sciences”.

A Pseudopsychology is any unfounded system that superficially resembles

psychology. Many pseudopsychologies give the appearance of science but are
actually false. (Pseudo means “false”). Pseudopsychologies change little over
time because their followers avoid evidence that contradicts their beliefs.
Scientists, in contrast, actively look for contradictionsas a way to advance
knowledge. They are skeptical critics of their own theories (Schick & Vaughn,
2001).

Descriptions of some of the pseudo-psychologies are given below:

1) Palmistry: False system that claims to reveal personality traits and to predict
the future by “reading” lines on the palms of the hands. It is also called
‘chiromancy’. ‘Chiromancy’ comes from the Greek word for hand (Cheir).
The most famous 19th century palmist, went by the name of Cheiro.
Palmistry is the practice of telling fortunes from the lines, marks and patterns
on the hands, particularly, the palms.
2) Phrenology: False and antiquated system based on the belief that personality
traits are revealed by the shape of the skull. Phrenology was started in the
19th century by a German anatomy teacher, Franz Gall. His theory -
‘Personality was revealed by bumps on the skull’.
 Phrenologists assumed that parts of the brain governed different
personality characteristics.
 Like muscles, parts of the brain that were used more often, tended to get
bigger. In turn, these enlarged areas pushed on the skull causing bumps.
 With advances in Neurology, this was shown to be impossible, and
phrenology declined.
 Although some brain areas do have specific functions, they are not
directly related to specific personality traits.
3) Graphology: False system based on the belief that handwriting can reveal
personality traits.
 Indicates that personality is revealed by a person’s handwriting.
 Some companies in USA use handwriting analysis to evaluate job
applicants.
 Definitely, valuable in detecting forgeries.
 Careful test of accuracy in psychological studies have shown that
graphologists score close to zero in rating personality. 13
Introduction to Psychology, 4) Numerology: False system based on the belief that personality traits are
Objectives, Goals
revealed by certain numbers, usually birthdays ( date, month and year ).They
are the database from which a numerologist is able to describe you, sight
unseen. Number values are assigned to the letters in your name. By adding
these, with the numbers in your birth date, in a multitude of combinations,
a numerologist establishes your key numbers. He then interprets the meaning
of these key numbers, which results in a complete description of your
personal characteristics.
5) Astrology: False system based on the belief that human behaviour is
influenced by the position of planets and stars. It is based on the assumption
that the position of the planets and stars at the time of a person’s birth
determines personality characteristics and affects behaviour.
In its modern guise, astrology is based on the assertion that the apparent positions
of certain objects in the solar system at the time an individual is born, are somehow
correlated with his or her personality, activities, preferences and even major life
events such as marriages, divorces, accidents etc.

Pseudo-psychologies are not supported by scientific evidence. Belief in pseudo-

psychologies is based on the following thinking errors:
i) Uncritical acceptance: The tendency to believe generally positive or flattering
descriptions of oneself.
ii) Fallacy of positive instances: The tendency to remember or notice information
that fits one’s expectations, while forgetting discrepancies.
iii) Barnum effect: The tendency to consider a personal description accurate if
it is stated in general terms. (Coon & Mitterer, 2008).
Psychology is neither common sense nor pseudoscience. Contrary to pseudo-
sciences scientific psychology is based on objectivity, empirical evidence and
critical thinking.

Self Assessment Questions

1) The term psychology is derived from two Greek words: .......................
and ..........................................................................................................

2) Psychology was first defined in terms of:

a) Soul b) Mind c) Consciousness d) Behaviour

3) Psychology is defined as the science of ...............................................

and ..........................................................................................................

4) Following does not come under Pseudo Psychology:

a) Astrology b) Graphology c) Astronomy d) Palmistry

1.4.4 Principles of Critical Thinking

According to Rathus (2008), psychologists are guided by scientific principles,
and one hallmark of science is critical thinking. A group of psychologists
(McGovern 1989) defined the goals of critical thinking as fostering the following
thinking skills:
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 Development of skepticism about explanations and conclusions. Introduction, Definition and
Concept of Psychology
 The ability to inquire about causes and events.
i) Increased curiosity about behaviour
ii) Knowledge about research methods.
iii) The ability to analyse arguments critically.
According to Beyer (1995), critical thinking means reasoned judgments (logical
and well thought out judgments).

