Electrical Engineering Department

Electrical Installations and Drawings (ENEE323)

Lecture Notes-7
Faults-Protection and Protective Devices

1) Faults and Protection

I) Protection Against an Electric Shock

The electric shock may be received by a direct contact or indirect contact with live parts.

I.a) Protection Against Direct Contact

Direct Contact: the contact of a person or livestock with live parts, which may result in an electric
shock.
The live parts must not be accessible to touch by persons and livestock.

Methods of Minimizing the Danger of Direct Contact:

1) Covering the live part or parts by insulation, which can only be removed by destruction, e.g. cable
insulation.
2) Placing the live part or parts behind a barrier or an enclosure locked with a key or screws.
3) Placing obstacles to prevent unintentional approach to/or contact with live parts. This method
must only be used where skilled persons are working.
4) Placing out of Arms’ reach: for example, the high level of the bare conductors of travelling cranes.
5) By using a Residual Current Device (RCD) or Earth Leakage (EL): this is not permitted as the sole
means of protection; also one of the other methods should be applied.
The RCD has a rated residual operating current (IΔn) 30mA, and an operating time not
exceeding 40ms at 150mA.
Note that Residual Current Circuit Breaker (RCCB), Residual Circuit Breaker (RCB), Residual
Current Device (RCD), or Earth Leakage (EL) are all names of the same device.

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I.b) Protection Against Indirect Contact
Indirect Contact: the contact of persons or livestock with exposed conductive part(s) made live by a
fault.

Methods of Protection Against Indirect Contact:

1) Earthed Equipotential Bonding

All metallic frames or parts of appliances must be connected to ground and also RCD(s) must
be used.
The fault loop impedance Zs (= Ze + R1 + R2) must be very low (though it depends on climatic
conditions; wet or dry).
For TT system: the product of the residual operating current of the RCD or EL and the loop
impedance (Zs) should not exceed 50V.

2) Non-Conducting Location
Is the area in which the floor, walls, and ceiling are insulated.
In such an area, there must be no earth conductors; also the socket outlets must not have
earth connection.
However, it must not be possible to touch two conductive parts, simultaneously.

3) Electrical Separation
This method relies on a supply from a safety source such as isolating transformer, which has
no earth connection on the secondary side, as shown in the Figure below.
However, no an inadvertent connection to earth or interconnection with other circuits must
be made.

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 II) Protection Against Over-Current:
Over-current is any current greater than the rated current of a circuit. It may damage circuit
conductors or equipments. Over-current occurs either by:

II.A) Over Load:

Overload currents are currents occurring in a healthy circuit, which are greater than the rated
values. They are caused by faulty appliances or by surges due to starting motors. Circuit Breakers,
Fuses, or Overload heaters and relays may be used for protection against overload currents.

II.B) Short Circuit:

A short circuit current is the current that flows when a “dead short” occurs between live
conductors (phase to neutral for single and three phase systems, or phase to phase in a three
phase system). When a short circuit occurs, the current may, for a fraction of a second, reach
hundreds or even thousands of amperes.

Fuses, Circuit Breaker (CB), or Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB) are used for protection against over
currents (overload or short-circuit currents).

2) Protective Devices

2.1) Residual Current Device (RCD) or Earth leakage (EL)

It is also known as Residual Current Circuit Breaker (RCCB) or Residual Current Breaker (RCB). A photo of a
single phase RCD is shown in the left Figure below, whilst the right Figure below shows a three-phase
RCD.

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The construction of a single–phase RCD is shown in the
next Figure. It has the phase and the neutral connected
directly to and out of it. It detects any leakage current by
comparing the current in the phase with that in the
neutral. Typically, it operates when the difference
between both currents (called residual operating current,
IΔn) exceeds 30mA. The RCD operates in not more than
40ms at a fault current of 150mA. It has a Test button [T]
to have the functionally of the device checked
periodically.

Principle of Operation of an RCD

a) In a healthy circuit the same current passes through

the phase coil, the load, and back through the neutral
coil. Hence the magnetic effects of phase and neutral
currents cancel out.
b) In a faulty circuit, either a phase to earth or a neutral
to earth fault, the phase and the neutral currents are
no longer equal (they are out-of-balance). Therefore, a
residual magnetism is produced in the core, which
induces a voltage in the search coil, which in turn drives a current through the trip coil, causing
operation of the tripping mechanism.

In some RCDs, out-of balance current as low as 5mA to 30mA will be detected.
The Test button creates an out-of-balance condition, which operates (trips) the RCD. It is used to
check whether the device is in working order or not.
Note that the phase to neutral fault appears as a load, and hence the RCD will not operate for
this fault.