Let us now consider some principles of critical thinking, as pointed out by Rathus
(2008). These are as follows:
1) Be skeptical: Keep an open mind. Politicians and advertisers try to persuade
you. Accept nothing as the truth until you have examined the evidence.
2) Examine definition of term: Some statements are true when a term is
defined in one way but not when the term is defined in another way. So try
to follow the real meaning of a term.
3) Examine the assumptions or premises of arguments: Consider the
statement that one can not learn about human beings by engaging in research
with animals. One premise in the statement seems to be that human beings
are not animals. One premise in the statement seems to be that human beings
are not animals. We are, of course, social animals.
4) Be cautious from drawing conclusion from evidence: Suppose you see a
driver drinking, before he/she met with an accident. You are too quick to
draw a conclusion that ‘drinking was the cause of accident’. However, there
may be other causes such as bad road , mechanical failure or fault of the
other driver. One or more of which might have been the cause of the accident.
5) Consider alternative interpretations of research evidence: You read a
statement based on a research that, frustration leads to aggression. However,
all frustrated people are not necessarily aggressive. Similarly, aggressive
behaviour is not due to frustration alone. Though research evidence is
accepted without question, researchers may differ in their interpretation of
the same. So, you must think of other alternative interpretations of results
rather than blindly accepting the explanation given by a researcher.
6) Do not over simplify: Most human behaviour involves complex interaction
of genetic and environmental influences. Also consider the issue of whether
psychopathy helps people with psychological problems. A broad answer to
this question? simple yes or no ? might be over simplifying. It is more
worthwhile to ask, What type of psychopathy, practiced by whom, is most
helpful, for what kind of problem?
7) Do not over generalise: Consider the statement that one can not learn about
human beings by engaging in research with non human animals. Is the truth
of the matter an all-or-nothing issue.
8) Apply critical thinking to all areas of life: A skeptical attitude and a demand
for evidence are not only useful in college but are of value in all areas of
life. Be skeptical when you are bombarded by TV commercials, or when
political causes try to sweep you up or when you see the latest cover stories
about unidentified flying objects etc.
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Introduction to Psychology, These are the kinds of principles that guide psychologists’ thinking as they observe
Objectives, Goals
behaviour, engage in research, or advise clients, as to how to improve the quality
of their lives. Now let us look at the nature of tasks psychologists are engaged in.

1.4.5 The Tasks of Psychology

Parameswaran & Beena (2002) have suggested the tasks of psychology, which
are described as follows:
1) Firstly, a science of behaviour should observe, investigate and identify factors
which influence behaviour and also assess their relative influences.
2) It must investigate the role of each of these factors, separately and together
in producing similarities and differences in behaviour.
3) Based on these investigations, psychology should arrive at generalisations
in the form of theories, laws and principles explaining the similarities and
also the differences in behaviour
4) It should also explain the complimentary functions of the factors and the
processes, in generating similarities as well as differences among people.
5) Since behaviour is purposive, psychology must investigate the nature, kinds
and number of purposes, their origin and development, and the relationship
among them.
6) Since behaviour changes, it is the responsibility of psychology to study and
explain the nature of such changes, kinds, the processes which govern them
and the interaction among different kinds of changes.
7) While changes in behaviour are to be understood, stability and consistency
in behaviour also need to be explained.
8) The master concern of psychology is to explain how change and stability,
similarities and differences, are organised and integrated to produce both
generality and uniqueness in behaviour.

Psychologists are engaged in the above tasks, and they are thus, quite different
from pseudo-psychologists.

Self Assessment Questions

1) Topics included in Psychology are:
a) Learning b) Memory c) Thinking d) All of them
2) Physics is to Physical Sciences as Psychology is to ............................
Sciences
3) The goals of Psychology are to ......................................, ....................,
........................................ and ................................................ behaviour
4) The first laboratory in Psychology was established in the year .............
5) The first laboratory in Psychology was established by ..........................
..............................................................
6) Psychology is the study of Human and ...........................................
behaviour.
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 Introduction, Definition and
1.5 LET US SUM UP Concept of Psychology

We have discussed the origin and evolution of psychology as an independent

academic discipline. We have also defined psychology and discussed the nature
and characteristics of science and behaviour.

Further, we have also discussed the meaning and concept of psychology, and the
principles of critical thinking that guide psychologists. Finally, some of the
pseudo-psychologies have been described and the tasks of psychologists have
been highlighted.

This introduction to the meaning and concept of psychology is useful to students

or anybody who wants to learn psychology, in clarifying some of the
misconceptions of psychology, understand and appreciate psychology, as a
scientific discipline, and make them informed consumers of psychological
researches.

1.6 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) Discuss the origin and evolution of psychology.
2) What are the differences between psychology and pseudo- psychology ?
3) List the topics covered by psychology.
4) Enumerate the characteristics of behaviour.
5) Try and think of some examples of pseudo- psychologies that you have
believed or that you have seen others following one or more pseudo-
psychologies. What is your experience?
6) Describe the characteristics of science. Describe psychology as a science.
7) Illustrate the tasks of psychologists.
8) Explain the principles of critical thinking.
9) Define psychology.

1.7 GLOSSARY
Behaviour : Observable actions and responses of human beings
and animals. Behaviour also includes not so directly
observable activities, such as, inner mental
(cognitive) processes (e.g. feelings and thoughts)?
as long as they can be observed and measured in a
systematic way.

Behaviourism : Emphasises that psychology should focus on

behaviour rather than on mind.

Critical thinking : Critical thinking means reasoned judgments (logical

and well thought out judgments).

Pseudo-psychology : Any unfounded system that superficially resembles

psychology.
17
Introduction to Psychology, Psychology : The science of human behaviour and cognitive
Objectives, Goals
(mental) processes.

Science : Science is a systematised body of knowledge gathered

through carefully observing and measuring events.
Answers to SAQs.
1) Psyche and Logus; 2- a; 3- Behaviour and Cognitive / Mental processes;
4- c; 5- d; 6- Social / Behavioural ; 7- Understand, Describe, Predict and
Control; 8- 1879; 9- Wundt; 10-Animal

1.8 SUGGESTED READINGS

Baron, R.A.(1999). Essentials of Psychology (2nd edition). USA: Allyn and Bacon.

Morgan, C. T., King, R. A., Weisz, J. R. & Schopler, J. (1986). Introduction to

Psychology (7th edition). New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill

References
Coon, D. & Mitterer, J.O.(2008). Psychology: A Journey. (3rd edition) Delhi
(India): Thomson Wadsworth.
Parameswaran, E.G. & Beena, C. (2002) An Invitation to Psychology. Hyderabad,
(India): Neelkamal Publications Pvt. Ltd..
Bagga, Q. L. & Singh, A. (1990). Elemrnts of General Psychology. New Delhi:
Arya Book Depot.
Baron, R.A.(1999). Essentials of Psychology (2nd edition). USA: Allyn & Bacon.
Beyer,B. K. (1995). Critical thinking. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa
Educational Foundation.
Bolles,R.C. (1993). The Story of Psychology. Portland:Brooks/Cole Pub Co.
Ciccarelli, S.K.& Meyer, G.E.(2006). Psychology. Delhi (India): Pearson
Education, Inc.
Clark, K. E. & Miller, G. A. (eds.) (1970). Psychology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
Coon, D. & Mitterer, J.O. (2007). Introduction to Psychology: Gateways to Mind
and Behaviour (11th edition). Delhi (India): Thomson Wadsworth.
Coon, D. & Mitterer, J.O.(2008). Psychology: A Journey. (3rd edition). Delhi
(India): Thomson Wadsworth.
Dandapani, S. (2004). General Psychology. Hyderabad (India): Neelkamal
Publications Pvt. Ltd..
Das,J.P.(19980. The Working Mind: An Introduction to Psychology, New Delhi,
Sage Publication
Eysenck, M.W.(2004). Psychology: An International Perspective. Psychology
Press.

18
Feldman, R.S.(2004). Understanding Psychology (6thedition), New Delhi (India): Introduction, Definition and
Concept of Psychology
Tata McGraw Hill.
Hilgard, E. R., Atkinson, R. C., & Atkinson, R.L. (1975). Introduction to
Psychology (6th edition). New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing Co.
James, W. (1890). The Principles of Psychology. N.Y.:Holt.
Lahey, Benjamin B. (1998). Psychology: An Introduction. New Delhi; Tata
McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited.
Morgan, C. T., King, R. A., Weisz, J. R. & Schopler, J. (1986). Introduction to
Psychology (7th edition). New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill.
Nairne, J.S. (2003). Psycho logy: The Adaptive Mind (3 rd edit ion).
USA:Wadsworth.
Parameswaran, E.G. & Beena, C. (1988). Invitation to Psychology. New Delhi:
Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited.
Parameswaran, E.G. & Beena, C. (2002). An Invitation to Psychology. Hyderabad
(India): Neelkamal Publications Pvt. Ltd.
Rathus, S.A. (2008). Psychology: Concepts & Connections. (9th edition). Canada:
Wadsworth.
Rush, Harold M.F.(1972).The world of work and the behavioural sciences: A
perspective and an overview. In Fred Luthans (Ed.). Contemporary readings in
organisational behaviour. New York. McGraw-Hill Book Company.
Schick, T. & Vaughn, L.(2001). How to think about weird things: Critical thinking
for a new age. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Tavris,C. & Warde,C. (1997). Psychology in Perspective (2nd Ed). New York:
Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.
Woodworth, R. S. (1948). Contemporary Schools of Psychology. New York:
Ronald.

19
Introduction to Psychology,
Objectives, Goals UNIT 4 APPLICATION OF PSYCHOLOGY
TO DIFFERENT DISCIPLINES

Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Psychology and the Social /Behavioural Sciences
4.2.1 Psychology and Economics
4.2.2 Psychology and Political Science
4.2.3 Psychology and Education
4.3 Psychology and Other Sciences
4.3.1 Psychology and the Biological Sciences
4.3.2 Psychology and the Physical Sciences
4.3.3 Psychology and the Medical Sciences
4.4 Psychology and Some Other Disciplines
4.4.1 Psychology and Engineering
4.4.2 Psychology and Cognitive Science
4.4.3 Psychology and Environmental Sciences
4.4.4 Psychology, Law, and Criminology
4.5 Let Us Sum Up
4.6 Unit End Questions
4.7 Suggested Readings
References

4.0 INTRODUCTION
We have earlier discussed, how psychology is related to, and influenced by other
academic disciplines. You have also come to know how the applied fields of
psychology are contributing to solve various day to day problems of living beings.
Thus, you have learnt that psychology is making significant contribution in the
fields of health, education, sports, community, society, organisations and so on.

Psychology is however, applied to yet certain other disciplines.. In this unit, you
will come to know how psychology is related to such disciplines and some
interdisciplinary fields, such as, environmental sciences, medical sciences,
cognitive science etc.

4.1 OBJECTIVES
On successful completion of this unit, you will be able to:
 Explain the interrelationship of psychology with other academic disciplines;
 Describe the application of psychology to biological sciences; and
 Identify the areas of application of psychology to physical, medical and social
sciences.