The three-phase RCD has of four inputs and four outputs. The four inputs are the three phase lines
and the Neutral, whilst the four outputs are the three phase load terminals and the Neutral. It

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 compares the current sum in the three lines (phases) with the value of the Neutral current. If the
sum of the currents in the three lines is equal to the neutral current, no fault is recorded. If there is a
difference between the current sum in the three lines and the Neutral current, this difference or
residual current will be detected using a magnetic field mechanism. Besides, when the difference
exceeds a threshold value (30mA, 100mA or 300mA …), the RCD will trip isolating the main source
from the load, and consequently preventing more damage to the system or Shock Risks.

Nuisance Tripping:
Certain appliances such as cookers, water heaters, and freezers tend to have, by the nature of their
construction and use, some leakage currents to earth. This may cause the operation of an RCD
protecting an entire installation. Sometimes this problem is also faced in particular factories.

This problem (Nuisance tipping) can be overcome by:

1. Using split-load consumer units, where socket outlet circuits are protected by a 30mA RCD,
leaving all other circuits controlled by a normal main switch, which disconnects them within 0.4s
in the case of an earth fault.
2. A better method, especially in TT systems, is the use of 100mA RCD for protecting circuits other
than socket outlets.
3. Modern development in MCB and RCD make it easy to protect any individual circuit with a
combined MCB/RCD device Hence, no need for split–load boards.

2.2) Fuses:

A Fuse: is a device which carries a metal element, usually tinned Copper, that will melt and break the
circuit when an excessive current flows; it acts as a sacrificial device to provide over-current
protection. Thus, it forms the weakest link in a circuit and protects the circuit conductors from
damage. There are many different types, ratings and sizes of fuses.

Fuses Types:
A) Rewirable (Renewable) or semi-enclosed Fuse
B) Cartridge Fuse and Fuse link
C) High-Rupturing-Capacity Fuse
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2.2.A.) Rewirable (Renewable) Fuse:

It is cheap and easy to repair, which makes it very

popular in domestic Installations.
It consists of a fuse holder, a fuse element, and a fuse
carrier. The holder and carrier are made of Porcelain or
Bakelite (An early Plastic material). The Figure next
shows a typical Rewirable fuse assembly.
The circuit for which this type of fuse is designed has a
color code marked on the fuse holder as follows:
Green: 45A, Red: 30A, Yellow: 20A, Blue: 15A, and
White: 5A.
This type of fuses is slow and is not accurate.

Disadvantages of Rewirable Fuses:

1. Wrong size of fuse wire (element) may be used when it is repaired.
2. The element may become weak after long usage and may break under normal conditions.
3. Normal starting current surges (of motors) are seen by the fuse as overload, and will, therefore,
break the circuit.
4. The fuse holder and carrier may become damaged as a result of arcing in the event of a heavy
overload or short circuit.

2.2.B.) Cartridge Fuse

It consists of a porcelain or glass tube with metal and caps to which the element is attached.
The Fuse is filled with Silica. The left Figure below shows the main components of a Cartridge Fuse,
whilst the right Figure shows samples of this type of Fuse.

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 These Fuses are found in modern plug tops, some distribution boards, and equipments.
They are more expensive to replace!

Advantages of Cartridge Fuses over Rewirable Fuses:

a) They do not deteriorate.
b) They are accurate in breaking at rated values.
c) They do not arc when interrupting faults.

2.2.C) High-Rupturing Capacity (HRC) Fuse

 It is a sophisticated variation of the cartridge fuse

and is normally found protecting motor circuits
and industrial installations.
 It consists of a porcelain body filled with Silica, a
Silver element, lug type and caps.
 It has an indicating element which shows when the
fuse has blown.
 It is very fast acting and can discriminate between
a starting surge current and an over load current.

2.3) Circuit Breaker (CB)

It is connected in series with the line. It protects the circuit
against overload and short circuit currents.
The Nominal current rating (In) is defined as the current that
can be carried indefinitely by the device.
A CB disconnects the circuit if the current is greater than the
rated value by a certain factor (Fusing Factor).
A Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB) is a term used to describe a Circuit Breaker whose voltage
rating is less than 1000V, and current rating is less than 100A.
The commonly-available preferred values for the Nominal current ratings are: 6A, 8A, 10A, 13A,
16A, 20A, 25A, 32A, 40A, 50A, 63A, 80A, 100A. The Nominal current rating is marked clearly on
the MCB housing.
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 A Three-phase Circuit Breaker has three inputs and three outputs.
The three input are the three phase lines, whilst the three outputs
are the three phase feeders or load terminals. Some breakers have
a common node for the neutral line. It operates if the current in any
line exceeded the pre-set value; the breaker will interrupt the
current flow and the source will be isolated from the load.