42
 Application of Psychology
4.2 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE SOCIAL/ to Different Disciplines

BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCES
Behaviour mostly takes place in the context of social setting and in relation to
other people. Different social/behavioural scientists emphasise on one or the
other aspects of social life. However, psychology extensively studies behaviour.
As you already know, human behaviour is determined by many factors, and one
can explain behaviour from various viewpoints. That is why interest of psychology
overlaps with that of some other social/behavioural sciences. Thus the relevance
of other social/behavioural sciences to psychology is obvious.
Parameswaran & Beena (2002) have described the relationship of psychology
with behavioural sciences, biological sciences, physical sciences, medical sciences
as well as, with some other disciplines. Given below is the description of
psychology with some of the disciplines of social sciences.
Anthropology is supposed to be the mother of all social/behavioural sciences. It
is interested in the study of culture, customs, ritual and practices of different
distinct groups of people and understand the variations among them. Many
anthropologists have contributed to our understanding of the various factors which
explain the homogeneity or similarity of behaviour among members of a particular
group and also how such groups differ from each other. Researches in
anthropology have thrown light on why people of a particular community or
even whole nation behave as they do. Psychology is enriched by such findings.
Psychological theories have also contributed to our understanding of the origin
of culture, customs, religious practices etc. Psychoanalysts like Freud, Jung and
others have made notable/significant contributions in this regard. Thus, there is
a reciprocal relationship between anthropology and psychology. In fact,
psychoanalytic anthropology and psychological anthropology attempt to explain
the origin of all customs, cultures and practices on the basis of psychological
factors.
Sociology is another major social science, which is mainly concerned with social
organisations of societies into family groups, kinship groups, caste groups, nation
groups etc. Sociologists study variations in these group formations among
different societies and also try to analyse their roles in social life. It is a well
known fact that these factors influence behaviour.
The structure of the family, caste groups, class groups etc. influence human
behaviour. To this extent, psychologists must understand the roles of these factors
in influencing behaviour. Sociological researches have contributed a lot to the
field of psychology. This is particularly so in understanding the behaviour of
groups of people and organisations and also in understanding the impact of groups,
group standards, group expectations etc., on behaviour.
Social psychology, organisational psychology and group dynamics are branches
of psychology, which are very closely connected with sociology. In fact, the first
book in social psychology was written by a sociologist and a psychologist. The
psychologists, while studying the development of behaviour from infancy
onwards, have to analyze the role of society and social customs on the
development of social behaviour. Sociologists like Durkheim, Parsons, Bales
and others have made important contributions to the development of psychology.
43
Introduction to Psychology, Psychology is also concerned about how members of groups are influenced by
Objectives, Goals
other members, as well as by the group norms, values, rituals and practices of
particular groups. It also emphasises on leadership and group formation etc.,
which can contribute to the field of sociology. Sociology has gained a lot from
psychology.

Psychological theories have contributed considerably to explain the origin and

survival of social customs and institutions. Theories of learning, perception and
motivation, have contributed to the development of sociology. Sociology has
also gained a lot from methods of research, developed by psychologists. Moreover,
sociology has widely used measurement techniques, such as, attitude scales,
interaction analysis etc., developed by psychologists.

4.2.1 Psychology and Economics

Economics deals with the economic organisation of society like income,
expenditure, the role of economic institution etc. Much of human behaviour can
be called economic behaviour. Economic theories have for long, considered the
role of psychological factors in economic behaviour. Thus, Mill and Bentham
advanced the theory of economic utilitarianism. Subsequently, the role of
psychological factors in economic activities has attracted the attention of many
thinkers. In recent years, McLelland and his associates have stressed the role of
what is known as the achievement motivation, in economic behaviour.

On the other hand, the economic structure of society and economic factors like
income, facilities etc. have been found to influence behaviour. Psychologists
have been interested in the analysis of the influence of economic factors like
income, on the development of behaviour. The role of poverty and economic
deprivation on the development of behaviour has been extensively studied by.
Psychologists. They speak of the proverbial ‘middle class child’ and his
characteristic behaviour like ambitiousness, high anxiety etc. Thus, psychology
is also closely related to economics.

4.2.2 Psychology and Political Science

Political science is another discipline, which has developed extensively in recent
times. Political science deals with the political organisations, institutions and
government practices. In recent years, there has been a very close interaction
between political science and psychology. Attempts have been made to study
and analyse the influence of the political system on human character and
behaviour. Psychologists have done extensive research on what is known as
‘authoritarianism’ and have tried to explain this as a product of certain types of
political systems.

Similarly, concepts like Machiavellianism, autocracy, etc., which are generally

applied by the political scientists to large societies, have been made use of by
psychologists in studying small organisations. In a classical experiment, Kurt
Lewin and his followers studied autocratic groups, democratic groups, and others
and compared their functioning.

Psychologists have also attempted to study the role of psychological factors in

leadership. Thus, the lives of several political leaders have been analysed from a
psychological angle to understand their behaviour and the factors which made
44
them successful leaders. Examples of such leaders whose lives have been analysed Application of Psychology
to Different Disciplines
are Mahatma Gandhi, Martin Luther King, Adolph Hitler and others.
Psychological analysis has also been made of different aspects of political
behaviour like propaganda, voting behaviour, emergence of public opinion, mob
mentality etc.