Circuit Breakers (CBs) differ according to their purpose, rating and

functionality. In general, CBs have two elements:
1. A thermal (bimetallic) mechanism for overload protection
2. An electromagnetic mechanism for short circuit protection

Advantages of MCBs compared to Fuses:

a. They can be rest after being operated.

b. They are very accurate (tripping current) and fast. Hence, they provide a high degree of
discrimination.

The protective device (Fuse or MCB) is characterized a Fusing Factor, a Nominal Current Rating (In), and an
Operating Current (I2).

Fusing Factor (FF):

It is a measure of the circuit breaking or fusing performance of the protective devices. It is a figure when
multiplied by the Nominal current rating will indicate the Operating current value. Typical values of Fusing
Factor for Fuses and MCBs are listed in Table # 1. Thus, the Fusing Factor is defined as:

Nominal Current Rating (In): is the maximum current which a protective device (a Fuse or an MCB) can
sustain (carry indefinitely) without blowing (or tripping).

Operating Current (I2): is the minimum current causing a Fuse to blow or a Circuit Breaker to trip.

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 Example # 1: A 5A fuse blows only when a 9A current flows, what is the Fusing Factor?

Solution:

Table # 1: Typical values of Fusing Factor for Fuses and MCBs

Protective Device Type Fusing Factor
Rewirable Fuse 1.8
Cartridge Fuse 1.25 to 1.75
HRC Fuse 1.25 (maximum)
Miniature Circuit Breakers (MCBs) 1.5 (maximum)

In general, if not given, a Fusing Factor of 1.45 is assumed.

Breaking Capacity of Fuses and Circuit Breakers

When a short circuit occurs, the current may for a fraction of a second, reach hundreds or even thousands
of Amperes. The protective device must be able to break or make the high (short circuit) current without
damage to its surroundings by arcing, overheating or scattering of hot particles. According to IEC, the MCB
is assigned Icu (for industrial) or Icn (for domestic) to indicate the rated ultimate short circuit breaking
capacity, which is normally given in kArms. For example, according to British standards, the breaking
capacity of MCBs is indicated by an “M” number; i.e. M3-3KA, M6-6KA, M9-9KA; in other regulations it is
given by a number only, e.g. 6000.
In high current three-phase Circuit Breakers, the breaking capacity could reach hundreds of
thousands of amperes.
In some types of Fuses and Circuit Breakers, the breaking capacity is in the range of hundreds of
MVA, e.g. 750MVA, or even much higher.

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Fuse and Circuit Breaker Operation:
Recall the definition of:
The Nominal current rating (In): the value of current that can be carried indefinitely by the protective
device.
The Operating current ( ): the value of current that will cause operation of the protective device
( ).

Typically, the Fusing Factor for fuses and MCBs 1.45

Coordination:
IEE Regulations require coordination between conductors and protection when an over current (over load
or short circuit) occurs by taking into account the following points:
1. In is greater than or equal to design current of the circuit (Ib); (In > Ib)
2. In is less than or equal to the lowest current-carrying capacity (IZ) of any conductor ( )
3. The operating current of the device ( ) is less than or equal to 1.45 ( )

These conditions ( ) will ensure that the cable insulation is undamaged

when an over current (overload or short circuit) occurs.

Example # 2: The nominal current (In) of a protective device is 10A, the Fusing Factor is 1.45 and the cable
current-carrying capacity ( ) is also 10A.
a) Does the design comply with IEE Regulations?
b) If a Rewirable Fuse was used with a Fusing Factor of 2, then what would be its Nominal Current to
make the design comply with IEE Regulations?

Solution:
a) Since In= 10A = , then Condition # 2 is satisfied.
Since the Fusing Factor is 1.45, then the Operating Current of the device is:

which equals 1.45X cable rating ( ); Condition # 3 is satisfied.

 As no information is given about the circuit Design Current, the design complies with IEE
Regulations.
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 b) To satisfy Condition # 3, the Operating current of the fuse should be less than or equal to
1.45Xcable rating;

But,

 Choose the Nominal Current of the Fuse to be 7.25A.

With In = 7.25A, which is less than (=10A), Condition # 2 is also satisfied; the design is in
compliance with IEE Regulations!

Operation of a Fuse or an MCB under a Short Circuit

The current increases during a short circuit as shown in the
Figure next (during half a cycle).

The prospective short circuit current is the rms value of the

current = ; Ip is the maximum current.

The Pre-arcing time : is the time taken to

reach cut-off point and interrupt the short
circuit current, and an ARC is formed.

After the current has been cut off, it falls to

zero as the ARC is being extinguished.

The Total Disconnection time (t2): is the total

time taken to disconnect the fault.

Pre-arcing Let-through energy ( ): is the

energy passing through the protective device to
the load during (If the short circuit current in
Amperes).