4.2.3 Psychology and Education

Education is, perhaps, one of the oldest sciences with which psychology has
been intimately connected. The field of education is primarily concerned with
the development of effective approaches and techniques for imparting knowledge
and skills which would make the people personally successful and happy and
socially productive. Needless to say, in striving to achieve these, educators have
to take into account psychological factors such as the nature of the learning
process abilities of individuals, their needs and proper methods of teaching among
other factors.

Psychologists have made extensive contributions by developing a wide variety

of tests which help the educator to measure the abilities of pupils, their
inclinations, and choose the proper educational levels and situations.
Psychological theories of motivation have contributed to work out techniques of
motivating students for improving their learning. Researchers in the psychology
of perception, learning and communication have contributed in evolving effective
methods of teaching, preparation of useful teaching aids etc. Thus, one can see
that the relationship between psychology and education is very intimate.

Self Assessment Questions

1) Different aspects of political behaviour include:
a) propaganda, b) crowding, c) mob mentality,
d) a& b, e) a & c, f) b & c
2) ......................................................... is supposed to be the mother of all
social/behavioural sciences.
3) Psychological theories of ............................................ have contributed
to work out techniques of motivating students for improving their
learning.
Answers: 1) e), 2) Anthropology, 3) Motivation

4.3 PSYCHOLOGY AND OTHER SCIENCES

You already know the tasks of psychologists. They work in a variety of basic
and/or applied fields. Though psychology has emerged as a science; due to
developments in other sciences, the developments in psychology have also
influenced the growth and development of other disciplines like sociology,
anthropology, economics, political science, management etc. Let us , now look
at the relationship of psychology and other sciences, i.e., biological sciences,
physical sciences and medical sciences, as described by Parameswaran and Beena
(2002).

45
Introduction to Psychology, 4.3.1 Psychology and the Biological Sciences
Objectives, Goals
We have already discussed about the intimate relationship between psychology
and the biological sciences. All behaviour occurs through bodily processes. Hence,
psychology, which is the science of behaviour, is naturally dependent on other
sciences which deal with the nature of the human body, the organs of the body
and their functioning. Sensations, perceptions and all forms of behaviour originate
as physical or physiological reactions and often culminate in muscular actions
and glandular secretions. We have earlier discussed how the brain plays a very
important role in coordinating and organising the functions of the different organs
of the body. Along with the brain, the entire nervous system plays a crucial role
in behaviour. Hence, there is an intimate relationship between psychology and
neurology, neurophysiology, neurochemistry and other branches of knowledge
which are directly involved with the study of the nervous system, particularly
the brain. The important role of genetics, another branch of the biology which
deals with the nature of inheritance of different qualities in determining behaviour,
is well known.

According to Darwin, species change via a process of natural selection. Studies

of selective breeding support this view. Characteristics are passed on from one
generation to the next via genes. Genetic factors influence individual differences
in intelligence, personality, and mental disorder (Eysenck, 2004). Evolutionary
psychology, an emerging field in the 21st century, is an approach that explains
behaviour and the development of the mind in terms of their function and
adaptiveness.

It is a new theoretical approach that incorporates many of these ideas of

behavioural genetics. Behavioural genetics is an approach to understanding the
causes of behaviour that uses the degree of relatedness among different relatives
to assess the role of genetic factors. The essence of evolutionary psychology, as
pointed out by Buss (1999, p.3) and cited by Eysenck (2004) is as follows:

Evolutionary psychology focuses on four key questions: (1) Why is the mind
designed the way it is? ... (2) How is the human mind designed?—what are its
mechanisms or component parts, and how are they organised? (3) What are the
functions of component parts and their organised structure—that is, what is the
mind designed to do? (4) How does input from the current environment, especially
the social environment, interact with the design of the human mind to produce
human behaviour?

It could be argued that Buss’s definition of evolutionary psychology is too broad,

and is applicable to most approaches to psychology (David Carey, personal
communication).

Pinker (1997, p. 23) addressed the issue of the historical origins of evolutionary
psychology, arguing as follows:

Evolutionary psychology brings together two scientific revolutions. One is the

cognitive revolution of the 1950s and 1960s, which explains the mechanics of
thought and emotion in terms of information and computation. The other is the
revolution in evolutionary biology of the 1960s and 1970s, which explains the
complex adaptive design of living things in terms of selection among replicators
(animals that reproduce).
46
The evolutionary process has resulted in species of animals that are structurally Application of Psychology
to Different Disciplines
and behaviourally adapted to the environment, in which they live. Animals have
evolved species typical behaviours to adapt to their environments. Evolutionary
processes are also said to have produced brains that are specialised so that certain
associations and responses are learned readily. Certain species are thus said to be
ready, or predisposed, to learn some things easily; and such responses are often
called prepared behaviours. Other responses are almost impossible for some
species to learn; these are known as contra prepared behaviours. A third class of
behaviours, the unprepared behaviours, can be acquired, but only when learning
procedures are applied (Seligman, 1970)

Studies in the areas of health psychology and clinical psychology suggest how
psychology also affects the physiological and biological processes. For example,
placebo effect (changes in behaviour due to expectations that a drug or other
treatment will have some effect) can be powerful. A placebo is a fake pill or
injection. Inert substances such as sugar pills and saline (saltwater) injections
are common placebos. Thus, if a placebo has any effect, it must be based on
suggestion, rather than chemistry (Moerman, 2002). According to Kirsch & Lynn
(1999), a saline injection is 70 percent as effective as morphine, in reducing
pain. That is why doctors sometimes prescribe placebos. Placebos have been
shown to affect pain, anxiety, depression, alertness, tension, sexual arousal,
craving for alcohol, and many other processes.