The Total Let-through energy ( ): is the

total energy from start of a fault to disconnection of the fault.
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 The type of a cable and its cross sectional area dictate the maximum disconnection time of a fault.
For faults up to 5s duration, the Total Let-through energy must be less than the Heat Energy a
cable withstands;

The maximum disconnection time in seconds is:

Where, k is a factor which depends on cable’s material, temperature and properties and can be
calculated or obtained from tables, whilst A is the cross sectional area of cable [mm2].

Discrimination:

Where several protective devices (Fuses or Circuit Breakers) are connected in series at the various levels
of a power distribution system, it is desirable to blow (clear) only the Fuse (or other protective device)
electrically closest to the fault; in the Figure below Fuse ‘C’ should blow not ‘B’ nor ‘A’.

Discrimination: is the arrangement of protective devices to protect the correct part of the circuit.
Discrimination between Fuses (or protective device) is achieved if the Total Let-through energy of the
minor Fuse (or protective device) does not exceed the Pre-arcing Let-through energy of the major Fuse (or
protective device). Table # 2 shows the If2t energy of Fuses.

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 2
Table # 2: If t energy of Fuses

Inspecting Table # 2 yields:

A 2A Fuse will discriminate with a 4A Fuse

A 4A Fuse will discriminate with a 6A Fuse

A 6A Fuse will NOT discriminate with a 10A

Fuse
A 10A Fuse will discriminate with a 16A
Fuse

All other Fuses will not discriminate with the

next highest Fuse, and in some cases, several
sizes higher are needed; for example, a 250A
Fuse will only discriminate with a 400A Fuse.

Time-Current Characteristic of MCB and

Fuses

The time-current curves describe the disconnect-

ion time of a Fuse or a Circuit Breaker versus the
fault current. Since they cover a wide time scale
(e.g. 0.004s to 10000s) and a wide range of
currents (e.g. 2A to 1200A), it is difficult to draw
the scale on equal divisions. Therefore,
logarithmic (log-log) scale is used, as shown in the
Figure next.

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Time-Current Characteristic of Fuses

An example of time-current curve for

Fuses is shown in the Figure next.

A 200A fault current causes a 40A-

Fuse to disconnect in 2s.

Time-Current Characteristic of MCB

The time-current curves of many MCB
consist of two parts, as shown in the Figure
below. That is because MCBs provide
protection against overload and short
circuit currents. Each of which is per-
formed by a different part of the MCB.

The overload current is dealt with by a

bimetallic mechanism.
The short circuit current is dealt with
by an electromagnetic mechanism.
For disconnection times less than 20ms
the manufacturer should be consulted.

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MCB Classifications:
According to IEC regulations, the MCB class determines the value of overload current compared to rated
current to operate instantaneously. The circuit breaker is labeled with the rated current in Amperes, but
without the unit symbol "A". Instead, the Ampere figure is preceded by a letter "B", "C" or "D" that
indicates the instantaneous (operating) tripping current, that is the minimum value of current that causes
the circuit breaker to trip without intentional time delay (i.e., in less than 100 ms), expressed in terms of
In. Table # 3 lists the classes of MCB against the value of the operating currents according to IEC, whilst
Table # 4 lists the classes of MCB against the value of the overload currents according to British Standards.

Table # 3: Classes of MCB against the value of the Operating current according to IEC Regulations
Class (Type) Operating (Instantaneous Tripping) current

B above 3 In up to and including 5 In

C above 5 In up to and including 10 In

D above 10 In up to and including 20 In

above 8 In up to and including 12 In

K For the protection of loads that cause frequent short duration (approximately
400ms to 2s) current peaks in normal operation.

above 2 In up to and including 3 In for periods in the order of tens of seconds.

Z For the protection of loads such as semiconductor devices or measuring
circuits using current transformers.

Table # 4: Classes of MCB against the value of

overload current according to British Standards
Class (Type) Ioverload/Irated

1 4 times

2 7 times

3 10 times

B and C 5 times

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Application Categories of Fuses

According to IEC 60269, the application category of Fuses is a two-digit code (e.g. gG):

The first letter is a if the Fuse is for short-circuit protection only; an associated device must
provide overload protection.
The first letter is g if the Fuse is intended to operate even with currents as low as those that cause
it to blow in one hour. These are considered general-purpose Fuses for protection of wires.

The second letter indicates the type of equipment or system to be protected:

D – North American time-delay Fuses for motor circuits

G – General purpose protection of wires and cables
M – Motors
N – Conductors sized to North American practice,
PV – Solar Photovoltaic Arrays
R, S – Rectifiers or Semiconductors
Tr – Transformers

Any Fuse built according IEC 60269 standard and carrying the same application category (for
example, gG or aM) will have similar electrical characteristics, time-current characteristics, power
dissipation as any other, even if the Fuses are made in the packages standardized to the earlier
national standards. Fuses of the same application category can be substituted for each other
provided the voltage rating of the circuit does not exceed the Fuse rating.

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