Research also indicates that, in addition to exercises, there are some reliable,
drug free ways of relaxing, when you are under stress. Meditation is one of the
most effective ways to relax (Deckro et al., 2002). But be aware that listening to
music, taking nature walks, enjoying hobbies and the like can be meditation of
sorts. Anything that reliably interrupts upsetting thoughts and promotes relaxation,
can be helpful. Also, Vipassana meditation(A Buddhist technique) has many
beneficial effects including reduction/tolerance of pain.

It is also possible to relax systematically, completely, and by choice by a method

called progressive relaxation. It is a method for producing deep relaxation of all
parts of the body. Yet another technique called guided imagery can also be used
for relaxation. In this technique, people visualise images that are calming, relaxing
or beneficial in other ways.

Research shows that about 94% of diseases have psychological origin. These
psychosomatic diseases (Asthma, ulcers, even cancers) can be cured by application
of psychology. It has also been reported by many studies that optimistic outlook
and positive thinking help patients in speedy recovery.

Thus, knowledge of psychology, such as perception, thinking, motivation,

personality etc., can be applied by professionals like doctors, psychiatrists and
counselors.

4.3.2 Psychology and the Physical Sciences

Physical sciences like physics and chemistry have also influenced the development
of psychology. In fact, early experiments in psychology were very much modeled
after and inspired by experiments in physics. Psychophysics appeared as an area
of research in psychology due to the interaction between psychology and physics.
The outstanding British thinker, John Stuart Mill suggested that psychology should
47
Introduction to Psychology, be a type of mental chemistry. From the early Greek period onwards researchers
Objectives, Goals
have tried to investigate and establish the chemical basis of human behaviour.
Psychology has been influenced by the developments in physics like the work of
Ehrenfels in acoustics. In fact, gestalt psychology (one of the early schools of
psychology), was primarily/mainly inspired by this work. The developments in
quantum-physics, magnetic field theories etc., have also revolutionalised
psychological thinking. More recently, engineering sciences, particularly
cybernetics and information theory have also influenced psychology. These
developments have led to development of modern computers. Today, attempts
are being made by psychologists to draw analogies between computers and human
behaviour, particularly in areas like thinking, memory, learning, decision making
etc. Thus, psychology is very closely related to physical sciences.

4.3.3 Psychology and the Medical Sciences

Medical sciences attempt to find out the causes of disfunctioning or
malfunctioning of the body system. In fact, medical sciences are a branch of
biological sciences. Advances in the medical sciences have resulted in a
considerable amount of knowledge about the structure and function of the brain,
the nervous system and the endocrine glands, which are crucial to the study of
behaviour.

Medical sciences have contributed significantly to the understanding of abnormal

behaviour. Actually, many of the leading thinkers in psychology such as Freud,
Jung, Adler, Horney, Rogers, McDougall, Goldstein and some others were
originally medical persons. They have contributed a lot to the understanding and
treatment of human behaviour, as they were not only interested in treating physical
diseases but also in dealing with psychological abnormalities. The development
of the fields of abnormal/ clinical psychology as well as the psychodynamic
approach to personality is due to the contribution of medical sciences.

While interacting with mentally ill and emotionally troubled people, these medical
doctors developed useful insights to human behaviour.
Self Assessment Questions
1) .................................................... psychology, an emerging field in the
21st century, is an approach that explains behaviour and the development
of the mind in terms of their function and adaptiveness.
2) A ............................................................... is a fake pill or injection.
3) In fact, medical sciences are a branch of ..................................... sciences.
Answers: 1) Evolutionary, 2) placebo, 3) biological

4.4 PSYCHOLOGY AND SOME OTHER

DISCIPLINES
We have so far examined the relationship between psychology and different groups
of sciences. But psychology is connected not only with the sciences but also
with other disciplines which are not generally regarded as sciences. For example,
the relationship between psychology and philosophy is well known. Modern
psychology grew out of philosophy and philosophers have always influenced
theories in psychology. Even today, this is quite true.
48
Literature and art are the other fields of knowledge which are also related to Application of Psychology
to Different Disciplines
psychology. In recent years, extensive investigations have been made in to the
role of psychological factors in the production of literary pieces and works of
art. Freud, Jung and several outstanding psychologists have tried to analyse the
role of psychological factors like ego, motivation and personality in literary and
artistic conditions.
Architecture is yet another field which has begun to take in to account
psychological factors in designing buildings, town planning etc. One may
therefore, say that the science of psychology as a very intimate relationship with
almost every other discipline. This is naturally so because psychology is the
basic science which is directly concerned with the study of human behaviour
and evolving of techniques and strategies to improve human behaviour. Most
other disciplines are also concerned with human behaviour or products of human
behaviour directly or indirectly. Hence, this intimate connection of psychology
with other fields of knowledge, is only natural.
You may be wondering that if psychology is so intimately related to other branches
of knowledge and it has borrowed extensively from developments in other
sciences, can we regard psychology as an independent discipline? The answer to
this is strongly in the affirmative. While psychology might have leaned very
heavily on discoveries and developments in other fields, it has an identity of its
own. While other disciplines may be concerned with different aspects of
behaviour, psychology alone is concerned with behaviour in totality. Further, if
it has borrowed from other subjects, it has also contributed as much or more, to
the growth and development of other subjects. In fact, this trend is steadily on
the increase.
This is particularly so when it comes to the question of application of scientific
knowledge to action programs. You can now appreciate the extensive and wide
scope of psychology in a better light. It is no more a subject limited to
philosophical speculations. It is now considered as a science and to be more
exact, a psycho-socio-biological science. While it is related to other branches of
knowledge, at the same time it is independent; perhaps, much more extensive in
its scope and far more deeper in its implications. (Parameswaran and Beena,
2002).
We will now discuss the interrelationship of psychology to other fields like
engineering, cognitive science, environmental sciences, law, and criminology.

4.4.1 Psychology and Engineering

Human factors engineering, as a branch of applied psychology, has made
important contributions in the field of engineering. Industrial psychologists have
helped in designing the right type of machines which would make would make it
possible for the workers to do their best by eliminating unnecessary operations,
minimizing strain and eliminating possibilities of confusion and oversight. This
aspect of adjusting the job to the employee is known as human engineering.
Human engineering has played a major role in developing ultra-comfortable
automobiles, aircrafts, etc., in order to minimize stress strain and maximize
efficiency and work output.

Every industry depends on its ability to sell its products, not only for its survival
but also for its growth and expansion. Therefore, it is important to know the
49
Introduction to Psychology, needs, likes, dislikes, preferences and habits of people who buy these products.
Objectives, Goals
In a watch company, the product in-charge for a new range of watches which
were believed to be exquisite, took informal feedback from their own friends
and peers within the company. What they omitted to do was to check formally
with consumers. They went ahead with production.

But, they had unsold inventory for many months because consumers rejected it,
the chief reason being difficulty in reading time on those beautiful dials.
Somewhere, in that quest to deliver cutting edge, perhaps, they had forgotten the
basics. This highlights the importance of consumer psychology, yet another branch
of psychology, which not only attempts to understand consumer needs and
preferences through consumer surveys, but also contributes in the field of
advertising. Effective advertisements help industries to influence consumers to
buy their products. Psychologists have been helping in designing advertisements
which would attract the attention of consumers and effectively convey the
messages so that they are motivated to buy the products.

4.4.2 Psychology and Cognitive Sciences

Cognitive science is the interdisciplinary study of mind and intelligence, e.g.,
how information is represented and transformed in a brain or in a machine. It
consists of multiple research disciplines, including psychology, artificial
intelligence, philosophy, neuroscience, learning sciences, linguistics,
anthropology, sociology, and education. It spans many levels of analysis, from
low-level learning and decision mechanisms to high-level logic and planning;
from neural circuitry to modular brain organisation. The term cognitive science
was coined by Christopher Longuet-Higgins in his 1973 commentary on the
Lighthill report, which concerned the then-current state of Artificial Intelligence
research. In the same decade, the journal Cognitive Science and the Cognitive
Science Society were founded. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive science).

The cognitive processes such as cognitive learning, memory, creative thinking,

problem solving, decision making are being studied by psychologists and have
been contributing to the field of cognitive science. For example, many modern
organisations are using computers for routine kind of decision making.

4.4.3 Psychology and Environmental Sciences

An off shoot of human factors engineering, is a relatively recent field of
psychology called environmental psychology . This is a broad area of enquiry
and interdisciplinary in nature. The focus of investigation of environmental
psychology is the interrelationship between the physical environment and human
behaviour and experience(Holahan, 1982). Since its inception, environmental
psychology has attracted scholars, researchers and practitioners from a variety
of disciplines, including sociology, geography, anthropology, medicine,
architecture and planning, as well as psychology (Craik, 1970; Prashanky and
Altman, 1979). The study of human behaviour in physical settings requires the
work of researchers in many social sciences as well as that of architects and
planners responsible for the design for the design of human settings.

According to Holahan (1982), the label “environmental psychology” should be

understood to describe the problem area of the field rather than a disciplinary
restriction. Researchers in environmental psychology investigate wide range of
50
questions that involve psychological content—spatial behaviour patterns, mental Application of Psychology
to Different Disciplines
images, environmental stress, attitude change. The researchers themselves,
however, represent many disciplines including psychology. Research in
environmental psychology is oriented toward both the resolution of practical
problems and the formulation of new theory. Environmental psychologists have
worked in such topics as environmental perception, environmental cognition,
environmental attitudes, performance in learning and work environment, coping
with environmental stress, coping with crowding, privacy and territoriality,
personal space, affiliation and support in the urban environment. These have
applications to environmental planning, for example, reducing urban noise,
designing for the elderly, design strategies in dense environments, territoriality
in institutional environments, humanizing the design of high-rise housing, citizen
participation in urban planning etc.

4.4.4 Psychology, Law and Criminology

Forensic psychology is the intersection between psychology and the criminal
justice system. It involves understanding criminal law in the relevant jurisdictions,
in order to be able to interact appropriately with judges, attorneys and other legal
professionals. An important aspect of forensic psychology is the ability to testify
in court, reformulating psychological findings into the legal language of the
courtroom, providing information to legal personnel in a way that can be
understood. A forensic psychologist can be trained in clinical, social,
organisational or any other branch of psychology. Generally, a forensic
psychologist is designated as an expert in a particular jurisdiction. The number
of jurisdictions in which a forensic psychologist qualifies as an expert, increases
with experience and reputation.

Questions asked by the court of a forensic psychologist are generally not questions
regarding psychology but are legal questions and the response must be in language
the court understands. For example, a forensic psychologist is frequently appointed
by the court to assess a defendant’s competency to stand trial. The court also
frequently appoints a forensic psychologist to assess the state of mind of the
defendant at the time of the offense. This is referred to as an evaluation of the
defendant’s sanity or insanity (which relates to criminal responsibility) at the
time of the offense. These are not primarily psychological questions but rather
legal ones. Thus, a forensic psychologist must be able to translate psychological
information into a legal framework.

Forensic psychologists provide sentencing recommendations, treatment

recommendations, and any other information the judge requests, such as
information regarding mitigating factors, assessment of future risk, and evaluation
of witness credibility. Forensic psychology also involves training and evaluating
police or other law enforcement personnel, providing law enforcement with
criminal profiles and in other ways working with police departments. Forensic
psychologists work both with the Public Defender, the States Attorney, and private
attorneys. Forensic psychologists may also help with jury selection. (http://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_science).

A whole range of topics like criminal profiling to psychopathic personality to

eye witness testimony, to mental and emotional states of victims/witnesses, to
decision making process by the jury members and judges etc., are studied by
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Introduction to Psychology, forensic psychologists. The findings of these researches have been very helpful
Objectives, Goals
for the legal system to do justice to the honest and punish the guilty.

Self Assessment Questions

1) Environmental psychology is an off shoot of .........................................
2) Forensic psychology is the intersection between ............................ and
the ................................................
3) Environmental psychology has attracted scholars, researchers and
practitioners from a variety of disciplines, including sociology, ............
........................., anthropology, ........................................................, and
architecture and planning
Answers: 1) human factors engineering, 2) psychology, criminal justice
system, 3) geography, medicine

4.5 LET US SUM UP

Application of psychology to other disciplines cannot be overemphasised, even
though, many disciplines have influenced the developments in psychology,

As we have seen in this unit, psychology has significantly contributed in many

ways, to other disciplines, be they physical sciences, biological sciences, social/
behavioural sciences, medical sciences, environmental sciences, cognitive science
or disciplines like engineering, law and criminology. Thus psychology, in spite
of being an independent academic discipline, has close interrelationship with
other disciplines.

4.6 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) Explain the relationship of psychology with other academic disciplines.
2) Discuss the application of psychology to biological sciences.
3) How psychology is applied to physical sciences and medical sciences?
4) Briefly discuss the application of psychology to social sciences.
5) Describe some other disciplines, where psychology is applied.

4.7 SUGGESTED READINGS

Eysenck, M. W. (2004). Psychology: An International Perspective. New York:
Psychology Press.

Morgan, C. T., King, R. A., Weisz, J. R. & Schopler, J. (1986). Introduction to

Psychology (7th edition) New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill

Parameswaran, E.G. & Beena, C. (2002) An Invitation to Psychology. Hyderabad,

(India): Neelkamal Publications Pvt. Ltd..

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References Application of Psychology
to Different Disciplines
Buss, D. M. (1999). Evolutionary psychology: The new science of the mind.
Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Craik, K. H. (1970). Environmental psychology. In New directions in psychology,

Vol. 4, New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Deckro, G. R., Ballinger, K.M., Hoyt, M., Wilcher, M., et al. (20020. The valuation
of a mind/body intervention to reduce psychological distress and perceived stress
in college students. Journal of American College Health, 50(6), 281-287.

Eysenck, M. W. (2004). Psychology: An International Perspective. New York:

Psychology Press.

Holahan, Charles J. (1982). Environmental psychology. New York: Random

House.

Kirsch, I. & Lynn, S.J. (1999).Automaticity in clinical psychology. American

Psychologist, 54(7), 504-515.

Moerman, D.E. (2002). The meaning response and the ethics of avoiding placebos.
Evaluation & the Health Professions. Special Recent Advances in Placebo
Research, 25(4), 399-409.

Parameswaran, E.G. & Beena, C. (2002) An Invitation to Psychology (2nd edition),

Hyderabad, (India): Neelkamal Publications Pvt. Ltd.

Pinker, S. (1997). How the mind works. New York: Norton.

Proshanky, H. M. & Altman, I. (1979). Overview of the field. In W. P. White

(ed.) Resources in environment and behaviour. Washington D. C.: American
Psychological Association.

Seligman, M. E. P. (1970). On the generality of the laws of learning. Psychological

Review, 77, 406-418.

Web reference.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_science

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